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THE APPLICATION OF NMR-BASED METABOLOMICS IN ASSESSING THE SUB-LETHAL TOXICITY OF ORGANOHALOGENATED PESTICIDES TO EARTHWORMS BY Jimmy Yuk A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Department of Chemistry University of Toronto © Copyright by Jimmy Yuk, (2012)

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Page 1: THE APPLICATION OF NMR-BASED METABOLOMICS IN ......Coelomic fluid: A complimentary biological medium to assess sub-lethal endosulfan exposure using 1 H NMR-based earthworm metabolomics

THE APPLICATION OF NMR-BASED METABOLOMICS IN ASSESSING THE SUB-LETHAL TOXICITY OF

ORGANOHALOGENATED PESTICIDES TO EARTHWORMS

BY

Jimmy Yuk

A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

Graduate Department of Chemistry University of Toronto

© Copyright by Jimmy Yuk, (2012)

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The application of NMR-based metabolomics in assessing the sub-

lethal toxicity of organohalogenated pesticides to earthworms

Doctor of Philosophy Degree, 2012

Jimmy Yuk

Graduate Department of Chemistry

University of Toronto

ABSTRACT

The extensive agricultural usage of organohalogenated pesticides has raised many

concerns about their potential hazards especially in the soil environment. Environmental

metabolomics is an emerging field that investigates the changes in the metabolic profile of native

organisms in their environment due to the presence of an environmental stressor. Research

presented here explores the potential of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)-based

metabolomics to examine the sub-lethal exposure of the earthworm, Eisenia fetida to sub-lethal

concentrations of organohalogenated pesticides. Various one-dimensional (1-D) and two-

dimensional (2-D) NMR techniques were compared in a contact filter paper test earthworm

metabolomic study using endosulfan, a prevalent pesticide in the environment. The results

determined that both the 1H Presaturation Utilizing Gradients and Echos (PURGE) and the 1H-

13C Heteronuclear Single Quantum Coherence (HSQC) NMR techniques were most effective in

discriminating and identifying significant metabolites in earthworms due to contaminant

exposure. These two NMR techniques were further explored in another metabolomic study

using various sub-lethal concentrations of endosulfan and an organofluorine pesticide, trifluralin

to E. fetida. Principal component analysis (PCA) tests showed increasing separation between the

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exposed and unexposed earthworms as the concentrations for both contaminants increased. A

neurotoxic mode of action (MOA) for endosulfan and a non-polar narcotic MOA for trifluralin

were delineated as many significant metabolites, arising from exposure, were identified. The

earthworm tissue extract is commonly used as the biological medium for metabolomic studies.

However, many overlapping resonances are apparent in an earthworm tissue extract NMR

spectrum due to the abundance of metabolites present. To mitigate this spectral overlap, the

earthworm’s coelomic fluid (CF) was tested as a complementary biological medium to the tissue

extract in an endosulfan exposure metabolomic study to identify additional metabolites of stress.

Compared to tests on the tissue extract, a plethora of different metabolites were identified in the

earthworm CF using 1-D PURGE and 2-D HSQC NMR techniques. In addition to the

neurotoxic MOA identified previously, an apoptotic MOA was also postulated due to endosulfan

exposure. This thesis also explored the application of 1-D and 2-D NMR techniques in a soil

metabolomic study to understand the exposure of E. fetida to sub-lethal concentrations of

endosulfan and its main degradation product, endosulfan sulfate. The earthworm’s CF and tissue

extract were both analyzed to maximize the significant metabolites identified due to contaminant

exposure. The PCA results identified similar toxicity for both organochlorine contaminants as

the same separation, between exposed to the unexposed earthworms, were detected at various

concentrations. Both neurotoxic and apopotic MOAs were observed as identical fluctuations of

significant metabolites were found. This research demonstrates the potential of NMR-based

metabolomics as a powerful environmental monitoring tool to understand sub-lethal

organohalogenated pesticide exposure in soil using earthworms as living probes.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

First I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr. André Simpson for making this dissertation

possible. Thank you for all the guidance and help you have provided. You are the most creative

and innovative scientist I have ever had the pleasure to work with. Thank you for providing me

the motivation throughout my degree and also connections to my future career. Thank you to Dr.

Myrna Simpson for providing valuable discussions and advice throughout my projects and

excellent critiques that greatly improved my chapters 2, 3, 4, and 5. Thank you to Dr. Jennifer

Murphy for guiding me throughout my degree and watching over me to ensure my success

during these years. Thank you to Dr. Jon Abbatt for graciously taking the time to be my fourth

member in my PhD final examination committee. Thank you to Dr. Philip Britz-McKibbin for

becoming my external and taking the time to come from McMaster University.

Thank you to all the members, past and present, in both Simpson labs. You have been

an unlimited support system for me throughout my PhD degree. I enjoyed all the interesting

conversations about science and life and I wish you all success in your future endeavours.

Specifically, thank you to Brian Lankadurai, who started the same time as me, went through all

the classes and the oral comprehensive together. I also had the pleasure of travelling and

exploring other places during our conferences like Edmonton and Australia. I don’t think I

would have gotten this far or had the same motivation if you had not done this program. Thank

you to Hashim Farooq for being a great colleague and pillar of support in and outside the lab.

Thank you for teaching me your mystical ways of working out. Good luck to you both and I

can’t wait to celebrate with you guys when you are done!

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I would like to acknowledge funding sources for the projects contained within this thesis:

the Government of Ontario for an Early Researcher Award (AJS) and an Ontario Graduate

Scholarship (JY); the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC) of Canada

Strategic Grant; a University of Toronto Fellowship, a University of Toronto Scarborough

Student Travel Grant, University of Toronto Arts and Science Travel Grant and a University of

Toronto Chem Club Graduate Scholarship (JY).

I would like to thank all my friends especially Simon La and Dorothy Yu for being a

great source of entertainment and giving me encouragement whenever I needed it. I would like

to also thank my Sensei, Suenori Tominaga for providing me with my favourite past-time outside

the lab, karate, and many valuable lessons about life in which I will never forget.

Thank you to my mother, Lily and brother, Tommy for their unconditional love and

support. Without them watching over me and teaching me many hard lessons, I will not be the

person I am today.

Finally, special thank you to Diana Tseng. Your love and encouragement is the main

source of my strength to finish this degree. I will never forget what you have inspired and taught

me and wish you the best in your life.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................................................................................. iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................... vi

LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................................... xi

LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................................... xii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ..................................................................................................... xvii

PREFACE ..................................................................................................................................... xx

CHAPTER ONE .................................................................................................................. 1

Introduction: Organohalogenated argochemicals, ecotoxicology, earthworms in

ecotoxicology and environmental NMR-based metabolomics

1.1 Organhalogenated agrochemicals ................................................................. 2

1.1.1 Soil contamination and assessing environmental risk .................................................... 6

1.2 Ecotoxicology ................................................................................................... 7

1.2.1 Regulatory approaches to ecotoxicological testing ........................................................ 8

1.2.2 Limitations in current approaches .................................................................................. 9

1.3 Metabolomics ................................................................................................12

1.3.1 Environmental metabolomics ....................................................................................... 13

1.4 Earthworms in Ecotoxicity tests ..................................................................16

1.5 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance-based metabolomics using earthworms ...21

1.5.1 One-dimensional NMR techniques .............................................................................. 24

1.5.2 Two-dimensional NMR techniques .............................................................................. 26

1.5.3 Statistical methods for metabolomic analysis .............................................................. 27

1.6 Study Objectives ...........................................................................................30

1.7 Thesis Summary ............................................................................................31

1.8 References ......................................................................................................35

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CHAPTER TWO .............................................................................................................. 49

Comparison of 1-D and 2-D NMR techniques for screening earthworm responses to sub-

lethal endosulfan exposure.

Jimmy Yuk, Jennifer McKelvie, Myrna Simpson, Manfred Spraul and André Simpson Environ. Chem. 2010, 7(6), 524-36.

2.1 Abstract ..........................................................................................................50

2.2 Introduction ...................................................................................................51

2.3 Experimental methods ..................................................................................55

2.3.1 Earthworm maintenance and contact tests .................................................................... 55

2.3.2 Earthworm tissue extraction ......................................................................................... 56

2.3.3 NMR spectroscopy ....................................................................................................... 57

2.3.4 Data analysis ................................................................................................................. 59

2.4 Results and Discussion..................................................................................61

2.4.1 1H NMR spectroscopic characterization....................................................................... 61

2.4.2 Partial least square discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) on 1-D NMR spectra ................. 63

2.4.3 2-D NMR spectroscopic characterization ..................................................................... 66

2.4.4 Partial least square discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) on 2-D NMR spectra ................. 68

2.4.5 Merits of 1-D and 2-D NMR analysis as biomarker screening tools ........................... 74

2.5 Conclusion .....................................................................................................79

2.6 Acknowledgment ...........................................................................................80

2.7 References ......................................................................................................80

CHAPTER THREE ........................................................................................................ 86

1-D and 2-D NMR metabolomics of earthworm responses to sub-lethal trifluralin and

endosulfan exposure

Jimmy Yuk, Myrna J. Simpson and André J. Simpson Environ. Chem. 2011 , 8(3), 281-94.

3.1 Abstract ..........................................................................................................87

3.2 Introduction ...................................................................................................88

3.3 Experimental methods ..................................................................................91

3.3.1 Earthworm contact test preparation and exposure ........................................................ 91

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3.3.2. Earthworm tissue extraction and preparation for NMR .............................................. 92

3.3.3. 1-D NMR Spectroscopy .............................................................................................. 93

3.3.4 2-D NMR Spectroscopy ............................................................................................... 93

3.3.5. Data and Statistical Analysis ....................................................................................... 94

3.4 Results and Discussions ................................................................................96

3.4.1 Earthworm weight change during exposure ................................................................. 96

3.4.2 Multivariate statistical analysis of trifluralin exposure ................................................ 97

3.4.3 Relative metabolite changes in trifluralin-exposed earthworms .................................. 99

3.4.4 Multivariate statistical analysis of endosulfan exposure ............................................ 105

3.4.5 Relative metabolite changes in endosulfan-exposed earthworms .............................. 107

3.4.6 Trajectory multivariate statistical analysis of trifluralin and endosulfan ................... 113

3.5 Conclusion ...................................................................................................115

3.6 Acknowledgment .........................................................................................116

3.7 References ....................................................................................................117

CHAPTER FOUR .......................................................................................................... 126

Coelomic fluid: A complimentary biological medium to assess sub-lethal endosulfan

exposure using 1H NMR-based earthworm metabolomics

Jimmy Yuk, Myrna J. Simpson, André J. Simpson Ecotoxicology. 2012, (In Press)

4.1 Abstract ........................................................................................................127

4.2 Introduction .................................................................................................128

4.3 Experimental methods ................................................................................131

4.3.1 Earthworm contact test preparation and exposure ...................................................... 131

4.3.2 Earthworm coelomic fluid extraction and preparation for NMR ............................... 132

4.3.3 Earthworm tissue extraction and preparation for NMR ............................................. 133

4.3.4 NMR Spectroscopy..................................................................................................... 134

4.3.5 Data and Statistical Analysis ...................................................................................... 135

4.4 Results and Discussions ..............................................................................137

4.4.1 Comparison of 1H and 1H-13C HSQC NMR spectra of earthworm extracts .............. 137

4.4.2 Multivariate statistical analysis of endosulfan exposure on earthworms ................... 140

4.4.3 Relative metabolite changes in endosulfan-exposed earthworms .............................. 142

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4.5. Conclusions .................................................................................................149

4.6 Acknowledgment .........................................................................................151

4.7 References ....................................................................................................152

CHAPTER FIVE ............................................................................................................ 160

1-D and 2-D NMR metabolomics of earthworm responses to sub-lethal endosulfan and

endosulfan sulfate exposure in soil

Jimmy Yuk, Myrna J. Simpson and André J. Simpson Environmental Pollution, 2012, (Submitted)

5.1 Abstract ........................................................................................................161

5.2 Introduction .................................................................................................162

5.3 Experimental Methods ...............................................................................164

5.3.1 Soil Spiking ................................................................................................................ 164

5.3.2 Earthworm exposure ................................................................................................... 165

5.3.3 Earthworm coelomic fluid and tissue extraction and preparation for NMR .............. 166

5.3.4 1-D and 2-D NMR Spectroscopy ............................................................................... 166

5.3.5 Data and Statistical Analysis ...................................................................................... 166

5.4 Results and Discussions ..............................................................................168

5.4.1 Multivariate analysis on earthworm CF and tissue extracts ....................................... 168

5.4.2 Metabolic response after endosulfan and endosulfan sulfate exposure ...................... 170

5.4.3 Comparison of endosulfan- and endosulfan sulfate- exposed earthworm CF and tissue extracts using multivariate analysis ..................................................................................... 176

5.5 Conclusion ...................................................................................................179

5.6.Acknowledgment .........................................................................................182

5.7 Reference .....................................................................................................183

CHAPTER SIX ................................................................................................................ 189

Conclusions and future research

6.1 Conclusions ..................................................................................................190

6.2 Future Research ..........................................................................................191

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6.2.1 Assessment of organohalogenated field soils using NMR-based metabolomics ....... 191

6.2.2 Application of NMR-based metabolomics to pesticide mixtures ............................... 193

6.2.3 Application of NMR-based metabolomics to genetic modified plants ...................... 195

6.2.4 Validation of biomarkers using a systems biology approach……………………….195

6.2.5 Application of various analytical platforms for metabolomics studies……………..197

6.3 References ....................................................................................................201

Appendix A:Supplementary Material for Chapter Three ...............................205

Appendix B:Supplementary Material for Chapter Four .................................212

Appendix C:Supplementary Material for Chapter Five ..................................214

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1 Summary of the earthworm, Eisenia fetida, biomarker responses experimentally

exposed to environmental contaminants

20

Table 2.1 Summary of metabolites identified with significant chemical shifts from partial least-squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) loadings and acquisition times for the 1-D and 2-D NMR techniques. Note the 2-D experiments were optimised for fast acquisition (see Experimental section)

76

Table 5.1 Summary of metabolites identified after endosulfan or endosulfan sulfate exposure in E.fetida: A) coelomic fluid using 1-D NMR, B) tissue extract using 1-D NMR and C) tissue extract using 2-D NMR techniques.

171

Table 6.1 Analytical techniques used in metabolomics 201

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 The number of organohalogenated agrochemicals from the period of 1940-2008

3

Figure 1.2 Structure of: A) Endosulfan and B) Endosulfan sulfate

4

Figure 1.3 Structure of Trifluralin

5

Figure 1.4 The different types of omic technologies

12

Figure 2.1 Average 1H NMR spectra (n=10) of control worm tissue extracts acquired using: (a) Presaturation Utilising Relaxation Gradients and Echos (PURGE); (b) Carr–Purcell–Meiboom–Gill (CPMG); and (c) J-Resolved (J-RES) projections. An asterisk represents the residual H2O/HOD.

63

Figure 2.2 Partial least-squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) scores plot of data-reduced 1H NMR spectra for control Eisenia fetida (●) and E. fetida exposed to endosulfan (▲) using 1-D NMR techniques. (a) Presaturation Utilising Relaxation Gradients and Echos (PURGE); (b) Carr–Purcell–Meiboom–Gill (CPMG); and (c) J-Resolved (J-RES) projections. The P value for MANOVA (Wilks’ lambda) of control and exposed earthworms for the PLS components is reported. Scores for control and endosulfan-exposed earthworms are significantly different at the P <0.05 level.

64

Figure 2.3 Partial least-squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) 2-D loadings plots of data-reduced 1HNMR spectra for control and endosulfan-exposed Eisenia fetida using three 1-D NMR techniques: (a) Presaturation Utilising Relaxation Gradients and Echos (PURGE); (b) Carr–Purcell–Meiboom–Gill (CPMG); and (c) J-Resolved (J-RES) projections. Each oval region represents areas of significance determined using a two-sample t-test with a confidence interval of 95% (P<0.05). The asterisk indicates chemical shifts unidentified by the 1-D NMR technique alone (these regions are later identified using 2-D NMR).

65

Figure 2.4 2-D NMR spectra of control worm tissue extract using: (a) 1H–J-RES, (b) 1H–1H COSY, and (c) 1H–13C Single Quantum Coherence (HSQC) spectroscopy.

68

Figure 2.5

Partial least-squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) scores plot of data-reduced 1H NMR spectra for control Eisenia fetida (●) and E. fetida exposed to endosulfan (▲) (n=10) using two 2-D NMR techniques: (a) 1H–J-RES and (b) 1H–1H COSY. The P value for MANOVA (Wilks’ lambda) of control and exposed earthworms for the PLS components is reported. Scores for control and endosulfan-exposed earthworms are significantly different at the P<0.05 level.

69

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Figure 2.6 Partial least-squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) scores plot of data-reduced 1HNMR spectra for control Eisenia fetida (●) and E. fetida exposed to endosulfan (▲) (n=10) using 1H–13C Single Quantum Coherence (HSQC) spectroscopy in the chemical shift range of: (a) 1H=6.0–0.25 ppm; 13C=110.0–10.0 ppm and (b) 1H=2.5–0.25 ppm; 13C=50.0–10.0 ppm. The P value for MANOVA (Wilks’ lambda) of control and exposed earthworms for the PLS components is reported. Scores for control and endosulfan-exposed earthworms are significantly different at the P<0.05 level.

70

Figure 2.7 Partial least-squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) 2-D loadings plots of 2-D NMR spectra for control and endosulfan-exposed Eisenia fetida: (a) 1H–J-RES and (b) 1H–1H COSY. Each oval region represents areas of significance determined using a two-sample t-test with a confidence interval of 95% (P<0.05) (see Figure 5).

71

Figure 2.8 Partial least-squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) 2-D loadings plots of 2-D NMR spectra for control and endosulfan-exposed Eisenia fetida using 1H–13C Single Quantum Coherence (HSQC) spectroscopy in the chemical shift range of: (a) 1H=6.0–0.25 ppm; 13C=110.0–10.0 ppm and (b) 1H=2.5–0.25 ppm; 13C=50.0–10.0 ppm. Each oval region represents areas of significance determined using a two-sample t-test with a confidence interval of 95% (P<0.05).

73

Figure 3.1 Mean principal component analysis (PCA) score plots of PC1 v. PC2 of trifluralin-exposed Eisenia fetida aqueous tissue extracts using: (a) 1-D presaturation utilising relaxation gradients and echos (PURGE) and (b) 2-D 1H-13C heteronuclear single quantum coherence (HSQC) nuclear magnetic resonance spectra. Each point represents the mean PCA score for each exposure concentration and the error bar represents the standard error of the mean. The legend indicates the trifluralin exposure concentration for each point.

98

Figure 3.2 t-test filtered 1H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) difference spectra of Eisenia

fetida tissue extracts are obtained by subtracting the mean buckets of each trifluralin-exposed earthworm concentration: (a) 0.1, (b) 0.5 and (c) 1.0 mg cm-2 with the mean buckets of the control earthworms. Signals that are significantly different from the control (P<0.05) are retained whereas others are excluded.

100

Figure 3.3 t-test filtered 1H–13C heteronuclear single quantum coherence (HSQC) difference nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectra of Eisenia fetida tissue extracts are obtained by subtracting the mean buckets of each trifluralin-exposed earthworm concentration: (a) 0.1, (b) 0.5 and (c) 1.0 mg cm-2 with the mean buckets of the control earthworms. Signals that are significantly different from the control (P<0.05) are retained whereas everything else is excluded. Only metabolites that are detected in the 2-D NMR spectra and not in the 1-D NMR spectra are shown.

101

Figure 3.4 Percentage change (%) of all identified metabolites from the t-test-filtered 1-D and 2-D nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) difference spectra of trifluralin-exposed Eisenia fetida tissue extracts. Percentage changes that are significantly different from the control (P<0.05) are labelled with an asterisk. Each percentage change is shown with their associated standard error.

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Figure 3.5 Mean principal component analysis (PCA) score plots of PC1 v. PC2 of endosulfan-exposed Eisenia fetida aqueous tissue extracts using: (a) 1-D presaturation utilising relaxation gradients and echos (PURGE) and (b) and 2-D 1H-13C heteronuclear single quantum coherence (HSQC) nuclear magnetic resonance spectra. Each point represents the mean PCA score for each exposure concentration and the error bar represents the standard error of the mean. The legend indicates the endosulfan exposure concentration for each point. The asterisk represents the mean concentrations that are significantly different from the control (P<0.05) using Dunnett’s multiple comparison test.

106

Figure 3.6 t-test filtered 1H nuclear magnetic resonance difference spectra of Eisenia fetida tissue extracts are obtained by subtracting the mean buckets of each endosulfan-exposed earthworm: (a) 0.5, (b) 1.0 and (c) 2.0 mg cm-2 with the mean buckets of the control earthworms. Signals that are significantly different from the control (P<0.05) are retained whereas everything else is excluded.

108

Figure 3.7 t-test filtered 1H–13C heteronuclear single quantum coherence (HSQC) difference nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectra of Eisenia fetida tissue extracts are obtained by subtracting the mean buckets of each endosulfan exposed earthworm concentration: (a) 0.5, (b) 1.0 and (c) 2.0 mg cm-2 with the mean buckets of the control earthworms. Signals that are significantly different from the control (P<0.05) are retained whereas everything else is excluded. Only metabolites that are detected in the 2-D NMR spectra and not the 1-D NMR spectra are identified.

109

Figure 3.8 Percentage change (%) of identified metabolites from the t-test-filtered 1-D nuclear magnetic resonance difference spectra of endosulfan exposed Eisenia fetida tissue extracts. Percentage changes that are significantly different from the control (P<0.05) are labelled with an asterisk. Each percentage change is shown with their associated standard error.

110

Figure 3.9 Percentage change (%) of identified metabolites from the t-test-filtered 2-D nuclear magnetic resonance difference spectra of endosulfan exposed Eisenia fetida tissue extracts. The percentage changes that were significantly different from the control (P<0.05) are labelled with an asterisk. Each percentage change is shown with their associated standard error.

111

Figure 3.10 Mean principal component analysis (PCA) score plots of PC1 v. PC2 of trifluralin- and endosulfan-exposed Eisenia fetida aqueous tissue extracts using: (a) 1-D presaturation utilising relaxation gradients and echos (PURGE) and (b) 2-D 1H–13C heteronuclear single quantum coherence (HSQC) nuclear magnetic resonance spectra. Each point represents the mean PCA score for each exposure concentration and the error bar represents the standard error of the mean. The legend indicates the exposure concentrations for each point. The asterisk represents mean concentrations that are significantly different from that of the control (P<0.05) using Dunnett’s multiple comparison test. The arrows indicate the trajectory of exposure by trifluralin or endosulfan.

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Figure 4.1 1-D and 2-D NMR spectra of control earthworm CF acquired using A) 1-D PURGE and B) 2-D 1H–13C HSQC NMR spectroscopy

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Figure 4.2 1-D and 2-D NMR spectra of control worm tissue extracts acquired using A) 1-D PURGE and B) 2-D 1H–13C HSQC NMR spectroscopy

137

Figure 4.3 Mean PCA scores plots of 1H NMR spectra of endosulfan exposed E. fetida using their A) CF (PC 1 vs PC 2) and B) aqueous tissue extract (PC 1 vs PC 3). Each point represents the mean PC score for each exposure concentration and the error bar represents the standard error of the mean. The legend indicates the endosulfan exposure concentration for each point. The ‘‘*’’ represents the mean concentrations that were significantly different from the control (p<0.05) using Dunnett’s multiple comparison test.

141

Figure 4.4 t-test filtered 1H NMR difference spectra of E. fetida CF were obtained by subtracting the mean buckets of each endosulfan-exposed earthworm concentration: (a) 0.5 µg cm-2, (b) 1.0 µg cm-2 and (c) 2.0 µg cm-2 with the mean buckets of the control earthworms. Signals that were significantly different from the control (p<0.05) were retained while others are excluded. Only the major metabolites are labeled for clarity.

143

Figure 4.5 t-test filtered 1H NMR difference spectra of E. fetida tissue extracts were obtained by subtracting the mean buckets of each endosulfan-exposed earthworm: (a) 0.5 µg cm-2, (b) 1.0 µg cm-2 and (c) 2.0 µg cm-2 with the mean buckets of the control earthworms. Signals that were significantly different from the control (p<0.05) were retained while everything else were excluded. Only the major metabolites are labeled for clarity.

144

Figure 4.6

Percent change (%) of identified metabolites from the t test filtered 1-D NMR difference spectra of endosulfan-exposed E. fetida CF. Percent changes that were significantly different from the control (p<0.05) were labelled with ‘‘*’’. Each percent change is shown with their associated standard error.

145

Figure 4.7 Percent change (%) of identified metabolites from the t test filtered 1-D NMR difference spectra of endosulfan-exposed E. fetida tissue extracts. Percent changes that were significantly different from the control (p<0.05) were labelled with ‘‘*’’.

146

Figure 5.1 Mean PCA scores plots of PC1 versus PC2 of endosulfan-exposed E. fetida: A) coelomic fluid using 1-D NMR, B) tissue extracts using 1-D NMR, and C) tissue extracts using 2-D HSQC NMR spectra. Each point represents the mean PC score for each exposure concentration and the error bar represents the standard error of the mean. The legend indicates the exposure concentrations for each point. The “*” represents mean concentrations that were significantly different from the control (p<0.05) using Dunnett’s multiple comparison test.

168

Figure 5.2 Mean PCA scores plots of PC1 versus PC2 of endosulfan sulfate-exposed E. fetida: A) coelomic fluid using 1-D NMR, B) tissue extracts using 1-D NMR, and C) tissue extracts using 2-D HSQC NMR spectra. Each point represents the mean PC score for each exposure concentration and the error bar represents the standard error of the mean. The legend indicates the exposure concentrations for each point. The “*” represents mean concentrations that were significantly different from the control (p<0.05) using Dunnett’s multiple comparison test.

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Figure 5.3 Percent change (%) of all identified metabolites from the t-test filtered 1-D NMR

difference spectra of endosulfan-exposed E. fetida coelomic fluid. Percent changes that were significantly different from the control (p<0.05) are labelled with “*”. Each percent change is shown with their associated standard error.

172

Figure 5.4 Percent change (%) of all identified metabolites from the t-test filtered A) 1-D NMR and B) 2-D NMR difference spectra of endosulfan-exposed E. fetida tissue extracts. Percent changes that were significantly different from the control (p<0.05) are labelled with “*”. Each percent change is shown with their associated standard error.

173

Figure 5.5 Percent change (%) of all identified metabolites from the t-test filtered 1-D NMR difference spectra of endosulfan sulfate-exposed E. fetida coelomic fluid. Percent changes that were significantly different from the control (p<0.05) are labelled with “*”. Each percent change is shown with their associated standard error.

174

Figure 5.6 Percent change (%) of all identified metabolites from the t-test filtered A) 1-D NMR and B) 2-D NMR difference spectra of endosulfan sulfate-exposed E. fetida

tissue extracts. Percent changes that were significantly different from the control (p<0.05) are labelled with “*”. Each percent change is shown with their associated standard error.

175

Figure 5.7 Mean PCA scores plots of PC1 versus PC2 of endosulfan- and endosulfan sulfate-exposed E. fetida: A) coelomic fluid using 1-D NMR, B) tissue extracts using 1-D NMR, and C) tissue extracts using 2-D HSQC NMR spectra. Each point represents the mean PC score for each exposure concentration and the error bar represents the standard error of the mean. The legend indicates the exposure concentrations for each point. The “*” represents mean concentrations that were significantly different from the control (p<0.05) using Dunnett’s multiple comparison test. The arrows indicate the trajectory of exposure of endosulfan and endosulfan sulfate.

179

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

% GSSG: Percentage of Oxidized Glutathione

1-D One dimensional

2-D Two-dimensional

ACRs: Acute-to-Chronic Ratios

AMIX: Analysis of Mixtures

ANOVA: Analysis of Variance

ATP: Adenosine Triphosphate

CAC: Citric Acid Cycle

CANUP:

Candian Atmospheric Network for Currently Used Pesticides

CF: Coelomic fluid

ChEs: Cholinesterases

COSY Correlation Spectroscopy

CPMG: Carr-Purcell-Meliboom-Gill

Cyt Cytochrome

DNP: 2,4-dinitrophenol

DSS: 2, 2-dimethyl-2-silapentane-5-sulfonate sodium salt

EC50: Half maximal effective concentrations

EE2: Ethinylestradiol

EEC: European Economic Community

EJF: Environmental Justice Foundation

GABA: Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid

GC: Gas Chromatography

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GR: Glutathione Reductase

GSH: Glutathione

GST: Glutathione-S-Transferase

HPLC: High Performance Liquid Chromatography

HSQC: Heteronuclear single quantum coherence

J-RES: J-resolved spectroscopy

Kow: Log n-Octanol/Water Partition Coefficient

LC50: Half maximal lethality concentration

Log Koc: High Log Organic Carbon Adsorption Coefficient

LP: Lipid Peroxides

LP1: Peroxidizable Lipids

MANOVA: Multivariate analysis of variance

MOA Mode Of Action

MROD: Methoxyresorufin-O-deethlylase

MS: Mass Spectrometry

NADH Red: Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Cytochrome Reductase

NADPH Red:

Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate Cytochrome Reductase

NMR: Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

NOEC: No-Observed Effect Concentration

NOESYPRESAT: Nuclear Overhauser Effect Spectroscopy Presaturation

OECD: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development

PAH: Polyaromatic Hydrocarbon

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PBT: Persistent, Bioaccumulative and Toxic

PC: Principal Components

PCA: Principal Component Analysis

PLS-DA: Partial Least Squares Discriminant Analysis

PNEC: Predicted No-Effect Concentration

PRESAT: Presaturation

QSAR: Quantitative Structure Activity Relationships

QXI: Quadruple Inverse

REACH:

Registration, Evaluation, Authorization and Restriction of Chemicals

S/N: Signal-To-Noise

TCE: Trichloroethylene

TOCSY: Total Correlation Spectroscopy

Total GSH: Total Glutathione

UNEP: United Nations Environment Program

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PREFACE

The present dissertation is a collection of published manuscripts (Chapters 2-4) in peer-

reviewed journals and one manuscript that has been submitted (Chapter 5). As a result, this

thesis contains some repetition. Contributions from authors are as follows:

CHAPTER 1:

Introduction: Organohalogenated argochemicals, ecotoxicology, earthworms in

ecotoxicology and environmental NMR-based metabolomics

Contributions: Written by Jimmy Yuk with critical comments from André J. Simpson

CHAPTER 2:

Comparison of 1-D and 2-D NMR techniques for screening earthworm responses to sub-

lethal endosulfan exposure.

Published as: Yuk J, McKelvie JR, Simpson MJ, Spraul M, and Simpson AJ (2010). Comparison of 1-D and 2-D NMR techniques for screening earthworm responses to sub-lethal endosulfan exposure. Environ Chem. 7 (6):524-536

Contributions: The experiment was designed by Jimmy Yuk and André J. Simpson. The data

collection and analysis were performed by Jimmy Yuk and Jennifer R. McKelvie with guidance and critical comments from Manfred Spraul. The manuscript was written by Jimmy Yuk with critical comments from Jennifer R. McKelvie, Manfred Spraul, Myrna J. Simpson and André J. Simpson.

