the application of contemplative practice in personal, interpersonal and professional leadership...

of 68

The application of contemplative practice in Personal, Interpersonal and

Professional Leadership Development

by Marikie Hersey

ARTICLE

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Masters in the

Philosophy in Personal and Professional Leadership Development in

HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

in the

FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT SCIENCES

at the

UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG

Study leader: Prof. DPJ Smith

MAY 2007

of 68

THE APPLICATION OF CONTEMPLATIVE PRACTICE IN PERSONAL,

INTERPERSONAL AND PROFESSIONAL LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT

“Contemplative prayer is the world in which . . . our private, self-made worlds come to an

end; a new world appears within and around us and the impossible becomes an everyday

experience. Yet the world that prayer reveals is barely noticeable in the ordinary course of

events.” Father Thomas Keating from Open Mind, Open Heart (2007)

ABSTRACT

Personal, Interpersonal and Professional Leadership (PiPL) considers the essence of

leadership as progressively cultivating higher levels of self and potential optimisation,

resulting in authentic self-expression which will add value to self and others (Smith,

2007a). Contemplative practices are technologies of mind that cultivate eudemonic

wellbeing and optimal of potential through transformation of mind states. This research

project explored the field of contemplative practices to determine an application within the

terrain of PiPL. The research concludes that contemplative practice promote

enhancement in all life domains and has a potential value for PiPL and PiPL

practitioners.

Persoonlike, Interpersoonlike and Professionele Leierskap ( PiPL) beskou die essensie

van leierskap as die progressiewe kultivering van die self en die optimatisering van

potensiaal, wat waarde sal toevoeg aan outentieke self-ekspressie (Smith, 2007a).

Reflekterende praktyke as tegnologie van die verstand bevorder eudainomiese welvaart

en optimalisering van potensiaal deur transformasie van gedagte patrone. Hierdie

navorsingsprojek het die veld van reflekterende praktyke bestudeer om te bepaal wat die

implikasies vir die speelveld van PiPL is. Die navorsing bevestig dat reflekterende

praktyke alle lewensdimensies bevoordeel en ‘n potensiele waarde inhou vir PIPL sowel

as vir PiPL praktisyns.

of 68

ORIENTATION

Background

Context

A large variety of literature exists about leadership development providing theories and

concepts about cultivating leadership qualities and personal transformation. Within the

Personal, Interpersonal and Professional Leadership ( PiPL) terrain various frameworks

and models have been developed by Smith (2007a). These are supported by the

research of acknowledged experts in fields of

Psychology

Anthropology

Education

Human movement studies

Physics

Self development experts, such as Cashman, Covey, Goleman, Zohar & Marshall

and McGraw.

Within PIPL the active and willing cultivation of the human life domain potential is the

ultimate practice of leadership, thus ensuring the individual adds value to self and others

(Smith, 2007a). Despite an abundance of literature on the subject of personal growth, the

road to personal transformation appears to be out of reach of most individuals, or

obscured in some mystery, the domain of the mystics, experts and academia or simply

too expensive to embark on with prices ranging up to R 5,000 for weekend workshops.

Increased interest in contemplative practice by the scientific community and

academia

Currently there is a rising interest in the subject of human development by neurosciences,

consciousness researchers and health industries. The field of technologies of mind,

including contemplative practice, is of particular interest due to recent scientifically

validated measured impact thereof on physical brain structures and physical health

of 68

indicators as prediced in the 1994 Psychology Today article, “Desperately Seeking

Spirituality” (Taylor, 1994).

The number of studies on mindfulness or meditation published in scientific journals from

1990 to 2004 increased fivefold. Between 1979 and 2005 over 16,000 medical patients

completed the mindfulness based stress response program at the Stress Reduction Clinic

at UMass Medical Centre (Kabat-Zinn, 2005). Within the Mind and Life Institute “The

Cultivating Emotional Balance Program” is a research project that teaches and evaluates

the impact of meditation combined with emotional regulation strategies (Mind and Life

Institute, 2006). Some 10 million Americans say they practice some form of meditation

(Ellison, 2006).

The research problem, objective and articulation

Research problem

The field of contemplative practice and potential application for leadership development is

relatively unexplored within the PIPL terrain as well as leadership development in general.

Initial research revealed that the contemplative literature contains confusing information.

Only a few authors, such as Budilovsky and Adamson (2003), expand on various

theories, practices, approaches and concepts in the field, both from a spiritual tradition as

well as scientific body of knowledge. This might explain why contemplative practice is not

yet developed as part of leadership theory and practice.

Research objective

The main aim of this research is to explore contemplative practices to discover and clarify

the essential nature, typology of approaches and contributions for application within

PiPL through addressing the following research questions:

What is contemplative practice?

What are main approaches in contemplative practice?

of 68

What is the purpose and application of contemplative practice?

What are the benefits of contemplative practice as indicated by contemplative

practitioners as well as scientific research?

Are there any criticisms or negative side-effects related to contemplative practice?

Based on the above, what are the implications of contemplative practice for the field of

PiPL?

The secondary objective is to provide more clarity in the field of and therefore contribute

towards the body of knowledge for the purpose of facilitating human development.

Motivation for the research

PiPL continues to grow in knowledge and understanding of new theories and practices

that contribute towards optimizing human existence (Smith, 2007a). With the strong

emphasis on spiritual mastery with the PiPL field, the emerging interest in contemplative

practice, a fundamental spiritual practice and technology of mind, cannot be ignored.

This research could contribute towards elucidating contemplative practice as a potential

field of study through clarification of the concept, approaches, purpose and potential

benefits.

Paradigmatic perspective and scope

The paradigmatic perspective that will be applied in this research is the Personal,

Interpersonal and Professional Leadership (PiPL) perspective as developed by Smith

(2007b).

The scope of this research will focus on gaining more understanding of contemplative

practice from an intellectual and knowledge perspective, and exclude details of practical

application. The new interest in contemplative practice will be investigated in the context

of the PiPL terrain and framework.

of 68

Concept clarification

Personal, Interpersonal and Professional Leadership (PiPL)

According to Smith (2007a), founder of Personal, Interpersonal and Professional

Leadership ( PiPL), PiPL confirms the potential and ability of each human being to excel

and to succeed. The PIPL focus is on three main areas of leadership development:

credible leadership (self-mastery under personal leadership), servant leadership

(relationship mastery under interpersonal leadership) and competent leadership

(professional mastery under professional leadership) (Smith, 2007a). In terms of the PiPL

transformer model the dominant mind state of the individual affects the manner in

which that person interacts with reality, which will ultimately result in either positive or

negative consequences and experiences for the individual (Smith, 2007c).

Contemplative practice

Contemplative practices are technologies of mind consisting of skillful methods for

purposeful training and cultivating of the mind and heart (including thought patterns,

feelings and behaviors) and are applied in a structured and gradual manner over a period

of time with the aim of transforming dominant states of mind. This is done through self-

regulation of unproductive conditioned habits in thoughts, feelings and behaviour,

sustained attention increasing self-awareness as well as enhanced awareness in

unconscious mental processes (Eagar, 2003; Blackmore, 2004; Winkelman, 2000).

The desired outcomes of contemplative practices are eudemonic wellbeing, including

full spiritual awakening (referred to as “enlightenment”). Practices include yoga, Zen-

archery, mindful walking, insight meditation and contemplative prayer (Blackmore, 2004;

Budilovsky and Adamson, 2003; Kabat-Zinn, 2005; The Forum for Contemplative

Studies, 2006, Keating, 2007; Smith, 2007d).

of 68

INITIAL LITERATURE SURVEY

What is contemplative practice?

Initial review of literature indicated a wide range of definitions, such as “…a means to

cultivate the mind and heart with the aim to pursuit inner happiness, truth and virtue from

the “inside” (Wallace, 2005). The Center for Contemplative Mind in Society (2006)

“consider various kinds of ritual and ceremony designed to create sacred space and

increase insight and awareness to be forms of contemplative practice”. The practice

allows for “knowing what is happening while it is happening, whatever it is. It is a state,

not an activity (Nairn, 1997)”. The state of panoramic awareness, called, Zen or Samadhi,

means a state of total involvement, a stable awareness (Trungpa, 1976:150).

Main approaches in contemplative practice

The Forum for Contemplative Studies (2006) define activities designed with the purpose

of creating sacred space and increase insight and awareness to be forms of

contemplative practice. Nairn (1997: 73) indicates that many different practices exist,

each with own purpose and application. There are different categories of approaches and

purpose in contemplative practice. For example, generative practices focus concentration

on cultivating particular qualities, such as compassion and kindness. Stability practices

focus on “quieting the mind and body in order to develop stillness and stability”

(Budilovsky and Adamson, 2003; Mahathera, 2006; The Center for Contemplative Mind in

Society, 2006: Nairn, 1998).

Application of contemplative practice

Initial literature reviews revealed application within various life domains, for example

Spiritual domain: Cultivating of deeper wisdom, connection with the divine, increase

virtuous qualities such as compassion, and interior transformation (Nairn, 1998;

Contemplative Quakerism, 2006; Wallace, 2005; Smith, 2007d).

Physical and healthcare: Application for pain relief, stress management and

improvement of the immune system functioning (Snyderman, 2005).

of 68

Emotional: enhancing emotional balance and dealing with disturbing emotions (Pert,

2000). Support treatment for clinical depression through Mindfulness Stress Reduction

Therapy (Mind and Life Institute, 2005). Prayer is used to enhance empathy (Karren,

Hafen et al, 2002: 448).

Mental: Contemplative psychotherapy (The Forum for Contemplative Studies, 2006)

Mental balance and psychological health (Wallace, 2005).

Benefits

Practitioners report that the mind becomes settled, peaceful and tranquil. Contemplatives

gain “insight” into the state of their minds and as a result become more creative. Their

awareness and resilience is increased (Nairn, 1998; Budilovsky and Adamson, 2003).

They report increased eudemonic wellbeing (Wallace, 2005). It can affect the structure of

the brain through changing the pathways (neural networks) of the brain. Mental training

can enhance the portions of the brain that control emotions such as anxiety and anger. It

can also improve the immune system, and decrease clinical depression. Mindfulness

Based Cognitive Therapy contributes towards stress reduction. It also reduced physical

pain. (Snyderman, 2005). Contemplative practice enhances our ability to pay attention

(Arntz, Chasse and Vicente, 2005) and expand the experiences of the fullness of life

(Travis and Ryan, 2004: 185).

