THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF CLINICAL HYPNOSIS

Volume VII, Number 2, October, 1964Printed in U.S.A.

THE HYPNOTIC TRANCE, THE PSYCHEDELICEXPERIENCE, AND THE CREATIVE ACTl

Stanley Krippner, Ph.D.2

lated records of other people's experience, thevictim in so far as it confirms him in the beliefthat reduced awareness is the only awareness andas it bedevils his sense of reality, so that he is alltoo apt to take his concepts for data, his wordsfor actual things."

General semanticists have also recognizedthe necessity of language for human sur-vival but have warned against confusingconcepts and data, words and things. Haya-kawa (10, pp. 32, 58-60) has differentiatedbetween the extensional world, which weare capable of knowing through our experi-ences, and the intensional world of words,expressions, and "maps" which representextensional "territories."

"If a child grows to adulthood with a verbalworld in his head which corresponds fairly closelyto the extensional world that he finds aroundhim in his widening experience, he is in relativelysmall danger of being shocked or hurt by what hefinds, because his verbal world has told him what,more or less, to expect .... If, however, he growsup with a false map in his head ... he will con-stantly be running into trouble, wasting hisefforts, and acting like a fool. He will not be ad-justed to the world as it is; he may, if the lackof adjustment is serious, end up in a mentalhospital."

Agreeing with Hayakawa, and arguingthat children are "naturally extensional,"Campbell (6) suggests that more directsensory experiences be used in school class-rooms and calls for a "deverbalization" ofeducation; many other educators, such asMaria Montessori and Julian Huxley havelikewise called for more nonverbal educa-tion of children.

It has frequently been pointed out thatthe child's natural tendency is to experiencehis world directly. However, the child'sparents and culture soon teach him to im-pose linguistic concepts upon extensionalevents.

A few individuals in each culture, accord-ing to many thinkers, have succeeded in

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As long as men have reflected about theirworld, a basic issue has divided them. Somehave regarded man's conceptual models asstraightforward reflections of reality. Othershave looked upon these models as a frag-ment imposed by the limitations of man'sconsciousness upon the unlimited variationsof his internal and external world.

The eminent philosopher, Henri Bergson(5), took the latter position, maintainingthat the function of our brain is basicallyeliminative. The nervous system attemptsto protect-us from being overwhelmed andconfused by the mass of irrelevant knowl-edge available to us. It shuts out most ofwhat we should otherwise perceive at anymoment and leaves only that small andspecial selection which is useful in practicalsituations. Aldous Huxley (11, p. 21) statesthat:

"According to such a theory, each one of us ispotentially Mind at Large. But in so far as weare animals, our business is at all costs to survive.To make biological survival possible, Mind atLarge has to be funneled through the reducingvalve of the brain and nervous system. Whatcomes out at the other end is a measlytrickle .... "

Huxley (11, pp. 21-22) further describesthe set of verbal symbols that is needed tohelp us utilize this reduced consciousness.

"To formulate and express the contents of thisreduced awareness, man has invented and end-lessly elaborated those symbol-systems and im-plicit philosophies which we call languages.Every individual is at once the beneficiary andthe victim of the linguistic tradition into whichhe or she has been born-the beneficiary inas-much as language gives access to the accumu-

1 Presented at the winter meeting of the KentArea School Psychologists, December, 1963, KentState University, Kent, Ohio.

2 Research Director, Department of Psychiatry,Maimonides Hospital of Brooklyn.

TRANCE, PSYCHEDELIC DRUGS, CREATIVITY

altering consciousness to such an extentthat they have regained rapport with theextensional world. Their number includesthe artists, the mystics, and the visionaryprophets who have broken through the cul-turally-imposed "word-game" to achieveesthetic, spiritual, and intellectual goals. Toattain these states of altered consciousness,and to achieve a closer contact with boththe inner and the outer reality, they haveused Yoga, religious rituals, sensory depri-vation, physical shock, relaxation, pro-longed starvation, sleeplessness, hypnosis,and psychedelic ("mind-manifesting")drugs.