CHAPTER 3:

1-D and 2-D NMR metabolomics of earthworm responses to sub-lethal trifluralin and

endosulfan exposure

Published as: Yuk J, Simpson MJ, Simpson AJ (2011) 1-D and 2-D NMR metabolomics of earthworm responses to sub-lethal trifluralin and endosulfan exposure. Environ Chem. 8 (3):281-294

Contributions: The experiment was designed by Jimmy Yuk, Myrna J. Simpson and André J.

Simpson. The data collection and analysis were performed by Jimmy Yuk. The manuscript was written by Jimmy Yuk with critical comments from Myrna J. Simpson and André J. Simpson.

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CHAPTER 4:

Coelomic fluid: A complimentary biological medium to assess sub-lethal endosulfan

exposure using 1H NMR-based earthworm metabolomics

Published as: Yuk J, Simpson MJ, Simpson AJ (2012) Coelomic fluid: A complimentary biological medium to assess sub-lethal endosulfan exposure using 1H NMR-based earthworm metabolomics. Ecotoxicology: In Press

Contributions: The experiment was designed by Jimmy Yuk, Myrna J. Simpson and André J.

Simpson. The data collection and analysis were performed by Jimmy Yuk. The manuscript was written by Jimmy Yuk with critical comments from Myrna J. Simpson and André J. Simpson.

CHAPTER 5:

1-D and 2-D NMR metabolomics of earthworm responses to sub-lethal endosulfan and

endosulfan sulfate exposure in soil

Content in this chapter has been submitted in: Environmental Pollution

Contributions: The experiment was designed by Jimmy Yuk, Myrna J. Simpson and André J.

Simpson. The data collection and analysis were performed by Jimmy Yuk. The manuscript was written by Jimmy Yuk with critical comments from Myrna J. Simpson and André J. Simpson.

CHAPTER 6:

Conclusions and future research

Contributions: Written by Jimmy Yuk with critical comments from André J. Simpson.

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CHAPTER ONE

Introduction: Organohalogenated argochemicals, ecotoxicology, earthworms in ecotoxicology and environmental NMR-based

metabolomics

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1.1 Organhalogenated agrochemicals

The Neolithic revolution is referred to as the agricultural revolution when humans began

to transition from hunting and gathering to cultivating crops and starting settlements [1].

Nomadic groups began settling into permanent areas, allowing them to utilize their surrounding

natural environment to cultivate crops as their main source of food. The surplus of food allowed

villages and towns to be built as populations began to dramatically increase. To sustain

themselves, these communities relied heavily on maintaining and increasing food production. A

major obstacle for farmers was the destruction of their crops by weeds and pests. The solution

was the invention of agrochemicals. Agrochemicals date back to pre-Roman times when farmers

used elemental sulphur to remove predatory organisms [2]. As time passed, farmers utilized

other chemical applications such as burning bitumen, cow manure, tobacco and mercury [3].

However, these early agrochemicals failed to control or eliminate the wide diversity of pests.

The 1940s ushered in the modernization of the agrochemical industry when organohalogenated

pesticides, synthetic chemicals with halides as a substituent, were invented [3]. Over the next 30

years, scientists were on a quest to discover the perfect agrochemical with maximum potency,

efficacy and economic viability. This saw a significant increase of organohalogenated pesticides

with different functional groups using various halides (Figure 1.1) [4].

As depicted in Figure 1.1, the majority of the agrochemicals in the 1940’s were

organochlorinated. It was not until the 1990’s when the number of chlorinated products started to

decrease. During the 1960s, scientists started to document numerous adverse impacts such as

declining wildlife populations and increasing human health problems, all linked to the use of

organochlorinated pesticides [5].

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Figure 1.1: The emergence of organohalogenated agrochemicals from the period of 1940-2008 from Jeschke, 2009 [4]. A well-known naturalist and scientist, Rachel Carson, published a book called “Silent

Spring” in 1962 that criticized the agrochemical industry and their production of deadly

pesticides [6]. At the time, most farms and households already applied some form of

halogenated pesticides on their crops, home, yards and gardens [6]. Her book brought major

awareness to the dangerous impacts of agrochemicals on wildlife and human health. One

particular agrochemical invented in the early 1950s, endosulfan (6,7,8,10,10-hexachloro-

1,5,5a,6,9,9a hexahydro-6-9-methano-2,3,4,benzodioxathiepin-3-oxide), is a cyclodiene

insecticide widely used throughout the world (structure shown in Figure 1.2A). Endosulfan has

been registered in many European and Central American countries as well as, among others,

India, Indonesia, Australia, Canada, United States, Mexico, Brazil and China [7]. Researchers

developed endosulfan as a potent agrochemical to combat a wide variety of insect pests and

mites and to apply to different crops such as cotton, cereals, fruit trees, tea and coffee [8].

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Figure 1.2: Structure of: A) Endosulfan and B) Endosulfan sulfate

Ever since its introduction in 1953, endosulfan has been one of the leading agrochemicals

used throughout the world with close to 308,000 tonnes applied from 1950 to 2000 [8].

However, in the past 30 years, endosulfan has received considerable attention from many

international environmental agencies including the United Nations Environment Program

(UNEP), the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Environmental Justice Foundation

(EJF) [9, 10]. Many studies have reported genotoxic, tertagenic, mutagenic, and neurotoxic

properties to surrounding wildlife such as mammals, birds, fishes and bees [9, 11-13]. In

addition, endosulfan is considered a persistent organic pollutant that sorbs strongly to soils and

sediments after application. Due to its longer degradation times and volatility, endosulfan has

the potential to migrate to locations far away from the direct site of usage [9-13]. In the

atmosphere, endosulfan is considered to be one of the most ubiquitous organochlorine pesticides

[10]. In a recent atmospheric surveillance program by the Canadian Atmospheric Network for

Currently Used Pesticides (CANUP), endosulfan was the most commonly detected

organochlorinated pesticide across the country with high wet deposition fluxes, suggesting major

input by the atmosphere [14]. Endosulfan breaks down to many degradation products such as

endosulfan sulfate, diol, ether, -hydroxy ether and –lactone [11]. Endosulfan sulfate (shown in

Figure 1.2B) is considered the most problematic degradation product as it is even more persistent

O

S

O O

Cl

Cl

Cl

Cl

Cl Cl

H

H

O

S

O

O

O

Cl

Cl

Cl Cl

Cl

Cl

A) B)

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than endosulfan in soil and sediments [15]. Endosulfan has a degradation half-life of one to

three months but endosulfan sulfate can have a degradation half-life of two to six years. In

addition, past toxicity tests applied to aquatic species have found endosulfan sulfate to be just as

toxic as the parent compound [10, 16, 17]. Due to the ubiquity of endosulfan in the environment

and the lack of studies on endosulfan sulfate, it is important to investigate the potential risks of

these past pesticides that continue to contaminate many areas today.

The early 1980’s saw growth and in the popularity of organofluorinated agrochemicals

because of their increased biological potency compared to other agrochemicals. This meant less

material could be used in the field. The decrease in application rates theoretically meant less

impact on the environment and cost for production. The use of organofluorinated pesticides in

the agrochemical industry dramatically increased from 23 compounds in 1977 to 126 compounds

by 2000 [18]. Fluorine has a significant effect on biological activity when used in herbicides,

insecticides, and fungicides [19]. Trifluralin (Figure 1.3) is one of oldest organofluorinated

herbicides and belongs to the dinitroaniline family, which was the first fluorine-added group to

to be marketed. Eli Lily pushed trifluralin onto the market in the 1960s, and today, it is still one

of the most widely used herbicides for the control of annual grasses and broadleaf weeds [18].

Trifluralin is estimated to be produced annually at 20 to 25 thousand tons worldwide [20].

Figure 1.3: Structure of Trifluralin

N+

N+

N

O-

O-

O

O

F

F

F

CH3

CH3

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Recently, there have been numerous reports of trifluralin having genotoxic potential in

various organisms [21, 22] and being a human carcinogen [23]. A study of the Canadian

Prairies identified trifluralin as one of the most frequently detected organofluorinated herbicide

in the air (observed in 79% of samples) [24]. In addition, trifluralin is the most frequently

detected pesticide on the hands (60%) of non-occupational exposed adults [25]. Trifluralin is

mostly immobile in the soil environment but can be transported out by volatilisation or surface

run-off when it moves into particulate matter [26]. Since trifluralin has a degradation half-life

of >1 year in soils, it is imperative to understand more about the fate of this widely used

herbicide especially to terrestrial organisms.

1.1.1 Soil contamination and assessing environmental risk

The soil environment is the primary sink for organohalogenated pesticides due to direct

application, leakage or spillage, and atmospheric deposition [27]. Since many

organohalogenated pesticides are designed to be resistant to biological or chemical degradation,

they can remain in the soil for years. Their presence raises the risk to surrounding areas as they

have a higher residence time to exert their potential toxicity. Understanding the fate and

behaviour of pesticides in the soil is complex. Many factors are involved such as the soil type

(mineral and organic matter content) and the physico-chemical properties (e.g. aqueous

solubility, polarity, hydrophobicity, lipophilicity, and molecular structure) of the pesticides [28].

Most organohalogenated pesticides are highly non-polar and lipophilic and this allows them to

bind strongly to organic matter in the soil and sediments [29]. Understanding the bioavailability

of contaminants in the soil to surrounding organisms is a major challenge as studies have shown

the decrease of hydrophobic pesticides over time as the soil ages or weathers [30, 31].

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Bioavailability, in an environmental context, is the accessibility of the contaminant for

assimilation or possible toxicity [29]. Many modern assessment methods such as Soxhlet,

ultrasonic, shake-flask and super-critical fluid extraction use various solvent systems to assess

bioavailability [32]. However, recent research has shown that these types of chemical proxies

are not able to directly link the toxicity especially with long-term exposure to contaminated soils

[33]. In addition, the results from chemical extractions focus on the total contaminant

concentration and do not provide insight into the difference between free and bound forms of the

pesticide [34]. From an ecological risk assessment standpoint, this is a major concern for

remediating and setting policies for contaminated soil sites as inadequate assessments are made

using potentially inaccurate data. Therefore, a direct measure of soil quality is required with an

understanding of the health of surrounding organisms.

1.2 Ecotoxicology

Ecology is the study of the interactions between organisms and their environment at all

levels, from individual organisms to the ecosystem [35]. In addition, ecology includes

understanding an organism’s distributions, abundances and its functioning in biological

population and communities and all the parameters that mediate these factors [16]. Toxicology

is the understanding of the adverse response to an organism by exposure to a chemical, physical

or biological agent [36]. This field includes a diverse range of pertubations including mild

biochemical perturbations to permanent organ damage and death. From these definitions,

ecotoxicology is the integration of both ecology and toxicology with the objective of not only

understanding the environmental stress response of the organism to the ecosystem but also

predicting the response of chemicals on the natural communities under realistic conditions [36].

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1.2.1 Regulatory approaches to ecotoxicological testing

Every year, new organohalogenated pesticides are created and this becomes a major

challenge in assessing the potential environmental risks associated with these chemicals on

various organisms and their ecosystems [37]. To alleviate this concern, authorities developed a

general risk assessment scheme in which a predicted no-effect concentration (PNEC) was

derived from a set of acute and semichronic ecotoxicological data using a few representative

species [38, 39]. These methods were then extrapolated to be used for different species. For

chemicals that only contain acute toxicity data, acute-to-chronic ratios (ACRs) were made for

environmental risk assessment to estimate the chronic no-observed effect concentration (NOEC)

[38]. The acute tests were mostly based on survival lethality concentration for 50% of the

population (LC50) [40].

However, for chemicals that were on the market before 1982 (e.g. endosulfan and

trifluralin) and are already released into the environment, these chemicals had to be addressed

using the Existing Chemicals Regulation [41]. From the >100,000 chemicals listed in the

European Inventory of Existing Commercial Chemical Substances, certain priority substances

were chosen for risk assessment using information given from the manufacturers and importers.

The assessment results showed large data gaps as the available information ranged from very low

to very high making it difficult to compare old chemicals with the new ones, which were already

standardized. In addition, many formerly applied chemicals had test results that were

inconsistent because many were not performed using defined test conditions. This added a large

complexity for understanding the overall risk. Therefore, only a small number of existing

chemicals are currently assessed and regulated to date [42].

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Due to the large discrepancies in establishing a standardized regulatory system for

existing and new chemicals, in June 2007, a European initiative called the Registration,

Evaluation, Authorization and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) was created [40]. REACH’s

main objective is to set minimum data requirements for all chemicals to ensure the highest level

of protection for human health and the environment. In addition, the responsibility for chemical

assessment has been shifted from government authorities to agrochemical industry [43].

According to REACH, this allows higher standards to be made by enhancing competition and

innovation in the market [44]. All existing and new chemicals are included in REACH.

Flexibility in the system is given to industry if modifications are needed for certain standard

tests. However, the substitution of another test must have equivalent results that will produce

adequate information to draw a conclusion for classification and labelling, for persistent,

bioaccumulative and toxic (PBT) potential and for PNEC calculation [44]. A weight of evidence

approach is taken to ensure all information for a particular chemical is equivalent or adequate for

making a proper assessment. The overall goal is then to understand what information might be

lacking and to develop various strategies for an overall conclusion on the toxicity of a certain

chemical.

1.2.2 Limitations in current approaches

Current regulatory approaches for assessing chemicals have focused on data derived from

the physical chemical information for quantitative structure activity relationships (QSAR) and

from laboratory-based toxicity tests [45]. However, one concern for risk assessments of existing

and new chemicals is the necessary requirements before tests are to be done. Tests are

performed based on the production volume of chemicals rather than their estimated risk. For

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REACH, substances produced or imported that are less than 1 metric ton (1,000 kg) do not need

to be registered and the extent of toxicological tests varies according to tonnage [43]. For

example, guidelines made from the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development

(OECD) for REACH set the threhold for testing acute inhalation and dermal toxicity at 10

tonnes/ year, developmental toxicity and 90 day subchronic toxicity at 100 tonnes/ year and 2-

generation reproductive toxicity and carcinogenicity at 1000 tonnes/ year [43]. With new

organohalogenated pesticides being produced every year having higher biological efficiency

[18], the potential for higher toxicity can be present at lower concentrations – this danger might

be overlooked due to the production volume guidelines.

For laboratory toxicity tests, many regulatory agencies rely on whole animal exposures

and end-points of toxicity focusing on mortality, survival and reproductive effects [40].

However, there is a bias for conducting acute lethality tests as time and resources are expensive

when moving from acute to chronic tests. This is problematic as acute endpoints extrapolated

into chronic endpoints are not often accurate predictors and create uncertainty to toxicity

assessment [46]. In addition, these tests do not directly evaluate the sub-lethal toxicity of

chemicals to organisms [45]. Based on the above, the challenge is to develop a method that

understands the mechanism of molecular and cellular interactions between the contaminant and

the organism. This will then generate more accurate data for predictive simulation models and

potentially show a link to pathophysiological “endpoints” [47]. During the past 20 years, major

interest has been devoted to the development of finding biomarkers for ecological risk

assessment [48]. From the United States National Academy of Sciences Committee on

Biological Markers, biomarkers are defined and categorized into 3 groups: biomarkers of

exposure, response or susceptibility [49]. All three types are inter-related but vary in their

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biological endpoint. Biomarkers of exposure are used to determine the level of chemical in the

organism and can be the compound or the metabolite of the chemical. These are considered the

exogenous metabolites that do not originally exist in the organism. This type allows the

understanding of the intervening processes of absorption, distribution metabolism and excretion

to measure the extent of exposure of the organism to the contaminant. When exposure has been

clearly established, biomarkers of response are then determined to detect any reversible or

irreversible pathological effects to the organism by the contaminant. These are mainly

endogenous metabolites produced by the organism that are significantly fluctuating and could be

related to the mechanism of toxicity or the mode of action (MOA) by the contaminant. Finally,

biomarker of susceptibility are detected which potentially can affect specific species or

individuals within a species and can cause more of a response by the contaminant than others

(i.e. genetic factors). In ecotoxicology, biomarkers are defined as a combination of the three

with the main goal of detecting early biochemical indicators related to exposure of xenobiotic

chemicals [50].

When an organohalogenated pesticide is registered in REACH, there is usually

information on a probable toxic MOA due to its function against different pests. Therefore,

current pesticide regulators require various types of tests using different representative species

and endpoints of toxicity experiments to ensure all potential MOA were anticipated and not

overlooked [40] . However, these tests can be time-consuming and expensive when making risk

assessment decisions [40].

Ecological risk assessments of organohalogenated pesticides need to be improved –

especially with the continuing increase of new pesticides developed and registered every year, as

well as the re-registration of existing pesticides [40]. As one of the goals for REACH is to

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register 30,000 existing chemicals by 2018, a new approach is required to delineate toxic MOAs.

This new approach needs to be high-throughput, cost-effective, and able to be implemented

immediately.

1.3 Metabolomics

Metabolomics is the study of low molecular weight organic molecules within a cell,

tissue or biofluid and how their composition varies with an external stressor [51]. These organic

molecules include endogenous metabolites (referred to as the organism’s metabonome) which

consist of their amino and fatty acids, carbohydrates, vitamins and lipids. New metabolites, such

as those linked with disease or a genetic modification may also be observed. Metabolomics is

closely related to other “omic” technologies (Figure 1.4) such as: genomics, the study of the

organism’s DNA (genome); transcriptomics, the study of their RNA (transcriptome); and

proteomics, the study of their proteins (proteome).

Figure 1.4: The different types of omic technologies

The metabolic information from organisms complements the proteomic information as

the metabolites are often cellular respiration products from proteins or substrates used for

biochemical reactions in specific proteins such as enzymes [52]. The advantage of

metabolomics, in comparison with genomics or proteomics, is that it allows an instant overall

picture of the physiology of a cell at any time. In addition, exogenous metabolites can also be

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detected as well. These are another class of metabolites which include food products, drugs,

environmental contaminants and microbial‐derived metabolites which only metabolomics can

detect. This facilitates the understanding of various biochemical cycles affected and specific

metabolites produced: both of which may be a consequence of a stressor on the organism. The

concept of metabolite profiling started in the late 1940s by Roger Williams and his associates

[53]. Analyzing different types of biological fluids using thin-layer chromatography, his group

was able to determine unique excretion patterns for a variety of substances in different

individuals. This study on the distinctiveness of the metabolic profile was the beginning of the

metabolomics era. The advancement of analytical platforms for metabolomics soon followed as

the quantitative metabolite profiling of volatilizable compounds such as urinary organic acids by

Gas Chromatography (GC) was published in the 1970s [53] and the application of Nuclear

Magnetic Resonance (NMR)-based metabolomic studies for toxicological classification was

published in the 1990s [54]. In addition, the role of computer processing in metabolomics

research was introduced which allowed unparallel strength in data and statistical analysis for

large metabolomic datasets [54]. Currently, metabolomics is an emerging field in a wide variety

of studies such as toxicology [54], drug discovery [55], nutrition [56], cancer [57], diabetes [58],

natural product discovery [59] and environmental stress [51].

1.3.1 Environmental metabolomics

Environmental metabolomics is a sub-discipline of metabolomics and is defined as the

characterization of the metabolite profile of organisms and their interactions with their

environment [34]. This approach allows an in-depth analysis to investigate organism-

environment interactions and give insight into an organism’s health at a molecular level [51].

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One advantage of environmental metabolomics over traditional toxicity tests is that it provides

mechanistic information on the functional status of an organism; this mechanistic information

can be connected to an organism’s phenotype [51]. Another advantage is that environmental

metabolomics can potentially uncover unknown biochemical relationships through the

metabolite profile for hypothesis generation [60].

The emergence of environmental metabolomics in environmental sciences is seen with

studies investigating an organism’s response to natural stressors, related to, for example,

temperature and anthropogenic stressors [51]. There is huge potential for metabolomics to be

used in ecological risk assessment. However, there is debate on how this may be achieved [61].

The main advantages for applying environmental metabolomics to risk assessment include: early

and rapid screening for contaminants that may cause an adverse chronic response in the

environment, and the ability to understand the toxic MOA of a contaminant. Environmental

monitoring by environmental metabolomics will complement other traditional methods, such as

chemical residue analysis. The ability to detect other metabolite biomarkers in various species

will be critical in understanding which contaminant classes are exerting a toxic response.

Delineating the toxic MOA of contaminants by metabolomics will be important to reduce

uncertainty in risk assessment [40]. A better understanding of the toxic MOA increases

confidence in extrapolating the data to various species[62]. The metabolome of a living

organism (plant or animal) can contain ~2000-20,000 components [63] which can contain a vast

amount of information to provide better insight into the biochemical MOA. Environmental

metabolomics will assist in customizing the test designs and endpoints such that specific assays

can be optimized for a toxic compound. This method can potentially cut costs and time spent on

unnecessary tests which have little impact on risk assessment.

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Currently, researchers are applying environmental metabolomics to study aquatic

environments. Environmental metabolomics has been used to examine the endocrine disruption

ability of the synthetic contraceptive estrogen, ethinylestradiol (EE2), on various fish species

such as the juvenile rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) [64], adult fathead minnow

(Pimephales promelas) [65, 66] and three-spined stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) [51].

Using Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy to analyze the blood plasma and liver

extracts of each fish species, researchers have identified various specific biomarkers from

exposure to EE2. For example, the studies found vitellogenenin, alanine, phospholipids and

cholesterol for juvenile rainbow trout [64]; glycogen, glucose, lactate, creatine and bile acids for

adult fathead minnow[65, 66]; and glucose for the adult fathead minnow [65, 66]. Fish embryos

from the Japanese medaka have been used in metabolomics to understand their developmental

change after exposure to a well-known herbicide, dinoseb, an uncoupler of oxidative

phosphorylation [67]. The results of this study correlated with traditional biological assays by

identifying reduced growth rate and heart rate, abnormal development and mortality. In addition,

NMR metabolomics confirmed results from a past study using in vivo 31P NMR and High

Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC), and identified phosphocreatine utilisation in the

embryo as an indicator for medaka embryotoxicity [68]. Environmental metabolomics has been

used on other aquatic species: the water flea (Daphnia Magna) [69] to examine the response to

various toxicants (cadmium, fenvalerate, dinitrophenol, and propranolol), and crustaceans, like

the Atlantic blue crab (Callinectes sapidus), to investigate their exposure to 2,4-dinitrophenol

and a bacterium, Vibrio campbellii [70]. In both studies, the toxic MOA was uncovered with

distinct differences in the metabolic profiles of the exposed versus the control groups.

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Compared to aquatic environments, the development and application of environmental

metabolomics in soil environments is currently in its infancy [51]. Most metabolomics studies

currently focus on vertebrate toxicology with the main interest in disease diagnosis [71]. As

noted before, the soil environment is the primary sink for organohalogenated pesticides and has

the highest risk for exposure to the surrounding wildlife. Given the large potential of

metabolomics as a potential environmental monitoring tool and its ability to determine the toxic

MOA of contaminants, the goal of this thesis is to develop metabolomic methods using a

“sentinel” organism in the soil environment to understand sub-lethal toxicity. In this thesis, the

earthworm, Eisenia fetida, will be the representative organism for the soil environment and is the

recommended OECD species [72].

1.4 Earthworms in Ecotoxicity tests

Invertebrates account for 95% of all animal species and are a vital part of understanding

the ecosystem structure and function [73]. Ecotoxicologists are more concerned about the

increased use of pesticides, and the adverse effects on soil fertility in agricultural lands, and

potential toxicity on the surrounding plants and animals. The need for a sensitive indicator

organism is crucial for research, monitoring, and regulatory testing [74]. Earthworms are ideal

organisms to assess soil quality [75]. Earthworms process decaying organic matter into the soil,

improve aeration and water transport [76]. In addition, they comprise the most biomass in soils

and they help maintain soil structure and microbial communities [74, 77].

The earthworm does not have a skeleton but instead a thinly pigmented cuticle with an

outer layer of circular muscle and an inner layer of longitudinal muscles. During maturation,

earthworms develop a swollen area of the epidermis called a clitellum where the formation of

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cocoon occurs for the eggs and ova to be deposited as it is then passed over to the anterior

segment [76]. The young develop within the eggs without a clear larvae stage and newly

hatched earthworms resemble young adults. Earthworms are hermaphrodites with various

gonads situated at specific segmental positions. Structurally, the earthworm has large coelomic

cavities containing coelomic fluid with a closed vascular system and a dorsal and ventral trunk

connecting to a nerve cord. Most waste and nutrient cycling involves the coelomic fluid which

contain specialized cells such as the chlorgagon cells and yellow granules called chloragosomes.

These cells assist in removing wastes from the blood and transport the nutrients between the

tissues and organs. Respiration is mainly through the cuticles with no specialized respiratory

organs and an alimentary canal runs from the anterior to the posterior of the earthworm. This

helps circulation of materials coming in and also excretion through the anus or through

specialized organs called nephridia [76]. The earthworm has a large ventral nerve cord with

three longitudinal giant fibers that surround the whole body. Organic matter is the main source

of nutrition for the earthworm but also depends on the other microorganisms such as bacteria,

fungi, and decomposed nematodes for their nutrients [76]. Earthworms are very sensitive to the

surrounding environment and eject coelomic fluid at the dorsal pores if threatened. They are

quite resilient in various environments such as long periods in H2O and can survive in anaerobic

conditions.

Earthworms are commonly used in ecotoxicology studies because they are ubiquitous in

soil environments, easy to sample and to identify [78]. They are relatively immobile, travelling

only a small soil area throughout their lifetime and are in full contact of any potential stressors

that may be present. Earthworms could be considered as the terrestrial equivalent of aquatic

filter-feeders [76]. E. fetida is a common species used in ecotoxicological studies as it is

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dominant in many soil fauna, has a wide temperature and moisture tolerance and is the OECD’s

recommended species [72, 76]. In addition, it is an epigeic earthworm, meaning it lives and

feeds on the top soil, forms no permanent burrows and moves around in a small area; this allows

insight into a particular contaminated area [78].

Early ecotoxicology testing included acute toxicity tests in the laboratory using E. fetida

and were developed by the OECD [72]. These standardized earthworm toxicity experiments

were mainly conducted on contact filter paper tests or artificial soil tests. The contact filter paper

test allows a direct method in exposing a single earthworm to a standard filter paper with the test

chemical dissolved in water or organic solvent (such as acetone, hexane and chloroform). This

test was an excellent screening method to understand the relative toxicity of a wide spectrum of

chemicals at various concentrations. However, the contact filter paper test does not account for

the differential sorption of chemicals that may occur in soil [76]. To have a better comparison to

natural soil environments, an artificial soil test was developed by Edwards [79] and was quickly

adopted by the European Economic Community (EEC) and OECD. This standardized artificial

soil had an adsorptive capacity of a common loam soil (25 meq) and had the following mixture

of components: 10% finely ground sphagnum peat (pH 5.5-6.0), 20% kaolinite clay, 70%

industrial quartz sand and an approximate moisture content of 30 to 45% [72].

Most ecotoxicity tests using E.fetida are focused on main endpoints to assess the adverse

effects of potentially dangerous chemicals. Mortality was established as a main endpoint in

acute toxicity tests with E. fetida from the OECD and ECC [72]. For standardization of

mortality tests, the earthworms are usually bred in the laboratory so the age and past history of

the species are known. Mortality is determined by the identification of the LC50. Exposure times

varied in specific conditions chosen for the tests. For contact filter paper tests, the chemical

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exposure time was 48 hours, while for the artificial soil, 7 and 14 days of exposure were suitable

[80]. From the OECD criteria, the upper limit was set for a chemical concentration of 1000 mg

active ingredient/kg of dry substrate. Any concentration above that limit was believed to be safe

for the earthworms [72]. However, there has been criticism about mortality tests as earthworms

that are alive after the tests can have irreversible damage and would most likely die if the tests

were prolonged. As such, a better method is required to assess the sub-lethal toxicity of

chemicals after exposure and the physiological state of the organism.

As previously discussed (section 1.2.2), molecular biomarker tests have been developed

to complement acute and chronic toxicity tests. Detecting biomarkers can give clear evidence of

a cause-effect relationship of the contaminant in the soil environment and adverse responses at

the individual level using earthworms [78]. A broad group of biomarkers have been developed

for E. fetida such as cholinesterases (ChEs), cytochrome P450-dependent monooxygenases,

DNA breakage, or enzymes of oxidative stress. However, most earthworm studies have focused

on the exposure to metals and other chemicals but not on persistent organohalogenated pesticides

(Table 1.1). In addition, as previously discussed, the entire process of gathering all the

experimental data for biomarkers can be time consuming and expensive [81].

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Table 1.1. Summary of the E. fetida earthworm biomarker responses experimentally exposed to environmental contaminants

AChE, acetylcholinesterase; MROD, methoxyresorufin-O-deethlylase; NADH Red, NADH cytochrome reductase; NADPH Red, NADPH cytochrome reductase; GR, glutathione reductase; GST, glutathione-S-transferase; LP, lipid peroxides; LPI, peroxidizable lipids; total GSH, total glutathione; % GSSG, percentage of oxidized glutathione

Test Concentration and time of exposure

Test conditions Biomarkers Summary of results Reference

Carbaryl 12,25, and 50 mg kg-1

2,7 and 14 days

Artificial soil (OECD)

AChE, MROD, NADH Red, NADPH Red, Catalase, GR, GST, LP and LPI, Total GSH and %GSSG

Depression of MROD, NADH Red, and NADPH RED enzymes for biotransformation of enzymes. Inhibition of AChE activity. Lack of concentration dependent relationship.

[82]

Chlorpyrifos

2.96 ±0.39, and 2.33 ±0.39 mg ml-1

12,24,36 and 48 hours

Filter paper contact test (OECD)

AChE Significant inhibition of AChE activity in both concentrations. Many abnormal morphologies

[83]

Pb: Lead acetate 30,60, 120, and 250 mg kg-1 2,7,14, and 28 days

Artificial soil (OECD)

AChE, MROD, NADH Red, NADPH Red, Catalase, GR, GST, LP and LPI, Total GSH and %GSSG

Lipid peroxidation detected by not by Pb or time of exposure. Depression of GST after 2 days of exposure. No clear relationships by Pb exposure on variations in enzyme fluctuations. Reactive oxygen species detected but difficult to determine if due to Pb exposure

[84]

Benzo(a)pyrene 0.05,1,100 and 1,000 mg kg-1

1,2,7, and 14 days

Artificial soil (OECD)

AChE, MROD, NADH Red, NADPH Red, Catalase, GR, GST, LP and LPI, Total GSH and %GSSG

Low to high inhibition of MROD as the concentration of benzo(a)pyrene increases

[85]

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1.5 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance-based metabolomics using earthworms

Since earthworms are widely used to study soil ecotoxicology of environmental

contaminants, the development of environmental metabolomics using earthworms is rapidly

emerging [51]. Studies have already used earthworms in environmental metabolomics to

investigate their exposure to polyaromatic aromatic hydrocarbons [5, 86-89], metals [90] and

fluorinated contaminants such as 4-fluoroaniline, 3,4-difluoroaniline and 2-fluoro-4-methylanailine

[91]. However, when this thesis project was started, no one had used metabolomics to understand

the toxic MOA of organohalogenated pesticides using the earthworm, E. fetida.