Misconceptions about contemplative practice

Relaxation practices are not considered contemplative practice (Mahathera, 2006;

Wallace, 2005). Contemplative practice can be practiced by non-religious people

(Budilovsky and Adamson, 2003; Arntz, Chasse and Vicente, 2005). Contemplative

practice can be applied outside a spiritual framework. For example, it has been effectively

applied in clinical depression (Snyderman, 2005; Pert, 2000).

of 68

Potential implications for PiPL

A high level overview of literature indicates contemplative practices potentially hold an

important contribution for the PiPL terrain and leadership development as it focuses on

transforming ineffective mind-states. It also confirms the PiPL view that cultivating

spiritual leadership is the foundation for overall wellbeing. Furthermore, based on the

initial understanding of contemplative practice, it is clear that PiPL group facilitated or

individually facilitated interventions are included in the field of contemplative practice and

therefore PiPL could also potentially make a contribution towards the field of

contemplative practice.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research strategy

A non-empirical strategy using the interpretive philosophy was utilised for this research,

which aimed to understand the subjective reality of contemplative practice, in order to

make sense of and understand it in such a way that it is meaningful for PiPL (Saunders,

Lewis and Thornhill, uknown). The inductive approach was applied, where the data

gathered was investigated to discover more about contemplative practices. As the field of

contemplative practice is new to PiPL an exploratory study was followed where gradual

intelligence and information was gathered with the objective to seek new insights and

understanding within the terrain of PiPL (Sanders, Lewis and Thornhill, unknown,

Mouton, 2001).

Research methods

A literature review was performed on theories, data and research on contemplative

practice, both from a science (clinical, objective experience) as well as contemplative

practitioner (subjective experience) viewpoint, including

DVD and Audio information

Academic journals

Popular magazines and newspapers

Internet articles and electronic resources

Books

of 68

Lectures by experts in the field

The information gathered was then synthesized in terms of the concept, nature,

approaches, impact and outcomes of contemplative practice. Thereafter the emerging

information was analysed against two PiPL models to determine its potential application

within the field of PiPL. The frameworks used were

The PiPL life domains as per the Smith Transformer model (Smith, 2007c)

o Inner domains (spiritual, physical, mental, emotional)

o External domains (relationships, career, finance and ecology)

The PiPL perspective (Smith, 2007a)

The amount of data gathered was considered sufficient once it started yielding consistent

information without adding new knowledge and insight into the research questions.

RESULTS

The results of the research reviewed will be presented as follows

Limitations in research

Conceptualising contemplative practice

The importance of contemplative practice

Approaches to contemplative practice

Benefits of contemplative practice

Potential contra-indication of contemplative practices (limitations in applications

and side-effects)

Misconceptions about contemplative practice

Limitations in research

The data review covered 48 books, 4 lectures, 8 articles, 17 audio and visual media as

well as 39 internet articles. During the research of the data, it was discovered that there

are various meanings and interpretations and applications of the concept contemplative

of 68

practice, yielding confusion in concepts such as meditation and mindfulness. Most

authors use the terms interchangeably, and the first task of the research project was to

focus on characteristics and application of practices to improve understanding of the

concept contemplative practice and extract a reliable typology.

Secondly, literature was biased in favour of contemplative practices, including current

scientific research often supported by contemplative practitioners and their organizations.

Some information was uncovered indicating potential side-effects of contemplative

practices as well as limitations in application. However it was insufficient data for the

purpose of this project (Baars, 2005; Eagar, Hanna, Havens, Hubbard and Tart 2002,

2003; Wikipedia, 2006; Winkelman, 2000). Another research concern was the implication

of the majority of literature that a “one solution fits all”.

From a scientific perspective this could indicate a skewed result with over-optimistic views

of the potential application for personal growth and development and further research

would have to be done to investigate this. However, this is not the scope of this project

which is mainly exploratory in nature, and therefore only mention is made of this bias for

future researchers and research projects.

Conceptualising contemplative practice

Contemplative practices are technologies of mind. It is considered “technology” as

practices are structured processes and require technical skill. In terms of contemplatives,

a “scientific method” developed over centuries which was passed down reliably through

written and oral instruction with stages in practice clearly identifiable through reporting of

experiences by students (Norbu, Sharmapa, Nairn). Contemplative practices focus on

working skillfully with the mind; cultivating the mind (Eagar et al, 2002; Nairn:1997;

Wallace, 2005).

The main aim of contemplative practice is to achieve personal transformation: The Center

for Contemplative Mind in Society, 2006 considers contemplative practice not only

limited to spiritual or cultural activity, but “a method for developing concentration and

deeper understanding, in particular as a means of intellectual and pedagogic revitalisation

and change (The Center for Contemplative Mind in Society, 2006)”.

of 68

“Contemplative practices increase awareness of living reactively from prior conditioning,

and change our mental constructions of the world (Contemplative Quakerism, 2006)”.

Contemplative practices strive towards personal transformation through focusing on

transformation of unproductive mindsets. “A contemplative is someone who has made

the choice to modify her life (Ellison, 2006)”.

“Contemplative practices originated as formal practices within cultural, ritual and spiritual

practices, however currently there is also a strong secular approach. Contemplative

practices therefore also include a secular component (Nairn, 2006; The Center for

Contemplative Mind in Society; 2006, Wallace, 2005: Mahathera, 2006).” Contemplative

activities include mindful practices, rituals and ceremonies, contemplative prayer and

yoga (Mahathera, 2006; Contemplative Quakerism, 2006; Nairn, 2006).

The following are the key attributes of contemplative practice that emerged from literature

as technology of mind:

skillful method and practice

gradual processes over a period of time;

purposeful training or cultivating of the mind and heart which includes thoughts,

feelings and behaviour;

with the intent to transform dominant states of mind (mindset and attitude).

The desired outcome of contemplative practices is eudemonic wellbeing, including full

spiritual awakening (referred to as “enlightenment” or personal liberation).

Based then on the research, the difference between an ordinary activity, such as walking,

and a contemplative practice, such as mindful walking, is based on intent and purpose to

transform a mind state.

of 68

The importance of contemplative practice – reasons for embarking on

contemplative practice

Literature indicated underdevelopment in the mental domain, in particular limitations in

attention span, poor awareness of the “inner” world and disconnected link between the

inner landscape and external reality, as being primary reasons for embarking on

contemplative practice. According to Dispenza (Arntz et al, 2005) the average person

looses his attention span every six to ten seconds. Research indicates that the average

person’s attention is on what they are busy with only 30% of the time, and contemplative

practices are investigated as methods for people to realise this and bring their minds

more under control (Sapa-AP, 2007).

According to experts on contemplative practice, people who are weak in paying attention

are also easily distracted by disturbing events, thoughts and emotions and therefore not

optimising their emotional life domain. Literature also indicates individuals who lack

contemplative skills have poor self-awareness and live a life mostly from limiting

conditioned habits of thought, feelings and behaviours, unaware of their potential

(Gampopa,1994; Nairn, 1998; Travis & Ryan, 2006; Arntz, Chasse and Vicente, 2005;

Smith, 2006). According to Koch (2004:206) it is a fact that large parts of people’s lives

are lived without being conscious or thinking about it through the aspect of self which is

often referred to as the non-conscious (for example, driving a car, walking ,breathing).

Likewise, Wallace (2005) points out that poor skills of self-monitoring (also called meta-

cognition) is damaging to a person’s integration. Since most people live mostly thinking

about the past or the future, they are out of touch with the present moment and the

opportunities it present (Tolle,1999; Tolle, 2006). Authors such as Goswami (Arntz et al,

2005) emphasize that, without contemplative practice, non-ordinary state of higher

consciousness cannot be reached and thus the essential nature of mind will stay

obscured to most people as their attention is focused on the external world of senses. A

leading Tibetan lama, Sharmapa (2006) calls a state of mind where self-awareness is

lacking as a “dull” mind. Such a mind is the opposite to the self-reflective, self-aware

of 68

aspect of consciousness: an enlightened, awakened mind or “higher spiritual mind” as it is

coined by Smith (2007d).

Purpose of contemplative practices

The main purpose of contemplative practice is to transform unproductive, bounded

(limited) mindstates into productive, boundless states of being (in the world). When the

mind is calmed, the contemplative “discovers” awareness, a previously hidden aspect of

consciousness. “Through contemplative practice one finds that awareness is like a

spotlight that shines onto the landscape of the mind” (Eagar, 2003; Baars, 2005;

Sharmapa, 2006; Mahathera, 2006; Odier, 2004; Blackmore, 2004). Changes in these

mind states are used to develop the spiritual life. Others use it for cultivating the

emotional domain, for examples cultivating coherent emotions (love, empathy) or

management of stress. Some practitioners use it to support physical problems, for

example enhance pain management and improve the immune system or enhance

physical performance, such as athletic skill.

Approaches in contemplative practices

A critical part of the research was to obtain more clarity on understanding the different

types of practices. The research revealed hundreds of different practices (Gampopa,

1994; Nairn, 1998; Newberg, 2003; Sharmapa, 2006; Budilovsky and Adamson, 2003;

Wallace, 2005). The Tree of Contemplative Practice (Appendix A) provides a high level

overview of such variety. During this project categories emerged based on the main

applications and purpose of the contemplative practices. These categories were reviewed

against ancient mind technologies developed by the many Buddhist Schools whose

reputable mind training systems are over 2,500 years old (Ellison: 2006, Wallace: 2005).

For the purpose of this report, the following typology was used:

Cognitive practices

Stability practices

Insight practices

Generative practices

Absorption practices

of 68

Whole-system technologies of mind

Cognitive practices

Research showed that cognitive practices, such as analytical and structured questioning ,

are used to enhance mental reasoning, logic and the process of learning. The desired

outcome is enhanced cognitive skills which will support other contemplative practices.

Included are analytical meditation, Jewish Contemplative Practice and

QuestionThinking™ (Komito, 1987; Krishnamurti, 1982; Gampopa, 1994; Hafen, Karren,

Smith and Frandsen, 2002; Geshe le Pende, 2006; Kline, 1999, Adams, 2004,

Contemplative Quakerism, 2006). Contemplatives highlighted that reasoning skills are

important for the contemplative practitioner to know what to actually contemplate on. The

difference between this and other analytical practices is that cognitive practice analysis is

independent and “free from reliance upon any authority of dogma, beliefs, science

or opinions of other persons (Krishnamurti, 1982)”.