Altered states of consciousness haveproved to be effective in fostering creativitybecause the creative act is basically pre-verbal and unconscious in origin. Torrance(23, p. 16) recognizes the preverbal originsof creativity when he defines it as the proc-ess of sensing gaps or missing elements,forming ideas or hypotheses concerningthem, testing these hypotheses, and com-municating the results. Freud (9, pp. 46-50)associates curiosity with unconscious driveswhich can "put themselves in the service ofintellectual interests" although they do notoriginate in the conscious state. "In thecase of a creative mind," Freud states else-where, "... the intellect has withdrawn itswatchers from the gate, and the ideas rushin pell-mell. ... " He and many others havealso stressed the necessity of breakingthrough the culturally-imposed languagestructure if creativity is to emerge.

Under properly controlled situations, per-haps the safest and simplest methods of con-sciousness-alteration employ hypnosis andpsychedelic drugs. The creative act goesbeyond the mere recombination of similarelements, and thus, altered consciousnesscan be of considerable assistance in ena-bling an individual to conceptualize novelsolutions to artistic, technological, and sci-entific problems. Hypnosis appears to focusconsciousnessso intensely that subthresholdstimuli are perceived; in fact, it is fre-quently defined in terms of a heightenedresponsiveness to suggestion. Psychedelicdrugs, such as psilocybin, mescaline, and

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LSD, seem to expand awareness in such away that the nervous system is floodedwithnew and unusual stimuli.

Both hypnosis and psychedelic drugs canaid the breakthrough into the preverbalrealm where creative inspiration has itsorigins. Many creative artists and scientistsclaim that their creative efforts exist asmoods and feelings before they are ex-pressed in words and symbols. Aaron Cope-land states that a musical theme comes tohim almost like automatic writing. For thelate Robert Frost, a poem began as "a lumpin the throat ... a homesickness, or a love-sickness, a loneliness." It was "never athought to begin with." Wagner is reportedto have heard music spontaneously, andBrahms to have heard fragments of histhemes as "inner harmony". The renowned18th century German chemist, AugustKekule, produced a conceptualization ofthe benzene ring which was inspired by adream of a snake holding its tail in itsmouth.

Some individuals, especially religiousmystics, attempt to foster this type of ex-perience. Ben-Avi (3, p. 1819), while dis-cussing Zen Buddhism, counsels that tI •••

change, illumination, or growth, must berooted in the immediate, the concrete ex-perience of the individual" rather than be-ing based on conscious abstractions and in-tellectual formulations. Zen Buddhism, withits emphasis on concentration, is often re-garded as a modification of autohypnosis.In autohypnosis, as in Zen, meditation leadsto increased concentration, a focusing ofattention, and an increased receptivity tocreative ideas.

The history of creative effort is filled withexamples demonstrating the value of alteredconsciousness.Rachmaninoff wrote his mostcelebrated piano concerto while under hyp-notic treatment. Coleridge was inspired towrite the poem "Kubla Khan" while half-asleep from the effects of an anodyne pre-scribed for an illness. Poincare discovereda major class of mathematical functionswhile in a state between waking and sleep-ing. Estabrooks and Gross (8, p. 24), amongothers feel that hypnosis can release crea-

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tive functioning among children as well asadults.

Among the recent research reports inhypnosis, the following four studies assun:esignificance in delineating the relationshipbetween the hypnotic trance and the crea-tive act.

THE HYPNOTIZABILITY OF CHILDREN

London (17) reports, after studying 57boys and girls aged five and older, ~hatchildren are significantly more susceptibleto hypnosis than are adul~. In stand.ar.d!z-ing the Children's Hypnotic SusceptibilityScale, he also found that the older childrencould "simulate" hypnosis with a great dealof effectiveness. Furthermore, susceptibilityand age had a curvilinear relationship.