Environmental metabolomics is a powerful tool to monitor the fluctuations of an

organism’s metabolic profile or metabolome after exposure to an environmental contaminant.

However, the metabolome is a highly complex heterogeneous mixture of endogenous metabolites

consisting of organic acids, amino acids, sugars and other cellular respiratory products. Therefore,

to properly and accurately analyze these samples, a versatile analytical technique is necessary.

Environmental metabolomic studies on earthworms have primarily used NMR spectroscopy [86,

87, 90-95]. 1H NMR has high reproducibility, less sample bias and indiscriminate in compound

detection compared to other analytical techniques such as Mass Spectrometry (MS), Gas

Chromatography (GC) and Liquid Chromatography (LC). Due to the vast amount of compounds

in each sample, certain techniques, such as LC or MS, usually require a pre- or post column

derivatization of the analytes; others, like GC or MS, require sample derivatization since most of

the metabolites of interest are non-volatile [96]. Even though selectivity can be advantageous by

choosing metabolites of interest and simplifying the complexity of the mixture, extra preparation

steps and time are required before analysis. In addition, the usage of MS, as the detector, requires

the ionisation of the sample for mass spectral analysis and therefore destroys the original sample.

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In contrast, NMR spectroscopy only uses radio frequency radiation to analyze the samples. Radio

frequency radiation does not destroy samples and allows re-analyzing of the same samples. NMR

spectroscopy does not require derivatization and requires very minimal sample preparation. As

noted above, NMR spectroscopy allows comprehensive analysis of all metabolites in the sample

and requires less preparation steps. This, in turn, leads to a high throughput of samples analyzed

and a reduction of costs per sample. In this thesis, a brief overview and experimental design of

NMR-based metabolomics will be explained. For more information, many texts comprehensively

and thoroughly explain the theory and application of NMR spectroscopy in other fields [97, 98].

NMR spectroscopy is the exploitation of the spin and magnetic property of certain atom

nuclei as they precess or resonate when placed in a strong magnetic field. When a structure is

placed in a magnetic field, each nuclei resonates at a specific frequency characteristic of its

chemical environment. The specific frequency is termed the “chemical shift” and identifies the

different types of nuclei in the molecule and their bonding environment, while the peak area, in a

properly acquired spectrum, is fully quantitative [98]. Subtle variations of the bonds and structures

of compounds create very different shielding effects and thus a unique NMR spectrum is generated

for each compound. Not all atom nuclei are NMR visible; however, for metabolomic analysis of

metabolites, the important nuclei, 1H, 13C, 31P and 15N are detectable. In addition, metabolomic

studies commonly use 1H NMR, which is most prevalent in biological molecules, and with a

natural abundance of 99.8%, it has the 2nd highest sensitivity compared to any other atom active

spin nuclei [99] after Tritium (3H). However, readers should be aware that compared to other

analytical techniques such as MS, NMR spectroscopy is the least sensitive. For 1H NMR

techniques, metabolites can only be detected in the low mg L-1 to high µg L-1 [100]. With MS,

however, metabolites can be detected in the low femtomole range [101]. Currently, researchers are

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attempting to increase the sensitivity for NMR but this requires more sophisticated hardware such

as microcoil, flow or cryogenically cooled probes[102]. These have not been commonly used for

earthworm metabolomic studies.

Many earthworm metabolomic studies conducting with E. fetida have used the OECD

contact filter paper test exposure (48 hours) or OECD soil exposure (2, 7 and 14 days) methods;

both show potential for risk assessment and screening of environmental contaminants [51].

Researchers generally analyze the whole earthworm tissue polar extract after exposure because this

allows the detection of a wide diversity of metabolites [34, 103]. The sample preparation of the

earthworm tissue extract is relatively simple as the earthworms are flash-frozen in liquid nitrogen

after exposure, lyophilized and then homogenized using a homogenizer or spatula [86].

However, some studies have analyzed specific earthworm segments (the head, testes, crop,

clitellium, gut and oesophagus) [104] or other biological fluids, such as the coelomic fluid (CF)

[105], to identify potential biomarkers that might be obscured when the whole tissue homogenate

is analyzed. Potential pH shifts from varying earthworm samples must also be minimized to avoid

the detection of false positives due to changes in NMR chemical shifts with protonation and

deprotonation of metabolites. A common sodium phosphate buffer solution (NaH2PO4.H2O) is

used to control any fluctuations and was found to extract a wide range of polar metabolites [87].

Non-polar metabolites have also been extracted using chloroform from a three solvent

(methanol/water/chloroform) system [106]. Commonly, 1 ml volume of earthworm tissue sample

is used for 1H NMR metabolomics analysis [86]. In this thesis, the earthworm tissue extract will

be used as the main biological medium for metabolomic analysis but the CF will also be explored

(Chapter 4 and 5) to understand if additional metabolites can be detected after their exposure to

organohalogenated pesticides.

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1.5.1 One-dimensional NMR techniques

The selection of the NMR technique plays an important role in detecting and visualizing

the compounds of interest. A majority of environmental metabolomic studies for earthworms use

one dimensional (1-D) 1H NMR techniques due to their faster acquisition time (~<15 mins) [34,

62, 90-92, 103]. A common 1H NMR technique for metabolomic studies involves solvent

suppression. As previously discussed, the solvent used for sample preparation will typically

contain some residual H2O even if mostly D2O (NMR invisible) solvent are used. Since the

concentration of H2O can be as high as 50 mol L-1 compared to millimolar metabolite

concentrations [97] in the sample, H2O can saturate the NMR receiver and become the dominant

peak present. Among the many solvent suppression methods, the main methods for earthworm

metabolomic studies are presaturation (PRESAT), Nuclear overhauser effect spectroscopy

presaturation (NOESYPRESAT) and Presaturation utilizing relaxation gradients and echos

(PURGE) [34, 87, 91, 105, 107]. The key to solvent suppression is saturating the proton signal at

the solvent frequency of, for example H2O, during the NMR experiment so the solvent peak will

be minimized when the NMR spectrum is acquired [98]. Each unique solvent suppression

technique is done to maximize the removal of the solvent signal, while simultaneously reducing

baseline distortions and maximizing signal detection before the excitation pulse. For more

information on the wide variety of solvent suppression methods, readers should consult a review

by Mckay (2009) [108] which thoroughly review current NMR solvent suppression methods.

Another challenge when acquiring 1-D NMR spectra of biological samples is their

complexity due to the large mixture of metabolites present in the sample. This can cause

difficultly in identifying a specific metabolite as one sample can contain multiple peak signals in

the NMR spectrum and cause large spectral overlap. Various NMR techniques have been

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developed to mitigate spectral congestion or improve spectral resolution between peaks.

Currently, two commonly used 1-D NMR techniques for metabolomics are Carr-Purcell-

Meliboom-Gill (CPMG) [109] and J-resolved spectroscopy (J-RES) projections [93]. Biological

samples for metabolomics studies typically contain various molecular weight compounds. Thus,

during the radiofrequency pulse in the NMR experiment, large differences in relaxation rates can

cause broadness in the signal peaks [110]. For large molecular weight macromolecules, their

relaxation times are faster compared to lower weight metabolites and this discrepancy is one of the

origins of line broadening in an NMR spectra. CPMG is a spectral editing filter technique used

during acquisition. It removes broad resonances associated with high molecular metabolites or

motion constrained compounds, and it allows clearer observation of low molecular weight

metabolites [110]. Past studies have found that CPMG removed broad signals from triglycerides,

residue proteins, cholesterols and phospholipids to better detect small-molecule metabolites [109,

111]. Pre-treatment of the biological samples such as using spin filters is another option to remove

macromolecules but contamination by the filters themselves such as glyercol has been detected in

the past [112]. In a 1H NMR spectrum, splitting of signal peaks occur due to the coupling spins of

adjacent protons. This is one of the main reasons why large spectral overlap is present especially

with complex mixtures. J-RES spectroscopy is a two-dimensional (2-D) technique that allows the

separation of the chemical shift information on one axis and the spin-spin coupling information

along another [113]. By doing a projection of only the chemical shift axis, a 1-D proton decoupled

spectrum is displayed and this reduces spectral congestion and allows higher detection of a specific

metabolite [110]. Neither CPMG and J-RES projections have been used or compared to other

NMR techniques, such as PURGE, in environmental metabolomics using earthworms. The study

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presented in Chapter 2 compares their application to E. fetida after exposure to a commonly used

organochlorine pesticide, endosulfan.

1.5.2 Two-dimensional NMR techniques

Even with the wide variety of 1-D NMR techniques, spectral overlap cannot always be

avoided. Luckily, there are numerous 2-D NMR methods that disperse the signals into another

dimension for structure determination and are slowly being developed for metabolomic studies

[34]. Some of the main 2-D NMR techniques currently used in metabolomics studies include: 1H-

1H correlation spectroscopy (COSY), 1H-13C heteronuclear single quantum coherence (HSQC) and

1H- JRES NMR spectroscopy [102, 113, 114]. 1H-1H COSY is a NMR technique that correlates

the 1H nuclei to another adjacent 1H via a single J-coupling (spin). This allows the display of the

proton-proton couplings over two dimensions to alleviate and identify specific metabolites. 1H-13C

HSQC is an NMR experiment similar to COSY; however, unlike COSY, it displays correlations

between 1H couplings and adjacent 13C nuclei. The 13C will be on the indirect dimension axis

while the 1H will be on the direct dimension (F2) axis [98]. The 1H-JRES, as previously discussed,

separates the chemical shift and the proton coupling to two different axes and allows the

identification of metabolites using the J-coupling constants between protons. Even with the 2-D

NMR’s greater identification ability, only a few studies have utilized this potential because most of

its techniques are less sensitive and require longer acquisition times (3 to 4 times more than 1-D

experiments) [98]. Prior to this thesis, no 2-D NMR techniques have been used in earthworm

metabolomic studies or on their exposure to organohalogenated pesticides. Chapters 2 and 3 focus

on results that compare various 1-D and 2-D NMR techniques to identify metabolites in the

earthworm, E. fetida, and to examine exposure to sub-lethal concentrations of an organochlorine,

endosulfan and organofluorine pesticide, trifluralin.

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1.5.3 Statistical methods for metabolomic analysis

In metabolomics, the generation of large datasets is common as studies will include many

variables to characterize different observations (samples, time points, etc). Generally, the dataset

can be analyzed through the arrangement of the data into a table where the rows will constitute an

observation (sample) and the columns will represent the variable or factor that was measured from

an analytical instrument (e.g. wavelength, mass number, chemical shift) [115]. For NMR-based

environmental metabolomics, each NMR spectrum of the organism contains a unique metabolic

fingerprint that can contain thousands of overlapping resonances. If the health condition of the

organism fluctuates due to an environmental contaminant, the metabolic profile will reflect that

change [116]. By a detailed inspection of the NMR spectrum and an integration of individual

peaks, dominant biochemical changes can be quantified. However, due to the large number of

samples, subtle changes may be overlooked and it will be difficult to correlate them to other

factors, such as concentration or time [71]. Multivariate statistical methods are one of the most

important steps for metabolomic analysis to maximize the understanding of complex NMR

spectral datasets [71]. Pattern recognition methods allow the interpretation of the NMR spectra

into a low dimensional space to visualize the data. The clustering detected in the samples will then

represent their similarities in their metabolic profile and the pattern in their biochemical changes

can be understood for samples that were not the same.

Before any statistical analysis is done, the NMR spectral data is first divided into different

regions along the chemical shift axis and each area is summed into integrals called binning. This

creates a table of data where the observations and samples are shown in rows and the spectral

integrals are shown in columns of the defined bins across the spectral width [117]. The

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identification of patterns and the classification of the data table for each sample are achieved using

unsupervised and supervised pattern recognition techniques.

Principal component analysis (PCA) is frequently used in metabolomic studies and is

considered an unsupervised approach. This means that no prior information is added to the model

for classifying the samples and the inherent clustering of the samples is due to the natural

similarities in their metabolic profile [117]. PCA highlights the overall variation in the data and

the variations are summarized in different principal components (PC) axes. PCs describe the

variation in the data with PC1 having the highest variance and PC2 having the next highest and so

on [118]. Through the PCs, scores plot (such as PC1 versus PC2) are formed to display the

clustering patterns of the NMR samples. This is a convenient way to reduce the complexity of the

data, to visualize and to classify different groups [71]. A loadings plot is also used in conjunction

with the scores plot. The loadings plot allows further analysis and depicts which spectral variables

in the NMR samples contribute to their position or separation to other samples in the scores plot.

Partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) is another commonly used pattern

recognition tool for metabolomic studies and is considered to be a supervised approach. In this

method, prior knowledge of the sample classes are known (e.g. exposed vs control) and pre-

defined variables are added to the model (e.g. zeros and ones) to maximize the separation between

the sample groups and to develop predictive models on the original data set [119]. This approach

allows one to understand which dominant spectral variables are the ones that created the separation

between the various groups. A PLS-DA scores plot is performed using PLS components, which

are similar to PCs, to visualize the clustering of the samples in a 2-D axes plot (typically PLS1

versus PLS2). A loading plot can also be developed to determine the peaks responsible for the

separation between the classification groups [71]. Due to the input of classification values in the

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model supervised analysis tests, it is highly recommended that cross-validation tests be done to

prevent over-fitting of the data and to determine if the prediction of each sample classes is

accurate. Cross-validation is usually done by eliminating a portion of the data (test set) while the

remaining samples (the training set) is analyzed using PLS-DA. The Q2 (goodness of prediction)

can then be calculated by using the model to predict the test set which then can help determine the

model’s robustness [119]. A strong model typically will have a Q2 value higher than >0.4 [103].

Even through, multivariate statistical analysis is key for metabolomic analysis, univariate

analysis is commonly used as well. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) and t-tests are used to

calculate the significance of the separation between the groups in PCA or PLS-DA scores plots. In

addition, these tests can be used to understand the significance of the peaks of interest detected

from the PCA or PLS-DA loading plots. A t-test filtered difference NMR spectrum can also be

constructed to identify increases or decreases in the peaks when comparing different sample

groups [65, 66]. This NMR spectrum (1-D or 2-D) is generated by subtracting the average bin

intensities of the different groups to a control and determine which areas are significant (p-value <

0.05). Any other intensity values that are higher are replaced with a zero and this allows one to

determine which potential metabolites are significant in conjunction with the loading plot results

[65, 66]. In this thesis, PCA, PLS-DA and univariate statistical tests are all employed for

understanding the significant perturbations in the metabolic profile of E. fetida after its exposure to

various organohalogenated pesticides.

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1.6 Study Objectives Currently, the understanding of the toxic MOA of organohalogenated pesticides especially

with respect to soil organisms such as earthworms at sub-lethal concentrations, has not been

thoroughly investigated [40, 51]. NMR-based metabolomics has proven to be a powerful

biochemical/screening tool in elucidating potential molecular biomarkers due to external stressors

in medicine[54] and drug discovery [55]. However, metabolomics is slowly emerging in

environmental studies but has not been employed in understanding organohalogenated pesticide

exposure. This dissertation aims to provide insight into the potential of environmental

metabolomics to delineate the toxic MOA of various organohalogenated pesticides to an OECD

recommended earthworm species, E. fetida, using 1-D and 2-D NMR spectroscopy. This will be

achieved through the following objectives:

1) To compare various 1-D and 2-D NMR spectroscopy techniques commonly used in

metabolomic studies, and to determine which methods are most effective in discriminating

and identifying potential biomarkers of response between exposed and non-exposed E.

fetida earthworms using an organochlorine pesticide, endosulfan, in an OECD contact test

experiment;

2) To utilize a 1-D and 2-D NMR spectroscopy-based metabolomic approach using E.fetida in

an OECD contact test experiment to understand the toxic MOA of various sub-lethal

concentrations of an organochlorine pesticide, endosulfan, and organofluorine pesticide,

trifluralin;

3) To investigate the potential of using the CF and tissue extract of E. fetida in a NMR-based

metabolomic study, and to evaluate the toxic MOA of endosulfan using various sub-lethal

concentrations in an OECD contact test experiment; and

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4) To explore the toxic MOA of an organochlorine pesticide, endosulfan and its main

degradation product, endosulfan sulfate, using 1-D and 2-D NMR-based metabolomic

approaches on E. fetida in soil environments. The tissue extract and the CF will both be

used as the biological media for analysis to maximize the identification of the biomarkers

due to contaminant exposure.

These four objectives will be addressed in chapters 2, 3, 4 and 5 respectively. A final note to

readers that all organhalogenated pesticides used in this thesis were all handled with extreme

care and safety precautions (lab coats, goggles and disposable gloves) were used at all times

whenever the chemicals were present.

1.7 Thesis Summary

CHAPTER 1: Introduction: Organohalogenated argochemicals, ecotoxicology, earthworms in

ecotoxicology and environmental NMR-based metabolomics

CHAPTER 2: Comparison of 1-D and 2-D NMR techniques for screening earthworm responses

to sub-lethal endosulfan exposure.

This chapter has been published in Environmental Chemistry and addresses objective 1. In

this study, three 1-D NMR techniques (PURGE, CPMG and J-RES projections) and three 2-D

NMR techniques (1H-1H COSY, 1H-13C HSQC and 1H-J-RES) were investigated in a metabolomic

study to compare their discrimination abilities of an earthworm, E. fetida, control group to an

exposed group using a sub-lethal concentration of an organochlorine pesticide, endosulfan. PLS-

DA was used as the multivariate analysis and results showed PURGE and 1H-13C HSQC had the

highest discrimination ability for the 1-D and 2-D NMR experiments respectively. 1H-13C HSQC

identified the most metabolites of response (alanine, leucine, lysine, glutamate, glucose and

maltose) due to endosulfan exposure. The results conclude that 1H-13C HSQC in combination with

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a shorter 1-D NMR experiment such as PURGE can be an effective tool in discriminating and

identifying significant metabolites in earthworms under environmental stress.

CHAPTER 3: 1-D and 2-D NMR metabolomics of earthworm responses to sub-lethal trifluralin

and endosulfan exposure

This chapter has been published in Environmental Chemistry and addresses objective 2. In

this study, 1-D and 2-D NMR-based metabolomics were used to investigate the metabolic response

of the earthworm, E. fetida, to an organofluorine pesticide, trifluralin, and organochlorine

pesticide, endosulfan, using three sub-lethal concentrations in an OECD contact test experiment.

PCA analysis was used on the trifluralin and endosulfan NMR datasets and distinct separation was

seen between the unexposed and exposed earthworm groups. A non-polar narcosis toxic MOA

was delineated for trifluralin exposure as alanine, glycine, maltose and adenosine triphosphate

(ATP) was detected as the metabolites of response. A neurotoxic toxic MOA was postulated for

endosulfan exposure as leucine, phenylalanine, tryptophan, lysine, glutamate, valine, glycine,

isoleucine, methionine, glutamine, alanine, maltose, glucose, meibiose, malate, fumarate and ATP

were detected as the significant metabolites of response. This study highlights the potential of 1-D

and 2-D NMR-based metabolomics for understanding the biochemical response of native soil

organisms such as earthworms to organohalogenated pesticides.

CHAPTER 4: Coelomic fluid: a complimentary biological medium to assess sub-lethal

endosulfan exposure using 1H NMR-based earthworm metabolomics

This chapter has been published in Ecotoxicology and addresses objective 3. This work

explored the potential of using the earthworm, E. fetida’s, CF in conjunction with the earthworm

tissue extract in a 1-D NMR-based metabolomic study to investigate the response to three sub-

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33

lethal concentrations of an organochlorine pesticide, endosulfan. The 1-D NMR spectrum of the

CF identified a plethora of metabolites that were masked in the earthworm tissue extract due its

large spectral overlap of certain metabolites such as sugars, which can contain multiple resonances.

The PCA results revealed significant separation between the exposed and control earthworms at

various sub-lethal concentrations due to endosulfan exposure for both biological mediums.

Alanine, glycine, malate, a-ketoglutarate, succinate, betaine, myo-inositol, lactate and spermidine

in the earthworm’s CF and alanine, glutamine, fumarate, glutamate, maltose, melibiose, ATP and

lactate in earthworm tissue extract were all detected as significant metabolties of response due to

endosulfan exposure. In addition to confirming the neurotoxic MOA identified in Chapter 3, the

additional biomarkers detected in the CF enabled the recognition of an apoptotic MOA, which

could be the earthworm’s defensive mechanism in response to endosulfan stress. This study

highlights the potential of using both the earthworm’s CF and tissue extract to maximize the

identification of biomarkers to delineate potential MOA by environmental contaminants at sub-

lethal concentrations.

CHAPTER 5: 1-D and 2-D NMR-based metabolomics of earthworms exposed to endosulfan and

endosulfan sulfate in soil

This study has been submitted to Environmental Pollution and addresses objective 4. In

this research, 1-D and 2-D NMR-based metabolomics was used to understand the toxic MOA of an

organochlorine pesticide, endosulfan, and its main degradation product, endosulfan sulfate, to the

earthworm, E. fetida, in soil environments. This study utilizes knowledge obtained from Chapters

3 and 4 by analyzing the earthworm’s CF and tissue extract using 1H and 1H-13C NMR techniques.

The PCA results showed that the toxicity of endosulfan and endosulfan sulfate were similar as the

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scores plot of both biological mediums showed similar separations of the exposed and control

earthworms at various soil concentrations. This was further confirmed as similar metabolites of

response were detected for both contaminants and neurotoxic and apoptotic MOA were delineated.

The results from this study highlight the potential of NMR-based metabolomics using earthworms

as biological probes to understand the toxic MOA of organohalogenated pesticides and their

degradation product in soil environments.

CHAPTER 6: Conclusions and future research

This chapter will focus on summarizing the findings from this dissertation and discuss the

future applications of NMR-based metabolomics.

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CHAPTER TWO

Comparison of 1-D and 2-D NMR techniques for screening earthworm responses to sub-lethal endosulfan exposure

Published as: Yuk J, McKelvie JR, Simpson MJ, Spraul M, and Simpson AJ (2010). Comparison of 1-D and 2-D NMR techniques for screening earthworm responses to sub-lethal endosulfan exposure. Environ Chem. 7 (6):524-536

Reproduced with permission from Environmental Chemistry, 2010, 6:524-536 (http://www.publish.csiro.au/paper/EN10084). © Copyright CSIRO Publishing

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2.1 Abstract

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) based metabolomics is a powerful approach to

monitoring an organism’s metabolic response to environmental exposure. However, the

discrimination between exposed and control groups, depends largely on the NMR technique

chosen. Here, three 1-D NMR and three 2-D NMR techniques were investigated for their ability to

discriminate between control earthworms (Eisenia fetida) and those exposed to a sub-lethal

concentration of a commonly occurring organochlorine pesticide, endosulfan. Partial least-squares

discriminant analysis found 1H–13C Heteronuclear Single Quantum Coherence (HSQC)

spectroscopy to have the highest discrimination with a MANOVA value (degree of separation)

three orders lower than any of the 1-D and 2-D NMR techniques. HSQC spectroscopy identified

alanine, leucine, lysine, glutamate, glucose and maltose as the major metabolites of exposure to

endosulfan, more than all the other techniques combined. HSQC spectroscopy in combination with

a shorter 1-D experiment may prove to be an effective tool for the discrimination and identification

of significant metabolites in organisms under environmental stress.

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2.2 Introduction

There has been an increasing concern over the prevalent agricultural usage of pesticides

worldwide and their potential adverse effects on the soil environment and native biota [1]. Many

agrochemicals exhibit toxicity at low concentrations and, due to their high hydrophobicity, have

high persistence in the soil environment and bioaccumulative potential [2]. Recent literature has

demonstrated that the chemical analysis of the soil, such as Soxhlet extractions, are not able to

characterise soil health and do not always relate the toxicity to the native organisms [3]. Past

reviews have stressed the need for a direct method in understanding the toxic mechanisms at a

molecular level and how these relate to functional changes at the organism and population level

[2,4]. Environmental metabolomics is an emerging field that analyses the metabolic response of

environmentally relevant organisms exposed to conditions that are potentially encountered in the

environment [2]. Earthworms have been used in metabolomic studies as they are important

indicators of soil health through their contribution to the soil decomposition activity, they have

high biological activity in the soil and they represent one of the major biomasses in the soil [5].

Recent earthworm metabolomic studies have examined their response to polyaromatic

hydrocarbons (PAHs) [6], metal contaminated sites [7], and fluorine toxicants [8] such as 4-

fluoroaniline, 3,5-difluoroaniline and 2-fluoro-4-methylaniline. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

(NMR) has been frequently used in earthworm metabolomic studies as it is non-selective, rapid

and non-destructive with minimal sample preparation [9,10]. However, most of organic molecules

produce numerous signals in 1-D 1H–NMR, therefore, with complex mixtures such as biofluids

and tissues, spectral overlap is problematic. This complicates both the identification and

quantification of major metabolites and can lead to signals from minor metabolites being obscured

by more intense resonances [11]. There are numerous 1-D NMR experiments currently being used

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in metabolomic studies. The simplest experiments aim to retain most metabolites while

suppressing residual water, which can dominate the spectra especially in biological samples. Some

common water suppression NMR techniques include simple presaturation [12], 1-D Nuclear

Overhauser Effect Spectroscopy (NOESY) presaturation, which further reduces the water signal

through chemical exchange [13], and Presaturation Utilising Relaxation Gradients and Echos

(PURGE), which utilises both presaturation and continuous refocusing cassettes with gradients,

which offers excellent water suppression and less influence on neighbouring resonances [14]. In

addition to presaturation NMR experiments, there are other 1-D NMR sequences that act as

spectral filters and aim to reduce the complexity of the metabolite profile. Two common examples

are J-resolved spectroscopy (J-RES) projections [15] and Carr–Purcell–Meiboom–Gill (CPMG)

[16]. J-RES employs a 2-D sequence during acquisition but the data are commonly projected into

a 1-D plot for interpretation and analysis. The resulting 1-D projection contains less overlap as

contributions from the J-couplings (proton–proton splitting) are suppressed. Due to these

advantages, J-RES projections have become popular in metabolomics especially in environmental

studies [11,15]. A study by Lin et al. [15] analysed the metabolites of Chinook salmon liver tissue

using both 1H and J-RES projections spectroscopy. Signals from lipids and macromolecules in the

liver were considerably reduced and the results showed sharper and more resolved peaks on a

flatter baseline when using J-RES projections compared to a 1H presaturation NMR technique.

Comparatively, CPMG is a 1-D experiment that filters molecules based on their T2 relaxation.

This experiment can significantly improve spectral baseline and remove broad signals from large

molecules such as proteins and peptides, but does little to reduce the overlap from the metabolites

themselves. Wishart et al. [17] described CPMG as a useful tool to eliminate most broad signals

from triglycerides, proteins and cholesterols thereby allowing better detection of small molecule

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metabolites. Alternatively, another approach to reducing overlap is to utilise 2-D NMR

acquisitions to disperse the signals over an additional dimension allowing more information to be

extracted. The combination of 2-D NMR acquisition and pattern recognition methods has been

used previously to identify metabolites and is relatively new in the metabolomics field [18–20]. 2-

D NMR techniques that are used in metabolomics studies are 1H–J-RES Spectroscopy, 1H–1H

Correlation Spectroscopy (COSY), and 1H–13C Single Quantum Coherence (HSQC) spectroscopy.

These techniques are advantageous over 1-D NMR methods in that they reduce spectral overlap,

through dispersion provided by the second dimension as well as providing additional

‘connectivity’ information. In J-RES, the second dimension provides J-coupling information

between protons with the connection to their proton chemical shift in the other dimension [21].

This offers the advantage of higher discrimination between metabolites in complex biological

samples as spin–spin coupling measurements are less sensitive to fluctuations compared to using

chemical shift measurements [22]. Even though 1-D J-RES projections are more commonly used

in metabolomics compared to the full 2-D J-RES dataset, the statistical analysis and dataset size

are simplified by utilising only a single dimension. However, the 1-D projection removes the

additional dispersion by the second dimension, which could potentially contain additional

information in metabolomics datasets [21,22]. Therefore, in the present study, both J-RES and the

J-RES projections are analysed. In the case of COSY, the experiment correlates proton signals

based on 1–4J 1H–1H coupling. For HSQC spectroscopy, the 1H chemical shift is correlated with

the 13C chemical shift through the one bond coupling constant (1J 1H–13C) and identifies which

protons are bound to which carbon in a molecule. However, the added advantage of additional

structural information and dispersion in 2-D experiments is offset by the longer acquisition times

and lower sensitivity per unit time in comparison to 1-D experiments [18]. In this study, three 1-D

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NMR approaches (PURGE, J-RES projections and CPMG) and three 2-D NMR methods (1H–J-

RES, 1H–1H COSY, and 1H–13C HSQC spectroscopy) are compared in terms of their ability to

measure earthworm responses (Eisenia fetida) to a sub-lethal concentration of endosulfan applied

via contact tests [23]. PURGE was chosen in this study as an example of a simple water

suppression sequence to be consistent with our previous studies [2,10,23], but readers should note

that other sequences such as NOESY presaturation can be utilised as well. Contact tests are

advantageous in monitoring the metabolic response of earthworms to chemical exposure using

direct contact of the earthworm on a filter paper with the dissolved contaminant. Even though

contact tests are not indicative of an earthworm in a soil environment (it neglects pesticide

exposure through ingestion and pesticide–soil interactions [24]), it allows an initial basis for direct

analysis of pesticide exposure especially for method development [23]. Endosulfan is a pesticide

used to prevent vector-borne diseases [25], is classified as a persistent organic pollutant and has

been detected in the atmosphere, soil, sediments, water and food materials [26]. Endosulfan is

highly toxic to fish and been confirmed as a genotoxicant and neurotoxicant [25]. These

environmental and health concerns have led to a major interest in the fate of endosulfan in the

environment. McKelvie et al. [23] identified alanine, leucine and maltose as response indicators of

endosulfan and DDT exposure to E. fetida using PURGE 1H NMR and Gas Chromatography/Mass

Spectrometry (GC/MS) metabolomics. The present study introduces two additional 1-D NMR

techniques and three 2-D NMR techniques and compares their ability with PURGE NMR to

discriminate between exposed and control earthworms as well as exploring their potential to

identify additional indicators of endosulfan exposure in E. fetida tissue extracts. Many earthworm

metabolomic studies utilise statistical methods such as principal component analysis (PCA) or

partial least-squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) to examine 1H NMR spectra to identify

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significant metabolites of exposure due to the contaminant [2,6,7,9,10,23,27]. The identification

of metabolites of exposure is important in understanding the response of the earthworm to the

contaminant and could potentially serve in the future as an indicator of environmental exposure or

pollution [7,27]. In the present study, PLS-DA was used as the discriminatory model due to its

ability to describe maximum separation between two different classes (control v. exposed). PLS-

DA is well suited for identifying specific discriminating variations in the data when compared to

unsupervised approaches such as PCA [28]. As PCA explains the maximum variance in the data

using different principal components, it has the potential of overlooking minor, but biologically

significant, metabolic changes that are specific to each group [7]. To the authors’ knowledge,

there has been no study that compares various 1-D and 2-D NMR techniques for metabolomic

applications in an environmental context. Therefore, it is important to investigate the potential of

these NMR techniques here in an earthworm metabolomic study using an environmentally relevant

pesticide, such as endosulfan, to further our understanding on the discriminating potential of 1-D

and 2-D NMR to detect subtle metabolic fluxes induced by an environmental stressor.