Purpose of cognitive practices

The purpose is to enhance skills of logic and mental cognition and refute limiting beliefs

and concepts (Gampopa, 1994, Geshe le Pende, 2006, Kline, 1999, Adams, 2004). It is a

structured inquiry into particular questions and utilized to increase mental capacity,

intelligence and improve skills of perception. Examples of such inquiries are:

Investigation of worldly concerns, such as desire for fame or fear of having a poor

reputation, and how these affect one’s state of mental and emotional wellbeing

The benefits of cultivating altruism

The nature of thought, mind, reality and the existence of self

The nature of suffering, and the obstacles to happiness

Limiting assumptions underlying current strategies for dealing with issues

Key benefits

Self-realised and Independent understanding of the nature of reality, self and others

of 68

Increased skills of logical examination as well as improved philosophical and

intellectual skills

Improved skill in learning

Enhanced skills of recollection

Stability practice

Literature on contemplative practice concur that the foundation for all contemplative work

to be stability practices (Gampopa, 1994; Saron and Wallace, 2006; HH 17th Karmapa,

2003; Nairn, 2006; Hope and Van Loon, 2005; Sharmapa, 2006; Arntz et al, 2005; Singer,

2005; Pliskin, 2005; Pert, 2000; Travis and Ryan, 2005). Without a stable mind, it would

be difficult to effectively practice guided imagery or insight training due to lack of focus

and concentration. Stability practices use support mechanisms such as focusing on

breath, sound, movement or special words to calm mental processes and train the mind

in increasing attention. “Tranquility is the condition where our mind has settled and is

happy to be present with whatever is happening (Nairn, 1998)”. Examples of stability

practices are shinay meditation, tai chi, yoga, zen archery, mindful walking, the Japanese

tea ceremony, biofeedback exercises and Transcendental Meditation™. Done with a

contemplative intent, gardening, bathing, painting and playing with children are also

effective (Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research, 2006; Wild Divine

Website, 2006; The Association for Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback quoted

on Psychotherapy,com, 2006).

Research emphasize daily integration practices to cultivate mental stability as habitual

skill through practices such as mindfulness, Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction

Therapy and Living in the Now (Tolle, 1999). These practices cultivate “mindfulness in all

actions, such as eating, working, driving and paying full attention in the moment (Tolle:

1999, Kabat-Zinn, 2005; Wallace, 2005).

Purpose

All stability practices have the same underlying purpose: to enable the mind to remain

peacefully and uninterruptedly in a stable state of one-pointed concentration over an

of 68

extended period of time (Sharmapa, 2006; Center for Contemplative Mind in Society,

2006; Swami Rami, 2002). The main objectives are to cultivate:

Mental concentration, one-pointed focus, attention and skills in concentration

Mental and emotional stability

Transforming of “dull” (non—attentive states of mind) to more alert, coherent brain

functioning

Relaxation (Mahathera, 2006)

Maintain psychological equilibrium, become more resilient and therefore able to

reduce stress and related medical conditions

Improve brain functioning and skill

Improved overall physical wellness

Improve sense and experience of quality of life

Key benefits

Development of a stable mind as such a mind is less disturbed by events, habitual

thoughts and emotions. “The practitioner experiences more clarity and this enables

more effective decision making and coping strategies with life (Nairn, 1998)”

Enhanced ability to use left frontal lobe (executive seat of the brain)

Improved concentration, ability to pay attention and increased willpower

Inner sense of peace and tranquility and reduced stress

Improved ability to deal with mental disease

Enduring decreases in physical and psychological symptoms, including improved

immune function

Insight practice

“Insight practices focuses on introspection, looking into your mind and reporting what you

discover” (Wallace, 2005). It is a method where the contemplative observe her own

distractions and thought processes using practices developed such as Mindfulness Based

Cognitive Therapy and PiPL group and individual facilitation. Experts on insight practice

stress the point that it should be done under the guidance of a qualified and experience

mentor or facilitator, due to the fact that subconscious and previously repressed

of 68

psychological material could arise which would required expert guidance or even

psychotherapy (Nairn, 1998; Mipha, 2003, Hope van Loon, 2005; Mahathera, 2006;

Prescott, 2000; Budilovsky and Adamson, 2003; Singer, 2005, Ellison, 2006, Smith,

2007c).

Daily integration practices include Mastering the Art of Observation (self-observation of

thoughts, emotions and behavior) (also called self-stalking) during daily activities to

sustain insight (Tolle, 1999; Adams, 2004, Nairn, 2006, Arntz et al, 2005).

Purpose

The purpose of insight meditation is an exploration and inquiry into the nature of self, the

direct experience of living each moment, and the potential for freedom from suffering

(Kabat-Zinn, 2005)”. This is done through focusing attention inward to determine the type

of thoughts, emotions and behavior you are producing. This self-monitoring (meta-

cognition) is critical in acquiring and maintaining complex types of behavior and in

adapting to change (Galin as quoted by Wallace, 2005: 295). Through observing

tendencies (patterns of behavior, thoughts, emotions) the actual process of self-stalking

starts interrupting the patterns therefore starting a process of releasing those

unproductive limiting patterns (Dr Joe Dispenza, quoted in Artnz et al, 2005).

Therefore the purpose of self-stalking is to:

Perceive the patterns of mind and recognize when moods are triggered (positive and

negative moods)

Through recognition and awareness, prevent and manage unproductive mind states

and moods more effectively

Combining with mindfulness practices, the practitioner brings attention back into the

moment, and shift mental gears, e. g. through deliberate activities to distract the mind

into more productive mind states

Observation of phenomena and relationship to the practitioner, learning to experience

the world directly, non-conceptually and non-judgmentally

Learning willingness to experience all mind states and emotions, and not deny or

suppress unwanted and painful states

of 68

Developing courage to allow distressing moods, thought and sensations to come and

go without battling with them or repression

Daily investigation into the nature of self, others and reality

Benefits

Enhanced self-monitoring process, called meta-cognition (a vital skill in learning,

resilience and personal growth)

Cultivation of wisdom: learning through direct perception thus giving rise to personal

understanding

Familiarisation with inner states and insight into own thoughts and distraction and

workable perspective of our lives

Personal transformation

Enhanced emotional awareness

Ability to stop unproductive tendencies of thoughts, feelings and behavior

Recognition of triggers for depression and negative thinking (including critical,

judgmental thinking about self and others)

Awareness aware of itself

Enhanced self-worth and self-concept

Empowerment and confidence in ability to cope with the world

Altruistic mind with enhanced empathy and compassion

Improved relationships

Improved profession and career

Some literature hinted at potential negative consequence during insight practices, as

previously ignored disturbing emotions and thought patterns will surface (Nairn, 1998;

Sharmapa, 2006, Wikipedia, Eagar et al, 2002, WInkelman, 2000; Chodron, 1998).

of 68

Generative practices

Generative practices use guided imagery, self-hypnosis, specific repetitive words, body

movements, ritual and ceremony, devotional prayer and other creative methods to obtain

particular goals of the practitioner (Warren, 1993; Winkelman, 2000; BBC, 2001; Gromie,

2006; Davidson, 2005; Khandro.Net Website, 2006; Hafen et al, 2002). “It remains a

radical notion in the West that benevolent states of mind such as concentration, kindness

and happiness can be developed with practice (Ellison, 2006)”.

Purpose

Practitioners use intentional methods to produce desired qualities, values, behavior and

events. For example, visualization techniques have been utilized effectively by athletes to

improve their performance (Artnz et al, 2005). The effectiveness of this approach is

confirmed with brain imaging techniques that show the same areas in the brain lighting

up for imagined or visualized objects versus perceiving the actual object (Newberg as

quoted in Arntz et al, 2005). From a magico-spiritual context, shamans have utilised this

as a therapy for healing and personal transformation (Winkelman, 2000: 223). These

practices also include daily integration methods (Kabat-Zin, 2005; The Secret; 2006;

Tolle, 1999; Prescott, 2000; Adams, 2004; Sharmapa, 2006).

Benefits

Decreased symptoms of stress, such as enhanced immunity, reduced cortisol and

increased DHEA

Enhanced psychophysiological coherence

Generating a positive emotion makes it easier to sustain coherence for longer periods,

even during challenging situations, for example using compassion to deal with anger

Increased energy and resilience

Greater mental clarity for decision-making and creativity

Transformed mind states

of 68

Changes in environment and events taking place in the practitioner’s life (reported by

practitioners)

Increased spiritual connection

Absorption practices

Linking with the divine, the absolute - the ultimate contemplative practice is considered

the state called Samadhi, or resting in “the Divine” a state of intense concentration or

absorption of consciousness or ecstasy (Mahathera, 2006; Kongtrul, 2005). This state of

being is attainable by non-spiritual as well as spiritual people and considered to be the

“primordial state of pure and total presence” (Norbu and Lipman, 1986: 75) (Odier, 2004:

20). Most people access this through peak experiences, described as mystical and

blissful. It can be triggered through trance dance, moments of intense pain (such as

natural childbirth) or absorption in nature (Winkelman, 2000; Smith, 2007c; Odier, 2004;

Sharmapa, 2006; Keating; 2006)

Purpose

According to Zen Buddhism, Samadhi allows the meditator to overcome dualistic subject-

object awareness through unity with the object of meditation and therefore complete

absorption with loss of identity of the “self” and “anything else” outside of the “self”

(Encyclopedia Britannica, 2007; Suzuki, 1986). Absorption practice is directed at

cultivating the experience of the ultimate truth, peace, purity and highest bliss (Wallace,

2005). Practitioners use it to “rest evenly in non-discursive state free from conceptual

elaborations (Kongrul, 2005)”.

Benefits

“Stable peace: mind resting within mind due to most excellent profound absorption

(Gampopa, 1994)”

A form of attention which becomes "an oil lamp unmoved by the air; wherever the

awareness is directed, it is steady and sharply pointed (Sharmapa, 2006)”

ebcid:com.britannica.oec2.identifier.ArticleIdentifier?articleId=383298&library=CONCISE&query=null&title=Zen#9383298.toc

of 68

“A state of being where all concepts of object, subject and any relationship between

these completely disappear. It is the ultimate bliss, the ultimate ecstasy (Mahathera,

2006)”

The final stage is accompanied by full and total realization of one’s wholesome or

“divine” potential (Nairn, 1997)

Whole system mind technologies

Comprehensive whole-system mind technologies are structured applications of the

different categories of practices described above. Examples are the well-known Tibetan

system of Seven Point Mind Training, an ancient mind training practice where one’s

situations in everyday life is transformed into spiritual practice with the purpose of

cultivating the limitless potential of complete spiritual awakening (Nairn 2007, Kongtrul,

2005; Chodron, 1998). From the Torah is the Jewish Contemplative practice and mystical

Kabbala system with similar objectives (Pliskin, 2005). Eagar developed the Nine Gates

approach under the Apeiron Memeticon (Eagar, 2006). These systems provide roadmaps

for contemplatives, with application and benefits as described within the various

categories of contemplative practices.