London's study bears a striking resem-blance to the findings of Torrance (23, p.97-98). His subjects showed drops in origi-nality upon entering kindergarter:, fourthgrade and junior high school, WhIChmaybe regarded as a tendency of individuals tobecome less creative as they grow older.

In other words, the stereotyped thinkingwhich is an inevitable result of acculturiza-tion makes the growing child less hypno-tizable as well as less original. As he con-forms more and more to cultural strictures,he becomes less and less susceptible to hyp-notic induction. As a matter of fact, it hasfrequently been demonstrated that the moreintelligent and more imaginative subjectsreact more quickly to hypnotic suggestion;this fact refutes the notion that hypnosisinvolves the surrendering of personal in-dependence and conforming to the will ofothers.

COGNITIVE ACTIVITY WITHOUT AWARENESS

Tinnin (22) recalls how common it is foran individual to put a difficult problem outof his mind and then, suddenly, to experi-ence a spontaneous flash of insight or evena correct solution.

In his experiment, Tinnin used three malecollege students who were able to attainpost-hypnotic suggestibility and who re-ported complete amnesia for the hypnotic

experience. The technique of progressive re-laxation was used to induce the trance state.Cues were introduced to provide the sub-jects with the structure of algebraic prob-lems that they would be called upon tosolve in the waking state.

Upon awakening, the subjects insistedthey could remember nothing that hap-pened in the hypnotic trance. Yet, in al-most every instance, all three subjects im-mediately gave the correct answer whenthe problems were presented. They were notaware of how they solved the problems soquickly: "It just popped into my mind,"was a typical report.

One of the subjects experienced the an-swer as a momentarily visual hallucina-tion; the other two experienced the answeras a sudden flash of certain knowledge. Bothof these events suggest how hypnosis mightincrease and improve an individual's crea-tive output. Tinnin's conclusion is consist-ent with creativity theory; he states thatcognitive awareness can utilize cues with-out full awareness. This activity can runparallel to, but without intruding upon,concurrent conscious activity.

ATTENTION AND DISTRACTIBILITY

The work of Arvid As (2) involved thehypnotized subject's ability to become se-lectively attentive to the cues emanatingfrom the hypnotist and to become selec-tively inattentive to other stimuli. As ad-vanced two alternative hypotheses to ex-plain these phenomena.

1. Basic in hypnosis is the subject's abil-ity to withstand distracting and ir-relevant stimuli, thus leaving the fieldof attention open for capture by thehypnotist's cues and suggestions.

2. Basic in hypnosis is the subject's fo-cusing of attention and ensuing ab-sorption in the cues and suggestionspresented by the hypnotist. As a re-sult, other stimuli become the objectsof less attention.

An inventory of subjective experienceswas prepared by As; the items dealt withexperiences of distractibility and attention.

TRANCE, PSYCHEDELIC DRUGS, CREATIVITY

The inventory was administered to threesamples of subj ects totalling 152; theirhypnotizability was subsequently deter-mined by two objective hypnosis scales, theStanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale andthe Consolidated Scale of Hypnotic Re-sponsiveness.

Three items in the inventory were usedto test the first hypothesis because theseitems involved the withstanding of distrac-tions.

1. Do you find it difficult to forget fail-ures, mistakes, humiliation, etc., sothat they tend to disturb you whenyou are faced with new tasks?

2. When there are sounds that you donot want to listen to, can you blockthem from your mind so that they areno longer important to you?

3. Are you able to change easily fromone task to another, excluding ideas,associations, and actions of the formertask, for the sake of the one you arenow presently concentrating on?

None of the correlations between the sub-jects' responses to these items and theirhypnosis scale rating were significant at the.01 level of confidence.

Three items in the inventory were used totest the second hypothesis; they involvedthe experience of "being completely im-mersed in nature or in art, totally absorbedin reading, enraptured by music or dance,etc., so that they became oblivious of them-selves and their surroundings."