2.3 Experimental methods

2.3.1 Earthworm maintenance and contact tests

E. fetida specimens were purchased from The Worm Factory (Perth, ON, Canada) and

raised in earthworm bins containing sphagnum peat bedding (Magic Worm bedding, Magic

Products, Amherst Junction, WI, USA) with a water content of ~67% water by weight.

Earthworms were fed Magic Worm Food (Magic Products) and were allowed to acclimate for a

period of at least 1 month to ensure stability of the basal metabolic profile [9]. Mature earthworms

with a visible clitellum and weight of 0.570 ± 0.07 g were depurated in groups of five in the dark

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for 96 h on Whatman 4 Qualitative filter paper with a diameter of 9 cm (Fisher Scientific,

Waltham, MA, USA) in 500-mL jars to remove any residues from their intestinal tracts [9].

Earthworms (10 replicates for each the control and exposed group) were then transferred to

individual 120-mL amber glass jars containing pre-treated Whatman GF/A 4.25-cm diameter glass

filter paper (Fisher Scientific). Endosulfan (99% purity; Sigma Aldrich, St Louis, MO, USA) was

applied to the filter paper at a concentration of 2 mg cm-2 using 1 mL of chloroform (HPLC grade;

Fisher Scientific) as the carrier solvent. This concentration was chosen to be sub-lethal and is at

35% of the LC50 based on values reported by Heimbach [41] for E. fetida. One millilitre of

chloroform was applied to filter papers for control earthworms to mimic identical environments

with the exception of the endosulfan itself. In all cases, the chloroform was allowed to evaporate

and 1 mL of distilled water was added before the addition of earthworms. After being placed on

filter papers, earthworms were kept in the dark for 48 h, as recommended by the Organization for

Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) LC50 contact test guideline [42]. Earthworms

were then flash frozen in liquid nitrogen, lyophilised and stored frozen until extraction.

2.3.2 Earthworm tissue extraction

The lyophilised earthworms were homogenised in a 1.5-mL centrifuge tube. Samples were

then extracted using 1 mL of a 0.2-M monobasic sodium phosphate buffer solution

(NaH2PO4.2H2O; 99.3%; Fisher Scientific) containing 0.1% (w/v) sodium azide (99.5% purity;

Sigma Aldrich) as a preservative [9]. Buffer solution was made with D2O (99.9% purity,

Cambridge Isotope Laboratories Inc., Andover, MA, USA) and adjusted to a pD of 7.4 using

NaOD (30% w/w in 99.5% D2O, Cambridge Isotope Laboratories Inc.). The buffer solution also

contained 10 mg L-1 of 2,2-dimethyl-2-silapentane-5-sulfonate sodium salt (DSS; 97%, Sigma

Aldrich) as an internal standard. Samples were vortexed for 30 s using a VX 100 vortexer (Labnet,

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Edison, NJ, USA) and then sonicated for 15 min using a FS60 sonicator (Fisher Scientific) to aid

with the extraction. Samples were then centrifuged at 10 000 g at 20oC using a Hanil Micro-12

centrifuge (Rose Scientific, Edmonton, AB, Canada) and the supernatant was transferred into a

new 1.5-mL centrifuge tube. The samples were centrifuged for an additional 5 min to remove any

additional precipitates and were transferred into 5-mm High Throughputplus NMRtubes (Norell

Inc., Landisville ,NJ,USA). All samples were frozen immediately after preparation and each

sample was thawed before NMR analysis.

2.3.3 NMR spectroscopy

2.3.3.1 1-D NMR spectroscopy

All NMR spectra were acquired using a Bruker Avance 500-MHz spectrometer with a 1H–

BB–13C triple-resonance broadband inverse probe fitted with an actively shielded Z gradient

(Bruker BioSpin). The 1H 90o pulse was calibrated for each sample in the study. PURGE

experiments [29] were performed with 128 scans, a recycle delay of 3 s, and 16 384 time domain

points. CPMG experiments were performed with an interpulse delay τ of 500 ms and 100 echoes,

corresponding to a relaxation filter of 100 ms. Water suppression for CPMG was performed using

presaturation. J-RES projections were obtained from 2-D J-RES datasets as described later. All 1-

D spectra were manually phased and calibrated to the DSS internal reference methyl singlet, set to

a chemical shift (δ) of 0.00 ppm.

2.3.3.2 2-D NMR spectroscopy

All 2-D experiments were optimised experimentally in terms of the relaxation delay (d1)

and the number of increments in the indirect dimension (F1). For COSY, 256 F1 increments were

required to produce high quality data, whereas 196 increments combined with 32 coefficients of

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linear prediction were found to be sufficient for HSQC spectroscopy. For J-RES, 32 increments

were used as previously reported by Lin et al [15]. A series of 2-D NMR experiments were

acquired with relaxation times of 2, 1, 0.5 and 0.2 s. Each experiment was tested such that in a

given period of time, the number and intensity of 2-D cross peaks was maximised. For example,

an HSQC spectroscopy with two scans and a 2-s recycle delay took ~47 min to complete, which is

the same amount of time for an HSQC spectroscopy with 4 scans and a 1 s recycle delay. In each

experiment, sufficient scans were collected to reach the minimum phase cycle requirements. In

HSQC spectroscopy and COSY, it was found that a relaxation delay of 0.5 s with 20 and 8 scans

respectively produced the most intense and numerous correlations in an acceptable amount of time.

The reduction in the relaxation delay from 2 to 0.5 s shortened the acquisition time in COSY and

HSQC spectroscopy from 1 h 19 min and 2 h 26 min to 27 min and 47 min respectively (Table

2.1). In J-RES, reducing the relaxation delay below 1 s resulted in the loss of signals in the 1-D

projections therefore a relaxation delay of 1 s was employed.

J-RES spectra were acquired using a gradient echo for inversion, a relaxation delay of 1 s

and 16 dummy scans. Eight scans and 16 384 data points were collected for each of the 32

increments in the F1 dimension for a total experiment time of 12 min and 58 s. Datasets were

zero-filled to 128 points in F1, both dimensions multiplied by an unshifted sine-bell window

function with forward linear prediction using 16 coefficients applied in the F1 dimension. Spectra

were tilted by 45o, symmetrised around F1, calibrated (DSS, 0.0 ppm), and the proton-decoupled

skyline J-RES projections was obtained using TopspinTM version 2.1 (Bruker BioSpin).

Gradient enhanced COSY experiments were acquired with an excitation pulse of 90o and a

relaxation delay of 0.5 s. Eight scans and 2048 data points were collected for each of the 256

increments in F1. Both dimensions were processed using an unshifted sine-squared function in

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both dimensions and a zero filling factor of two. Various numbers of coefficients for linear

prediction were tried but increased resolution was only marginal (given the relatively high number

of points collected in F1) and accompanied by a loss in intensity of the weaker and broader

resonances. Due to this, linear prediction of the COSY data was not employed.

HSQC spectra were collected in phase-sensitive mode using echo–anti-echo gradient

selection, a 1J 1H–13C (145 Hz) and a relaxation delay of 0.5 s. Twenty scans and 2048 data points

were collected for each of the 196 increments in the F1 dimension. The F2 dimension was

processed using an exponential function corresponding to a line broadening of 15 Hz whereas the

F1 dimension was processed using a sine-squared function with a π/2 phase shift. Both dimensions

were zero filled by a factor of two whereas forward linear prediction using 32 coefficients was

applied in the F1 dimension. The HSQC spectroscopy 2-D datasets were carefully inspected and

no additional artefacts were observed by shortening the relaxation delay. All 2-D spectra were

manually phased and calibrated to the DSS internal reference methyl singlet, set to a chemical shift

(δ) of 0.00 ppm.

2.3.4 Data analysis

Average spectra were calculated using the mean function in the algebra module in Bruker

Biospin’s Analysis of Mixtures (AMIX) package software version 3.8 (Bruker Biospin). Partial

least square discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) was performed using AMIX software 3.8 (Bruker

Biospin). All 1-D spectra (PURGE, CPMG and J-RES projections) were divided into buckets with

widths of 0.01 ppm for a total of 861 buckets from 0.25 to 9.0 ppm. The region from 4.7 to 4.85

ppm was not analysed due to residual H2O/HOD signals present in this region. The sum of

intensities was used as the integration mode and the scaling was set to total intensity for each

spectrum. This permits each metabolite spectrum to contribute equally to the average spectrum. In

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the J-RES experiments, 0.25–9.0 ppm was examined on the 1H spectrum (F2) and split into 0.01-

ppm buckets. For the J-coupling axis (F1), the regions -15 to 15 Hz were observed and bucket

widths of 1 Hz were used. The total number of buckets for J-RES was 12 930.

For the COSY experiments, the spectra were bucketed at 0.03 ppm on both the F1 and F2

axis from 0.25 to 6.0 ppm. Due to the weak signals (in many spectra, there were no signals) in the

6.0–9.0 ppm region of the COSY, this area was not analysed in this study. Simple rectangle

bucketing was used with a total of 14 365 buckets. In the HSQC spectroscopy experiments, the

13C spectrum (F1) was evaluated from region of 10.0 to 110.0 ppm, which was divided into 0.50-

ppm buckets. For the 1H spectrum (F2), the region of 0.25 to 6.0 ppm was investigated and was

divided into 0.03-ppm buckets for a total of 37 000 buckets. The aromatic resonances were weak

in HSQC spectroscopy and were not analysed in this study. Due to the abundance of spectral

signals in the sugar regions (3.0–4.5 ppm on the 1H spectrum), a second PLS-DA analysis on

HSQC spectroscopy was conducted to focus on the aliphatic regions from 0.25 to 2.5 ppm on the

1H spectrum (F1) and from 10.0 to 50.0 ppm on the 13C spectrum (F2) for a total of 6000 buckets.

Cross validation was used to verify the number of PLS components and to explain the

significance of the model [43]. R2X and R2Y (goodness of fit) is the explained variance in the X

or Y matrix respectively and describes how representative the data are to the model. Cross

validation also calculates the Q2 (goodness of prediction) that describes the predictive ability of the

model, which assists in explaining the model’s robustness and to show that the data were not

overfitted [44]. This method is useful in validating a fitted model when the available sample set is

small [45]. All PLS models were validated using leave one out cross-validation and were

performed using AMIX software 3.8 (Bruker Biospin). A strong model typically will have an R2

value higher than >0.5 and a Q2 value higher than >0.4 [28,35]. All models described in this paper

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had R2 values and Q2 values greater than these threshold values with most values >0.9 and >0.4

respectively. MANOVA was used to explain the significance of the separation in the PLS-DA

scores plot between the control and exposed groups. MANOVA using Wilks’ lambda [46]

provides a method to analyse the overall significance between two or more groups of data [47]. A

value of P < 0.05 was used as the threshold value to indicate if the separation between the two

groups is significant. MANOVA was performed using SPSS Statistics version 17.0 (IBM, Somers,

NY, USA). Influential peak signals identified in the 1-D and 2-D NMR spectra from the PLS-DA

loadings plots were matched with metabolite signals from a previous study that identified the

major metabolites in E. fetida [9] and were also compared to the Bruker Biofluid Reference

Compound Database version 2-0-0 (Bruker Biospin). Bucket intensities for these regions were

exported and two-sample t-tests were conducted to compare the control and exposed bucket

intensities. Metabolites were identified as significant through a confidence interval of 95%

(P<0.05).

2.4 Results and Discussion

2.4.1 1H NMR spectroscopic characterization

Three different 1-D NMR techniques were used to classify potential metabolites in E.

fetida after exposure to endosulfan. Figure 2.1 shows the average of the 10 earthworm control

spectra for each of the three 1-D methods (PURGE, CPMG and J-RES projections). PURGE

(Figure 2.1a) represents a simple water suppression approach and was used here as it provides

excellent and selective suppression. As the spectral profile produced by PURGE is sensitive to

pulse calibration [29], the 90o 1H pulse was calibrated per sample. As a comparison to PURGE,

CPMG (Figure 2.1b), which utilises T2 filters to reduce broad signals from faster relaxing

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macromolecules, was used and, in turn, provided a flat baseline. Although CPMG produced

similar results to PURGE except with a slightly flatter baseline, PURGE produced peaks and

multiplets that were generally better defined, most clearly seen in the aromatic region. The slightly

lower definition in CPMG likely resulted from radio-frequency heating induced by the train of

hard pulses (100 pulses, in this study) employed in sequence [30]. However, the present study

may underestimate the potential of CPMG as the extracts studied here contained only small

contributions from macromolecular components that CPMG effectively suppresses. In studies that

have intense protein backgrounds, CPMG can be a key tool as the suppression of broader

macromolecular signals enhances the metabolic profiles in complex samples [16]. In comparison

to the two other methods (PURGE and CPMG), the J-RES projections spectra (Figure 2.1c) were

greatly simplified as a result of suppressing the macromolecular background via T1/T2

discrimination and the strong attenuation of the homonuclear couplings. In the J-RES projections,

the overlap of sugar and amino acid resonances usually seen in the 3.0–4.5-ppm region was

particularly reduced. However, this was accompanied by a significant loss in the signal-to-noise

(S/N) ratio that led to a considerable signal loss in the aromatic (δ=7.0–8.5 ppm) and aliphatic

regions (δ=1.0–2.5 ppm). This lower S/N ratio arised due to the inherently lower sensitivity of the

2-D acquisition required to produce J-RES projections [21].

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63

Figure 2.1: Average 1H NMR spectra (n=10) of control worm tissue extracts acquired using: (a) Presaturation Utilising Relaxation Gradients and Echos (PURGE); (b) Carr–Purcell–Meiboom–Gill (CPMG); and (c) J-Resolved (J-RES) projections. An asterisk represents the residual H2O/HOD.

2.4.2 Partial least square discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) on 1-D NMR spectra

The PLS-DA scores plots for the three 1-D NMR methods (Figure 2.2) show distinct

separation using MANOVA (p<0.05) between control and endosulfan-exposed earthworms. From

PLS 1, most of the controls have positive values in the scores plot while the exposed earthworms

generally have negative values. PURGE (Figure 2.2a) and J-RES projections showed the highest

separation by MANOVA (p=2.82 x 10-7 and p =1.5x 10-7 respectively) compared to CPMG

2345678 ppm

*

*

*

C) J-RES projections

A) PURGE

B) CPMG

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64

(p=1.02 x 10-5). To examine which specific NMR resonances caused differentiation between the

control and exposed worms, the PLS 1 vs PLS 2 (2D) loadings plots were examined.

Figure 2.2: Partial least-squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) scores plot of data-reduced 1H NMR spectra for control Eisenia fetida (●) and E. fetida exposed to endosulfan (▲) using 1-D NMR techniques. (a) Presaturation Utilising Relaxation Gradients and Echos (PURGE); (b) Carr–Purcell–Meiboom–Gill (CPMG); and (c) J-Resolved (J-RES) projections. The P value for MANOVA (Wilks’ lambda) of control and exposed earthworms for the PLS components is reported. Scores for control and endosulfan-exposed earthworms are significantly different at the P <0.05 level.

In Figure 2.3a and Figure 2.3b, the 2D loadings plots for PURGE and CPMG indicate

which spectral components identified are potentially significant. Points located closer to the center

(0,0) are spectral components that are common in both control and exposed groups but further are

ones responsible for the separation between the two groups in the scores plot. Alanine (δ=1.46-

1.48 ppm), leucine (δ=0.94-0.96 ppm) and maltose (δ=5.39-5.40 ppm) were identified as important

metabolites from both PURGE and CPMG loadings plots and, were confirmed as significant

through a two sample t-test of their bucket intensities (p<0.05) (Figure 2.3). These findings

confirm the results from McKelvie et al. [23], where these two amino acids and one sugar were

indicated as important variables in the PCA analysis of the PURGE 1H NMR data. It has been

suggested that alanine has a potential role in osmolite replacement of other metabolites that are

used during stress conditions [31]. Leucine is vital in the development of sterols in adipose and

-0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

A) PURGE C) J-RES projectionsB) CPMG

-1.0 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

-0.4

-0.2

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

-0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

PLS 1 (52.92% variance)

PL

S 2

(26

.86%

vari

an

ce

)

PLS 1 (58.44% variance)

PL

S 2

(16

.57%

vari

an

ce

) p= 2.82E-07* p =1.02E-05* p =1.5E-07*

PLS 1 (40.84% variance)

PLS

2 (1

7.2

8%

va

ria

nce)

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65

muscle tissue and increasing the concentration in organisms has been studied to decrease muscle

degradation [32]. For the sugar maltose, earthworms follow the Embden-Meyerhof pathway [33]

for carbohydrate metabolism and the detection of sugars during exposure to endosulfan could be

stressed-induced. Maltose has been detected as a stress-related biomarker in various earthworm

exposure studies such as 4-fluoroaniline [8], Pb/Zn contaminated sites [27] and polyaromatic

hydrocarbons (PAHs) [10]. In the sugar and aliphatic regions (δ=3.0-4.7ppm), the extensive

overlap in the NMR spectra in both PURGE and CPMG complicated the identification of complete

metabolites. From the loadings plots of PURGE and CPMG, selected signals at 3.26, 3.76 and

3.83ppm were identified in this region (note that the later two signals were only clearly

differentiated in the PURGE data). Since many amino acids and sugars correlate with these

spectral regions, it is difficult to elucidate their origin from the 1-D signal alone.

Figure 2.3: Partial least-squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) 2-D loadings plots of data-reduced 1HNMR spectra for control and endosulfan-exposed Eisenia fetida using three 1-D NMR techniques: (a) Presaturation Utilising Relaxation Gradients and Echos (PURGE); (b) Carr–Purcell–Meiboom–Gill (CPMG); and (c) J-Resolved (J-RES) projections. Each oval region represents areas of significance determined using a two-sample t-test with a confidence interval of 95% (P<0.05). The asterisk indicates chemical shifts unidentified by the 1-D NMR technique alone (these regions are later identified using 2-D NMR).

The loadings plot results for J-RES projections (Figure 2.3c) were quite different than

PURGE and CPMG. Alanine (δ=1.47ppm) and maltose (δ=5.40ppm) was also detected as major

-0.2 -0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3

-0.4

-0.2

0.0

0.2

0.4

8.998.988.978.968.958.948.938.928.918.98.898.888.878.868.858.848.838.828.818.88.798.788.778.768.758.748.738.728.718.78.698.688.678.668.658.648.638.628.618.68.598.588.578.568.558.548.538.528.518.58.498.488.478.468.458.448.438.428.418.48.398.388.378.368.358.348.338.328.318.38.298.288.278.268.258.248.238.228.218.28.198.188.178.168.158.148.138.128.118.18.098.088.078.068.058.048.038.028.0187.997.987.977.967.957.947.937.927.917.97.897.887.877.867.857.847.837.827.817.87.797.787.777.767.757.747.737.727.717.77.697.687.677.667.657.647.637.627.617.67.597.587.577.567.557.547.537.527.517.57.497.487.477.467.457.447.437.427.417.47.397.387.377.367.357.347.33

7.327.317.37.297.287.277.267.257.247.237.227.217.27.197.187.177.167.157.147.137.127.117.17.097.087.077.067.057.047.037.027.0176.996.986.976.966.956.946.936.926.916.96.896.886.876.866.856.846.836.826.816.86.796.786.776.766.756.746.736.726.716.76.696.686.676.666.656.646.636.626.616.66.596.586.576.566.556.546.536.526.516.56.496.486.476.466.456.446.436.426.416.46.396.386.376.366.356.346.336.326.316.36.296.286.276.266.256.246.236.226.216.26.196.186.176.166.156.146.136.126.116.16.096.086.076.066.056.046.036.026.0165.995.985.975.965.955.945.935.925.915.95.895.885.875.865.855.845.835.825.815.85.795.785.775.765.755.745.735.725.715.75.695.685.675.665.655.645.635.625.615.65.595.585.575.565.555.545.535.525.515.55.495.485.475.465.455.445.435.42

5.41

5.45.39

5.385.375.365.355.345.335.325.315.35.295.285.275.265.255.24

5.23

5.225.215.25.195.185.175.165.155.145.135.125.115.15.095.085.075.065.055.045.035.025.0154.994.984.974.964.954.944.934.924.914.94.894.884.874.864.854.74.694.684.67 4.664.65

4.64

4.63

4.624.614.64.594.584.574.564.554.544.534.524.514.54.494.484.474.464.454.444.434.424.414.44.394.384.374.364.354.344.334.324.314.34.294.284.274.264.254.244.234.224.214.24.194.184.174.164.154.144.134.124.114.14.094.084.074.064.054.044.034.024.0143.993.983.97

3.963.95

3.943.933.92

3.91

3.9

3.893.883.873.86

3.85

3.84

3.83

3.82

3.813.8

3.79 3.783.77

3.76

3.75

3.74

3.733.723.713.73.69

3.683.673.66

3.65

3.64

3.63

3.62

3.613.6

3.593.583.57

3.56

3.553.54

3.533.52

3.513.53.493.48

3.473.463.453.44

3.43

3.42

3.41

3.4

3.393.383.373.363.353.34

3.333.323.313.33.293.283.27

3.26

3.253.24

3.23

3.22

3.213.23.193.183.173.163.153.143.133.12

3.11

3.13.093.083.073.063.053.043.033.023.0132.992.982.972.962.952.942.932.922.912.92.892.882.872.862.852.842.832.822.812.82.792.782.772.762.752.742.732.722.712.72.692.682.672.662.652.642.632.622.612.62.592.582.572.562.552.542.532.522.512.52.492.482.472.462.452.442.432.422.412.42.392.382.372.362.352.342.332.322.312.32.292.282.272.262.252.242.232.222.212.22.192.182.172.162.152.142.13

2.122.112.12.092.082.072.062.052.042.032.022.0121.991.981.971.961.951.941.931.921.911.91.891.881.871.861.851.841.831.821.811.81.791.781.771.761.751.741.731.721.711.71.691.681.671.661.651.641.631.621.611.61.591.581.571.561.551.541.531.521.511.51.49

1.481.47

1.46

1.451.441.431.421.411.41.391.381.371.361.351.341.331.321.311.31.291.281.271.261.251.241.231.221.211.21.191.181.171.161.151.141.131.121.111.11.091.081.071.061.051.04

1.031.021.0110.990.98

0.97

0.96

0.950.94

0.93

0.920.910.90.890.880.870.86

0.850.840.830.820.810.80.790.780.770.760.750.740.730.720.710.70.690.680.670.660.650.640.630.620.610.60.590.580.570.560.550.540.530.520.510.50.490.480.470.460.450.440.430.420.410.40.390.380.370.360.350.340.330.320.310.30.290.280.270.260.25

-0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2-0.4

-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

0.0

0.1

0.2

8.998.988.978.968.958.948.938.928.918.98.898.888.878.868.858.848.838.828.818.88.798.788.778.768.758.748.738.728.718.78.698.688.678.668.658.648.638.628.618.68.598.588.578.568.558.548.538.528.518.58.498.488.478.468.458.448.438.428.418.48.398.388.378.368.358.348.338.328.318.38.298.288.278.268.258.248.238.228.218.28.198.188.178.168.158.148.138.128.118.18.098.088.078.068.058.048.038.028.0187.997.987.977.967.957.947.937.927.917.97.897.887.877.867.857.847.837.827.817.87.797.787.777.767.757.747.737.727.717.77.697.687.677.667.657.647.637.627.617.67.597.587.577.567.557.547.537.527.517.57.497.487.477.467.457.447.437.427.417.47.397.387.377.367.357.347.337.327.317.37.297.287.277.267.257.247.237.227.217.27.197.187.177.167.157.147.137.127.117.17.097.087.077.067.057.047.037.027.0176.996.986.976.966.956.946.936.926.916.96.896.886.876.866.856.846.836.826.816.86.796.786.776.766.756.746.736.726.716.76.696.686.676.666.656.646.636.626.616.66.596.586.576.566.556.546.536.526.516.56.496.486.476.466.456.446.436.426.416.46.396.386.376.366.356.346.336.326.316.36.296.286.276.266.256.246.236.226.216.26.196.186.176.166.156.146.136.126.116.16.096.086.076.066.056.046.036.026.0165.995.985.975.965.955.945.935.925.915.95.895.885.875.865.855.845.835.825.815.85.795.785.775.765.755.745.735.725.715.75.695.685.675.665.655.645.635.625.615.65.595.585.575.565.555.545.535.525.515.55.495.485.475.465.455.445.435.42 5.41

5.45.39

5.385.375.365.355.345.335.325.315.35.295.285.275.265.255.24

5.235.22

5.215.25.195.185.175.165.155.145.135.125.115.15.095.085.075.065.055.045.035.025.0154.994.984.974.964.954.944.934.924.914.94.894.884.874.864.854.74.694.684.674.66

4.65

4.64

4.63

4.624.614.64.594.584.574.564.554.544.534.524.514.54.494.484.474.464.454.444.434.424.414.44.394.384.374.364.354.344.334.324.314.34.294.284.274.264.254.244.234.224.214.24.194.184.174.164.154.144.134.124.114.14.094.084.07

4.064.054.044.034.024.0143.993.983.97

3.963.953.943.933.92

3.91

3.9

3.893.88

3.87

3.863.85

3.84

3.83

3.82

3.81

3.83.793.78

3.773.763.75

3.74

3.733.723.71

3.73.69

3.683.673.663.65

3.643.63

3.623.613.6 3.593.583.57

3.56

3.553.54

3.533.523.513.5

3.493.48

3.473.463.45

3.44

3.43

3.42

3.413.43.39

3.383.37

3.363.35

3.34

3.333.323.313.33.293.283.27

3.26

3.253.24

3.23

3.22

3.213.23.193.183.173.163.153.143.133.12

3.11

3.13.093.083.073.063.053.043.033.023.0132.992.982.972.962.952.942.932.922.912.92.892.882.872.862.852.842.832.822.812.82.792.782.772.762.752.742.732.722.712.72.692.682.672.662.652.642.632.622.612.62.592.582.572.562.552.542.532.522.512.52.492.482.472.462.452.442.432.422.412.42.392.382.372.362.352.342.332.322.312.32.292.282.272.262.252.242.232.222.212.22.192.182.172.162.152.142.132.122.112.12.092.082.072.062.052.042.032.022.0121.991.981.971.961.951.941.931.921.911.91.891.881.871.861.851.841.831.821.811.81.791.781.771.761.751.741.731.721.711.71.691.681.671.661.651.641.631.621.611.61.591.581.571.561.551.54

1.531.521.511.51.491.481.471.46

1.451.441.431.421.411.41.391.381.371.361.351.34

1.331.321.311.31.291.281.271.261.251.241.231.221.211.21.191.181.171.161.151.141.131.121.111.11.091.081.071.061.051.041.031.021.0110.990.980.97

0.960.95

0.940.93

0.920.910.90.890.880.870.86

0.850.840.830.820.810.80.790.780.770.760.750.740.730.720.710.70.690.680.670.660.650.640.630.620.610.60.590.580.570.560.550.540.530.520.510.50.490.480.470.460.450.440.430.420.410.40.390.380.370.360.350.340.330.320.310.30.290.280.270.260.25

-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2-0.4

-0.2

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

8.998.988.978.968.958.948.938.928.918.98.898.888.878.868.858.848.838.828.818.88.798.788.778.768.758.748.738.728.718.78.698.688.678.668.658.648.638.628.618.68.598.588.578.568.558.548.538.528.518.58.498.488.478.468.458.448.438.428.418.48.398.388.378.368.358.348.338.328.318.38.298.288.278.268.258.248.238.228.218.28.198.188.178.168.158.148.138.128.118.18.098.088.078.068.058.048.038.028.0187.997.987.977.967.957.947.937.927.917.97.897.887.877.867.857.847.837.827.817.87.797.787.777.767.757.747.737.727.717.77.697.687.677.667.657.647.637.627.617.67.597.587.577.567.557.547.537.527.517.57.497.487.477.467.457.447.437.427.417.47.397.387.377.367.357.347.337.327.317.37.297.287.277.267.257.247.237.227.217.27.197.187.177.167.157.147.137.127.117.17.097.087.077.067.057.047.037.027.0176.996.986.976.966.956.946.936.926.916.96.896.886.876.866.856.846.836.826.816.86.796.786.776.766.756.746.736.726.716.76.696.686.676.666.656.646.636.626.616.66.596.586.576.566.556.546.536.526.516.56.496.486.476.466.456.446.436.426.416.46.396.386.376.366.356.346.336.326.316.36.296.286.276.266.256.246.236.226.216.26.196.186.176.166.156.146.136.126.116.16.096.086.076.066.056.046.036.026.0165.995.985.975.965.955.945.935.925.915.95.895.885.875.865.855.845.835.825.815.85.795.785.775.765.755.745.735.725.715.75.695.685.675.665.655.645.635.625.615.65.595.585.575.565.555.545.535.525.515.55.495.485.475.465.455.445.435.425.415.45.39

5.385.375.365.355.345.335.325.315.35.295.285.275.265.255.245.235.22

5.21

5.25.195.185.175.165.155.145.135.125.115.15.095.085.075.065.055.045.035.025.0154.994.984.974.964.954.944.934.924.914.94.894.884.874.864.854.74.694.684.674.664.65 4.644.63

4.62

4.614.64.594.584.574.564.554.544.534.524.514.54.494.484.474.464.454.444.434.424.414.44.394.384.374.364.354.344.334.324.314.34.294.284.274.264.254.244.234.224.214.24.194.184.174.164.154.144.134.124.114.14.094.084.074.064.054.044.034.024.0143.993.983.973.963.953.943.933.923.913.93.893.88

3.87

3.863.85

3.843.83

3.823.813.83.793.783.77

3.763.753.74

3.733.723.713.73.693.683.673.663.653.64 3.633.623.613.63.593.58 3.573.563.553.543.533.523.51

3.53.493.48

3.47

3.463.453.443.433.423.41

3.43.393.38

3.373.363.353.34

3.33

3.323.313.33.293.283.273.26

3.25

3.24

3.23

3.223.213.23.193.183.173.163.153.143.133.123.11

3.13.093.083.073.063.053.043.033.023.0132.992.982.972.962.952.942.932.922.912.92.892.882.872.862.852.842.832.822.812.82.792.782.772.762.752.742.732.722.712.72.692.682.672.662.652.642.632.622.612.62.592.582.572.562.552.542.532.522.512.52.492.482.472.462.452.442.432.422.412.42.392.382.372.362.352.342.332.322.312.32.292.282.272.262.252.242.232.222.212.22.192.182.172.162.152.142.13

2.122.112.12.092.082.072.062.052.042.032.022.0121.991.981.971.961.951.941.931.921.911.91.891.881.871.861.851.841.831.821.811.81.791.781.771.761.751.741.731.721.711.71.691.681.671.661.651.641.631.621.611.61.591.581.571.561.551.541.531.521.511.51.491.48

1.471.46

1.451.441.431.421.411.41.391.381.371.361.351.341.331.321.311.31.291.281.271.261.251.241.231.221.211.21.191.181.171.161.151.141.131.121.111.11.091.081.071.061.051.041.031.02

1.0110.990.980.970.960.950.940.93

0.920.910.90.890.880.870.860.850.840.830.820.810.80.790.780.770.760.750.740.730.720.710.70.690.680.670.660.650.640.630.620.610.60.590.580.570.560.550.540.530.520.510.50.490.480.470.460.450.440.430.420.410.40.390.380.370.360.350.340.330.320.310.30.290.280.270.260.25

5.40

P[1]

P[2

]

P[1]

P[2

]

P[1]

P[2

]

Leucine

Alanine

MaltoseLeucine

Alanine

Maltose

A) PURGE C) J-RES projectionsB) CPMG

Alanine

Maltose

Unknown*

Unknown*Unknown*

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66

metabolites contributing to the separation of the two groups in the J-RES projections but due to

decreases in signal to noise in some areas, leucine (δ=0.94-0.96ppm) was not distinguished. In the

3.0-5.0ppm region (the overlapping sugar and amino acid resonances), the simplified spectra from

J-RES projections were only able to detect two signals at 3.25 and 3.26ppm as significant. Using

the 1-D NMR data alone it was difficult to assign these specific chemical shifts [9]. For example,

3.25 and 3.26ppm were identified as an important spectral signal by all three methods. However,

from the 1-D data alone, this signal could arise from several metabolites including arginine,

phenylalanine, maltose and glucose. These resonances are assigned later in the paper using the

additional information from 2-D NMR spectroscopy.