Contra-indication of contemplative practice (limitations in applications and side-

effects)

Authors with long term experience in contemplative practice stress the importance of an

experienced and qualified mentor to address specific concerns listed about sub-conscious

and repressed material that surface especially during insight practices (Nairn, 2006;

Sharmapa, 2006; Smith, 2007c; Mind and Life Organisation, 2006). Potential negative

side-effects include experiences of the “dark night of the soul”, paranoia, psychological

distress, hallucinations, feelings of insanity and mental tiredness, all which require

guidance and support from an experienced mentor (Wikipedia, 2006).

There was insufficient information available to indicate research that countered the

beneficial aspects of contemplative practice. One author highlighted that contemplatives

are dismissive of scientific evidence that points to such negative research (Baars, 2005:

of 68

20). The other constraint about scientific method and contemplative practice, is that

science can tell us a lot about the workings of the brain and the body during

contemplative practice, but very little about the subjective experience for the

contemplatives (Papineau and Selina, 2000:14). Therefore the problem of contemplative

practice is the subjective experience and describing such subjective experiences

adequately for scientific research and validation.

Critics of contemplatives accuse them of being too inwardly focused and thus avoiding

engagement with reality in a more influential manner and through that bring about social

change. Many Westerners find the Eastern contemplative technologies tedious and

overlaid with cultural issues, making it difficult to extract the essence of practice. There is

little research done on which methods would be appropriate for different temperaments

and cultures and there is a danger of “one solution fits all” as contemplative teachers only

teach their methods irrespective of the requirements or abilities of their students. Within

western context about 95% of contemplative students discontinue the practice within one

year (Eagar et al, 2002; Winkelman, 2000).

Misconceptions about contemplative practices

Experts in contemplative practices agree about various misconceptions held by the

general public. PiPL practitioners need to take cognizance of these should they attempt to

prescribe contemplation practices for personal growth facilitation:

Relaxation practices are not considered contemplative practice (Mahathera: 2006,

Wallace: 2005)

It can be applied outside a religious, spiritual or philosophical context (Budilovsky and

Adamson: 2003, Arntz et al: 2005). For example, it has been effectively used in

treatment of clinical depression (Snyderman: 2005, Pert,:2000)

It is not about being “blissed out” or having no thoughts anymore. It is also not a quick

fix to life’s problems. It consists of precise methods with various applications with the

of 68

ultimate objective awakening to full human potential (Sharmapa: 2006, Nairn, 2006,

Geshe La Pende:2006, Gampopa: 1994).

It is not some pure mystical technique known to only a few gurus. There is no need to

isolate yourself from reality, or follow some rituals or embrace a radical new lifestyle.

It is practical, with a series of defined actions, that work on the physiology of the

person practices (Sears, 1999).

DISCUSSION: RELEVANCE OF CONTEMPLATIVE PRACTICES FOR THE FIELD OF

PiPL

The results of the data gathered on this project is analysed against two important PiPL

frameworks to determine the potential application for leadership development in terms of

the PiPL field:

The PiPL Transformer Model developed by Smith (2007c)

The PiPL perspective (Smith, 2007a)

The PIPL transformer model developed by Smith

Smith (2007c) uses a transformer model as metaphor to explain how humans can

enhance or reduce their potential especially in dealing with external reality. This model

was inspired from a systems theory view of wellness, called the Wellness Energy System

(Travis and Ryan, 2004: xxix – xxxvi). In terms of this model, your “potential” which

consists of various internal and external life domains, impact on how you are able to cope

in a less or most optimal manner with the external realities.

Within this model, the experience of external reality and genetic inheritance provide the

input aspects of the model. Inner life domains (spiritual, physical, mental and emotional

domains) as well as external life domains (social, career, finance) are the transformer

aspect, considered the “potential” where individuals can transform the input and therefore

enhance or reduce the effect of the input aspects. The impact of transformation is

considered individual purpose and expression (influence) in life (called the output aspect).

Negative outputs reinforce a limiting mindset and result in unproductive mindstates for the

individual, creating a self-fulfilling downward spiral and ultimately the individual will not

of 68

effectively utilizing her potential. Positive outputs result in positive reinforcement,

therefore promotes and supports optimizing potential.

An important aspect of the transformer model is the focus on the dominant mindset of the

individual. Smith, through creating awareness of the impact of more productive dominant

mindstates, aims to motivate individuals into cultivating positive and productive

mindstates and reach their purpose and potential.

The Smith House model is depicted below (Smith, 2007c:6)

OUTPUTPurpose

Potential

INPUT

TRANSFORMER

Reality

Genetic

inheritance

POTENTIALInner domains

External domains

Analysis of contemplative practice data in terms of PIPL transformer model

developed by Smith

Contemplative practices, as technologies of mind, aims to transform limiting mindstates

into productive ones, ultimately cultivating eudaimonic wellbeing. Therefore

contemplative practices focus on techniques for improving and optimizing the

of 68

“transformer” aspect of the Smith Transformer Model. Under-development or problems

in spiritual, mental, emotional and physical domains motivate embarkation on the journey

of contemplative practice. Furthermore, the outputs of contemplative practice indicated

benefits in terms of improvement of inner and external life domains and therefore also the

output aspects of the model. Below these are analysed against the PiPL outputs for

wellbeing:

Inner life domains per the Smith Transformer Model (2007c)

Spiritual domain

Reduced ego-centricity and increase realisation of the nature of the selfless self

Experiencing states of being where all concepts of object, subject and any relationship

between these completely disappear: complete transcendence (non-dual awareness,

Advaita)

Conscious awareness

Insight, inspiration and a loving and compassionate approach to life

Deep absorption in primordial wisdom or pure consciousness

Physical domain

Improvement in over 150 disorders (biofeedback)

Enhanced immune system

Improved muscle control and stamina

Slowing down of ageing

Physical benefits, such as reduced blood pressure, improved eicosanoid functioning

Mental domain

Enhanced ability to use front lobe (executive seat of the brain) resulting in increased

concentration, sharper intellect, alertness and precision of thought

Improved ability to deal with mental disease

Increased coherence in brain functioning and thus more effective brain functioning

Greater creativity and ability to focus

Mental stability – a mind that is no longer carried away by thoughts and emotions

Emotional domain

Reduced anxiety and distress

of 68

Enhanced emotional awareness and improve emotional management, including

extreme emotions such as anger

Reduce depression and prevents relapses

Development of greater empathy and positive emotions

Inner sense of peace and tranquility

External life domains

Relationship domain

Fulfilling relationships

More appreciation and love towards family and friends

Greater tolerance and patience, harmony and happiness

Deeper appreciation of self and others

More authenticity in relationships

Career domain

Ability to make better decisions and solve problems faster

More job satisfaction and productivity

More efficiency in learning new concepts, improved academic achievement, better

grades

Ability to develop more effective leadership

More workable perspective of personal life, career and purpose

Finance domain

Lower medical costs and hospitalisation

Reduced materialistic outlook and need to acquire material goods for personal

happiness.

Increased generosity and support of others

Enhanced awareness of value of money and appreciation for material goods

Ecology

Reduced alcohol use, drug use and smoking

Deep insights into the nature and issues of fundamental human existence

Reduced reactivity to life

of 68

Awareness of interconnectedness of mental, sensory and external phenomena

Broader comprehension of role in society

Other benefits for PiPL areas of interest

Personal insight

Increased strength in self-concept

Increased self-knowledge and personal awareness

Self-actualisation

Clarity of sources of frustration, discontent and suffering

Enhanced resilience

Value in attending to thoughts, emotions, impulses, awareness itself as well as

sensations where a new dimension of being is discovered

Change habitual patterns that are unproductive to our growth

Radical personal transformation

Personal empowerment and confidence in participation in own healing process

Conclusion on analysis of contemplative practices in terms of PiPL Transformer

Model

The analysis of results of research on benefits derived from contemplative practice and

ultimately transformation in mindstates, indicates that benefits gained through

contemplative practices align with the Smith Transformer model (Smith, 2006).

The PIPL Perspective and contemplative practice

Perspective means the lenses through which you view the world or particular

objects/ideas. The importance of understanding the perspective of a field of study is that it

will highlight particular aspects that the particular study will include as well as provide

background to that which will be excluded (Smith, 2007a).

The understanding of contemplative practice within the PiPL perspective will provide

information to determine the potential application within the PiPL field of leadership

of 68

development. Below is a table comparing the PiPL perspective and results of research

and potential application of contemplative practice:

Table 1 Contemplative practice and the PiPL perspective

PiPL Perspective (Smith, 2007a) Contemplative contribution towards

PiPL and leadership development

“ PiPL is the study of the awareness of

the fundamental problems facing

mankind in the context of our personal

realm, our relationships with people and

our professional environment.” (Smith,

D:2007a). PiPL strives to discover the

essence of leadership.”

.

Contemplative practice cultivate awareness

of self, others, the fundamental problems

facing mankind. Through cognitive and

insight practices, contemplatives obtain

direct insight into the fundamental nature of

self, others and reality. The purpose is an

exploration and inquiry into the nature of

self, the direct experience of living each

moment, and the potential for freedom from

suffering (Kabat-Zinn, 2005).

“An important difference of PiPL is the

contribution towards meaningful human

existence. This will be achieved through

creating awareness on values and

purpose, finding a balance between living

one’s values and fulfilling one’s purpose/”

The aim of contemplative practice is to

cultivate eudaimonic wellbeing.

“Eudaimonmic wellbeing is the integrated

pursuit of inner happiness, truth and virtue, a

growing sense of fulfillment not contingent

upon pleasant things happening to you.

“Meditation means to cultivate the mind and

heart with the aim to pursuit inner happiness,

truth and virtue from the “inside” (Wallace,

2005).

“Lastly, it also wants to contribute towards The ultimate goal of contemplative practice

of 68



progressively higher levels of self/potential

realisation in alignment with credible

leadership, servant leadership and

competent leadership.”

is the realisation and cultivation of the full

potential of the human being (Winkelman,

2000).

“As quoted from Smith (2007a) the aim

of the PiPL focus is on contribution

towards authentic self-expression that

adds value to others and thereby leaving

a legacy.”

Through contemplative practice the

authentic self naturally emerges and is

expressed (Nairn, 2006).

“ PiPL starts with looking at society and

existence, and then place theory thereon.

This perspective studies phenomenology

(what is manifesting?), describes the

reality of mankind today, and study the

essence of human experience. A holistic

view of a person is applied with the PiPL

structured leadership development

approach to assist in helping people find a

more meaningful existence (Smith,

D:2007a).

Insight practice investigate the nature of self,

other and reality through direct perception

and experience, without only reliance on

theory and knowledge. Through the

understanding of self, others and reality a

profound understanding of connection and

holistic view of the world emerges (Nairn,

1998).