1. Have you ever been completely im-mersed in nature or in art (e.g. in themountains, at the ocean, viewingsculpture, painting, etc.) and had afeeling of awe, inspiration, and gran-deur sweep over you so that you feltas if your whole state of consciousnesswas somehow temporarily changed?

2. Have you ever acted in a play andfound that you really felt the emo-tions of the character, and "became"him (or her) for the time being, for-getting both yourself and the audience?

3. Have you ever focused at somethingso hard that you went into a kind ofbenumbed state of consciousness or a

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state of extraordinary calm and seren-ity?

All of these items correlated significantlyat the .01 confidence level with one or moresamples of subjects on one or both of thehypnosis scales.

As concludes that it is "the positive fo-cusing of attention with ensuing absorptionin its object that is of importance in hyp-nosis." The subject, therefore, apparentlybecomes oblivious or inattentive to irrele-vant stimuli as an effect of this absorption,not by actively warding off the distractions.

This situation is remarkably similar tothe experience of a fusion of subject andobject which typifies the psychedelic state.Furthermore, it is this "openness," this fad-ing of boundaries between the conscious selfand the unconscious self and the outer en-vironment that encourages the creative act.

HYPNOSIS, LSD, AND ADDICTION

As hypnosis and the psychedelic drugsrepresent the outer frontiers of scientific in-vestigation, it is important that their usebe restricted to proper experimental andclinical sessions and that only qualifiedpersons be permitted to supervise these ses-sions. For example, it is wise to have aknowledgeable physician on hand during apsychedelic experiment, and it would bepreferred that practicing hypnotists be pos-sessed of a doctoral degree in medicine,dentistry, or psychology, as well as beingadequately trained in hypnosis.

The results of a carefully arranged seriesof combined hypnosis and psychedelic ses-sions have been reported by Levine, Lud-wig, and Lyle (16). Hypnosis was combinedwith LSD (a psychedelic drug) to changethe behavior of narcotic addicts. During thefirst session, a psychiatric interview washeld after which the subjects were trainedin entering a hypnotic trance. The secondsession, held a few days later, began withthe oral administration of 100 to 150 micro-grams of LSD. Before the drug took effect,the subjects were hypnotized. While in boththe hypnotic trance and the psychedelicstate, the subjects were actively encouraged

144 KRIPPNER

to examine and understand their addiction,of viewing it in the context of early life ex-periences, exposure to traumatic events, andsignificant relationships with their parentsand siblings. Post-hypnotic suggestionswere given to remember what occurred andto continue working on their problems. Thesubjects were then admitted to the medicalward until the following morning.

Although adequate follow-up has not yettaken place, immediate results included anincrease in affect, a greater responsivenessto the therapist, greater personal insight,and a more hopeful perspective. In this in-stance it would appear that the "insight"phase of the creative process had been suc-cessfully stimulated by hypnosis and LSD.

Several other clinical studies report howthe creative potentials of brain damagedsubjects (7), disturbed children (1), andunderachieving college students (13) havebeen released by hypnosis. Despite themany successes of hypnosis, its mechanicalprocesses are not completely understood.However, a proper setting for its effective-ness is described by Erickson (7) as one"inducing and compelling an open-minded-ness or mental receptiveness to new, inex-plicable, curiosity-evoking ideas.... " It isjust such a setting which would be mostlikely to foster a creative act.

The action of psychedelic drugs is under-stood no better than is the mechanism ofhypnosis. It has been variously suggestedthat these drugs have some direct effect onthe chemistry of the brain: among otherpossibilities that they reduce the brain'ssupply of sugar, inhibit the production ofcholinesterase, or interfere with the brain'scapacity to utilize oxygen. Metzner (19),in surveying the literature, finds "no defi-nite agreement as to the mode of action ofpsychedelic substances at the biochemicallevel." Whatever the physiological process,these drugs enable their users to see thecustomarily ignored aspects of reality iftaken under proper guidance and in a sup-portive setting.