2.4.3 2-D NMR spectroscopic characterization

Three different 2-D NMR techniques were used to investigate potential metabolites in E.

fetida after exposure to endosulfan. Figure 2.4 shows one representative spectrum for each of the

2D NMR techniques (J-RES, COSY and HSQC). For J-RES (Figure 2.4a), the 1H dimension is

the J-RES projections (Figure 2.3c) and each peak is correlated to its respective J-coupling

constant on the indirect dimension (F1). This is advantageous as multiple couplings are detected

from a single peak which could correlate to different metabolites. However, complications could

arise as intense couplings could overlap with each other. In Figure 2.4a, the sugar region (3.0-

4.0ppm in the 1H spectrum) contained many small and large J-couplings which caused difficulty in

their differentiation. Ludwig and Viant [21] cautioned that strong couplings in the JRES spectra

can lead to extra signals in the spectra after tilting and projection of the data. This can potentially

lead to misinterpretation of the spectra if not examined. In our study, artefacts were minimized

through acquiring the recommended 32 datapoints in the indirect dimension (F1) [21] and by

careful checking against the Bruker Biofluid Reference Compound Database (Bruker Biospin) to

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67

ensure matches of both chemical shift and J-coupling constants. The COSY spectrum (Figure

2.4b) displayed the 1-4J 1H-1H coupling connections from both the proton indirect (F1) and direct

dimensions (F2). Overlap was observed in the crowded sugar region (3.0-4.0 ppm in both

dimensions) but in regions further from the diagonal couplings by other metabolites, they were

well resolved. In HSQC (Figure 2.4c), the spectrum represents the chemical shift of both the

carbon and protons in a 1H-13C unit, with the direct dimension (F2) displaying the 1H chemical

shift and the indirect dimension (F1) displaying the 13C chemical shift. Additional dispersion of

the peaks is seen in HSQC due to the relatively large carbon chemical shift range (10.0-110.0 ppm)

in the indirect dimension (F1) compared to COSY where the indirect dimension is the 1H

chemical shift (0.25- 6.0 ppm).

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68

Figure 2.4: 2-D NMR spectra of control worm tissue extract using: (a) 1H–J-RES, (b) 1H–1H COSY, and (c) 1H–13C Single Quantum Coherence (HSQC) spectroscopy.

2.4.4 Partial least square discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) on 2D NMR spectra

The scores plots for the 2D NMR spectra of the control and exposed worms are shown in

Figures 2.5 and 2.6. In the scores plot, the control and exposed worms analyzed by J-RES were

well separated (p= 2.82 x 10-5), as were the corresponding clusters in the COSY data (p=5.5x 10-4).

However, neither showed a significant improvement in the degree of separation when compared to

the PURGE and 1-D J-RES projections. This was an interesting result as the J-RES datasets

should contain more spectral information than there corresponding 1-D projections, but the full 2D

5 4 3 2 1ppm

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

ppm

(13C

)

(1H)

5 4 3 2 1ppm

1

2

3

4

5

pp

m

8 6 4 2ppm

-10

-5

0

5

10H

z

A) 1H-J-RES

B) 1H-1H COSY

C) 1H-13C HSQC

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69

datasets resulted in a lower discrimination between the control and exposed worms. This may be

due to the lower S/N in each individual slice of the 2-D, compared to the projection where the

slices are summed to improve the total signal. In addition, the J-RES datasets were acquired using

parameters adapted from previously reported studies optimized for the collection of J-RES

projections for metabolic mixtures [15, 34]. While these produce excellent J-RES projections in a

very short amount of time (~13 mins, comparable to 1-D NMR, see Table 2.1), and allow

comparison to other 1-D techniques, only 32 points are collected in the second dimension. As such

the J-RES datasets were analyzed statistically and included here only for completeness and to

investigate if these datasets can provide additional discrimination compared to its 1-D projections.

Figure 2.5: Partial least-squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) scores plot of data-reduced 1H NMR spectra for control Eisenia fetida (●) and E. fetida exposed to endosulfan (▲) (n=10) using two 2-D NMR techniques: (a) 1H–J-RES and (b) 1H–1H COSY. The P value for MANOVA (Wilks’ lambda) of control and exposed earthworms for the PLS components is reported. Scores for control and endosulfan-exposed earthworms are significantly different at the P<0.05 level.

PLS 1 (41.70% variance)

PL

S 2

(2

3.7

1%

va

ria

nce

)

p =5.5E-04

B) 1H-1H COSY

-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

-1.0

-0.8

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

PLS 1 (44.21% variance)

PL

S 2

(2

1.0

5%

va

ria

nce

)

p =2.82E-05

A) 1H-J-RES

-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4

-0.4

-0.2

0.0

0.2

0.4

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70

Figure 2.6: Partial least-squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) scores plot of data-reduced 1H NMR spectra for control Eisenia fetida (●) and E. fetida exposed to endosulfan (▲) (n=10) using 1H–13C Single Quantum Coherence (HSQC) spectroscopy in the chemical shift range of: (a) 1H=6.0–0.25 ppm; 13C=110.0–10.0 ppm and (b) 1H=2.5–0.25 ppm; 13C=50.0–10.0 ppm. The P

value for MANOVA (Wilks’ lambda) of control and exposed earthworms for the PLS components is reported. Scores for control and endosulfan-exposed earthworms are significantly different at the P<0.05 level.

It would be interesting for future studies to investigate the discriminating ability of J-RES by

increasing the number of scans and points in the F1 dimension to optimize this technique for

metabolomic studies. A recent publication by Ludwig et al. [21] provides an excellent

introduction of 2-D J-RES spectroscopy in metabolomic studies and interested readers should refer

to this.

In contrast, the HSQC data showed excellent discrimination between the exposed and

control groups with a MANOVA value of p=9.16x 10-10 which was three orders lower compared to

all the other 1-D and 2-D NMR techniques. The high separation of the two sample groups in the

scores plot of the HSQC data likely results from the additional dispersion provided by the carbon

dimension which has a higher chemical shift range (considered here, 10.0-110.0 ppm) compared to

proton (0.25-9.0ppm) which alleviates spectral overlap and allows key resonances to be more

clearly discerned.

-0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6-0.8

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

PLS 1 (12.86% variance)

PLS

2 (

10

.76

% v

ari

an

ce)

PLS 1 (37.96% variance)

PLS

2 (

9.6

6%

va

ria

nce

) p =9.16E-10 p =1.16E-11

A) B)

-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

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71

Figure 2.7 shows the 2D loadings plots for J-RES and COSY corresponding to the scores

plots in Figure 2.5. Each point in the 2D loadings plot represents a cross peak in the J-RES or

COSY spectra and is indicated by two values beside it. For J-RES, the first value describes the

proton chemical shift information in the direct dimension (F2 axis) and the second value describes

the J-coupling information in the indirect dimension (F1 axis). For COSY, the first value describes

the proton chemical shift in the indirect dimension (F1 axis) and the second value describes the

proton chemical shift in the direct dimension (F2 axis). As with the 2-D loadings plots for the 1-D

NMR results, points located further from the central cluster (0,0) are ones responsible for the

separation between the two groups in the scores plot. For the J-RES loadings plot (Figure 2.7a),

three main areas were detected as significant using a two sample t- test (p<0.05).

Figure 2.7: Partial least-squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) 2-D loadings plots of 2-D NMR spectra for control and endosulfan-exposed Eisenia fetida: (a) 1H–J-RES and (b) 1H–1H COSY. Each oval region represents areas of significance determined using a two-sample t-test with a confidence interval of 95% (P<0.05) (see Figure 5).

The first main area located in the lower left at (1.47 ppm, ~3.5 Hz) was deduced as alanine using

the Bruker Biofluid Reference Compound Database version 2-0-0 (Bruker Biospin). Note that

several similar signals were detected because the contours in the 2-D dataset are relatively broad.

-0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2

0.0

0.2

0.4

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3.71,9.5

3.70,9.53.69,9.53.68,9.53.67,9.53.66,9.53.65,9.53.64,9.53.63,9.53.62,9.53.61,9.53.60,9.53.59,9.53.58,9.53.57,9.53.56,9.53.55,9.53.54,9.53.53,9.53.52,9.53.51,9.53.50,9.5

3.49,9.53.48,9.53.47,9.53.46,9.53.45,9.53.44,9.53.43,9.5

3.42,9.53.41,9.53.40,9.53.39,9.5

3.38,9.53.37,9.53.36,9.53.35,9.53.34,9.53.33,9.53.32,9.53.31,9.53.30,9.53.29,9.53.28,9.53.27,9.53.26,9.53.25,9.53.24,9.5

3.23,9.53.22,9.53.21,9.53.20,9.53.19,9.53.18,9.53.17,9.53.16,9.53.15,9.53.14,9.53.13,9.53.12,9.53.11,9.53.10,9.53.09,9.53.08,9.53.07,9.53.06,9.53.05,9.53.04,9.53.03,9.53.02,9.53.01,9.53.00,9.52.99,9.52.98,9.52.97,9.52.96,9.52.95,9.52.94,9.52.93,9.52.92,9.52.91,9.52.90,9.52.89,9.52.88,9.52.87,9.52.86,9.52.85,9.52.84,9.52.83,9.52.82,9.52.81,9.52.80,9.52.79,9.52.78,9.52.77,9.52.76,9.52.75,9.52.74,9.52.73,9.52.72,9.52.71,9.52.70,9.52.69,9.52.68,9.52.67,9.52.66,9.52.65,9.52.64,9.52.63,9.52.62,9.52.61,9.52.60,9.52.59,9.52.58,9.52.57,9.52.56,9.52.55,9.52.54,9.52.53,9.52.52,9.52.51,9.52.50,9.52.49,9.52.48,9.52.47,9.52.46,9.52.45,9.52.44,9.52.43,9.52.42,9.52.41,9.52.40,9.52.39,9.52.38,9.52.37,9.52.36,9.52.35,9.52.34,9.52.33,9.52.32,9.52.31,9.52.30,9.52.29,9.52.28,9.52.27,9.52.26,9.52.25,9.52.24,9.52.23,9.52.22,9.52.21,9.52.20,9.52.19,9.52.18,9.52.17,9.52.16,9.52.15,9.52.14,9.52.13,9.52.12,9.52.11,9.52.10,9.52.09,9.52.08,9.52.07,9.52.06,9.52.05,9.52.04,9.52.03,9.52.02,9.52.01,9.52.00,9.51.99,9.51.98,9.51.97,9.51.96,9.51.95,9.51.94,9.51.93,9.51.92,9.51.91,9.51.90,9.51.89,9.51.88,9.51.87,9.51.86,9.51.85,9.51.84,9.51.83,9.51.82,9.51.81,9.51.80,9.51.79,9.51.78,9.51.77,9.51.76,9.51.75,9.51.74,9.51.73,9.51.72,9.51.71,9.51.70,9.51.69,9.51.68,9.51.67,9.51.66,9.51.65,9.51.64,9.51.63,9.51.62,9.51.61,9.51.60,9.51.59,9.51.58,9.51.57,9.51.56,9.51.55,9.51.54,9.51.53,9.51.52,9.51.51,9.51.50,9.51.49,9.51.48,9.51.47,9.51.46,9.51.45,9.51.44,9.51.43,9.51.42,9.51.41,9.51.40,9.51.39,9.51.38,9.51.37,9.51.36,9.51.35,9.51.34,9.51.33,9.51.32,9.51.31,9.51.30,9.51.29,9.51.28,9.51.27,9.51.26,9.51.25,9.51.24,9.51.23,9.51.22,9.51.21,9.51.20,9.51.19,9.51.18,9.51.17,9.51.16,9.51.15,9.51.14,9.51.13,9.51.12,9.51.11,9.51.10,9.51.09,9.51.08,9.51.07,9.51.06,9.51.05,9.51.04,9.51.03,9.51.02,9.51.01,9.51.00,9.50.99,9.50.98,9.50.97,9.50.96,9.50.95,9.50.94,9.50.93,9.50.92,9.50.91,9.50.90,9.50.89,9.50.88,9.50.87,9.50.86,9.50.85,9.50.84,9.50.83,9.50.82,9.50.81,9.50.80,9.50.79,9.50.78,9.50.77,9.50.76,9.50.75,9.50.74,9.50.73,9.50.72,9.50.71,9.50.70,9.50.69,9.50.68,9.50.67,9.50.66,9.50.65,9.50.64,9.50.63,9.50.62,9.50.61,9.50.60,9.50.59,9.50.58,9.50.57,9.50.56,9.50.55,9.50.54,9.50.53,9.50.52,9.50.51,9.50.50,9.50.49,9.50.48,9.50.47,9.50.46,9.50.45,9.50.44,9.50.43,9.50.42,9.50.41,9.50.40,9.50.39,9.50.38,9.50.37,9.50.36,9.50.35,9.50.34,9.50.33,9.50.32,9.50.31,9.50.30,9.50.29,9.50.28,9.50.27,9.50.26,9.59.00,8.58.99,8.58.98,8.58.97,8.58.96,8.58.95,8.58.94,8.58.93,8.58.92,8.58.91,8.58.90,8.58.89,8.58.88,8.58.87,8.58.86,8.58.85,8.58.84,8.58.83,8.58.82,8.58.81,8.58.80,8.58.79,8.58.78,8.58.77,8.58.76,8.58.75,8.58.74,8.58.73,8.58.72,8.58.71,8.58.70,8.58.69,8.58.68,8.58.67,8.58.66,8.58.65,8.58.64,8.58.63,8.58.62,8.58.61,8.58.60,8.58.59,8.58.58,8.58.57,8.58.56,8.58.55,8.58.54,8.58.53,8.58.52,8.58.51,8.58.50,8.58.49,8.58.48,8.58.47,8.58.46,8.58.45,8.58.44,8.58.43,8.58.42,8.58.41,8.58.40,8.58.39,8.58.38,8.58.37,8.58.36,8.58.35,8.58.34,8.58.33,8.58.32,8.58.31,8.58.30,8.58.29,8.58.28,8.58.27,8.58.26,8.58.25,8.58.24,8.58.23,8.58.22,8.58.21,8.58.20,8.58.19,8.58.18,8.58.17,8.58.16,8.58.15,8.58.14,8.58.13,8.58.12,8.58.11,8.58.10,8.58.09,8.58.08,8.58.07,8.58.06,8.58.05,8.58.04,8.58.03,8.58.02,8.58.01,8.58.00,8.57.99,8.57.98,8.57.97,8.57.96,8.57.95,8.57.94,8.57.93,8.57.92,8.57.91,8.57.90,8.57.89,8.57.88,8.57.87,8.57.86,8.57.85,8.57.84,8.57.83,8.57.82,8.57.81,8.57.80,8.57.79,8.57.78,8.57.77,8.57.76,8.57.75,8.57.74,8.57.73,8.57.72,8.57.71,8.57.70,8.57.69,8.57.68,8.57.67,8.57.66,8.57.65,8.57.64,8.57.63,8.57.62,8.57.61,8.57.60,8.57.59,8.57.58,8.57.57,8.57.56,8.57.55,8.57.54,8.57.53,8.57.52,8.57.51,8.57.50,8.57.49,8.57.48,8.57.47,8.57.46,8.57.45,8.57.44,8.57.43,8.57.42,8.57.41,8.57.40,8.57.39,8.57.38,8.57.37,8.57.36,8.57.35,8.57.34,8.57.33,8.57.32,8.57.31,8.57.30,8.57.29,8.57.28,8.57.27,8.57.26,8.57.25,8.57.24,8.57.23,8.57.22,8.57.21,8.57.20,8.57.19,8.57.18,8.57.17,8.57.16,8.57.15,8.57.14,8.57.13,8.57.12,8.57.11,8.57.10,8.57.09,8.57.08,8.57.07,8.57.06,8.57.05,8.57.04,8.57.03,8.57.02,8.57.01,8.57.00,8.56.99,8.56.98,8.56.97,8.56.96,8.56.95,8.56.94,8.56.93,8.56.92,8.56.91,8.56.90,8.56.89,8.56.88,8.56.87,8.56.86,8.56.85,8.56.84,8.56.83,8.56.82,8.56.81,8.56.80,8.56.79,8.56.78,8.56.77,8.56.76,8.56.75,8.56.74,8.56.73,8.56.72,8.56.71,8.56.70,8.56.69,8.56.68,8.56.67,8.56.66,8.56.65,8.56.64,8.56.63,8.56.62,8.56.61,8.56.60,8.56.59,8.56.58,8.56.57,8.56.56,8.56.55,8.56.54,8.56.53,8.56.52,8.56.51,8.56.50,8.56.49,8.56.48,8.56.47,8.56.46,8.56.45,8.56.44,8.56.43,8.56.42,8.56.41,8.56.40,8.56.39,8.56.38,8.56.37,8.56.36,8.56.35,8.56.34,8.56.33,8.56.32,8.56.31,8.56.30,8.56.29,8.56.28,8.56.27,8.56.26,8.56.25,8.56.24,8.56.23,8.56.22,8.56.21,8.56.20,8.56.19,8.56.18,8.56.17,8.56.16,8.56.15,8.56.14,8.56.13,8.56.12,8.56.11,8.56.10,8.56.09,8.56.08,8.56.07,8.56.06,8.56.05,8.56.04,8.56.03,8.56.02,8.56.01,8.56.00,8.55.99,8.55.98,8.55.97,8.55.96,8.55.95,8.55.94,8.55.93,8.55.92,8.55.91,8.55.90,8.55.89,8.55.88,8.55.87,8.55.86,8.55.85,8.55.84,8.55.83,8.55.82,8.55.81,8.55.80,8.55.79,8.55.78,8.55.77,8.55.76,8.55.75,8.55.74,8.55.73,8.55.72,8.55.71,8.55.70,8.55.69,8.55.68,8.55.67,8.55.66,8.55.65,8.55.64,8.55.63,8.55.62,8.55.61,8.55.60,8.55.59,8.55.58,8.55.57,8.55.56,8.55.55,8.55.54,8.55.53,8.55.52,8.55.51,8.55.50,8.55.49,8.55.48,8.55.47,8.55.46,8.55.45,8.55.44,8.55.43,8.55.42,8.55.41,8.55.40,8.55.39,8.55.38,8.55.37,8.55.36,8.55.35,8.55.34,8.55.33,8.55.32,8.55.31,8.55.30,8.55.29,8.55.28,8.55.27,8.55.26,8.55.25,8.55.24,8.55.23,8.55.22,8.55.21,8.55.20,8.55.19,8.55.18,8.55.17,8.55.16,8.55.15,8.55.14,8.55.13,8.55.12,8.55.11,8.55.10,8.55.09,8.55.08,8.55.07,8.55.06,8.55.05,8.55.04,8.55.03,8.55.02,8.55.01,8.55.00,8.54.99,8.54.98,8.54.97,8.54.96,8.54.95,8.54.94,8.54.93,8.54.92,8.54.91,8.54.90,8.54.89,8.54.88,8.54.87,8.54.86,8.54.85,8.54.70,8.54.69,8.54.68,8.54.67,8.54.66,8.54.65,8.54.64,8.54.63,8.54.62,8.54.61,8.54.60,8.54.59,8.54.58,8.54.57,8.54.56,8.54.55,8.54.54,8.54.53,8.54.52,8.54.51,8.54.50,8.54.49,8.54.48,8.54.47,8.54.46,8.54.45,8.54.44,8.54.43,8.54.42,8.54.41,8.54.40,8.54.39,8.54.38,8.54.37,8.54.36,8.54.35,8.54.34,8.54.33,8.54.32,8.54.31,8.54.30,8.54.29,8.54.28,8.54.27,8.54.26,8.54.25,8.54.24,8.54.23,8.54.22,8.54.21,8.54.20,8.54.19,8.54.18,8.54.17,8.54.16,8.54.15,8.54.14,8.54.13,8.54.12,8.54.11,8.54.10,8.54.09,8.54.08,8.54.07,8.54.06,8.54.05,8.54.04,8.54.03,8.54.02,8.54.01,8.54.00,8.53.99,8.53.98,8.53.97,8.53.96,8.53.95,8.53.94,8.53.93,8.53.92,8.53.91,8.53.90,8.53.89,8.53.88,8.53.87,8.53.86,8.53.85,8.53.84,8.53.83,8.53.82,8.53.81,8.53.80,8.53.79,8.53.78,8.53.77,8.53.76,8.53.75,8.53.74,8.53.73,8.5

3.72,8.53.71,8.5

3.70,8.53.69,8.53.68,8.53.67,8.53.66,8.53.65,8.5

3.64,8.53.63,8.53.62,8.53.61,8.53.60,8.53.59,8.53.58,8.53.57,8.53.56,8.53.55,8.53.54,8.53.53,8.53.52,8.53.51,8.53.50,8.5

3.49,8.53.48,8.5

3.47,8.53.46,8.53.45,8.53.44,8.53.43,8.5

3.42,8.53.41,8.53.40,8.53.39,8.5

3.38,8.53.37,8.53.36,8.53.35,8.53.34,8.53.33,8.53.32,8.53.31,8.53.30,8.53.29,8.53.28,8.53.27,8.53.26,8.53.25,8.53.24,8.5

3.23,8.53.22,8.53.21,8.53.20,8.53.19,8.53.18,8.53.17,8.53.16,8.53.15,8.53.14,8.53.13,8.53.12,8.53.11,8.53.10,8.53.09,8.53.08,8.53.07,8.53.06,8.53.05,8.53.04,8.53.03,8.53.02,8.53.01,8.53.00,8.52.99,8.52.98,8.52.97,8.52.96,8.52.95,8.52.94,8.52.93,8.52.92,8.52.91,8.52.90,8.52.89,8.52.88,8.52.87,8.52.86,8.52.85,8.52.84,8.52.83,8.52.82,8.52.81,8.52.80,8.52.79,8.52.78,8.52.77,8.52.76,8.52.75,8.52.74,8.52.73,8.52.72,8.52.71,8.52.70,8.52.69,8.52.68,8.52.67,8.52.66,8.52.65,8.52.64,8.52.63,8.52.62,8.52.61,8.52.60,8.52.59,8.52.58,8.52.57,8.52.56,8.52.55,8.52.54,8.52.53,8.52.52,8.52.51,8.52.50,8.52.49,8.52.48,8.52.47,8.52.46,8.52.45,8.52.44,8.52.43,8.52.42,8.52.41,8.52.40,8.52.39,8.52.38,8.52.37,8.52.36,8.52.35,8.52.34,8.52.33,8.52.32,8.52.31,8.52.30,8.52.29,8.52.28,8.52.27,8.52.26,8.52.25,8.52.24,8.52.23,8.52.22,8.52.21,8.52.20,8.52.19,8.52.18,8.52.17,8.52.16,8.52.15,8.52.14,8.52.13,8.52.12,8.52.11,8.52.10,8.52.09,8.52.08,8.52.07,8.52.06,8.52.05,8.52.04,8.52.03,8.52.02,8.52.01,8.52.00,8.51.99,8.51.98,8.51.97,8.51.96,8.51.95,8.51.94,8.51.93,8.51.92,8.51.91,8.51.90,8.51.89,8.51.88,8.51.87,8.51.86,8.51.85,8.51.84,8.51.83,8.51.82,8.51.81,8.51.80,8.51.79,8.51.78,8.51.77,8.51.76,8.51.75,8.51.74,8.51.73,8.51.72,8.51.71,8.51.70,8.51.69,8.51.68,8.51.67,8.51.66,8.51.65,8.51.64,8.51.63,8.51.62,8.51.61,8.51.60,8.51.59,8.51.58,8.51.57,8.51.56,8.51.55,8.51.54,8.51.53,8.51.52,8.51.51,8.51.50,8.51.49,8.51.48,8.51.47,8.51.46,8.51.45,8.51.44,8.51.43,8.51.42,8.51.41,8.51.40,8.51.39,8.51.38,8.51.37,8.51.36,8.51.35,8.51.34,8.51.33,8.51.32,8.51.31,8.51.30,8.51.29,8.51.28,8.51.27,8.51.26,8.51.25,8.51.24,8.51.23,8.51.22,8.51.21,8.51.20,8.51.19,8.51.18,8.51.17,8.51.16,8.51.15,8.51.14,8.51.13,8.51.12,8.51.11,8.51.10,8.51.09,8.51.08,8.51.07,8.51.06,8.51.05,8.51.04,8.51.03,8.51.02,8.51.01,8.51.00,8.50.99,8.50.98,8.50.97,8.50.96,8.50.95,8.50.94,8.50.93,8.50.92,8.50.91,8.50.90,8.50.89,8.50.88,8.50.87,8.50.86,8.50.85,8.50.84,8.50.83,8.50.82,8.50.81,8.50.80,8.50.79,8.50.78,8.50.77,8.50.76,8.50.75,8.50.74,8.50.73,8.50.72,8.50.71,8.50.70,8.50.69,8.50.68,8.50.67,8.50.66,8.50.65,8.50.64,8.50.63,8.50.62,8.50.61,8.50.60,8.50.59,8.50.58,8.50.57,8.50.56,8.50.55,8.50.54,8.50.53,8.50.52,8.50.51,8.50.50,8.50.49,8.50.48,8.50.47,8.50.46,8.50.45,8.50.44,8.50.43,8.50.42,8.50.41,8.50.40,8.50.39,8.50.38,8.50.37,8.50.36,8.50.35,8.50.34,8.50.33,8.50.32,8.50.31,8.50.30,8.50.29,8.50.28,8.50.27,8.50.26,8.59.00,7.58.99,7.58.98,7.58.97,7.58.96,7.58.95,7.58.94,7.58.93,7.58.92,7.58.91,7.58.90,7.58.89,7.58.88,7.58.87,7.58.86,7.58.85,7.58.84,7.58.83,7.58.82,7.58.81,7.58.80,7.58.79,7.58.78,7.58.77,7.58.76,7.58.75,7.58.74,7.58.73,7.58.72,7.58.71,7.58.70,7.58.69,7.58.68,7.58.67,7.58.66,7.58.65,7.58.64,7.58.63,7.58.62,7.58.61,7.58.60,7.58.59,7.58.58,7.58.57,7.58.56,7.58.55,7.58.54,7.58.53,7.58.52,7.58.51,7.58.50,7.58.49,7.58.48,7.58.47,7.58.46,7.58.45,7.58.44,7.58.43,7.58.42,7.58.41,7.58.40,7.58.39,7.58.38,7.58.37,7.58.36,7.58.35,7.58.34,7.58.33,7.58.32,7.58.31,7.58.30,7.58.29,7.58.28,7.58.27,7.58.26,7.58.25,7.58.24,7.58.23,7.58.22,7.58.21,7.58.20,7.58.19,7.58.18,7.58.17,7.58.16,7.58.15,7.58.14,7.58.13,7.58.12,7.58.11,7.58.10,7.58.09,7.58.08,7.58.07,7.58.06,7.58.05,7.58.04,7.58.03,7.58.02,7.58.01,7.58.00,7.57.99,7.57.98,7.57.97,7.57.96,7.57.95,7.57.94,7.57.93,7.57.92,7.57.91,7.57.90,7.57.89,7.57.88,7.57.87,7.57.86,7.57.85,7.57.84,7.57.83,7.57.82,7.57.81,7.57.80,7.57.79,7.57.78,7.57.77,7.57.76,7.57.75,7.57.74,7.57.73,7.57.72,7.57.71,7.57.70,7.57.69,7.57.68,7.57.67,7.57.66,7.57.65,7.57.64,7.57.63,7.57.62,7.57.61,7.57.60,7.57.59,7.57.58,7.57.57,7.57.56,7.57.55,7.57.54,7.57.53,7.57.52,7.57.51,7.57.50,7.57.49,7.57.48,7.57.47,7.57.46,7.57.45,7.57.44,7.57.43,7.57.42,7.57.41,7.57.40,7.57.39,7.57.38,7.57.37,7.57.36,7.57.35,7.57.34,7.57.33,7.57.32,7.57.31,7.57.30,7.57.29,7.57.28,7.57.27,7.57.26,7.57.25,7.57.24,7.57.23,7.57.22,7.57.21,7.57.20,7.57.19,7.57.18,7.57.17,7.57.16,7.57.15,7.57.14,7.57.13,7.57.12,7.57.11,7.57.10,7.57.09,7.57.08,7.57.07,7.57.06,7.57.05,7.57.04,7.57.03,7.57.02,7.57.01,7.57.00,7.56.99,7.56.98,7.56.97,7.56.96,7.56.95,7.56.94,7.56.93,7.56.92,7.56.91,7.56.90,7.56.89,7.56.88,7.56.87,7.56.86,7.56.85,7.56.84,7.56.83,7.56.82,7.56.81,7.56.80,7.56.79,7.56.78,7.56.77,7.56.76,7.56.75,7.56.74,7.56.73,7.56.72,7.56.71,7.56.70,7.56.69,7.56.68,7.56.67,7.56.66,7.56.65,7.56.64,7.56.63,7.56.62,7.56.61,7.56.60,7.56.59,7.56.58,7.56.57,7.56.56,7.56.55,7.56.54,7.56.53,7.56.52,7.56.51,7.56.50,7.56.49,7.56.48,7.56.47,7.56.46,7.56.45,7.56.44,7.56.43,7.56.42,7.56.41,7.56.40,7.56.39,7.56.38,7.56.37,7.56.36,7.56.35,7.56.34,7.56.33,7.56.32,7.56.31,7.56.30,7.56.29,7.56.28,7.56.27,7.56.26,7.56.25,7.56.24,7.56.23,7.56.22,7.56.21,7.56.20,7.56.19,7.56.18,7.56.17,7.56.16,7.56.15,7.56.14,7.56.13,7.56.12,7.56.11,7.56.10,7.56.09,7.56.08,7.56.07,7.56.06,7.56.05,7.56.04,7.56.03,7.56.02,7.56.01,7.56.00,7.55.99,7.55.98,7.55.97,7.55.96,7.55.95,7.55.94,7.55.93,7.55.92,7.55.91,7.55.90,7.55.89,7.55.88,7.55.87,7.55.86,7.55.85,7.55.84,7.55.83,7.55.82,7.55.81,7.55.80,7.55.79,7.55.78,7.55.77,7.55.76,7.55.75,7.55.74,7.55.73,7.55.72,7.55.71,7.55.70,7.55.69,7.55.68,7.55.67,7.55.66,7.55.65,7.55.64,7.55.63,7.55.62,7.55.61,7.55.60,7.55.59,7.55.58,7.55.57,7.55.56,7.55.55,7.55.54,7.55.53,7.55.52,7.55.51,7.55.50,7.55.49,7.55.48,7.55.47,7.55.46,7.55.45,7.55.44,7.55.43,7.55.42,7.55.41,7.55.40,7.55.39,7.55.38,7.55.37,7.55.36,7.55.35,7.55.34,7.55.33,7.55.32,7.55.31,7.55.30,7.55.29,7.55.28,7.55.27,7.55.26,7.55.25,7.55.24,7.55.23,7.55.22,7.55.21,7.55.20,7.55.19,7.55.18,7.55.17,7.55.16,7.55.15,7.55.14,7.55.13,7.55.12,7.55.11,7.55.10,7.55.09,7.55.08,7.55.07,7.55.06,7.55.05,7.55.04,7.55.03,7.55.02,7.55.01,7.55.00,7.54.99,7.54.98,7.54.97,7.54.96,7.54.95,7.54.94,7.54.93,7.54.92,7.54.91,7.54.90,7.54.89,7.54.88,7.54.87,7.54.86,7.54.85,7.54.70,7.54.69,7.54.68,7.54.67,7.54.66,7.54.65,7.54.64,7.54.63,7.54.62,7.54.61,7.54.60,7.54.59,7.54.58,7.54.57,7.54.56,7.54.55,7.54.54,7.54.53,7.54.52,7.54.51,7.54.50,7.54.49,7.54.48,7.54.47,7.54.46,7.54.45,7.54.44,7.54.43,7.54.42,7.54.41,7.54.40,7.54.39,7.54.38,7.54.37,7.54.36,7.54.35,7.54.34,7.54.33,7.54.32,7.54.31,7.54.30,7.54.29,7.54.28,7.54.27,7.54.26,7.54.25,7.54.24,7.54.23,7.54.22,7.54.21,7.54.20,7.54.19,7.54.18,7.54.17,7.54.16,7.54.15,7.54.14,7.54.13,7.54.12,7.54.11,7.54.10,7.54.09,7.54.08,7.54.07,7.54.06,7.54.05,7.54.04,7.54.03,7.54.02,7.54.01,7.54.00,7.53.99,7.53.98,7.53.97,7.53.96,7.53.95,7.53.94,7.53.93,7.53.92,7.53.91,7.53.90,7.53.89,7.5