PURPOSE OF PiPL PURPOSE OF CONTEMPLATIVE

PRACTICE

“Thus the essence of the ultimate purpose

of PiPL is to study the fundamental

problems facing mankind, and contribute

Contemplative practice aims not only to

understanding the nature of suffering and

issues facing humanity, but how to develop

productive strategies for dealing with it, as

of 68



towards meaningful human existence.” well as transcend it (Geshe Pende, 2006).

Some of the greatest problems in the

individual and society have to do with the

essence of our existence in our spiritual,

physical, emotional, mental and career

realms. Thus, an integrated leadership

approach would contribute towards those

realms to assist a person in realising

potential.

Contemplative practice is a holistic approach

to address not only the problems that face

people, but also to improve and cultivate

their potential (Sharmapa, 2006).

The PiPL Pyramid of Leadership and

Influence has developed around the

acknowledgement that, because the

human being is an integrated and

synergistic being (holism); all these

aspects of the person affect each other.

The PiPL Pyramid thus reflects a

constructive approach towards leadership

development, indicating that the

foundation of personal leadership will

assist in building the foundation for

interpersonal leadership, which will form

the next foundation, which is for

professional leadership.

Contemplative practice investigations by

scientists reveal a strong correlation

between personal mastery and personal

wellbeing, relationships and engagement

with reality (Singer, 2005).

The PiPL Pyramid reflects the basis of Contemplative practices are based on

of 68



our reality

frameworks that acknowledge the

importance in understanding the interrelation

of the nature of self, relationship to others

and the environment, however there are

different models to reflect their interpretation

of reality, such as the Kalachacra (Wheel of

Time) (Wikipedia, 2006).

PiPL also focuses on the inside-out

leadership approach of authors such as

Covey as well as Kevin Cashman.

Cashman is clear from his years of

research and experience around

leadership, that leadership that creates

sustainable value for the self and others,

is only possible through an inside-out

approach where the person authentically

will express himself in terms of various

domains in his life. This is a different

approach towards traditional leadership,

where the development of leadership

qualities are often at the cost of society or

other people, and has shown lately the

life-destroying effects (corporate failure,

destruction to the environment, destroying

old cultures).

Refer to the comment above.

PiPL propagates a principle centered, All contemplative practice focuses on

of 68



character centred, inside-out approach

to change and leadership.

internal change which would result in

personal transformation. Such personal

transformation will ultimately result in

changes in the reality experienced by that

individual as they respond more effectively

to challenges and opportunities

(Transcendental Meditation official website,

2006).

From the PiPL perspective there are

universal laws and principles, which

governs our natural and social existence.

Thus PiPL seeks to find, study and apply

these laws and principles to enhance

human existence and increase meaning in

life. Examples of these are service,

excellence, human dignity and honesty.

Contemplative practitioners focus on

understanding the natural laws that make up

their existence, others and reality. Through

personal realisation of these, contemplatives

not only find more meaning in life, but

naturally become motivated to contribute

towards the lives of others (Winkelman,

2000).

For the personal leadership perspective,

the PiPL states that change starts with

the individual, as the individual is the

only person with control over and who can

exert control over himself/herself.

Therefore change and development starts

with yourself, your attitudes and your

comfort zones, and an increasing

responsibility (ability and willingness to

respond).

Contemplative practice focuses on individual

growth and change, and acknowledges that

only through each individual learning to work

skilfully with her mind, changes can occur

that would improve how the practitioner

engages with the world (Sharmapa, 2006).

of 68



This increased personal mastery is the

foundation for interaction with people. Life-

enhancing and life-enriching relationships

with other people depend on your degree

of personal mastery. Our improved

relationship with ourselves forms the

basis of improved relationships with

others.

Contemplatives focus on personal mastery.

A consequence of contemplative practice is

improved relationships and natural

emergence of altruism, compassion,

empathy and benevolent mindstates that

improve relationship with self, others and the

environment (Transcendental Meditation

Official Website, 2006)

Self-transcendence is first before self-

actualising. Thus altruism, serving and

caring are ultimate virtues in society, and

interpersonal relationships will focus on

life-enhancing activities. Our leadership

self-expression will enrich the lives of

others.

The ultimate goal of contemplative practice

is spiritual enlightenment, which results in a

worldview that focuses on altruism,

benevolence, kindness and service to others

through gradual removal of ego-centric

tendencies (Winkelman, 2000).

Leadership from the PiPL perspective

combines integrity, character and

positive attitudes with professional

competencies. These are applicable to

all people; irrespective of the job or

function they perform. It is based on the

concept of spiritual fulfilment at work,

relationship building, teamwork, mutual

trust, appreciation, empathetic listening,

Contemplative practitioners report enhanced

satisfaction with relationships, profession

and financial status (Transcendental

Meditation Official Website, 2006).

of 68



commitment towards common vision, win-

win synergy, conflict resolution,

professional effectiveness and other

related principles and values.

Examples of areas where PiPL

contribute towards providing more

meaningful human existence are:

Resilience in life

Personal local of control

Self-efficacy (believing you can)

Stress-management

Personal physical health

Examples of how the PiPL perspective

can be used in dealing with the

problems of human existence.

Stressful lifestyle: purpose mastery

and living your true north, governing

values, balance awareness and

mastery.

Meaningless life: purpose mastery,

critical choices, connecting to the inner

core (spiritual domain), self-

transcendence

Contemplative practice outcomes include

Resilience

Enhanced personal health and

wellness

Contribution towards stress

management

Significant improvement in mental

issues, such as depression and

mental disorders

Pain management

Personal concept and self-esteem

Meaning and purpose

Spiritual growth

Eudaimonic happiness

(Mind and Life Institute, 2006).

of 68



Conclusion: contribution of contemplative practice in leadership development in

term of the PiPL perspective

Contemplative practices cultivate awareness of self, others and the fundamental

problems facing mankind. Through cognitive and insight practices, contemplatives gain

direct insight into the fundamental nature of self, others and reality. The aim of

contemplative practice is to cultivate eudemonic wellbeing and the realisation and

cultivation of the full potential of the human being. Through contemplative practice the

authentic self naturally emerges and is expressed. Insight practices investigate the nature

of self, others and reality through direct perception and experience. Through the

understanding of self, others and reality a profound understanding of connection and

holistic view of the world emerges. Contemplative practice promotes understanding of the

nature of suffering and issues facing humanity, as well as how to develop productive

strategies for dealing with it.

Contemplative practice is a holistic approach to address not only the problems that face

people, but also to improve and cultivate their potential. Investigations by scientists into

contemplative practice reveal a strong correlation between personal mastery and

personal wellbeing, relationships and engagement with reality (Singer, 2005).

Contemplative practice does not emphasize leadership per se and most contemplative

practitioners do not embark on practice because of the need to be famous or leaders in

their field. However, through the practice they become more valuable members of society

and increase their sphere of influence.

of 68

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

Potential implications for PIPL

Contemplative practice perspectives and objectives are supportive of the PiPL terrain in

particular enhanced personal mastery, relationships mastery and professional mastery.

As with PiPL, contemplative practices are applied to develop the highest potential in

various life domains of the individual, with the ultimate objective being spiritual realisation.

Contemplative practices intentionally bring about productive transformation in dominant

mind states and therefore has practical implications within the Smith Transformer Model.

“To realize our full potential, we must tame our minds. And the good news is that we can

use the mind to tame itself. We need to develop new mental habits” (Sharmapa, 2006)”.

Based on the results of this research, contemplative practice has a valuable role to play in

the practical implementation and cultivation of the principles eschewed by PiPL.

Contemplative practice is part of the practice aspect of leadership. Finally, it is clear that

PiPL facilitated processes constitute contemplative practice, especially in terms of

cognitive and insight practices.

Recommended areas for further research and investigation

The contemplative practice taxonomy requires additional enhancement to be utilised as

practical framework for PiPL practitioner toolkits. The fields of consciousness,

neuroscience and technologies of mind have value to offer in term of human development

and scope within PiPL. PiPL practitioners can also contribute with confidence within

these fields.

In terms of the limitations of application of contemplative practice as well as potential

side-effects and negative experiences, there is a requirement for more validated scientific

research. For example,

Which practices would be more suitable for particular temperaments and personal

capacity?.

of 68

Which techniques are most effective?

What is the essence of the techniques and how can we practically implement these in

modern day busy lifestyle without philosophical and spiritual trappings?

What are the side-effects and myths not yet explored in research?

How can we balance subjective reporting versus scientific objective research?

“At the beginning of the 21st century humanity is poised for a revolution in our

understanding of consciousness, as the first-person modes of inquiry of the contemplative

traditions of the world are integrated with the third-person methods of modern science.”

(The Santa Barbara Institute, 2006)

of 68

REFERENCES

Books

Adams, M 2003 Change your questions, change your life: Discover the power of

Question Thinking San Francisco Berrett-Koehler Publishers, Inc

Arntz, W Chasse, B Vicente, M 2005 What the Bleep do we Know!?: Discovering the

endless possibilities for altering your everyday reality Florida: Health Communications Inc

Austin, J H 2001 Zen and the brain: Toward an Understanding of Meditation and

Consciousness Massachusetts: MIT Press

Baars, B 2005 Susan Blackmore: Conversations on Consciousness New York: Oxford

University Press

Blackmore, S 2004 Consciousness: An introduction New York: Oxford University Press

Budilovsky, J and Adamson, E 2003 The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Meditation Second

Edition New York: Alpha Books

Koch, C 2004 The quest for consciousness: A neurobiological approach Colorado:

Roberts and Company Publishers

Dalai Lama 2000 A simple path – Basic Buddhist Teachings by HH Dalai Lama London:

Thorsons

Gampopa, J 1994 Gems of Dharma, Jewels of Freedom: The classic handbook of

Buddhism by Je Gampopa – A new translation from the Tibetan by Ken and Katia Holmes

Scotland, Altea Publishing

of 68

Hafen, B Q, Karren, K J, Smith, N L and Frandsen, K J 2002 Mind/Body Health: The

effects of attitudes, emotions and relationships Second Edition San Francisco, Benjamin

Cummings

Hope, J and Van Loon, B 2005 Introducing Buddha Singapore Tien Wah Press

Kabat, Zinn, J 2005 The Science and Clinical A Applications of Meditation: Investigating

the Mind 2005 Georgetown University Medical Centre and Johns Hopkins University

School of Medicine, Constitution Hall, Washington Mind and Life Institute

Karren, K, Hafen, B Q, Smith, N L, Frandsen, K J 2002 Mind/body health: The effects of

Attitudes, Emotions and Relationships San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings

Kline, N 1999 Time to think: Listening to ignite the human mind London, Cassell

Illustrated

Komito, D R 1987 Nagarjuna’s Seventy Stanzas: A Buddhist psychology of emptiness

Ithaca, New York: Snow Lion Publications

Kongtrul, J 2005 The great path of awakening: The classic guide to Lojong, a Tibetan