Considerable research has been done withthree of these drugs: LSD, a chemical syn-thesis of the ergot fungus; mescaline, a syn-

thesis of the peyote cactus; psilocybin, asynthesis of a Mexican mushroom. Psy-chedelic substances are generally regardedas nonaddictive, physically safe, and psy-chologically harmless when used properly.

Research with LSD and mescaline is sev-eral decades old. Even before formal ex-perimentation was instigated, primitivetribes were investigated which had beenusing the substances for centuries. Workwith psilocybin, however, dates back onlyto 1960.Timothy Leary and Richard Alpertheaded a team of Harvard University psy-chologists who completed four major proj-ects before the controversial aspects oftheir program brought about its termina-tion in 1963. These projects included:

1. An investigation into the relation ofset and setting to the psilocybin ex-periences of a large group of volunteersubjects (professors, students, house-wives, etc.)

2. An investigation into the rehabilita-tive effects of psilocybin on inmatesscheduled for release from prison.

3. An investigation into the effects ofpsilocybin on the creative efforts ofwriters, musicians, and artists.

4. An investigation into the effects ofpsilocybin experiences upon the mys-tical lives of ministers and other pro-fessional workers in religion (15).

The results of these research projects arein each case provocative and contain impli-cations for the study of creativity. The in-vestigators attempted to produce in everycase a setting that would be relaxed, con-genial, and non-task-oriented. All partici-pants took the drug in groups; collectionsof total strangers were avoided (14).

The most general descriptive characteri-zations which the subjects gave to their re-actions were those of "increased awareness"and "transcendence of verbal thinking." Itwas concluded by the investigators thatpeople, events, objects, one's self can beunderstood without either the need or theability to verbalize this understanding.Positive expectations tended to producepleasant and insightful experiences underpsilocybin. Mystical incidents and other

TRANCE, PSYCHEDELIC DRUGS, CREATIVITY

highly specific expectations were not gen-erally fulfilled. This indicates that a stateof transcendency cannot be "willed." How-ever, many mystical experiences emergedspontaneously, even among the prisonerswho were studied.

An examination of situational variablesindicated that women had more "ecstatic"and "religious" experiences than did men,but were more likely to "fight" the oncom-ing effects of the drug. Older subjects hadmore historical and mythical visions thanyounger subjects. The investigators con-cluded that the subjects' tendencies to cate-gorize their experiences lessened under thedrug's influence.

Very few of the incidents reported werepsychotic-like or hallucinatory in nature.Some writers have called these drugs "psy-chotomimetic" or "hallucinogenic"; theseare improper terms because the break-through seems to be into the "real" worldrather than into an imaginary one.

It has been suggested that psychedelicdrugs might be useful in reconciling theemotionally disturbed person with the ex-tensional world, at least on a temporarybasis. Bender (4) has described the progresswhich is being made along these lines withchildren. The subjects in Bender's studiesremained remarkably free of adverse reac-tions to the drugs. In addition, they becamemore alert, more responsive to their en-vironment, and made greater efforts to re-late with others. Eating and sleeping habitsimproved, bizarre fantasies disappeared orwere denied, and a more mature type ofthinking tended to emerge.

Krippner and his co-workers have em-phasized the importance of expectancy set(the readiness of the organism to make aparticular response) in making either ac-curate or inaccurate references from "map"to "territory." Because the Harvard grouptook the drug in pleasant circumstances,their experiences were generally pleasant.Because feeling is an important determinantof set, those who felt positively about tak-ing psilocybin had more positive reactionsto it. Julian Huxley (12) concludes,

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" ... some of their effects can elicit somethingquite new from the human mind. They may haveunpleasant effects if the subject is in a wrongpsychological state, and exceedingly pleasant andrewarding effects if he is in a right one. But ineither case they may reveal possibilities of ex-perience which the subject did not know existedat all. For this the term psychedelic, or mind-revealing, has been suggested for this type ofpsychotropic drug."In psychedelic drugs we have a remarkable op-portunity for interesting research ... on their ef-fects on different types of psychologically normalpeople-people of high and low IQ, of differentsomatotypes, of different affective dispositions,on verbalizers and visualizers. This would be ofextraordinary interest: we might find out notmerely how to cure some defect, but how to pro-mote creativity by enhancing the creative imagi-nation."