3.88,7.53.87,7.53.86,7.53.85,7.53.84,7.5

3.83,7.53.82,7.53.81,7.53.80,7.53.79,7.53.78,7.5

3.77,7.5

3.76,7.53.75,7.53.74,7.53.73,7.53.72,7.5

3.71,7.53.70,7.53.69,7.53.68,7.53.67,7.53.66,7.53.65,7.53.64,7.53.63,7.53.62,7.53.61,7.53.60,7.53.59,7.53.58,7.53.57,7.5

3.56,7.53.55,7.53.54,7.53.53,7.53.52,7.53.51,7.53.50,7.5

3.49,7.53.48,7.53.47,7.5

3.46,7.5

3.45,7.53.44,7.53.43,7.53.42,7.53.41,7.53.40,7.53.39,7.53.38,7.53.37,7.53.36,7.53.35,7.53.34,7.53.33,7.53.32,7.53.31,7.53.30,7.53.29,7.5

3.28,7.53.27,7.53.26,7.5

3.25,7.5

3.24,7.5

3.23,7.53.22,7.53.21,7.53.20,7.53.19,7.53.18,7.53.17,7.53.16,7.53.15,7.53.14,7.53.13,7.53.12,7.53.11,7.53.10,7.53.09,7.53.08,7.53.07,7.53.06,7.53.05,7.53.04,7.53.03,7.53.02,7.53.01,7.53.00,7.52.99,7.52.98,7.52.97,7.52.96,7.52.95,7.52.94,7.52.93,7.52.92,7.52.91,7.52.90,7.52.89,7.52.88,7.52.87,7.52.86,7.52.85,7.52.84,7.52.83,7.52.82,7.52.81,7.52.80,7.52.79,7.52.78,7.52.77,7.52.76,7.52.75,7.52.74,7.52.73,7.52.72,7.52.71,7.52.70,7.52.69,7.52.68,7.52.67,7.52.66,7.52.65,7.52.64,7.52.63,7.52.62,7.52.61,7.52.60,7.52.59,7.52.58,7.52.57,7.52.56,7.52.55,7.52.54,7.52.53,7.52.52,7.52.51,7.52.50,7.52.49,7.52.48,7.52.47,7.52.46,7.52.45,7.52.44,7.52.43,7.52.42,7.52.41,7.52.40,7.52.39,7.52.38,7.52.37,7.52.36,7.52.35,7.52.34,7.52.33,7.52.32,7.52.31,7.52.30,7.52.29,7.52.28,7.52.27,7.52.26,7.52.25,7.52.24,7.52.23,7.52.22,7.52.21,7.52.20,7.52.19,7.52.18,7.52.17,7.52.16,7.52.15,7.52.14,7.52.13,7.52.12,7.52.11,7.52.10,7.52.09,7.52.08,7.52.07,7.52.06,7.52.05,7.52.04,7.52.03,7.52.02,7.52.01,7.52.00,7.51.99,7.51.98,7.51.97,7.51.96,7.51.95,7.51.94,7.51.93,7.51.92,7.51.91,7.51.90,7.51.89,7.51.88,7.51.87,7.51.86,7.51.85,7.51.84,7.51.83,7.51.82,7.51.81,7.51.80,7.51.79,7.51.78,7.51.77,7.51.76,7.51.75,7.51.74,7.51.73,7.51.72,7.51.71,7.51.70,7.51.69,7.51.68,7.51.67,7.51.66,7.51.65,7.51.64,7.51.63,7.51.62,7.51.61,7.51.60,7.51.59,7.51.58,7.51.57,7.51.56,7.51.55,7.51.54,7.51.53,7.51.52,7.51.51,7.51.50,7.51.49,7.51.48,7.51.47,7.51.46,7.51.45,7.51.44,7.51.43,7.51.42,7.51.41,7.51.40,7.51.39,7.51.38,7.51.37,7.51.36,7.51.35,7.51.34,7.51.33,7.51.32,7.51.31,7.51.30,7.51.29,7.51.28,7.51.27,7.51.26,7.51.25,7.51.24,7.51.23,7.51.22,7.51.21,7.51.20,7.51.19,7.51.18,7.51.17,7.51.16,7.51.15,7.51.14,7.51.13,7.51.12,7.51.11,7.51.10,7.51.09,7.51.08,7.51.07,7.51.06,7.51.05,7.51.04,7.51.03,7.51.02,7.51.01,7.51.00,7.50.99,7.50.98,7.50.97,7.50.96,7.50.95,7.50.94,7.50.93,7.50.92,7.50.91,7.50.90,7.50.89,7.50.88,7.50.87,7.50.86,7.50.85,7.50.84,7.50.83,7.50.82,7.50.81,7.50.80,7.50.79,7.50.78,7.50.77,7.50.76,7.50.75,7.50.74,7.50.73,7.50.72,7.50.71,7.50.70,7.50.69,7.50.68,7.50.67,7.50.66,7.50.65,7.50.64,7.50.63,7.50.62,7.50.61,7.50.60,7.50.59,7.50.58,7.50.57,7.50.56,7.50.55,7.50.54,7.50.53,7.50.52,7.50.51,7.50.50,7.50.49,7.50.48,7.50.47,7.50.46,7.50.45,7.50.44,7.50.43,7.50.42,7.50.41,7.50.40,7.50.39,7.50.38,7.50.37,7.50.36,7.50.35,7.50.34,7.50.33,7.50.32,7.50.31,7.50.30,7.50.29,7.50.28,7.50.27,7.50.26,7.59.00,6.58.99,6.58.98,6.58.97,6.58.96,6.58.95,6.58.94,6.58.93,6.58.92,6.58.91,6.58.90,6.58.89,6.58.88,6.58.87,6.58.86,6.58.85,6.58.84,6.58.83,6.58.82,6.58.81,6.58.80,6.58.79,6.58.78,6.58.77,6.58.76,6.58.75,6.58.74,6.58.73,6.58.72,6.58.71,6.58.70,6.58.69,6.58.68,6.58.67,6.58.66,6.58.65,6.58.64,6.58.63,6.58.62,6.58.61,6.58.60,6.58.59,6.58.58,6.58.57,6.58.56,6.58.55,6.58.54,6.58.53,6.58.52,6.58.51,6.58.50,6.58.49,6.58.48,6.58.47,6.58.46,6.58.45,6.58.44,6.58.43,6.58.42,6.58.41,6.58.40,6.58.39,6.58.38,6.58.37,6.58.36,6.58.35,6.58.34,6.58.33,6.58.32,6.58.31,6.58.30,6.58.29,6.58.28,6.58.27,6.58.26,6.58.25,6.58.24,6.58.23,6.58.22,6.58.21,6.58.20,6.58.19,6.58.18,6.58.17,6.58.16,6.58.15,6.58.14,6.58.13,6.58.12,6.58.11,6.58.10,6.58.09,6.58.08,6.58.07,6.58.06,6.58.05,6.58.04,6.58.03,6.58.02,6.58.01,6.58.00,6.57.99,6.57.98,6.57.97,6.57.96,6.57.95,6.57.94,6.57.93,6.57.92,6.57.91,6.57.90,6.57.89,6.57.88,6.57.87,6.57.86,6.57.85,6.57.84,6.57.83,6.57.82,6.57.81,6.57.80,6.57.79,6.57.78,6.57.77,6.57.76,6.57.75,6.57.74,6.57.73,6.57.72,6.57.71,6.57.70,6.57.69,6.57.68,6.57.67,6.57.66,6.57.65,6.57.64,6.57.63,6.57.62,6.57.61,6.57.60,6.57.59,6.57.58,6.57.57,6.57.56,6.57.55,6.57.54,6.57.53,6.57.52,6.57.51,6.57.50,6.57.49,6.57.48,6.57.47,6.57.46,6.57.45,6.57.44,6.57.43,6.57.42,6.57.41,6.57.40,6.57.39,6.57.38,6.57.37,6.57.36,6.57.35,6.57.34,6.57.33,6.57.32,6.57.31,6.57.30,6.57.29,6.57.28,6.57.27,6.57.26,6.57.25,6.57.24,6.57.23,6.57.22,6.57.21,6.57.20,6.57.19,6.57.18,6.57.17,6.57.16,6.57.15,6.57.14,6.57.13,6.57.12,6.57.11,6.57.10,6.57.09,6.57.08,6.57.07,6.57.06,6.57.05,6.57.04,6.57.03,6.57.02,6.57.01,6.57.00,6.56.99,6.56.98,6.56.97,6.56.96,6.56.95,6.56.94,6.56.93,6.56.92,6.56.91,6.56.90,6.56.89,6.56.88,6.56.87,6.56.86,6.56.85,6.56.84,6.56.83,6.56.82,6.56.81,6.56.80,6.56.79,6.56.78,6.56.77,6.56.76,6.56.75,6.56.74,6.56.73,6.56.72,6.56.71,6.56.70,6.56.69,6.56.68,6.56.67,6.56.66,6.56.65,6.56.64,6.56.63,6.56.62,6.56.61,6.56.60,6.56.59,6.56.58,6.56.57,6.56.56,6.56.55,6.56.54,6.56.53,6.56.52,6.56.51,6.56.50,6.56.49,6.56.48,6.56.47,6.56.46,6.56.45,6.56.44,6.56.43,6.56.42,6.56.41,6.56.40,6.56.39,6.56.38,6.56.37,6.56.36,6.56.35,6.56.34,6.56.33,6.56.32,6.56.31,6.56.30,6.56.29,6.56.28,6.56.27,6.56.26,6.56.25,6.56.24,6.56.23,6.56.22,6.56.21,6.56.20,6.56.19,6.56.18,6.56.17,6.56.16,6.56.15,6.56.14,6.56.13,6.56.12,6.56.11,6.56.10,6.56.09,6.56.08,6.56.07,6.56.06,6.56.05,6.56.04,6.56.03,6.56.02,6.56.01,6.56.00,6.55.99,6.55.98,6.55.97,6.55.96,6.55.95,6.55.94,6.55.93,6.55.92,6.55.91,6.55.90,6.55.89,6.55.88,6.55.87,6.55.86,6.55.85,6.55.84,6.55.83,6.55.82,6.55.81,6.55.80,6.55.79,6.55.78,6.55.77,6.55.76,6.55.75,6.55.74,6.55.73,6.55.72,6.55.71,6.55.70,6.55.69,6.55.68,6.55.67,6.55.66,6.55.65,6.55.64,6.55.63,6.55.62,6.55.61,6.55.60,6.55.59,6.55.58,6.55.57,6.55.56,6.55.55,6.55.54,6.55.53,6.55.52,6.55.51,6.55.50,6.55.49,6.55.48,6.55.47,6.55.46,6.55.45,6.55.44,6.55.43,6.55.42,6.55.41,6.55.40,6.55.39,6.55.38,6.55.37,6.55.36,6.55.35,6.55.34,6.55.33,6.55.32,6.55.31,6.55.30,6.55.29,6.55.28,6.55.27,6.55.26,6.55.25,6.55.24,6.55.23,6.55.22,6.55.21,6.55.20,6.55.19,6.55.18,6.55.17,6.55.16,6.55.15,6.55.14,6.55.13,6.55.12,6.55.11,6.55.10,6.55.09,6.55.08,6.55.07,6.55.06,6.55.05,6.55.04,6.55.03,6.55.02,6.55.01,6.55.00,6.54.99,6.54.98,6.54.97,6.54.96,6.54.95,6.54.94,6.54.93,6.54.92,6.54.91,6.54.90,6.54.89,6.54.88,6.54.87,6.54.86,6.54.85,6.54.70,6.54.69,6.54.68,6.54.67,6.54.66,6.54.65,6.54.64,6.54.63,6.54.62,6.54.61,6.54.60,6.54.59,6.54.58,6.54.57,6.54.56,6.54.55,6.54.54,6.54.53,6.54.52,6.54.51,6.54.50,6.54.49,6.54.48,6.54.47,6.54.46,6.54.45,6.54.44,6.54.43,6.54.42,6.54.41,6.54.40,6.54.39,6.54.38,6.54.37,6.54.36,6.54.35,6.54.34,6.54.33,6.54.32,6.54.31,6.54.30,6.54.29,6.54.28,6.54.27,6.54.26,6.54.25,6.54.24,6.54.23,6.54.22,6.54.21,6.54.20,6.54.19,6.54.18,6.54.17,6.54.16,6.54.15,6.54.14,6.54.13,6.54.12,6.54.11,6.54.10,6.54.09,6.54.08,6.54.07,6.54.06,6.54.05,6.54.04,6.54.03,6.54.02,6.54.01,6.54.00,6.53.99,6.53.98,6.53.97,6.53.96,6.53.95,6.53.94,6.53.93,6.53.92,6.53.91,6.53.90,6.5

3.89,6.5

3.88,6.53.87,6.53.86,6.5

3.85,6.5

3.84,6.53.83,6.5

3.82,6.53.81,6.53.80,6.53.79,6.53.78,6.53.77,6.53.76,6.53.75,6.53.74,6.53.73,6.53.72,6.53.71,6.5

3.70,6.53.69,6.53.68,6.53.67,6.53.66,6.53.65,6.53.64,6.53.63,6.53.62,6.53.61,6.53.60,6.53.59,6.5

3.58,6.53.57,6.5

3.56,6.53.55,6.53.54,6.5

3.53,6.5

3.52,6.53.51,6.53.50,6.53.49,6.53.48,6.53.47,6.5

3.46,6.5

3.45,6.53.44,6.53.43,6.53.42,6.53.41,6.53.40,6.53.39,6.53.38,6.53.37,6.53.36,6.53.35,6.53.34,6.53.33,6.53.32,6.53.31,6.53.30,6.53.29,6.53.28,6.5

3.27,6.53.26,6.53.25,6.53.24,6.53.23,6.53.22,6.53.21,6.53.20,6.53.19,6.53.18,6.53.17,6.53.16,6.53.15,6.53.14,6.53.13,6.53.12,6.53.11,6.53.10,6.53.09,6.53.08,6.53.07,6.53.06,6.53.05,6.53.04,6.53.03,6.53.02,6.53.01,6.53.00,6.52.99,6.52.98,6.52.97,6.52.96,6.52.95,6.52.94,6.52.93,6.52.92,6.52.91,6.52.90,6.52.89,6.52.88,6.52.87,6.52.86,6.52.85,6.52.84,6.52.83,6.52.82,6.52.81,6.52.80,6.52.79,6.52.78,6.52.77,6.52.76,6.52.75,6.52.74,6.52.73,6.52.72,6.52.71,6.52.70,6.52.69,6.52.68,6.52.67,6.52.66,6.52.65,6.52.64,6.52.63,6.52.62,6.52.61,6.52.60,6.52.59,6.52.58,6.52.57,6.52.56,6.52.55,6.52.54,6.52.53,6.52.52,6.52.51,6.52.50,6.52.49,6.52.48,6.52.47,6.52.46,6.52.45,6.52.44,6.52.43,6.52.42,6.52.41,6.52.40,6.52.39,6.52.38,6.52.37,6.52.36,6.52.35,6.52.34,6.52.33,6.52.32,6.52.31,6.52.30,6.52.29,6.52.28,6.52.27,6.52.26,6.52.25,6.52.24,6.52.23,6.52.22,6.52.21,6.52.20,6.52.19,6.52.18,6.52.17,6.52.16,6.52.15,6.52.14,6.52.13,6.52.12,6.52.11,6.52.10,6.52.09,6.52.08,6.52.07,6.52.06,6.52.05,6.52.04,6.52.03,6.52.02,6.52.01,6.52.00,6.51.99,6.51.98,6.51.97,6.51.96,6.51.95,6.51.94,6.51.93,6.51.92,6.51.91,6.51.90,6.51.89,6.51.88,6.51.87,6.51.86,6.51.85,6.51.84,6.51.83,6.51.82,6.51.81,6.51.80,6.51.79,6.51.78,6.51.77,6.51.76,6.51.75,6.51.74,6.51.73,6.51.72,6.51.71,6.51.70,6.51.69,6.51.68,6.51.67,6.51.66,6.51.65,6.51.64,6.51.63,6.51.62,6.51.61,6.51.60,6.51.59,6.51.58,6.51.57,6.51.56,6.51.55,6.51.54,6.51.53,6.51.52,6.51.51,6.51.50,6.51.49,6.51.48,6.51.47,6.51.46,6.51.45,6.51.44,6.51.43,6.51.42,6.51.41,6.51.40,6.51.39,6.51.38,6.51.37,6.51.36,6.51.35,6.51.34,6.51.33,6.51.32,6.51.31,6.51.30,6.51.29,6.51.28,6.51.27,6.51.26,6.51.25,6.51.24,6.51.23,6.51.22,6.51.21,6.51.20,6.51.19,6.51.18,6.51.17,6.51.16,6.51.15,6.51.14,6.51.13,6.51.12,6.51.11,6.51.10,6.51.09,6.51.08,6.51.07,6.51.06,6.51.05,6.51.04,6.51.03,6.51.02,6.51.01,6.51.00,6.50.99,6.50.98,6.50.97,6.50.96,6.50.95,6.50.94,6.50.93,6.50.92,6.50.91,6.50.90,6.50.89,6.50.88,6.50.87,6.50.86,6.50.85,6.50.84,6.50.83,6.50.82,6.50.81,6.50.80,6.50.79,6.50.78,6.50.77,6.50.76,6.50.75,6.50.74,6.50.73,6.50.72,6.50.71,6.50.70,6.50.69,6.50.68,6.50.67,6.50.66,6.50.65,6.50.64,6.50.63,6.50.62,6.50.61,6.50.60,6.50.59,6.50.58,6.50.57,6.50.56,6.50.55,6.50.54,6.50.53,6.50.52,6.50.51,6.50.50,6.50.49,6.50.48,6.50.47,6.50.46,6.50.45,6.50.44,6.50.43,6.50.42,6.50.41,6.50.40,6.50.39,6.50.38,6.50.37,6.50.36,6.50.35,6.50.34,6.50.33,6.50.32,6.50.31,6.50.30,6.50.29,6.50.28,6.50.27,6.50.26,6.59.00,5.58.99,5.58.98,5.58.97,5.58.96,5.58.95,5.58.94,5.58.93,5.58.92,5.58.91,5.58.90,5.58.89,5.58.88,5.58.87,5.58.86,5.58.85,5.58.84,5.58.83,5.58.82,5.58.81,5.58.80,5.58.79,5.58.78,5.58.77,5.58.76,5.58.75,5.58.74,5.58.73,5.58.72,5.58.71,5.58.70,5.58.69,5.58.68,5.58.67,5.58.66,5.58.65,5.58.64,5.58.63,5.58.62,5.58.61,5.58.60,5.58.59,5.58.58,5.58.57,5.58.56,5.58.55,5.58.54,5.58.53,5.58.52,5.58.51,5.58.50,5.58.49,5.58.48,5.58.47,5.58.46,5.58.45,5.58.44,5.58.43,5.58.42,5.58.41,5.58.40,5.58.39,5.58.38,5.58.37,5.58.36,5.58.35,5.58.34,5.58.33,5.58.32,5.58.31,5.58.30,5.58.29,5.58.28,5.58.27,5.58.26,5.58.25,5.58.24,5.58.23,5.58.22,5.58.21,5.58.20,5.58.19,5.58.18,5.58.17,5.58.16,5.58.15,5.58.14,5.58.13,5.58.12,5.58.11,5.58.10,5.58.09,5.58.08,5.58.07,5.58.06,5.58.05,5.58.04,5.58.03,5.58.02,5.58.01,5.58.00,5.57.99,5.57.98,5.57.97,5.57.96,5.57.95,5.57.94,5.57.93,5.57.92,5.57.91,5.57.90,5.57.89,5.57.88,5.57.87,5.57.86,5.57.85,5.57.84,5.57.83,5.57.82,5.57.81,5.57.80,5.57.79,5.57.78,5.57.77,5.57.76,5.57.75,5.57.74,5.57.73,5.57.72,5.57.71,5.57.70,5.57.69,5.57.68,5.57.67,5.57.66,5.57.65,5.57.64,5.57.63,5.57.62,5.57.61,5.57.60,5.57.59,5.57.58,5.57.57,5.57.56,5.57.55,5.57.54,5.57.53,5.57.52,5.57.51,5.57.50,5.57.49,5.57.48,5.57.47,5.57.46,5.57.45,5.57.44,5.57.43,5.57.42,5.57.41,5.57.40,5.57.39,5.57.38,5.57.37,5.57.36,5.57.35,5.57.34,5.57.33,5.57.32,5.57.31,5.57.30,5.57.29,5.57.28,5.57.27,5.57.26,5.57.25,5.57.24,5.57.23,5.57.22,5.57.21,5.57.20,5.57.19,5.57.18,5.57.17,5.57.16,5.57.15,5.57.14,5.57.13,5.57.12,5.57.11,5.57.10,5.57.09,5.57.08,5.57.07,5.57.06,5.57.05,5.57.04,5.57.03,5.57.02,5.57.01,5.57.00,5.56.99,5.56.98,5.56.97,5.56.96,5.56.95,5.56.94,5.56.93,5.56.92,5.56.91,5.56.90,5.56.89,5.56.88,5.56.87,5.56.86,5.56.85,5.56.84,5.56.83,5.56.82,5.56.81,5.56.80,5.56.79,5.56.78,5.56.77,5.56.76,5.56.75,5.56.74,5.56.73,5.56.72,5.56.71,5.56.70,5.56.69,5.56.68,5.56.67,5.56.66,5.56.65,5.56.64,5.56.63,5.56.62,5.56.61,5.56.60,5.56.59,5.56.58,5.56.57,5.56.56,5.56.55,5.56.54,5.56.53,5.56.52,5.56.51,5.56.50,5.56.49,5.56.48,5.56.47,5.56.46,5.56.45,5.56.44,5.56.43,5.56.42,5.56.41,5.56.40,5.56.39,5.56.38,5.56.37,5.56.36,5.56.35,5.56.34,5.56.33,5.56.32,5.56.31,5.56.30,5.56.29,5.56.28,5.56.27,5.56.26,5.56.25,5.56.24,5.56.23,5.56.22,5.56.21,5.56.20,5.56.19,5.56.18,5.56.17,5.56.16,5.56.15,5.56.14,5.56.13,5.56.12,5.56.11,5.56.10,5.56.09,5.56.08,5.56.07,5.56.06,5.56.05,5.56.04,5.56.03,5.56.02,5.56.01,5.56.00,5.55.99,5.55.98,5.55.97,5.55.96,5.55.95,5.55.94,5.55.93,5.55.92,5.55.91,5.55.90,5.55.89,5.55.88,5.55.87,5.55.86,5.55.85,5.55.84,5.55.83,5.55.82,5.55.81,5.55.80,5.55.79,5.55.78,5.55.77,5.55.76,5.55.75,5.55.74,5.55.73,5.55.72,5.55.71,5.55.70,5.55.69,5.55.68,5.55.67,5.55.66,5.55.65,5.55.64,5.55.63,5.55.62,5.55.61,5.55.60,5.55.59,5.55.58,5.55.57,5.55.56,5.55.55,5.55.54,5.55.53,5.55.52,5.55.51,5.55.50,5.55.49,5.55.48,5.55.47,5.55.46,5.55.45,5.55.44,5.55.43,5.55.42,5.55.41,5.55.40,5.55.39,5.55.38,5.55.37,5.55.36,5.55.35,5.55.34,5.55.33,5.55.32,5.55.31,5.55.30,5.55.29,5.55.28,5.55.27,5.55.26,5.55.25,5.55.24,5.55.23,5.55.22,5.55.21,5.55.20,5.55.19,5.55.18,5.55.17,5.55.16,5.55.15,5.55.14,5.55.13,5.55.12,5.55.11,5.55.10,5.55.09,5.55.08,5.55.07,5.55.06,5.55.05,5.55.04,5.55.03,5.55.02,5.55.01,5.55.00,5.54.99,5.54.98,5.54.97,5.54.96,5.54.95,5.54.94,5.54.93,5.54.92,5.54.91,5.54.90,5.54.89,5.54.88,5.54.87,5.54.86,5.54.85,5.54.70,5.54.69,5.54.68,5.54.67,5.54.66,5.54.65,5.54.64,5.54.63,5.54.62,5.54.61,5.54.60,5.54.59,5.54.58,5.54.57,5.54.56,5.54.55,5.54.54,5.54.53,5.54.52,5.54.51,5.54.50,5.54.49,5.54.48,5.54.47,5.54.46,5.54.45,5.54.44,5.54.43,5.54.42,5.54.41,5.54.40,5.54.39,5.54.38,5.54.37,5.54.36,5.54.35,5.54.34,5.54.33,5.54.32,5.54.31,5.54.30,5.54.29,5.54.28,5.54.27,5.54.26,5.54.25,5.54.24,5.54.23,5.54.22,5.54.21,5.54.20,5.54.19,5.54.18,5.54.17,5.54.16,5.54.15,5.54.14,5.54.13,5.54.12,5.54.11,5.54.10,5.54.09,5.54.08,5.54.07,5.54.06,5.54.05,5.54.04,5.54.03,5.54.02,5.54.01,5.54.00,5.53.99,5.53.98,5.53.97,5.53.96,5.53.95,5.53.94,5.53.93,5.53.92,5.53.91,5.53.90,5.5

3.89,5.5

3.88,5.53.87,5.53.86,5.5

3.85,5.5

3.84,5.53.83,5.5

3.82,5.53.81,5.53.80,5.53.79,5.53.78,5.53.77,5.53.76,5.53.75,5.53.74,5.53.73,5.53.72,5.53.71,5.53.70,5.53.69,5.53.68,5.53.67,5.53.66,5.53.65,5.53.64,5.53.63,5.53.62,5.53.61,5.53.60,5.53.59,5.5