Buddhist practice for cultivating the Heart of compassion Boston, Shambhala Classics

Leedy, P D and Ormrod, J E 2001 Practical research: Planning and design Seventh

Edition New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall

Mipham, S 2003 Turning the mind into an ally New York, Riverhead Books

Mouton, J 2001 How to succeed in your Master’s & Doctoral Studies: A South African

guide and resource book Pretoria: van Schaik Publishers

of 68

Nairn, R 1997 Tranquil mind: An introduction to Buddhism & Meditation Cape Town:

Kairon Press CC

Nairn, R 1998 Diamond Mind: Psychology of meditation Cape Town: Kairon Press CC

Nairn, R 2002 Living Dreaming Dying: Wisdom of Tibetan Psychology Cape Town:

Kairon Press CC

Nairn, R 2006 Seven Point Mind Training Public lecture: Randburg, Johannesburg

Namgyal, T T 1986 Mahamudra: The Quintessence of mind and meditation

Massachusetts, Shambhalah Publications

Norbu, N and Lipman, K 1986 Primordial Experience: An introduction to rDzogs-chen

Meditation – Manjushrimitra Boston and London: Shambhala

Odier, D 2004 Yoga Spandakarika The sacred texts at the origins of tantra Vermont:

Inner Traditions

Okawa, R 2006 The Challenge of the Mind: A practical approach to the essential

Buddhist teaching of Karma Great Britain, Time Warner Books

Ornstein, R 1986 Multimind: A new way of looking at human behavior Hong Kong:

Papermac

Ornstein, R and Sobel, D 1988 The healing brain: A radical new approach to staying well

Hong Kong: Papermac

Papineau, D and Selina, H 2000 Introducing consciousness Cambridge: Icon Books Ltd

of 68

Pliskin, Z 2005 Gateway to Happiness: A practical guide to happiness and peace of mind

culled from the full spectrum of Torah literature Brooklyn, Bnay Yakov Publications

Prescott, S 2000 Realizing the Self Within: Expressing your spiritual self in everyday life

Rondebosch, Kima Global Publishers

Saunders, M., Lews, P. and Thornhill, A. Year unknown Research methods for Business

Studies London: Prentice Hall

Sears, B 1999 The age-free zone New York Regan Books (HarperCollinsPublishers)

Smith, D P J 2007a The PiPL Perspective, Johannesburg : University of Johannesburg

Smith, D P J 2007b Personal Leadership A Theme 2: The ontological and teleological

dimension of PiPL: A preliminary description of the terrain and perspective: University of

Johannesburg

Smith, D P J 2007c PiPL Models – Facilitation Tools. Johannesburg: University of

Johannesburg

Smith, D P J 2007d Module 2 Spiritual Leadership Theme 4 The Planes of

Consciousness Johannesburg: University of Johannesburg

Snyderman, R 2005 The Science and Clinical A Applications of Meditation: Investigating


School of Medicine, Constitution Hall, Washington Mind and Life Institute

Suzuki, S 1986 Zen mind, Beginner’s Mind: Informal talks on Zen meditation and

practice New York: Weatherhill

of 68

Swami, R 2005 Samadhi, The highest state of Wisdom: Yoga, the sacred science

volume one India: Himalayan Institute Hospital Trust

Tolle, E 1999 The power of Now Great Britian: Hodder and Stoughton

Tolle, E 2005 A new earth: Awakening to your life’s purpose London, Penguin Books

Travis, J A and Ryan, R S 2004 Wellness Workbook: How to achieve enduring Health

and Vitality Berkeley/Toronto: Celestial Arts

Trungpa, C 1976 The Myth of Freedom and the Way of Meditation Boston and London:

Shambhala

Winkelman, M 2000 Shamanism: The Neural Ecology of Consciousness and Healing

Westport, Connecticut: Bergin & Garvey

Zohar, D & Marshall, I 2000 Spiritual intelligence: The ultimate intelligence. London:

Bloomsbury

Articles

Cromie, 2006 Meditation change temperatures Harvard Gazette Archives

http://www.hno.harvard.edu/gazette/archives.html

Eagar, M 2003 The Shaman reborn in cyberspace, or evolving magico-spiritual

techniques of consciousness-making Technoetic Arts volume 1 number 1 – 2003

Ellison, K 2006 Mastering your own mind Publication: Psychology Today Magazine

Publication Date: Sept/Oct 2006 Last Reviewed: 5 Sep 2006 (Document ID: 4146)

http://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/index.php?term=pto-20060828-000001&page=6

http://www.hno.harvard.edu/gazette/archives.html

of 68

Mahathera, H 2006 Mindfulness In Plain English Buddhasasana Home Page

http://www.budsas.org/ebud/mfneng/mind16.htm

Saron, C and Wallace, A 2006 Issues, findings and experiential training in meditative

quiescence Consciousness website: 18 September 2006

http://www.consciousness.arizona.edu/cliffalan.htm

Vick, P 2002 Mindfulness, Psyche and Soma From Body Psychotherapy Ed. Tree

Staunton

Taylor, E 1994 Desperately Seeking Spirituality Psychology Today 1 November 1994

(http://www.keepmedia.com/pubs/PsychologyToday/1994/11/01/7005?page=3&emaId

Warren, L 1993 : Prayer and it’s power Part 1 PLIN Report (Jan-Feb 1993)

http://www.plim.org/1prayer93.html

World Wide Web and electronic resources

Academy of Tai Chi and Wu Shun, 10 December 2006

http://www.taichiacademy.com/

“Answers.com” , 10 December 2006

www.answers.com/topic/yoga

The Association for A Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback Society of America

quoted on Psychotherapy.com, 20 September 2006

http://psychotherapy.com/bio.html

Authentic Personality Website, 26 December 2006

http://authenticpersonality.lucaserve.com/

BBC News 2001, (Thursday, 1 November 2001) 5 December 2006

http://www.budsas.org/ebud/mfneng/mind16.htm

http://www.consciousness.arizona.edu/cliffalan.htm

http://www.keepmedia.com/pubs/PsychologyToday/1994/11/01/7005?page=3&emaId

http://www.plim.org/1prayer93.html

http://www.answers.com/topic/yoga

http://psychotherapy.com/bio.html

http://authenticpersonality.lucaserve.com/

of 68

http://news.bbc.co.uk/

Biofeedback Info center in Holistic online Website, 10 December 2006

http://www.holisticonline.com/Biofeedback.htm

Buddhist publication Society in Sri Lanka, 5 December 2006

http:www.bps.ik

The Center for Contemplative Mind in Society. 18 September 2006,

http://www.contemplativemind.org/programs/cnet/practices.html

Centre for Mindfulness, Unviersity IOWA, 5 December 2006

http://www.mindfullivingprograms.com/index.php

The Contemplatives Forum, 18 September 2006

http://www.contemplativeforum.co.uk/practice.html

Father Keating: Centering Prayer, 29 March 2007

http://www.centeringprayer.com/cntrgpryr.htm

Contemplative Outreach Cailifornia, 29 March 2007

http://www.thecentering.org/

Contemplative Quakerism Website, 18 September 2006,

.http://www.orednet.org/~jflory/practice.htm

Encyclopædia Britannica. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2007 (electronic version)

Everyday Tai Chi, 5 December 2006

http://www.everyday-taichi.com/

Forum for Contemplative Studies ,18 September 2006


http://news.bbc.co.uk/

http://www.holisticonline.com/Biofeedback.htm

http://www.contemplativemind.org/programs/cnet/practices.html

http://www.mindfullivingprograms.com/index.php


http://www.centeringprayer.com/cntrgpryr.htm

http://www.orednet.org/~jflory/practice.htm

http://www.everyday-taichi.com/


of 68

Hemi-Sync official website, 10 December 2006

http://www.hemi-sync.com/store/home.php

Institute for HearthMath, 26 December 2006

http://www.heartmath.org/

Invitation to Love, 29 March 2007

http://dendurent.com/Invite/invite.htm

Japanese Fact Sheet, 5 December 2006

http://web-japan.org/factsheet/tea/tea_c.html

Khandro.Net Website, 5 December 20062006

http://www.khandro.net/

Lifespan Website, 5 December 2006

http://www.lifespan.org/

Life Positive Website, 8 December 2006

http://www.lifepositive.com/

Nyingma Website, 11 December 2006

http://www.nyingma.com/

Mahamakuta Rajavidyalaya Foundation, 5 December 2006

http://mahamakuta.inet.co.th/english/b-way(10).html

Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research (MFMER), 5 December 2006

http://www.MayoClinic.com

http://www.hemi-sync.com/store/home.php

http://dendurent.com/Invite/invite.htm

http://web-japan.org/factsheet/tea/tea_c.html

http://www.khandro.net/

http://www.lifepositive.com/

http://mahamakuta.inet.co.th/english/b-way(10).html

http://www.mayoclinic.com/

of 68

Mindfulness Based Cognitive Therapy, University Oxford Department Psychiatry, 5

December 2006

http://www.mbct.co.uk/about.htm

Mind and Life Organisation, 7 October 2006,

http://www.mindandlife.org/collaboration.html

SAPA-AP, 20 March 2007

The Santa Barbara Institute. 8 October 2006,

http://www.sbinstitute.com/

Sharmapa, K u n z i g . S h a m a r . R i n p o c he, 5 December 2006

http://www.shamarpa.org/sham

Transcendental Meditation, 5 December 2006

http://www.tm.org

Tokokyudojo Website, 10 December 2006

http://www.tokokyudojo.org/info/

Transforming Practices website, 18 September 2006

http://www.transformingpractice.com/bi/toc5.html

University of Iowa Hospital and Clinics: Mindfulness Based Programs, 10 December 2006

http://www.uihealthcare.com/depts/mindfulness/index.html

Walk here Now Website, 10 December 2006

http://www.walkherenow.com/

http://www.mbct.co.uk/about.htm

http://www.mindandlife.org/collaboration.html

http://www.sbinstitute.com/

http://www.shamarpa.org/sham

http://www.tm.org/

http://www.tokokyudojo.org/info/

http://www.transformingpractice.com/bi/toc5.html

http://www.uihealthcare.com/depts/mindfulness/index.html

http://www.walkherenow.com/

of 68

Wild Divine Website, 5 December 2006

http://www.wilddivine.com/WildDivineAboutBiofeedback/

Yoga: I love India, 8 December 2006

http://yoga.iloveindia.com/

Yoga Vidya Dham, 8 December 2006

http://www.yogapoint.com/

Zen Archery Website, 10 December 2006

http://www.paralumun.com/zenarchery.htm

Audio and visual media

Chodron, 1998 Noble Heart: a self-guided retreat on befriending your obstacles (Sounds