CREATIVE ARTISTS

Behavior involves learning, except for re-flexes, instinctual reactions, and randommuscular movements. Behavior, being cul-turally determined, is basically a series ofgame sequences. These game sequences in-clude six factors: roles, rules, goals, rituals,values, and language.

Only rarely does a person break throughthe game structure and experiencehis worlddirectly. Artists must do this if they are toinnovate productions that will be originaland creative.

With this artistic struggle in mind, Learyand his associates administered psilocybinto 65 professional writers and artists. Nostatistical data were obtained, but writtenreports were elicited from each subject. Thegreat majority claimed to have had a "crea-tive experience." One painter detected a"living glow" in his surroundings; a musi-cian heard the "music of the spheres." Learyfound these subjects to revel "in the newand intense and direct confrontation withthe world about them."

The studies demonstrate the importanceof the visual modality in the psychedelicexperience. When the eyes are closed, in-ternal images are revealed; with the eyesopen, external surroundings are seen morevividly.

146 KRIPPNER

RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCES

Seamans (20) notes that the communica-tion of religious ideas typically meets witha number of serious impediments. There arebarriers to religious discourse in the mo-tives and preferences of the communicantsas well as in their environment, experience,and language. To overcome these obstaclesseveral techniques are suggested, amon~them the development of additional non-verbal modes of religious communication.Art, music, and ritual come readily to mind;psilocybin is an additional agent which mayaid in the religious development of an in-dividual.

One of Leary's earliest discoveries (15,p. 3) was the frequent occurrence of reli-gious experiences among his subj ects.

Less than ten per cent of our original sampleswere orthodox believers or church goers, yet suchterms as "God," "divine," "deep religious experi-ence," "meeting the infinite" occurred in overhalf of the reports.

These results were so provocative thatan investigation was inaugurated with 47clergymen and other professional religiousworkers. Although final results have notyet been published, 90 per cent of the sub-jects reported mystical-religious experi-ences.

In commenting on the religious implica-tions of the psilocybin experience, Learyand Clark (15, Pp. 10-13) note the depthof fellowship reported by the subjects andthe frequent comments that the psilocybinexperience had changed their lives in posi-tive ways.

"The exact nature of the experience is usuallyfelt and reported to be ineffable, while the figureof sp~ech u.se.dto describe it and the languageused IS rem;n.lscent of the mystics. Biblical pas-sages or relIgIOUSterms formerly meaningless orpale have suddenly acquired vivid meaning. Likethe renegade who, through conversion experi-ences, suddenly finds himself in possession of themeaning of the term 'salvation,' so he who in-gests psilocybin may find this or similar termsilluminated for him."

In other words, a breakthrough to the ex-tensional world sometimes has the effect ofgiving the subjects insight into the meaningof a word or a passage with religious con-

notations. The extensional referent of that~o~d or passage is suddenly made moreVIVId and the linguistic symbol itself be-comes clearer as a result.

The drugs experience, at best, lasts foronly a few hours before the subject is re-turned to the world of intensional meaningand word-games. However, he is able toplay the games better because he realizesthat they are games. In addition, he cansubstitute reality-oriented games for thosecharacterized by a lack of extensionality.The more emotionally disturbed an indi-vidual, the less aware he is of the word-game in which he is trapped. Schizophrenia,~or example is often marked by an over-Investment in language rather than a re-treat from it (21, p. 935).

SUMMARY

It appears that psilocybin and the otherconsciousness-altering drugs are able toprovide a temporary reunion between manand the unconceptualized events in his cor-tex a~d in his surroundings. This experi-enc~,. In the proper setting, can producepositive pe~sonality change and can permitthe unleashmg of man's creative and mysti-cal capacities.