3.58,5.53.57,5.53.56,5.53.55,5.53.54,5.53.53,5.5

3.52,5.53.51,5.53.50,5.53.49,5.53.48,5.53.47,5.53.46,5.53.45,5.53.44,5.53.43,5.53.42,5.53.41,5.53.40,5.53.39,5.53.38,5.53.37,5.53.36,5.53.35,5.53.34,5.53.33,5.53.32,5.53.31,5.53.30,5.53.29,5.53.28,5.53.27,5.53.26,5.53.25,5.53.24,5.53.23,5.53.22,5.53.21,5.53.20,5.53.19,5.53.18,5.53.17,5.53.16,5.53.15,5.53.14,5.53.13,5.53.12,5.53.11,5.53.10,5.53.09,5.53.08,5.53.07,5.53.06,5.53.05,5.53.04,5.53.03,5.53.02,5.53.01,5.53.00,5.52.99,5.52.98,5.52.97,5.52.96,5.52.95,5.52.94,5.52.93,5.52.92,5.52.91,5.52.90,5.52.89,5.52.88,5.52.87,5.52.86,5.52.85,5.52.84,5.52.83,5.52.82,5.52.81,5.52.80,5.52.79,5.52.78,5.52.77,5.52.76,5.52.75,5.52.74,5.52.73,5.52.72,5.52.71,5.52.70,5.52.69,5.52.68,5.52.67,5.52.66,5.52.65,5.52.64,5.52.63,5.52.62,5.52.61,5.52.60,5.52.59,5.52.58,5.52.57,5.52.56,5.52.55,5.52.54,5.52.53,5.52.52,5.52.51,5.52.50,5.52.49,5.52.48,5.52.47,5.52.46,5.52.45,5.52.44,5.52.43,5.52.42,5.52.41,5.52.40,5.52.39,5.52.38,5.52.37,5.52.36,5.52.35,5.52.34,5.52.33,5.52.32,5.52.31,5.52.30,5.52.29,5.52.28,5.52.27,5.52.26,5.52.25,5.52.24,5.52.23,5.52.22,5.52.21,5.52.20,5.52.19,5.52.18,5.52.17,5.52.16,5.52.15,5.52.14,5.52.13,5.52.12,5.52.11,5.52.10,5.52.09,5.52.08,5.52.07,5.52.06,5.52.05,5.52.04,5.52.03,5.52.02,5.52.01,5.52.00,5.51.99,5.51.98,5.51.97,5.51.96,5.51.95,5.51.94,5.51.93,5.51.92,5.51.91,5.51.90,5.51.89,5.51.88,5.51.87,5.51.86,5.51.85,5.51.84,5.51.83,5.51.82,5.51.81,5.51.80,5.51.79,5.51.78,5.51.77,5.51.76,5.51.75,5.51.74,5.51.73,5.51.72,5.51.71,5.51.70,5.51.69,5.51.68,5.51.67,5.51.66,5.51.65,5.51.64,5.51.63,5.51.62,5.51.61,5.51.60,5.51.59,5.51.58,5.51.57,5.51.56,5.51.55,5.51.54,5.51.53,5.51.52,5.51.51,5.51.50,5.51.49,5.51.48,5.51.47,5.51.46,5.51.45,5.51.44,5.51.43,5.51.42,5.51.41,5.51.40,5.51.39,5.51.38,5.51.37,5.51.36,5.51.35,5.51.34,5.51.33,5.51.32,5.51.31,5.51.30,5.51.29,5.51.28,5.51.27,5.51.26,5.51.25,5.51.24,5.51.23,5.51.22,5.51.21,5.51.20,5.51.19,5.51.18,5.51.17,5.51.16,5.51.15,5.51.14,5.51.13,5.51.12,5.51.11,5.51.10,5.51.09,5.51.08,5.51.07,5.51.06,5.51.05,5.51.04,5.51.03,5.51.02,5.51.01,5.51.00,5.50.99,5.50.98,5.50.97,5.50.96,5.50.95,5.50.94,5.50.93,5.50.92,5.50.91,5.50.90,5.50.89,5.50.88,5.50.87,5.50.86,5.50.85,5.50.84,5.50.83,5.50.82,5.50.81,5.50.80,5.50.79,5.50.78,5.50.77,5.50.76,5.50.75,5.50.74,5.50.73,5.50.72,5.50.71,5.50.70,5.50.69,5.50.68,5.50.67,5.50.66,5.50.65,5.50.64,5.50.63,5.50.62,5.50.61,5.50.60,5.50.59,5.50.58,5.50.57,5.50.56,5.50.55,5.50.54,5.50.53,5.50.52,5.50.51,5.50.50,5.50.49,5.50.48,5.50.47,5.50.46,5.50.45,5.50.44,5.50.43,5.50.42,5.50.41,5.50.40,5.50.39,5.50.38,5.50.37,5.50.36,5.50.35,5.50.34,5.50.33,5.50.32,5.50.31,5.50.30,5.50.29,5.50.28,5.50.27,5.50.26,5.59.00,4.58.99,4.58.98,4.58.97,4.58.96,4.58.95,4.58.94,4.58.93,4.58.92,4.58.91,4.58.90,4.58.89,4.58.88,4.58.87,4.58.86,4.58.85,4.58.84,4.58.83,4.58.82,4.58.81,4.58.80,4.58.79,4.58.78,4.58.77,4.58.76,4.58.75,4.58.74,4.58.73,4.58.72,4.58.71,4.58.70,4.58.69,4.58.68,4.58.67,4.58.66,4.58.65,4.58.64,4.58.63,4.58.62,4.58.61,4.58.60,4.58.59,4.58.58,4.58.57,4.58.56,4.58.55,4.58.54,4.58.53,4.58.52,4.58.51,4.58.50,4.58.49,4.58.48,4.58.47,4.58.46,4.58.45,4.58.44,4.58.43,4.58.42,4.58.41,4.58.40,4.58.39,4.58.38,4.58.37,4.58.36,4.58.35,4.58.34,4.58.33,4.58.32,4.58.31,4.58.30,4.58.29,4.58.28,4.58.27,4.58.26,4.58.25,4.58.24,4.58.23,4.58.22,4.58.21,4.58.20,4.58.19,4.58.18,4.58.17,4.58.16,4.58.15,4.58.14,4.58.13,4.58.12,4.58.11,4.58.10,4.58.09,4.58.08,4.58.07,4.58.06,4.58.05,4.58.04,4.58.03,4.58.02,4.58.01,4.58.00,4.57.99,4.57.98,4.57.97,4.57.96,4.57.95,4.57.94,4.57.93,4.57.92,4.57.91,4.57.90,4.57.89,4.57.88,4.57.87,4.57.86,4.57.85,4.57.84,4.57.83,4.57.82,4.57.81,4.57.80,4.57.79,4.57.78,4.57.77,4.57.76,4.57.75,4.57.74,4.57.73,4.57.72,4.57.71,4.57.70,4.57.69,4.57.68,4.57.67,4.57.66,4.57.65,4.57.64,4.57.63,4.57.62,4.57.61,4.57.60,4.57.59,4.57.58,4.57.57,4.57.56,4.57.55,4.57.54,4.57.53,4.57.52,4.57.51,4.57.50,4.57.49,4.57.48,4.57.47,4.57.46,4.57.45,4.57.44,4.57.43,4.57.42,4.57.41,4.57.40,4.57.39,4.57.38,4.57.37,4.57.36,4.57.35,4.57.34,4.57.33,4.57.32,4.57.31,4.57.30,4.57.29,4.57.28,4.57.27,4.57.26,4.57.25,4.57.24,4.57.23,4.57.22,4.57.21,4.57.20,4.57.19,4.57.18,4.57.17,4.57.16,4.57.15,4.57.14,4.57.13,4.57.12,4.57.11,4.57.10,4.57.09,4.57.08,4.57.07,4.57.06,4.57.05,4.57.04,4.57.03,4.57.02,4.57.01,4.57.00,4.56.99,4.56.98,4.56.97,4.56.96,4.56.95,4.56.94,4.56.93,4.56.92,4.56.91,4.56.90,4.56.89,4.56.88,4.56.87,4.56.86,4.56.85,4.56.84,4.56.83,4.56.82,4.56.81,4.56.80,4.56.79,4.56.78,4.56.77,4.56.76,4.56.75,4.56.74,4.56.73,4.56.72,4.56.71,4.56.70,4.56.69,4.56.68,4.56.67,4.56.66,4.56.65,4.56.64,4.56.63,4.56.62,4.56.61,4.56.60,4.56.59,4.56.58,4.56.57,4.56.56,4.56.55,4.56.54,4.56.53,4.56.52,4.56.51,4.56.50,4.56.49,4.56.48,4.56.47,4.56.46,4.56.45,4.56.44,4.56.43,4.56.42,4.56.41,4.56.40,4.56.39,4.56.38,4.56.37,4.56.36,4.56.35,4.56.34,4.56.33,4.56.32,4.56.31,4.56.30,4.56.29,4.56.28,4.56.27,4.56.26,4.56.25,4.56.24,4.56.23,4.56.22,4.56.21,4.56.20,4.56.19,4.56.18,4.56.17,4.56.16,4.56.15,4.56.14,4.56.13,4.56.12,4.56.11,4.56.10,4.56.09,4.56.08,4.56.07,4.56.06,4.56.05,4.56.04,4.56.03,4.56.02,4.56.01,4.56.00,4.55.99,4.55.98,4.55.97,4.55.96,4.55.95,4.55.94,4.55.93,4.55.92,4.55.91,4.55.90,4.55.89,4.55.88,4.55.87,4.55.86,4.55.85,4.55.84,4.55.83,4.55.82,4.55.81,4.55.80,4.55.79,4.55.78,4.55.77,4.55.76,4.55.75,4.55.74,4.55.73,4.55.72,4.55.71,4.55.70,4.55.69,4.55.68,4.55.67,4.55.66,4.55.65,4.55.64,4.55.63,4.55.62,4.55.61,4.55.60,4.55.59,4.55.58,4.55.57,4.55.56,4.55.55,4.55.54,4.55.53,4.55.52,4.55.51,4.55.50,4.55.49,4.55.48,4.55.47,4.55.46,4.55.45,4.55.44,4.55.43,4.55.42,4.55.41,4.55.40,4.55.39,4.55.38,4.55.37,4.55.36,4.55.35,4.55.34,4.55.33,4.55.32,4.55.31,4.55.30,4.55.29,4.55.28,4.55.27,4.55.26,4.55.25,4.55.24,4.55.23,4.55.22,4.55.21,4.55.20,4.55.19,4.55.18,4.55.17,4.55.16,4.55.15,4.55.14,4.55.13,4.55.12,4.55.11,4.55.10,4.55.09,4.55.08,4.55.07,4.55.06,4.55.05,4.55.04,4.55.03,4.55.02,4.55.01,4.55.00,4.54.99,4.54.98,4.54.97,4.54.96,4.54.95,4.54.94,4.54.93,4.54.92,4.54.91,4.54.90,4.54.89,4.54.88,4.54.87,4.54.86,4.54.85,4.54.70,4.54.69,4.54.68,4.54.67,4.54.66,4.5

4.65,4.54.64,4.5

4.63,4.54.62,4.54.61,4.54.60,4.54.59,4.54.58,4.54.57,4.54.56,4.54.55,4.54.54,4.54.53,4.54.52,4.54.51,4.54.50,4.54.49,4.54.48,4.54.47,4.54.46,4.54.45,4.54.44,4.54.43,4.54.42,4.54.41,4.54.40,4.54.39,4.54.38,4.54.37,4.54.36,4.54.35,4.54.34,4.54.33,4.54.32,4.54.31,4.54.30,4.54.29,4.54.28,4.54.27,4.54.26,4.54.25,4.54.24,4.54.23,4.54.22,4.54.21,4.54.20,4.54.19,4.54.18,4.54.17,4.54.16,4.54.15,4.54.14,4.54.13,4.54.12,4.54.11,4.54.10,4.54.09,4.54.08,4.54.07,4.54.06,4.54.05,4.54.04,4.54.03,4.54.02,4.54.01,4.54.00,4.53.99,4.53.98,4.53.97,4.53.96,4.53.95,4.53.94,4.53.93,4.53.92,4.5

3.91,4.53.90,4.5

3.89,4.5

3.88,4.5

3.87,4.53.86,4.5

3.85,4.5

3.84,4.5

3.83,4.5

3.82,4.53.81,4.53.80,4.53.79,4.53.78,4.53.77,4.53.76,4.53.75,4.53.74,4.53.73,4.5

3.72,4.53.71,4.53.70,4.53.69,4.53.68,4.53.67,4.53.66,4.53.65,4.53.64,4.53.63,4.53.62,4.53.61,4.53.60,4.53.59,4.5

3.58,4.53.57,4.53.56,4.53.55,4.53.54,4.5

3.53,4.5

3.52,4.53.51,4.53.50,4.5

3.49,4.53.48,4.53.47,4.53.46,4.5

3.45,4.53.44,4.53.43,4.53.42,4.53.41,4.53.40,4.53.39,4.53.38,4.53.37,4.53.36,4.53.35,4.53.34,4.53.33,4.53.32,4.53.31,4.53.30,4.53.29,4.53.28,4.53.27,4.53.26,4.5

3.25,4.53.24,4.53.23,4.53.22,4.53.21,4.53.20,4.53.19,4.53.18,4.53.17,4.53.16,4.53.15,4.53.14,4.53.13,4.53.12,4.53.11,4.53.10,4.53.09,4.53.08,4.53.07,4.53.06,4.53.05,4.53.04,4.53.03,4.53.02,4.53.01,4.53.00,4.52.99,4.52.98,4.52.97,4.52.96,4.52.95,4.52.94,4.52.93,4.52.92,4.52.91,4.52.90,4.52.89,4.52.88,4.52.87,4.52.86,4.52.85,4.52.84,4.52.83,4.52.82,4.52.81,4.52.80,4.52.79,4.52.78,4.52.77,4.52.76,4.52.75,4.52.74,4.52.73,4.52.72,4.52.71,4.52.70,4.52.69,4.52.68,4.52.67,4.52.66,4.52.65,4.52.64,4.52.63,4.52.62,4.52.61,4.52.60,4.52.59,4.52.58,4.52.57,4.52.56,4.52.55,4.52.54,4.52.53,4.52.52,4.52.51,4.52.50,4.52.49,4.52.48,4.52.47,4.52.46,4.52.45,4.52.44,4.52.43,4.52.42,4.52.41,4.52.40,4.52.39,4.52.38,4.52.37,4.52.36,4.52.35,4.52.34,4.52.33,4.52.32,4.52.31,4.52.30,4.52.29,4.52.28,4.52.27,4.52.26,4.52.25,4.52.24,4.52.23,4.52.22,4.52.21,4.52.20,4.52.19,4.52.18,4.52.17,4.52.16,4.52.15,4.52.14,4.52.13,4.52.12,4.52.11,4.52.10,4.52.09,4.52.08,4.52.07,4.52.06,4.52.05,4.52.04,4.52.03,4.52.02,4.52.01,4.52.00,4.51.99,4.51.98,4.51.97,4.51.96,4.51.95,4.51.94,4.51.93,4.51.92,4.51.91,4.51.90,4.51.89,4.51.88,4.51.87,4.51.86,4.51.85,4.51.84,4.51.83,4.51.82,4.51.81,4.51.80,4.51.79,4.51.78,4.51.77,4.51.76,4.51.75,4.51.74,4.51.73,4.51.72,4.51.71,4.51.70,4.51.69,4.51.68,4.51.67,4.51.66,4.51.65,4.51.64,4.51.63,4.51.62,4.51.61,4.51.60,4.51.59,4.51.58,4.51.57,4.51.56,4.51.55,4.51.54,4.51.53,4.51.52,4.51.51,4.51.50,4.51.49,4.51.48,4.51.47,4.51.46,4.51.45,4.51.44,4.51.43,4.51.42,4.51.41,4.51.40,4.51.39,4.51.38,4.51.37,4.51.36,4.51.35,4.51.34,4.51.33,4.51.32,4.51.31,4.51.30,4.51.29,4.51.28,4.51.27,4.51.26,4.51.25,4.51.24,4.51.23,4.51.22,4.51.21,4.51.20,4.51.19,4.51.18,4.51.17,4.51.16,4.51.15,4.51.14,4.51.13,4.51.12,4.51.11,4.51.10,4.51.09,4.51.08,4.51.07,4.51.06,4.51.05,4.51.04,4.51.03,4.51.02,4.51.01,4.51.00,4.50.99,4.50.98,4.50.97,4.50.96,4.50.95,4.50.94,4.50.93,4.50.92,4.50.91,4.50.90,4.50.89,4.50.88,4.50.87,4.50.86,4.50.85,4.50.84,4.50.83,4.50.82,4.50.81,4.50.80,4.50.79,4.50.78,4.50.77,4.50.76,4.50.75,4.50.74,4.50.73,4.50.72,4.50.71,4.50.70,4.50.69,4.50.68,4.50.67,4.50.66,4.50.65,4.50.64,4.50.63,4.50.62,4.50.61,4.50.60,4.50.59,4.50.58,4.50.57,4.50.56,4.50.55,4.50.54,4.50.53,4.50.52,4.50.51,4.50.50,4.50.49,4.50.48,4.50.47,4.50.46,4.50.45,4.50.44,4.50.43,4.50.42,4.50.41,4.50.40,4.50.39,4.50.38,4.50.37,4.50.36,4.50.35,4.50.34,4.50.33,4.50.32,4.50.31,4.50.30,4.50.29,4.50.28,4.50.27,4.50.26,4.59.00,3.58.99,3.58.98,3.58.97,3.58.96,3.58.95,3.58.94,3.58.93,3.58.92,3.58.91,3.58.90,3.58.89,3.58.88,3.58.87,3.58.86,3.58.85,3.58.84,3.58.83,3.58.82,3.58.81,3.58.80,3.58.79,3.58.78,3.58.77,3.58.76,3.58.75,3.58.74,3.58.73,3.58.72,3.58.71,3.58.70,3.58.69,3.58.68,3.58.67,3.58.66,3.58.65,3.58.64,3.58.63,3.58.62,3.58.61,3.58.60,3.58.59,3.58.58,3.58.57,3.58.56,3.58.55,3.58.54,3.58.53,3.58.52,3.58.51,3.58.50,3.58.49,3.58.48,3.58.47,3.58.46,3.58.45,3.58.44,3.58.43,3.58.42,3.58.41,3.58.40,3.58.39,3.58.38,3.58.37,3.58.36,3.58.35,3.58.34,3.58.33,3.58.32,3.58.31,3.58.30,3.58.29,3.58.28,3.58.27,3.58.26,3.58.25,3.58.24,3.58.23,3.58.22,3.58.21,3.58.20,3.58.19,3.58.18,3.58.17,3.58.16,3.58.15,3.58.14,3.58.13,3.58.12,3.58.11,3.58.10,3.58.09,3.58.08,3.58.07,3.58.06,3.58.05,3.58.04,3.58.03,3.58.02,3.58.01,3.58.00,3.57.99,3.57.98,3.57.97,3.57.96,3.57.95,3.57.94,3.57.93,3.57.92,3.57.91,3.57.90,3.57.89,3.57.88,3.57.87,3.57.86,3.57.85,3.57.84,3.57.83,3.57.82,3.57.81,3.57.80,3.57.79,3.57.78,3.57.77,3.57.76,3.57.75,3.57.74,3.57.73,3.57.72,3.57.71,3.57.70,3.57.69,3.57.68,3.57.67,3.57.66,3.57.65,3.57.64,3.57.63,3.57.62,3.57.61,3.57.60,3.57.59,3.57.58,3.57.57,3.57.56,3.57.55,3.57.54,3.57.53,3.57.52,3.57.51,3.57.50,3.57.49,3.57.48,3.57.47,3.57.46,3.57.45,3.57.44,3.57.43,3.57.42,3.57.41,3.57.40,3.57.39,3.57.38,3.57.37,3.57.36,3.57.35,3.57.34,3.57.33,3.57.32,3.57.31,3.57.30,3.57.29,3.57.28,3.57.27,3.57.26,3.57.25,3.57.24,3.57.23,3.57.22,3.57.21,3.57.20,3.57.19,3.57.18,3.57.17,3.57.16,3.57.15,3.57.14,3.57.13,3.57.12,3.57.11,3.57.10,3.57.09,3.57.08,3.57.07,3.57.06,3.57.05,3.57.04,3.57.03,3.57.02,3.57.01,3.57.00,3.56.99,3.56.98,3.56.97,3.56.96,3.56.95,3.56.94,3.56.93,3.56.92,3.56.91,3.56.90,3.56.89,3.56.88,3.56.87,3.56.86,3.56.85,3.56.84,3.56.83,3.56.82,3.56.81,3.56.80,3.56.79,3.56.78,3.56.77,3.56.76,3.56.75,3.56.74,3.56.73,3.56.72,3.56.71,3.56.70,3.56.69,3.56.68,3.56.67,3.56.66,3.56.65,3.56.64,3.56.63,3.56.62,3.56.61,3.56.60,3.56.59,3.56.58,3.56.57,3.56.56,3.56.55,3.56.54,3.56.53,3.56.52,3.56.51,3.56.50,3.56.49,3.56.48,3.56.47,3.56.46,3.56.45,3.56.44,3.56.43,3.56.42,3.56.41,3.56.40,3.56.39,3.56.38,3.56.37,3.56.36,3.56.35,3.56.34,3.56.33,3.56.32,3.56.31,3.56.30,3.56.29,3.56.28,3.56.27,3.56.26,3.56.25,3.56.24,3.56.23,3.56.22,3.56.21,3.56.20,3.56.19,3.56.18,3.56.17,3.56.16,3.56.15,3.56.14,3.56.13,3.56.12,3.56.11,3.56.10,3.56.09,3.56.08,3.56.07,3.56.06,3.56.05,3.56.04,3.56.03,3.56.02,3.56.01,3.56.00,3.55.99,3.55.98,3.55.97,3.55.96,3.55.95,3.55.94,3.55.93,3.55.92,3.55.91,3.55.90,3.55.89,3.55.88,3.55.87,3.55.86,3.55.85,3.55.84,3.55.83,3.55.82,3.55.81,3.55.80,3.55.79,3.55.78,3.55.77,3.55.76,3.55.75,3.55.74,3.55.73,3.55.72,3.55.71,3.55.70,3.55.69,3.55.68,3.55.67,3.55.66,3.55.65,3.55.64,3.55.63,3.55.62,3.55.61,3.55.60,3.55.59,3.55.58,3.55.57,3.55.56,3.55.55,3.55.54,3.55.53,3.55.52,3.55.51,3.55.50,3.55.49,3.55.48,3.55.47,3.55.46,3.55.45,3.55.44,3.55.43,3.55.42,3.55.41,3.55.40,3.55.39,3.55.38,3.55.37,3.55.36,3.55.35,3.55.34,3.55.33,3.55.32,3.55.31,3.55.30,3.55.29,3.55.28,3.55.27,3.55.26,3.55.25,3.55.24,3.55.23,3.55.22,3.55.21,3.55.20,3.55.19,3.55.18,3.55.17,3.55.16,3.55.15,3.55.14,3.55.13,3.55.12,3.55.11,3.55.10,3.55.09,3.55.08,3.55.07,3.55.06,3.55.05,3.55.04,3.55.03,3.55.02,3.55.01,3.55.00,3.54.99,3.54.98,3.54.97,3.54.96,3.54.95,3.54.94,3.54.93,3.54.92,3.54.91,3.54.90,3.54.89,3.54.88,3.54.87,3.54.86,3.54.85,3.54.70,3.54.69,3.54.68,3.54.67,3.5

4.66,3.5

4.65,3.5

4.64,3.5

4.63,3.54.62,3.54.61,3.54.60,3.54.59,3.54.58,3.54.57,3.54.56,3.54.55,3.54.54,3.54.53,3.54.52,3.54.51,3.54.50,3.54.49,3.54.48,3.54.47,3.54.46,3.54.45,3.54.44,3.54.43,3.54.42,3.54.41,3.54.40,3.54.39,3.54.38,3.54.37,3.54.36,3.54.35,3.54.34,3.54.33,3.54.32,3.54.31,3.54.30,3.54.29,3.54.28,3.54.27,3.54.26,3.54.25,3.54.24,3.54.23,3.54.22,3.54.21,3.54.20,3.54.19,3.54.18,3.54.17,3.54.16,3.54.15,3.54.14,3.54.13,3.54.12,3.54.11,3.54.10,3.54.09,3.54.08,3.54.07,3.54.06,3.54.05,3.54.04,3.54.03,3.54.02,3.54.01,3.54.00,3.53.99,3.53.98,3.53.97,3.53.96,3.53.95,3.53.94,3.53.93,3.53.92,3.53.91,3.53.90,3.5

3.89,3.53.88,3.5

3.87,3.53.86,3.5

3.85,3.5

3.84,3.53.83,3.5

3.82,3.53.81,3.53.80,3.53.79,3.53.78,3.53.77,3.53.76,3.5

3.75,3.53.74,3.53.73,3.5

3.72,3.53.71,3.53.70,3.53.69,3.53.68,3.53.67,3.53.66,3.53.65,3.53.64,3.53.63,3.53.62,3.53.61,3.53.60,3.53.59,3.5

3.58,3.53.57,3.53.56,3.53.55,3.53.54,3.5

3.53,3.5

3.52,3.53.51,3.53.50,3.5

3.49,3.53.48,3.53.47,3.53.46,3.5

3.45,3.53.44,3.53.43,3.53.42,3.53.41,3.53.40,3.53.39,3.53.38,3.53.37,3.53.36,3.53.35,3.53.34,3.53.33,3.53.32,3.53.31,3.53.30,3.53.29,3.53.28,3.53.27,3.53.26,3.5

3.25,3.53.24,3.53.23,3.53.22,3.53.21,3.53.20,3.53.19,3.53.18,3.53.17,3.53.16,3.53.15,3.53.14,3.53.13,3.53.12,3.53.11,3.53.10,3.53.09,3.53.08,3.53.07,3.53.06,3.53.05,3.53.04,3.53.03,3.53.02,3.53.01,3.53.00,3.52.99,3.52.98,3.52.97,3.52.96,3.52.95,3.52.94,3.52.93,3.52.92,3.52.91,3.52.90,3.52.89,3.52.88,3.52.87,3.52.86,3.52.85,3.52.84,3.52.83,3.52.82,3.52.81,3.52.80,3.52.79,3.52.78,3.52.77,3.52.76,3.52.75,3.52.74,3.52.73,3.52.72,3.52.71,3.52.70,3.52.69,3.52.68,3.52.67,3.52.66,3.52.65,3.52.64,3.52.63,3.52.62,3.52.61,3.52.60,3.52.59,3.52.58,3.52.57,3.52.56,3.52.55,3.52.54,3.52.53,3.52.52,3.52.51,3.52.50,3.52.49,3.52.48,3.52.47,3.52.46,3.52.45,3.52.44,3.52.43,3.52.42,3.52.41,3.52.40,3.52.39,3.52.38,3.52.37,3.52.36,3.52.35,3.52.34,3.52.33,3.52.32,3.52.31,3.52.30,3.52.29,3.52.28,3.52.27,3.52.26,3.52.25,3.52.24,3.52.23,3.52.22,3.52.21,3.52.20,3.52.19,3.52.18,3.52.17,3.52.16,3.52.15,3.52.14,3.52.13,3.52.12,3.52.11,3.52.10,3.52.09,3.52.08,3.52.07,3.52.06,3.52.05,3.52.04,3.52.03,3.52.02,3.52.01,3.52.00,3.51.99,3.51.98,3.51.97,3.51.96,3.51.95,3.51.94,3.51.93,3.51.92,3.51.91,3.51.90,3.51.89,3.51.88,3.51.87,3.51.86,3.51.85,3.51.84,3.51.83,3.51.82,3.51.81,3.51.80,3.51.79,3.51.78,3.51.77,3.51.76,3.51.75,3.51.74,3.51.73,3.51.72,3.51.71,3.51.70,3.51.69,3.51.68,3.51.67,3.51.66,3.51.65,3.51.64,3.51.63,3.51.62,3.51.61,3.51.60,3.51.59,3.51.58,3.51.57,3.51.56,3.51.55,3.51.54,3.51.53,3.51.52,3.51.51,3.51.50,3.51.49,3.51.48,3.51.47,3.51.46,3.51.45,3.51.44,3.51.43,3.51.42,3.51.41,3.51.40,3.51.39,3.51.38,3.51.37,3.51.36,3.51.35,3.51.34,3.51.33,3.5

1.32,3.5

1.31,3.51.30,3.51.29,3.51.28,3.51.27,3.51.26,3.51.25,3.51.24,3.51.23,3.51.22,3.51.21,3.51.20,3.51.19,3.51.18,3.51.17,3.51.16,3.51.15,3.51.14,3.51.13,3.51.12,3.51.11,3.51.10,3.51.09,3.51.08,3.51.07,3.51.06,3.51.05,3.51.04,3.51.03,3.51.02,3.51.01,3.51.00,3.50.99,3.50.98,3.50.97,3.50.96,3.50.95,3.50.94,3.50.93,3.50.92,3.50.91,3.50.90,3.50.89,3.50.88,3.50.87,3.50.86,3.50.85,3.50.84,3.50.83,3.50.82,3.50.81,3.50.80,3.50.79,3.50.78,3.50.77,3.50.76,3.50.75,3.50.74,3.50.73,3.50.72,3.50.71,3.50.70,3.50.69,3.50.68,3.50.67,3.50.66,3.50.65,3.50.64,3.50.63,3.50.62,3.50.61,3.50.60,3.50.59,3.50.58,3.50.57,3.50.56,3.50.55,3.50.54,3.50.53,3.50.52,3.50.51,3.50.50,3.50.49,3.50.48,3.50.47,3.50.46,3.50.45,3.50.44,3.50.43,3.50.42,3.50.41,3.50.40,3.50.39,3.50.38,3.50.37,3.50.36,3.50.35,3.50.34,3.50.33,3.50.32,3.50.31,3.50.30,3.50.29,3.50.28,3.50.27,3.50.26,3.59.00,2.58.99,2.58.98,2.58.97,2.58.96,2.58.95,2.58.94,2.58.93,2.58.92,2.58.91,2.58.90,2.58.89,2.58.88,2.58.87,2.58.86,2.58.85,2.58.84,2.58.83,2.58.82,2.58.81,2.58.80,2.58.79,2.58.78,2.58.77,2.58.76,2.58.75,2.58.74,2.58.73,2.58.72,2.58.71,2.58.70,2.58.69,2.58.68,2.58.67,2.58.66,2.58.65,2.58.64,2.58.63,2.58.62,2.58.61,2.58.60,2.58.59,2.58.58,2.58.57,2.58.56,2.58.55,2.58.54,2.58.53,2.58.52,2.58.51,2.58.50,2.58.49,2.58.48,2.58.47,2.58.46,2.58.45,2.58.44,2.58.43,2.58.42,2.58.41,2.58.40,2.58.39,2.58.38,2.58.37,2.58.36,2.58.35,2.58.34,2.58.33,2.58.32,2.58.31,2.58.30,2.58.29,2.58.28,2.58.27,2.58.26,2.58.25,2.58.24,2.58.23,2.58.22,2.58.21,2.58.20,2.58.19,2.58.18,2.58.17,2.58.16,2.58.15,2.58.14,2.58.13,2.58.12,2.58.11,2.58.10,2.58.09,2.58.08,2.58.07,2.58.06,2.58.05,2.58.04,2.58.03,2.58.02,2.58.01,2.58.00,2.57.99,2.57.98,2.57.97,2.57.96,2.57.95,2.57.94,2.57.93,2.57.92,2.57.91,2.57.90,2.57.89,2.57.88,2.57.87,2.57.86,2.57.85,2.57.84,2.57.83,2.57.82,2.57.81,2.57.80,2.57.79,2.57.78,2.57.77,2.57.76,2.57.75,2.57.74,2.57.73,2.57.72,2.57.71,2.57.70,2.57.69,2.57.68,2.57.67,2.57.66,2.57.65,2.57.64,2.57.63,2.57.62,2.57.61,2.57.60,2.57.59,2.57.58,2.57.57,2.57.56,2.57.55,2.57.54,2.57.53,2.57.52,2.57.51,2.57.50,2.57.49,2.57.48,2.57.47,2.57.46,2.57.45,2.57.44,2.57.43,2.57.42,2.57.41,2.57.40,2.57.39,2.57.38,2.57.37,2.57.36,2.57.35,2.57.34,2.57.33,2.57.32,2.57.31,2.57.30,2.57.29,2.57.28,2.57.27,2.57.26,2.57.25,2.57.24,2.57.23,2.57.22,2.57.21,2.57.20,2.57.19,2.57.18,2.57.17,2.57.16,2.57.15,2.57.14,2.57.13,2.57.12,2.57.11,2.57.10,2.57.09,2.57.08,2.57.07,2.57.06,2.57.05,2.57.04,2.57.03,2.57.02,2.57.01,2.57.00,2.56.99,2.56.98,2.56.97,2.56.96,2.56.95,2.56.94,2.56.93,2.56.92,2.56.91,2.56.90,2.56.89,2.56.88,2.56.87,2.56.86,2.56.85,2.56.84,2.56.83,2.56.82,2.56.81,2.56.80,2.56.79,2.56.78,2.56.77,2.56.76,2.56.75,2.56.74,2.56.73,2.56.72,2.56.71,2.56.70,2.56.69,2.56.68,2.56.67,2.56.66,2.56.65,2.56.64,2.56.63,2.56.62,2.56.61,2.56.60,2.56.59,2.56.58,2.56.57,2.56.56,2.56.55,2.56.54,2.56.53,2.56.52,2.56.51,2.56.50,2.56.49,2.56.48,2.56.47,2.56.46,2.56.45,2.56.44,2.56.43,2.56.42,2.56.41,2.56.40,2.56.39,2.56.38,2.56.37,2.56.36,2.56.35,2.56.34,2.56.33,2.56.32,2.56.31,2.56.30,2.56.29,2.56.28,2.56.27,2.56.26,2.56.25,2.56.24,2.56.23,2.56.22,2.56.21,2.56.20,2.56.19,2.56.18,2.56.17,2.56.16,2.56.15,2.56.14,2.56.13,2.56.12,2.56.11,2.56.10,2.56.09,2.56.08,2.56.07,2.56.06,2.56.05,2.56.04,2.56.03,2.56.02,2.56.01,2.56.00,2.55.99,2.55.98,2.55.97,2.55.96,2.55.95,2.55.94,2.55.93,2.55.92,2.55.91,2.55.90,2.55.89,2.55.88,2.55.87,2.55.86,2.55.85,2.55.84,2.55.83,2.55.82,2.55.81,2.55.80,2.55.79,2.55.78,2.55.77,2.55.76,2.55.75,2.55.74,2.55.73,2.55.72,2.55.71,2.55.70,2.55.69,2.55.68,2.55.67,2.55.66,2.55.65,2.55.64,2.55.63,2.55.62,2.55.61,2.55.60,2.55.59,2.55.58,2.55.57,2.55.56,2.55.55,2.55.54,2.55.53,2.55.52,2.55.51,2.55.50,2.55.49,2.55.48,2.55.47,2.55.46,2.55.45,2.55.44,2.55.43,2.55.42,2.55.41,2.55.40,2.55.39,2.55.38,2.55.37,2.55.36,2.55.35,2.55.34,2.55.33,2.55.32,2.55.31,2.55.30,2.55.29,2.55.28,2.55.27,2.55.26,2.55.25,2.55.24,2.55.23,2.55.22,2.55.21,2.55.20,2.55.19,2.55.18,2.55.17,2.55.16,2.55.15,2.55.14,2.55.13,2.55.12,2.55.11,2.55.10,2.55.09,2.55.08,2.55.07,2.55.06,2.55.05,2.55.04,2.55.03,2.55.02,2.55.01,2.55.00,2.54.99,2.54.98,2.54.97,2.54.96,2.54.95,2.54.94,2.54.93,2.54.92,2.54.91,2.54.90,2.54.89,2.54.88,2.54.87,2.54.86,2.54.85,2.54.70,2.54.69,2.54.68,2.54.67,2.5