True Audio Learning Course) USA,Sounds True (Audio CD)

Davidson, 2005 The Science and Clinical A Applications of Meditation: Investigating the

Mind 2005 Georgetown University Medical Centre and Johns Hopkins University School

of Medicine, Constitution Hall, Washington Mind and Life Institute (DVD)

Dispenza, J 2005 Our immortal brain: Mastering the Art of Observation KZK

Incorporated www.drjoedispenza.com (DVD)

Eagar, Hanna, Havens, Hubbard and Tart 2002 Altered states of consciousness

Towards a Science of Consciousness 2002 Berkeley, CA

www.conferencerecording.com (Audio Tape)

Kabat-Zinn, J 2005 The Science and Clinical A Applications of Meditation: Investigating


School of Medicine, Constitution Hall, Washington Mind and Life Institute (DVD)

http://www.wilddivine.com/WildDivineAboutBiofeedback/

http://yoga.iloveindia.com/

http://www.yogapoint.com/

http://www.drjoedispenza.com/

http://www.conferencerecording.com/

of 68

HH 17 Karmapa, Ogyen Trinley Dorje 2003 Three teachings by karmapa Kunzang

Productions, www.kunzang.com (DVD)

Krishnamurti, J 1982 Meditation & the thinking machine California: Krishnamurti

Foundation of America, www.kfi.org (DVD)

Newberg, A B 2003 Consciousness Conference Alsbury Films, directed by Gregory

Alsbury Distributed by Novice Effect, producer Cordell Alsbury www.noviceeffect.com

(DVD)

Pert, C 2000 Your body is your subconscious mind Boulder: Sounds True (Audio)

Shapiro, M S 2005 The Science and Clinical A Applications of Meditation: Investigating



Singer, W 2005 The Science and Clinical A Applications of Meditation: Investigating the



Segal, Z V 2005 The Science and Clinical A Applications of Meditation: Investigating the



Snyderman, R 2005 The Science and Clinical A Applications of Meditation: Investigating



Tai Situ, 2003 Mahamudra Kunzang Productions, www.kunzang.com (DVD)

http://www.kunzang.com/

http://www.kfi.org/

http://www.noviceeffect.com/

http://www.kunzang.com/

of 68

The Secret 2006 The secret has traveled through centuries… to reach you TS

Productions LLC www.thesecret.tv (DVD)

Wallace, B A 2005 The Science and Clinical A Applications of Meditation: Investigating



Arntz, W Chasse, B Vicente, M 2006 What the Bleep – Down the Rabbit Hole – One

Movie, Infinite Possibilities Lord of the Wind Films LLC

http://www.whatthebleep.com/rabbithole/ (DVD)

Lectures

Eagar, M 2006 Xaos Club : www.xaosclub.co.za to be refreshed on

www.apeiron.co.za

Geshe La Pende, Lam Rim Center – Lecture notes, 2006 series lectures, Johannesburg

http://www.lamrim.co.za/

Nairn, R 2007 Seven Point Mind Training lecture at Randburg Buddhist Kagyu Centre,

Johannesburg

http://www.kagyu.org.za/

Nairn, R 2006 Introduction to Emptiness Retreat at Kensington Kagyu Buddhist Centre,

Johannesburg


http://www.thesecret.tv/

http://www.whatthebleep.com/rabbithole/

http://www.apeiron.co.za/

http://www.lamrim.co.za/



of 68

APPENDIX A: TREE OF CONTEMPLATIVE PRACTICES

of 68

APPENDIX B: TABLE OF BENEFITS LISTED AGAINST PIPL TRANSFORMER MODEL LIFE DOMAINS

Research on benefits/outcomes Author

Spiritual – Smith (2007c)

It remains a radical notion in the West that benevolent states of mind such as

compassion, kindness and happiness can be developed with practice

Wallace, 2005

Such adepts are the Lance Armstrongs of meditation, says Davidson, whose pioneering

brain scans of monks provide tantalizing evidence that emotions like love and

compassion are in fact skills—and can be trained to a dramatic degree. Studies also

suggest that the monastic life is not a requirement; even brief, regular meditation sessions

can yield substantial benefits.

Ellison, 2006

Urging seekers of happiness to not only shake off egoism but to understand the

amorphous nature of the ego itself remains a subversive idea in the West, even though

some leading neuroscientists have come to the same conclusion. Wolf Singer, director of

the Max Planck Institute in Frankfurt, Germany, for instance, describes the brain as

Singer, 2005

of 68


lacking any decision-making "coherence center." It's like an orchestra without a conductor

Transcendence consciousness is a state of consciousness outside of the ordinary

waking, dreaming and deep sleep. Research has confirmed the reality of Transcended

Consciousness.

TM website,

2006

Long term meditators are able to produce conscious awareness: A coherent, metastable

state of a highly distributed, dynamical system characterized by synchronization of

oscillatory activity.

Segal, 2005

Physical (Smith, 2007c)

Research on transcendental meditation indicates benefits, such as

Meditation can be an effective treatment for ADHA (ABC News, Washington, 6 March

2006)

TM twice a day improves cardio vascular health (Prevention Magazine, 12 Sept 2005)

Enhanced creativity

Reduction of death rates by nearly a quarter (The Guardian, 2 May 2005)

Lowered blood pressure through relaxation of blood vessels (Medical College of Georgia)

Transcendental

Meditation

Website, 2006

of 68


A quantitative review of 198 studies found that the Transcendental Meditation program is

the most effective means of preventing and treating drug and alcohol abuse. A study of

high school and college drug users in a rehabilitation center found an 89 percent

reduction in drug usage, and even transient, chronic alcoholics were found achieve a 65%

abstinence rate.

Transcendental

Medication

Website, 2006

Flu vaccine worked more effectively through triggering more antibodies in novice

meditators.

Davidson,

2005

IHM has collaborated with Stanford University and other institutions in studies which have

shown that heart centered techniques and psychophysiological coherence facilitate the

body's healing processes and improve physical health outcomes. For example,

improvements in clinical status have been demonstrated in individuals with hypertension,

diabetes, congestive heart failure, asthma and AIDS.7-11

Institute for

HeartMath

Website, 2006

Japanese Ministry of Labour commissioned a five month study of the effects of the

Transcendental Meditations program on 447 employees in a major heavy industry. The

study found decreased physical complaints, decreased anxiety, decreased depression,

decreased smoking, decreased insomnia, decreased digestive problems, and a

decreased tendency towards neurosis and psychosomatic problems, among those who

learned this technique compared to non-meditating controls.

Transcendental

Medication

Website, 2006

of 68


Meditation is also closely associated with a marked alteration of cortisol patterns; long

term practitioners show reduced cortisol output through the day (thought this data is

preliminary and many factors could account for these differences).

Davidson.

2005

Psychology Today, March-April 1998 discussed a study of 65 patients who listened to

guided imagery tapes for three days before and six days after surgery. The patients

reports less stress and physical pain than a control group and needed only half as much

pain medication as those who had not listened to the tapes.

Travis & Ryan,

2002

A review of 46 studies conducted from 1966 to 1998 by the American Cancer Society

found that guided imagery was effective in managing stress, anxiety, depression, pain

and the side effects of chemotherapy.

Travis & Ryan,

2002

American Journal of Health Promotion, July 2001, noted the effects of a “mindfulness

training program” on 32 highly stressed individuals. Following the two month program,

during which participants learned stress-coping and meditation methods, an average 54%

reduction in psychological distress was reported together with a 46% drop in medical

symptoms accompanied to the control group.

Transforming

Website, 2006

Transcendental Meditation practitioners with 5 years experience were biologically 12

years younger than chronological age.

Trancendental

Meditation

Website, 2006

of 68


Scientific research shows positive effects of Transcendental Meditation program prevent

detrimental effects of ageing, such as reduced blood pressure, enhanced memory,

improved sleep, improved cardiovascular efficiency and many others.

Trancendental

Meditation

Website, 2006

Transcendental Meditation practitioners display a fifty percent reduction in both inpatient

and outpatient medical care utlisation, compared to controls. Hospitilisation 87% lower for

heart disease and 55% lower for cancer. And that is most remarkable, meditators over 40

years old have approximately 70% fewer medical problems than others in their age group.

Trancendental

Meditation

Website, 2006

Researchers at Harvard University showed that meditation as a way to reduce stress

resulted in a survival rate of 100% in patients due to significant drop in systolic blood

pressure. Patients who did not meditate survival rate was 62.6%.

Haven et al,

2002

Of the 131 controlled experiments on prayer-based healing, more than half showed

statistically significant benefits. Changes occur in the body, such as metabolism slowing

down, blood pressure dropping, breathing slowing, heart rate lowers, even brain waves

are less active. This is mostly from contemplative (meditative) prayer).

Hafen et al,

2002

Studies show yoga can relieve the symptoms of several common and potentially life-

threatening illnesses, such as arthritis, arteriosclerosis, chronic fatigue, diabetes, AIDS,

asthma and obesity. Various studies have confirmed the beneficial effects of yoga for

patients with respiratory problems.

Life Positive

Website, 2006

of 68


Transcendental Meditation twice a day improves cardio-vascular health – Prevention

Magazine, September 12, 2005.

Transcendental

Medication

Website, 2006

Researchers report that just two 15 minute transcendental meditation sessions per day

were enough to trigger an average 21 percent increase in the ability of teenagers’ blood

vessels to dilate (therefore reducing their hypertension.

Transcendental

Medication

Website, 2006

Completed studies have found that pain-related drug utilization was decreased, and

activity levels and feelings of self esteem increased, for a majority of participants.

Centre for

Mindfulness,

University

IOWA, 2006

Clinical studies published in 1998 indicates that meditation resulted in patients healing

four times faster than those who did not do meditation.

Kabat-Zinn,

2005

Unviersity of Massachusetts Medical Center Stress Reduction Clinic takes on patients

with difficult medical problems that other physicians gave up on. Kabat-Zinn uses

methods based on mindfulness meditation. Among the more than 4,000 patients he has

treated of 10 years, that simple technique has reduced medical illness by 35%. Even

disease as specific and resistant as psoriasis have responded.

Hafen et al,

2002

of 68


Emotional (Smith, 2007c)

In a pilot study at the University of California at San Francisco, researchers found that

schoolteachers briefly trained in Buddhist techniques and who meditated less than 30

minutes a day improved their moods as much as if they had taken antidepressants.

Ellison, 2006

The “engine”, in this case, is what is often called the limbic system – of the emotional

brain – which is connected to the prefrontal cortex. Through its actions on the prefrontal

cortex, meditation can dampen affective arousal from a limbic system kicked into alarm

mode by fear or anger.

Ellison, 2006

The American Medical Association recommends meditation techniques as a first steps

before medication for borderline hypertension cases.