In much the same way, but by a some-what different process, hypnosis can alterman's consciousness and permit him to paycloser attention to material that is basicallypreverbal and unconscious. MacKinnon'sextensive research (18) on creative adultsdemonstrates that 97 per cent depend moreon "intuition" and on unconscious"hunches" than on direct awareness. Per-haps hypnosis, psilocybin, mescaline andLSD will increase the number of individualswho are able to come into a more intimatecontact with the totality of their externalenvironment and their internal resourcesJulian Huxley (12) counsels that, .

"The field of the psychiatrist and the psycholo-gist today is nothing less than the comprehensivestudy of hypnosis,. drugs, educations, mysticism,and the subconscious, of mental disease andmental health, of the relation between ... all thepsychological forces operating in man's life-emotional, imaginative, intellectual and moral-in such a way as to minimize conflict and to

TRANCE, PSYCHEDELIC DRUGS, CREATIVITY 147

maximize creativity. In so doing, they will be inharmony with the only desirable direction thatour scientific vision indicates for the future evo-

lution of man-a direction making for increasedfulfillment of individual human beings and fullerachievement of human societies."

REFERENCES

1. Ambrose, G. Hypnotherapy with children (2nd Ed.). London: Staples Press, 1961.2. As, A. A note on distractibility and hypnosis. This JOURNAL, 1962, 5, 135-137.3. Ben-Avi, A. Zen Buddhism. In S. Arieti (Ed.), American handbook of psychiatry, Vol.

2. New York: Basic Books, 1959.Pp. 1816-1820.4. Bender, L. The treatment of childhood schizophrenia with LSD and its derivatives. A

paper read at the International Conference on Biological Treatment of Mental Illness,New York, November, 1962.

5. Bergson, H. Mind energy. New York: Henry Holt, 1920.6. Campbell, H. Children are naturally extensional. Etc., 1961, 18, 151-164.7. Erickson, M. H. Hypnotically oriented psychotherapy in organic brain damage. This

JOURNAL, 1963, 6, 92-112.8. Estabrooks, G. H., and Gross, N. E. The future of the human mind. New York: E. P.

Dutton and Co., 1961.9. Freud, S. Leonardo da Vinci: A study in psychosexuality. New York: Random House,

1947.10. Hayakawa, S. 1. Language in thought and action. New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1949.11. Huxley, A. The doors of perception and Heaven and hell. Baltimore: Penguin Books,

1959.12. Huxley, J. Psychometabolism. Psychedelic Rev., 1963, 1, 183-204.13. Krippner, S. Hypnosis and reading improvement among university students. This JOUR-

NAL, 1963, 5, 187-193.14. Leary, T. The effects of test score feedback on creative performance and of drugs on

creative experience. Cambridge: Dept. of Social Relations, Harvard Univ., 1963(dittoed).

15. Leary, T., and Clark, W. H. Religious implications of consciousness expanding sub-stances. Religious Education, 1963,251-256.

16. Levine, J., Ludwig, A. M., and Lyle, W. H., Jr. The controlled psychedelic state. ThisJOURNAL, 1963,6, 163-164.

17. London, P. Hypnosis in children: an experimental approach. Intern. J. clin. ezper, Hypn.,1962, 10, 79-91.

18. MacKinnon, D. W. The personality C017elates of creativity. Berkeley: Institute ofPersonality Assessment and Research, 1961.

19. Metzner, R. The pharmacology of psychedelic drugs I: Chemical and biochemical as-pects. Psychedelic Rev., 1963, 1, 69-115.

20. Seamans, E. L. Barriers in religious communication. Etc., 1962, 19, 172-180.21. Spiegel, R. Specific problems of communication in psychiatric conditions. In S. Arieti

(Ed.) Amelican handbook of psychiatry, Vol. 1. New York: Basic Books, 1959. Pp. 909-949.

22. Tinnin, L. Cognitive activity without awareness. This JOURNAL, 1963, 6, 37-39.23. Torrance, E. P. Guiding creative talent. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1962.