Answers.com

Website, 2006

Clinical studies have shown that the aspiration to help others (altruism) brings about

constructive changes in the brain through reducing activation in the amygdale and

increased activation of the ventromedial pre-frontal cortex. Mental training in altruism will

improve emotional management.

Davidson,

2005

The risk of relapse to clinical depression is reduced by 50% in patients who followed the

Mindfulness Based Cognitive Therapy.

Segal, 2005

of 68


MBCT treatment for clinical depression: 66% of people stayed well, compared to 34% on

traditional treatment after a period of one year.

Segal, 2005

Meditation, however, promises to break this apparent chain reaction by allowing us to

recognize "the spark before the flame." Through many hours of quietly observing the

customary tyranny of the emotions, you may gradually familiarize yourself with the quiet

of your mind—the part that one day might choose not to be tyrannized. Says Ricard, "You

become familiar with the way emotions arise, how they can either overwhelm your mind

or vanish without making an impact."

Ellison, 2006

Eudaimonia, that rests on the realization of personal goals and potential. The ideal runs in

a ragged line from Aristotle to Maslow to Sartre, paralleling Buddhism somewhere along

the way.

Ellison, 2006

Neurobiologically we seem wired for empathy. Over the past few years, scientists have

found that the human brain has a system of mirror neurons, activated both when we

perform an action and when we observe similar action by others, including the facial

expression of pain or joy. Such activation allows us not only to infer others' feelings but to

actually share those feelings as well.

Scientists have only recently begun to map the brain regions related to positive emotions

such as empathy. But when Davidson observed Ricard meditating on compassion while

Ellison, 2006

of 68


hooked up to EEG sensors, he found a striking increase in gamma waves in the left

prefrontal cortex, an area correlated with reported feelings of happiness. The findings

furnish scientific support for something the Dalai Lama often says: A person meditating on

compassion for others becomes the first beneficiary.

Clinical studies showed that four years after and eight week Mindfulness Based Stress

Reduction course, participants still experienced positive differences with the treatment

integrated into daily life

Kabat-Zinn,

2005

Average 54% reduction in psychological distress was reported together with a 46% drop

in medical symptoms compared to the control group – results of a mindfulness training

program on 32 highly stressed individuals (American Journal of Health Promotion, July

2001)

Transforming

Practices

Website, 2006

Mental (Smith, 2007c)

In a study led by psychologist Zindel Segal at the University of Toronto, meditation

successfully prevented relapse of depression in patients with a history of recurrent mood

disorder.

Ellison, 2006

The results of this study support the hypothesis that the changes in brain activity that

occur during states of increased psychophysiological coherence lead to changes in the

brain's information processing capabilities. Results suggest that by using heart-based

Institute for

HeartMath,

Website, 2006

of 68


interventions to self-generate coherent states, individuals can significantly enhance

cognitive performance.

The UK National Institute of Clinical Excellence (NICE) has recently endorsed MBCT as

an effective treatment for prevention of relapse. Research has shown that people who

have been clinically depressed 3 or more times (sometimes for twenty years or more) find

that taking the program and learning these skills helps to reduce considerably their

chances that depression will return.

MBCT, Oxford

University,

2006

At the same time, the power of our non-invasive technologies have made it possible to

investigate the nature of cognition and emotion in the brain as never before, and to begin

to explore the interfaces between mind, brain, and body, and the implications of particular

forms of meditative practices for modulating and regulating biological pathways to restore

or enhance homeostatic processes and perhaps extend the reach of both mind and body

in ways that might potentially promote rehabilitation and healing as well as greater overall

health and well-being. Recent studies are showing that meditation can result in stable

brain patterns and changes over both short and long-term intervals that have not been

seen before in human beings and that suggest the potential for the systematic driving of

positive neuroplastic changes via such intentional practices cultivated over time. These

investigations may offer opportunities for understanding the basic unifying mechanisms of

Mind and Life

Org, 2006

of 68


the brain, mind and body that underlie awareness and our capacity for effective

adaptation to stressful and uncertain conditions.

One recent study at Massachusetts General Hospital found that 40 minutes of daily

meditation appears to thicken parts of the cerebral cortex involved in attention and

sensory processing. In a pilot study at the University of California at San Francisco,

researchers found that schoolteachers briefly trained in Buddhist techniques who

meditated less than 30 minutes a day improved their moods as much as if they had taken

antidepressants.

Ellison, 2006

Clinical studies in the US report improved balance and peace of mind after only 8 weeks

of a very simple set of movements taken from a variety of tai chi styles.

Western Science recognizes the following benefits of practicing Tai Chi: increased

oxygen uptake and utilization (more efficient breathing), reduced blood pressure, slower

declines in cardiovascular power, increased bone density, increased strength and range

of motion of joints, greater leg strength, knee strength, and flexibility, reduced levels of

stress hormones during and after practice, improved immune function, and heightened

mood states

Everyday Tai-

Chi Website,

2006

One recent study at Massachusetts General Hospital found that 40 minutes of daily

meditation appears to thicken parts of the cerebral cortex involved in attention and

Ellison, 2006

of 68


sensory processing

It's like you're flexing a muscle in the brain. University of Wisconsin's Davidson contends

that the mental exercise of meditation strengthens and stabilizes neural networks in the

medial prefrontal cortex—the brain's executive control center, involved in the regulation of

attention. "People don't recognize that there is lots of plasticity in the circuitry," he adds.

"More than previously thought."

Ellison, 2006

Encouragement for this new way of thinking comes from an unusual ally. Neuroscience is

furnishing hard evidence that the brain is plastic, endowed with a lifelong capacity to

reorganize itself with each new experience. "We now know that neural firing can lead to

changes in neural connections, and experience leads to changes in neural firing,"

explains UCLA psychiatrist Daniel Siegel. Violinists' brains actually change as they refine

their skill. So do the brains of London cabbies, whose livelihood depends on the

sharpness of their memory. Likewise, through repeated practice in focusing attention,

meditators may be strengthening the neural circuitry involved in the voluntary control of

attention.

Ellison, 2006

It's like you're flexing a muscle in the brain. University of Wisconsin's Davidson contends

that the mental exercise of meditation strengthens and stabilizes neural networks in the

medial prefrontal cortex—the brain's executive control center, involved in the regulation of

attention.

Ellison, 2006

of 68


"People don't recognize that there is lots of plasticity in the circuitry," he adds. "More than

previously thought."

Even among novices, studies show, a brief meditation session can be more effective than

a nap in improving performance on tests that require concentration

Ellison, 2006

Some studies of meditation have linked the practice to increased activity in the left

prefrontal cortex, which is associated with concentration, planning, meta-cognition

(thinking about thinking), and positive affect (good feelings). There are similar studies

linking depression and anxiety with decreased activity in the same region, and/or with

dominant activity in the right prefrontal cortex. Meditation increases activity in the left

prefrontal cortex, and the changes are stable over time — even if you stop meditating for

a while, the effect lingers.

Vick, 2002.

Meditation is associated with marked increases in eletrophysiological signs of activation

(gamma) in the pre-front cortex and other brain regions (long term practitioners).

Davidson,

2005

There is striking correlation between reports of clarity and gamma signal during

compassion meditation.

Davidson,

2005

Untrained practitioners are not good at reporting on the quality of mind. Trained Davidson,

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_depression

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anxiety

of 68


practitioners can report on the quality of mind. 2005

Gamma signals and clarity correspond with increased levels of prefrontal cortex activity.

(This is the executive seat). De Joe

Davidson,

2005

Compassion meditation activates the pre-frontal center of the brain. Findings indicate

increased left pre-frontal activation in adepts compared to novices. Pre-frontal activation

is associated with positive emotions.

Davidson,

2005

Compassion meditation transforms the brain’s response to distressing sounds (e g the

sounds that indicate suffering and pain, or anger).

Davidson,

2005

Cultivating concentration enhances the front lobe, the executive seat of the human brain

(Quoting Dr Joe Dispenza)

Arntz et al,

Among the more than 4000 patients he (Kabat-Zinn) has treated over 10 years, the

simple technique of MBSR has reduced medical illness in these difficult cases by 35%.

Even disease as specific and resistant as psoriasis have responded. Among the elderly,

other forms of meditation have had even greater health benefits.

Contemplative

Mind Website,

2006

Sara Lazar found a marked decrease in blood flow to the entire brain," Benson explains.

"At the same time, certain areas of the brain became more active, specifically those that

control attention and autonomic functions like blood pressure and metabolism. In short,

Gromie, 2006

of 68


she showed the value of using this method to record changes in the brain's activity during

meditation

A new study shows that meditation may be able to replace medication for treating ADHD.

– ABC News, Washington, DC, March 06, 2006

Transcendental

Medication

Website, 2006

of 68

APPENDIX C: BENEFITS OF CONTEMPLATIVE PRACTICE – PIPL RELEVANCE (statistics)

Other PIPL relevance (Smith, 2007c)

A ten year longitudinal study following meditating college students after they graduated

found significant increase in holistic measures of self development (ego-development)

compared to data sets for graduates of three control universities matches for gender and

age.

Transcendental

Meditation

Website, 2006

One of meditation’s most important benefits may be the effect it has on your self-concept Budilovsky &

Eve Adamson,

2003

When the physiological coherence mode is driven by a positive emotional state, we call it

psychophysiological coherence. This state is associated with sustained positive emotion

and a high degree of mental and emotional stability. In states of psychophysiological

coherence, there is increased synchronization and harmony between the cognitive,

emotional and physiological systems, resulting in efficient and harmonious functioning of

the whole. As we will see in subsequent sections, studies conducted across diverse

populations have linked the capacity to self-generate and sustain psychophysiologically

coherent states at will with numerous benefits. Observed outcomes include: reduced

stress, anxiety and depression; decreased burnout and fatigue; enhanced immunity and

Institute for

HeartMath

Website, 2006

of 68

hormonal balance; improved cognitive performance and enhanced learning; increased

organizational effectiveness; and health improvements in a number of clinical populations.

Data showed that in subjects separated by several feet, synchronization can occur

between the alpha waves in one person's EEG and the other's ECG signal. However, in

this experiment, whether the "receiving" subject's brainwaves synchronized to the

"source" subject's heart signal was determined by the degree of coherence in the

receiving subject's heart rhythms. Subjects who demonstrated high heart rhythm

coherence were more likely to show alpha wave synchronization to the other subject's

ECG. This effect was not apparent in subjects with low heart rhythm coherence.

Institute for

HeartMath

Website, 2006

A large scale study of 11,000 prisoners and 900 staff officers in Senegal West Africa in

1987 found that the TM program markedly decreased prison violence, health problems.

Transcendental

Meditation

Website, 2006