4.66,2.54.65,2.5

4.64,2.5

4.63,2.54.62,2.54.61,2.54.60,2.54.59,2.54.58,2.54.57,2.54.56,2.54.55,2.54.54,2.54.53,2.54.52,2.54.51,2.54.50,2.54.49,2.54.48,2.54.47,2.54.46,2.54.45,2.54.44,2.54.43,2.54.42,2.54.41,2.54.40,2.54.39,2.54.38,2.54.37,2.54.36,2.54.35,2.54.34,2.54.33,2.54.32,2.54.31,2.54.30,2.54.29,2.54.28,2.54.27,2.54.26,2.54.25,2.54.24,2.54.23,2.54.22,2.54.21,2.54.20,2.54.19,2.54.18,2.54.17,2.54.16,2.54.15,2.54.14,2.54.13,2.54.12,2.54.11,2.54.10,2.54.09,2.54.08,2.54.07,2.54.06,2.54.05,2.54.04,2.54.03,2.54.02,2.54.01,2.54.00,2.53.99,2.53.98,2.53.97,2.53.96,2.53.95,2.53.94,2.53.93,2.53.92,2.53.91,2.53.90,2.53.89,2.53.88,2.53.87,2.53.86,2.53.85,2.53.84,2.53.83,2.53.82,2.53.81,2.53.80,2.53.79,2.53.78,2.53.77,2.53.76,2.53.75,2.53.74,2.53.73,2.53.72,2.53.71,2.53.70,2.53.69,2.53.68,2.53.67,2.53.66,2.53.65,2.53.64,2.53.63,2.53.62,2.53.61,2.53.60,2.53.59,2.53.58,2.53.57,2.53.56,2.53.55,2.53.54,2.5

3.53,2.5

3.52,2.53.51,2.53.50,2.53.49,2.53.48,2.53.47,2.53.46,2.5

3.45,2.53.44,2.53.43,2.53.42,2.53.41,2.53.40,2.53.39,2.53.38,2.53.37,2.53.36,2.53.35,2.53.34,2.53.33,2.53.32,2.53.31,2.53.30,2.53.29,2.53.28,2.53.27,2.53.26,2.53.25,2.53.24,2.53.23,2.53.22,2.53.21,2.53.20,2.53.19,2.53.18,2.53.17,2.53.16,2.53.15,2.53.14,2.53.13,2.53.12,2.53.11,2.53.10,2.53.09,2.53.08,2.53.07,2.53.06,2.53.05,2.53.04,2.53.03,2.53.02,2.53.01,2.53.00,2.52.99,2.52.98,2.52.97,2.52.96,2.52.95,2.52.94,2.52.93,2.52.92,2.52.91,2.52.90,2.52.89,2.52.88,2.52.87,2.52.86,2.52.85,2.52.84,2.52.83,2.52.82,2.52.81,2.52.80,2.52.79,2.52.78,2.52.77,2.52.76,2.52.75,2.52.74,2.52.73,2.52.72,2.52.71,2.52.70,2.52.69,2.52.68,2.52.67,2.52.66,2.52.65,2.52.64,2.52.63,2.52.62,2.52.61,2.52.60,2.52.59,2.52.58,2.52.57,2.52.56,2.52.55,2.52.54,2.52.53,2.52.52,2.52.51,2.52.50,2.52.49,2.52.48,2.52.47,2.52.46,2.52.45,2.52.44,2.52.43,2.52.42,2.52.41,2.52.40,2.52.39,2.52.38,2.52.37,2.52.36,2.52.35,2.52.34,2.52.33,2.52.32,2.52.31,2.52.30,2.52.29,2.52.28,2.52.27,2.52.26,2.52.25,2.52.24,2.52.23,2.52.22,2.52.21,2.52.20,2.52.19,2.52.18,2.52.17,2.52.16,2.52.15,2.52.14,2.52.13,2.52.12,2.52.11,2.52.10,2.52.09,2.52.08,2.52.07,2.52.06,2.52.05,2.52.04,2.52.03,2.52.02,2.52.01,2.52.00,2.51.99,2.51.98,2.51.97,2.51.96,2.51.95,2.51.94,2.51.93,2.51.92,2.51.91,2.51.90,2.51.89,2.51.88,2.51.87,2.51.86,2.51.85,2.51.84,2.51.83,2.51.82,2.51.81,2.51.80,2.51.79,2.51.78,2.51.77,2.51.76,2.51.75,2.51.74,2.51.73,2.51.72,2.51.71,2.51.70,2.51.69,2.51.68,2.51.67,2.51.66,2.51.65,2.51.64,2.51.63,2.51.62,2.51.61,2.51.60,2.51.59,2.51.58,2.51.57,2.51.56,2.51.55,2.51.54,2.51.53,2.51.52,2.51.51,2.51.50,2.51.49,2.51.48,2.51.47,2.51.46,2.51.45,2.51.44,2.51.43,2.51.42,2.51.41,2.51.40,2.51.39,2.51.38,2.51.37,2.51.36,2.51.35,2.51.34,2.51.33,2.51.32,2.5

1.31,2.51.30,2.51.29,2.51.28,2.51.27,2.51.26,2.51.25,2.51.24,2.51.23,2.51.22,2.51.21,2.51.20,2.51.19,2.51.18,2.51.17,2.51.16,2.51.15,2.51.14,2.51.13,2.51.12,2.51.11,2.51.10,2.51.09,2.51.08,2.51.07,2.51.06,2.51.05,2.51.04,2.51.03,2.51.02,2.51.01,2.51.00,2.50.99,2.50.98,2.50.97,2.50.96,2.50.95,2.50.94,2.50.93,2.50.92,2.50.91,2.50.90,2.50.89,2.50.88,2.50.87,2.50.86,2.50.85,2.50.84,2.50.83,2.50.82,2.50.81,2.50.80,2.50.79,2.50.78,2.50.77,2.50.76,2.50.75,2.50.74,2.50.73,2.50.72,2.50.71,2.50.70,2.50.69,2.50.68,2.50.67,2.50.66,2.50.65,2.50.64,2.50.63,2.50.62,2.50.61,2.50.60,2.50.59,2.50.58,2.50.57,2.50.56,2.50.55,2.50.54,2.50.53,2.50.52,2.50.51,2.50.50,2.50.49,2.50.48,2.50.47,2.50.46,2.50.45,2.50.44,2.50.43,2.50.42,2.50.41,2.50.40,2.50.39,2.50.38,2.50.37,2.50.36,2.50.35,2.50.34,2.50.33,2.50.32,2.50.31,2.50.30,2.50.29,2.50.28,2.50.27,2.50.26,2.59.00,1.58.99,1.58.98,1.58.97,1.58.96,1.58.95,1.58.94,1.58.93,1.58.92,1.58.91,1.58.90,1.58.89,1.58.88,1.58.87,1.58.86,1.58.85,1.58.84,1.58.83,1.58.82,1.58.81,1.58.80,1.58.79,1.58.78,1.58.77,1.58.76,1.58.75,1.58.74,1.58.73,1.58.72,1.58.71,1.58.70,1.58.69,1.58.68,1.58.67,1.58.66,1.58.65,1.58.64,1.58.63,1.58.62,1.58.61,1.58.60,1.58.59,1.58.58,1.58.57,1.58.56,1.58.55,1.58.54,1.58.53,1.58.52,1.58.51,1.58.50,1.58.49,1.58.48,1.58.47,1.58.46,1.58.45,1.58.44,1.58.43,1.58.42,1.58.41,1.58.40,1.58.39,1.58.38,1.58.37,1.58.36,1.58.35,1.58.34,1.58.33,1.58.32,1.58.31,1.58.30,1.58.29,1.58.28,1.58.27,1.58.26,1.58.25,1.58.24,1.58.23,1.58.22,1.58.21,1.58.20,1.58.19,1.58.18,1.58.17,1.58.16,1.58.15,1.58.14,1.58.13,1.58.12,1.58.11,1.58.10,1.58.09,1.58.08,1.58.07,1.58.06,1.58.05,1.58.04,1.58.03,1.58.02,1.58.01,1.58.00,1.57.99,1.57.98,1.57.97,1.57.96,1.57.95,1.57.94,1.57.93,1.57.92,1.57.91,1.57.90,1.57.89,1.57.88,1.57.87,1.57.86,1.57.85,1.57.84,1.57.83,1.57.82,1.57.81,1.57.80,1.57.79,1.57.78,1.57.77,1.57.76,1.57.75,1.57.74,1.57.73,1.57.72,1.57.71,1.57.70,1.57.69,1.57.68,1.57.67,1.57.66,1.57.65,1.57.64,1.57.63,1.57.62,1.57.61,1.57.60,1.57.59,1.57.58,1.57.57,1.57.56,1.57.55,1.57.54,1.57.53,1.57.52,1.57.51,1.57.50,1.57.49,1.57.48,1.57.47,1.57.46,1.57.45,1.57.44,1.57.43,1.57.42,1.57.41,1.57.40,1.57.39,1.57.38,1.57.37,1.57.36,1.57.35,1.57.34,1.57.33,1.57.32,1.57.31,1.57.30,1.57.29,1.57.28,1.57.27,1.57.26,1.57.25,1.57.24,1.57.23,1.57.22,1.57.21,1.57.20,1.57.19,1.57.18,1.57.17,1.57.16,1.57.15,1.57.14,1.57.13,1.57.12,1.57.11,1.57.10,1.57.09,1.57.08,1.57.07,1.57.06,1.57.05,1.57.04,1.57.03,1.57.02,1.57.01,1.57.00,1.56.99,1.56.98,1.56.97,1.56.96,1.56.95,1.56.94,1.56.93,1.56.92,1.56.91,1.56.90,1.56.89,1.56.88,1.56.87,1.56.86,1.56.85,1.56.84,1.56.83,1.56.82,1.56.81,1.56.80,1.56.79,1.56.78,1.56.77,1.56.76,1.56.75,1.56.74,1.56.73,1.56.72,1.56.71,1.56.70,1.56.69,1.56.68,1.56.67,1.56.66,1.56.65,1.56.64,1.56.63,1.56.62,1.56.61,1.56.60,1.56.59,1.56.58,1.56.57,1.56.56,1.56.55,1.56.54,1.56.53,1.56.52,1.56.51,1.56.50,1.56.49,1.56.48,1.56.47,1.56.46,1.56.45,1.56.44,1.56.43,1.56.42,1.56.41,1.56.40,1.56.39,1.56.38,1.56.37,1.56.36,1.56.35,1.56.34,1.56.33,1.56.32,1.56.31,1.56.30,1.56.29,1.56.28,1.56.27,1.56.26,1.56.25,1.56.24,1.56.23,1.56.22,1.56.21,1.56.20,1.56.19,1.56.18,1.56.17,1.56.16,1.56.15,1.56.14,1.56.13,1.56.12,1.56.11,1.56.10,1.56.09,1.56.08,1.56.07,1.56.06,1.56.05,1.56.04,1.56.03,1.56.02,1.56.01,1.56.00,1.55.99,1.55.98,1.55.97,1.55.96,1.55.95,1.55.94,1.55.93,1.55.92,1.55.91,1.55.90,1.55.89,1.55.88,1.55.87,1.55.86,1.55.85,1.55.84,1.55.83,1.55.82,1.55.81,1.55.80,1.55.79,1.55.78,1.55.77,1.55.76,1.55.75,1.55.74,1.55.73,1.55.72,1.55.71,1.55.70,1.55.69,1.55.68,1.55.67,1.55.66,1.55.65,1.55.64,1.55.63,1.55.62,1.55.61,1.55.60,1.55.59,1.55.58,1.55.57,1.55.56,1.55.55,1.55.54,1.55.53,1.55.52,1.55.51,1.55.50,1.55.49,1.55.48,1.55.47,1.55.46,1.55.45,1.55.44,1.55.43,1.55.42,1.5

5.41,1.5

5.40,1.5

5.39,1.55.38,1.55.37,1.55.36,1.55.35,1.55.34,1.55.33,1.55.32,1.55.31,1.55.30,1.55.29,1.55.28,1.55.27,1.55.26,1.55.25,1.55.24,1.5

5.23,1.5

5.22,1.55.21,1.55.20,1.55.19,1.55.18,1.55.17,1.55.16,1.55.15,1.55.14,1.55.13,1.55.12,1.55.11,1.55.10,1.55.09,1.55.08,1.55.07,1.55.06,1.55.05,1.55.04,1.55.03,1.55.02,1.55.01,1.55.00,1.54.99,1.54.98,1.54.97,1.54.96,1.54.95,1.54.94,1.54.93,1.54.92,1.54.91,1.54.90,1.54.89,1.54.88,1.54.87,1.54.86,1.54.85,1.54.70,1.54.69,1.54.68,1.54.67,1.5

4.66,1.54.65,1.5

4.64,1.54.63,1.54.62,1.54.61,1.54.60,1.54.59,1.54.58,1.54.57,1.54.56,1.54.55,1.54.54,1.54.53,1.54.52,1.54.51,1.54.50,1.54.49,1.54.48,1.54.47,1.54.46,1.54.45,1.54.44,1.54.43,1.54.42,1.54.41,1.54.40,1.54.39,1.54.38,1.54.37,1.54.36,1.54.35,1.54.34,1.54.33,1.54.32,1.54.31,1.54.30,1.54.29,1.54.28,1.54.27,1.54.26,1.54.25,1.54.24,1.54.23,1.54.22,1.54.21,1.54.20,1.54.19,1.54.18,1.54.17,1.54.16,1.54.15,1.54.14,1.54.13,1.54.12,1.54.11,1.54.10,1.54.09,1.54.08,1.54.07,1.54.06,1.54.05,1.54.04,1.54.03,1.54.02,1.54.01,1.54.00,1.53.99,1.53.98,1.53.97,1.53.96,1.53.95,1.53.94,1.53.93,1.53.92,1.53.91,1.53.90,1.5

3.89,1.53.88,1.53.87,1.53.86,1.53.85,1.53.84,1.53.83,1.53.82,1.53.81,1.53.80,1.53.79,1.53.78,1.53.77,1.53.76,1.53.75,1.53.74,1.53.73,1.53.72,1.53.71,1.53.70,1.53.69,1.53.68,1.53.67,1.53.66,1.53.65,1.53.64,1.53.63,1.53.62,1.53.61,1.53.60,1.53.59,1.5

3.58,1.53.57,1.53.56,1.53.55,1.53.54,1.53.53,1.5

3.52,1.53.51,1.53.50,1.53.49,1.53.48,1.53.47,1.5

3.46,1.5

3.45,1.53.44,1.53.43,1.53.42,1.53.41,1.53.40,1.53.39,1.53.38,1.53.37,1.53.36,1.53.35,1.53.34,1.53.33,1.53.32,1.53.31,1.53.30,1.53.29,1.53.28,1.53.27,1.53.26,1.53.25,1.53.24,1.53.23,1.53.22,1.53.21,1.53.20,1.53.19,1.53.18,1.53.17,1.53.16,1.53.15,1.53.14,1.53.13,1.53.12,1.53.11,1.53.10,1.53.09,1.53.08,1.53.07,1.53.06,1.53.05,1.53.04,1.53.03,1.53.02,1.53.01,1.53.00,1.52.99,1.52.98,1.52.97,1.52.96,1.52.95,1.52.94,1.52.93,1.52.92,1.52.91,1.52.90,1.52.89,1.52.88,1.52.87,1.52.86,1.52.85,1.52.84,1.52.83,1.52.82,1.52.81,1.52.80,1.52.79,1.52.78,1.52.77,1.52.76,1.52.75,1.52.74,1.52.73,1.52.72,1.52.71,1.52.70,1.52.69,1.52.68,1.52.67,1.52.66,1.52.65,1.52.64,1.52.63,1.52.62,1.52.61,1.52.60,1.52.59,1.52.58,1.52.57,1.52.56,1.52.55,1.52.54,1.52.53,1.52.52,1.52.51,1.52.50,1.52.49,1.52.48,1.52.47,1.52.46,1.52.45,1.52.44,1.52.43,1.52.42,1.52.41,1.52.40,1.52.39,1.52.38,1.52.37,1.52.36,1.52.35,1.52.34,1.52.33,1.52.32,1.52.31,1.52.30,1.52.29,1.52.28,1.52.27,1.52.26,1.52.25,1.52.24,1.52.23,1.52.22,1.52.21,1.52.20,1.52.19,1.52.18,1.52.17,1.52.16,1.52.15,1.52.14,1.52.13,1.52.12,1.52.11,1.52.10,1.52.09,1.52.08,1.52.07,1.52.06,1.52.05,1.52.04,1.52.03,1.52.02,1.52.01,1.52.00,1.51.99,1.51.98,1.51.97,1.51.96,1.51.95,1.51.94,1.51.93,1.51.92,1.51.91,1.51.90,1.51.89,1.51.88,1.51.87,1.51.86,1.51.85,1.51.84,1.51.83,1.51.82,1.51.81,1.51.80,1.51.79,1.51.78,1.51.77,1.51.76,1.51.75,1.51.74,1.51.73,1.51.72,1.51.71,1.51.70,1.51.69,1.51.68,1.51.67,1.51.66,1.51.65,1.51.64,1.51.63,1.51.62,1.51.61,1.51.60,1.51.59,1.51.58,1.51.57,1.51.56,1.51.55,1.51.54,1.51.53,1.51.52,1.51.51,1.51.50,1.51.49,1.51.48,1.51.47,1.51.46,1.51.45,1.51.44,1.51.43,1.51.42,1.51.41,1.51.40,1.51.39,1.51.38,1.51.37,1.51.36,1.51.35,1.51.34,1.51.33,1.51.32,1.51.31,1.51.30,1.51.29,1.51.28,1.51.27,1.51.26,1.51.25,1.51.24,1.51.23,1.51.22,1.51.21,1.51.20,1.51.19,1.51.18,1.51.17,1.51.16,1.51.15,1.51.14,1.51.13,1.51.12,1.51.11,1.51.10,1.51.09,1.51.08,1.51.07,1.51.06,1.51.05,1.51.04,1.51.03,1.51.02,1.51.01,1.51.00,1.50.99,1.50.98,1.50.97,1.50.96,1.50.95,1.50.94,1.50.93,1.50.92,1.50.91,1.50.90,1.50.89,1.50.88,1.50.87,1.50.86,1.50.85,1.50.84,1.50.83,1.50.82,1.50.81,1.50.80,1.50.79,1.50.78,1.50.77,1.50.76,1.50.75,1.50.74,1.50.73,1.50.72,1.50.71,1.50.70,1.50.69,1.50.68,1.50.67,1.50.66,1.50.65,1.50.64,1.50.63,1.50.62,1.50.61,1.50.60,1.50.59,1.50.58,1.50.57,1.50.56,1.50.55,1.50.54,1.50.53,1.50.52,1.50.51,1.50.50,1.50.49,1.50.48,1.50.47,1.50.46,1.50.45,1.50.44,1.50.43,1.50.42,1.50.41,1.50.40,1.50.39,1.50.38,1.50.37,1.50.36,1.50.35,1.50.34,1.50.33,1.50.32,1.50.31,1.50.30,1.50.29,1.50.28,1.50.27,1.50.26,1.59.00,0.58.99,0.58.98,0.58.97,0.58.96,0.58.95,0.58.94,0.58.93,0.58.92,0.58.91,0.58.90,0.58.89,0.58.88,0.58.87,0.58.86,0.58.85,0.58.84,0.58.83,0.58.82,0.58.81,0.58.80,0.58.79,0.58.78,0.58.77,0.58.76,0.58.75,0.58.74,0.58.73,0.58.72,0.58.71,0.58.70,0.58.69,0.58.68,0.58.67,0.58.66,0.58.65,0.58.64,0.58.63,0.58.62,0.58.61,0.58.60,0.58.59,0.58.58,0.58.57,0.58.56,0.58.55,0.58.54,0.58.53,0.58.52,0.58.51,0.58.50,0.58.49,0.58.48,0.58.47,0.58.46,0.58.45,0.58.44,0.58.43,0.58.42,0.58.41,0.58.40,0.58.39,0.58.38,0.58.37,0.58.36,0.58.35,0.58.34,0.58.33,0.58.32,0.58.31,0.58.30,0.58.29,0.58.28,0.58.27,0.58.26,0.58.25,0.58.24,0.58.23,0.58.22,0.58.21,0.58.20,0.58.19,0.58.18,0.58.17,0.58.16,0.58.15,0.58.14,0.58.13,0.58.12,0.58.11,0.58.10,0.58.09,0.58.08,0.58.07,0.58.06,0.58.05,0.58.04,0.58.03,0.58.02,0.58.01,0.58.00,0.57.99,0.57.98,0.57.97,0.57.96,0.57.95,0.57.94,0.57.93,0.57.92,0.57.91,0.57.90,0.57.89,0.57.88,0.57.87,0.57.86,0.57.85,0.57.84,0.57.83,0.57.82,0.57.81,0.57.80,0.57.79,0.57.78,0.57.77,0.57.76,0.57.75,0.57.74,0.57.73,0.57.72,0.57.71,0.57.70,0.57.69,0.57.68,0.57.67,0.57.66,0.57.65,0.57.64,0.57.63,0.57.62,0.57.61,0.57.60,0.57.59,0.57.58,0.57.57,0.57.56,0.57.55,0.57.54,0.57.53,0.57.52,0.57.51,0.57.50,0.57.49,0.57.48,0.57.47,0.57.46,0.57.45,0.57.44,0.57.43,0.57.42,0.57.41,0.57.40,0.57.39,0.57.38,0.57.37,0.57.36,0.57.35,0.57.34,0.57.33,0.57.32,0.57.31,0.57.30,0.57.29,0.57.28,0.57.27,0.57.26,0.57.25,0.57.24,0.57.23,0.57.22,0.57.21,0.57.20,0.57.19,0.57.18,0.57.17,0.57.16,0.57.15,0.57.14,0.57.13,0.57.12,0.57.11,0.57.10,0.57.09,0.57.08,0.57.07,0.57.06,0.57.05,0.57.04,0.57.03,0.57.02,0.57.01,0.57.00,0.56.99,0.56.98,0.56.97,0.56.96,0.56.95,0.56.94,0.56.93,0.56.92,0.56.91,0.56.90,0.56.89,0.56.88,0.56.87,0.56.86,0.56.85,0.56.84,0.56.83,0.56.82,0.56.81,0.56.80,0.56.79,0.56.78,0.56.77,0.56.76,0.56.75,0.56.74,0.56.73,0.56.72,0.56.71,0.56.70,0.56.69,0.56.68,0.56.67,0.56.66,0.56.65,0.56.64,0.56.63,0.56.62,0.56.61,0.56.60,0.56.59,0.56.58,0.56.57,0.56.56,0.56.55,0.56.54,0.56.53,0.56.52,0.56.51,0.56.50,0.56.49,0.56.48,0.56.47,0.56.46,0.56.45,0.56.44,0.56.43,0.56.42,0.56.41,0.56.40,0.56.39,0.56.38,0.56.37,0.56.36,0.56.35,0.56.34,0.56.33,0.56.32,0.56.31,0.56.30,0.56.29,0.56.28,0.56.27,0.56.26,0.56.25,0.56.24,0.56.23,0.56.22,0.56.21,0.56.20,0.56.19,0.56.18,0.56.17,0.56.16,0.56.15,0.56.14,0.56.13,0.56.12,0.56.11,0.56.10,0.56.09,0.56.08,0.56.07,0.56.06,0.56.05,0.56.04,0.56.03,0.56.02,0.56.01,0.56.00,0.55.99,0.55.98,0.55.97,0.55.96,0.55.95,0.55.94,0.55.93,0.55.92,0.55.91,0.55.90,0.55.89,0.55.88,0.55.87,0.55.86,0.55.85,0.55.84,0.55.83,0.55.82,0.55.81,0.55.80,0.55.79,0.55.78,0.55.77,0.55.76,0.55.75,0.55.74,0.55.73,0.55.72,0.55.71,0.55.70,0.55.69,0.55.68,0.55.67,0.55.66,0.55.65,0.55.64,0.55.63,0.55.62,0.55.61,0.55.60,0.55.59,0.55.58,0.55.57,0.55.56,0.55.55,0.55.54,0.55.53,0.55.52,0.55.51,0.55.50,0.55.49,0.55.48,0.55.47,0.55.46,0.55.45,0.55.44,0.55.43,0.55.42,0.55.41,0.55.40,0.55.39,0.55.38,0.55.37,0.55.36,0.55.35,0.55.34,0.55.33,0.55.32,0.55.31,0.55.30,0.55.29,0.55.28,0.55.27,0.55.26,0.55.25,0.55.24,0.55.23,0.55.22,0.55.21,0.55.20,0.55.19,0.55.18,0.55.17,0.55.16,0.55.15,0.55.14,0.55.13,0.55.12,0.55.11,0.55.10,0.55.09,0.55.08,0.55.07,0.55.06,0.55.05,0.55.04,0.55.03,0.55.02,0.55.01,0.55.00,0.54.99,0.54.98,0.54.97,0.54.96,0.54.95,0.54.94,0.54.93,0.54.92,0.54.91,0.54.90,0.54.89,0.54.88,0.54.87,0.54.86,0.54.85,0.54.70,0.54.69,0.54.68,0.54.67,0.54.66,0.54.65,0.5

4.64,0.54.63,0.54.62,0.54.61,0.54.60,0.54.59,0.54.58,0.54.57,0.54.56,0.54.55,0.54.54,0.54.53,0.54.52,0.54.51,0.54.50,0.54.49,0.54.48,0.54.47,0.54.46,0.54.45,0.54.44,0.54.43,0.54.42,0.54.41,0.54.40,0.54.39,0.54.38,0.54.37,0.54.36,0.54.35,0.54.34,0.54.33,0.54.32,0.54.31,0.54.30,0.54.29,0.54.28,0.54.27,0.54.26,0.54.25,0.54.24,0.54.23,0.54.22,0.54.21,0.54.20,0.54.19,0.54.18,0.54.17,0.54.16,0.54.15,0.54.14,0.54.13,0.54.12,0.54.11,0.54.10,0.54.09,0.54.08,0.54.07,0.54.06,0.54.05,0.54.04,0.54.03,0.54.02,0.54.01,0.54.00,0.53.99,0.53.98,0.53.97,0.53.96,0.53.95,0.53.94,0.53.93,0.53.92,0.53.91,0.53.90,0.53.89,0.53.88,0.53.87,0.53.86,0.53.85,0.53.84,0.53.83,0.53.82,0.53.81,0.53.80,0.53.79,0.53.78,0.53.77,0.53.76,0.53.75,0.53.74,0.53.73,0.53.72,0.53.71,0.53.70,0.53.69,0.53.68,0.53.67,0.53.66,0.53.65,0.53.64,0.53.63,0.53.62,0.53.61,0.53.60,0.53.59,0.53.58,0.53.57,0.53.56,0.53.55,0.53.54,0.53.53,0.53.52,0.53.51,0.53.50,0.53.49,0.53.48,0.53.47,0.53.46,0.5

3.45,0.53.44,0.53.43,0.53.42,0.53.41,0.53.40,0.53.39,0.53.38,0.53.37,0.53.36,0.53.35,0.53.34,0.53.33,0.53.32,0.53.31,0.53.30,0.53.29,0.53.28,0.5

3.27,0.53.26,0.53.25,0.5

3.24,0.53.23,0.53.22,0.53.21,0.53.20,0.53.19,0.53.18,0.53.17,0.53.16,0.53.15,0.53.14,0.53.13,0.53.12,0.53.11,0.53.10,0.53.09,0.53.08,0.53.07,0.53.06,0.53.05,0.53.04,0.53.03,0.53.02,0.53.01,0.53.00,0.52.99,0.52.98,0.52.97,0.52.96,0.52.95,0.52.94,0.52.93,0.52.92,0.52.91,0.52.90,0.52.89,0.52.88,0.52.87,0.52.86,0.52.85,0.52.84,0.52.83,0.52.82,0.52.81,0.52.80,0.52.79,0.52.78,0.52.77,0.52.76,0.52.75,0.52.74,0.52.73,0.52.72,0.52.71,0.52.70,0.52.69,0.52.68,0.52.67,0.52.66,0.52.65,0.52.64,0.52.63,0.52.62,0.52.61,0.52.60,0.52.59,0.52.58,0.52.57,0.52.56,0.52.55,0.52.54,0.52.53,0.52.52,0.52.51,0.52.50,0.52.49,0.52.48,0.52.47,0.52.46,0.52.45,0.52.44,0.52.43,0.52.42,0.52.41,0.52.40,0.52.39,0.52.38,0.52.37,0.52.36,0.52.35,0.52.34,0.52.33,0.52.32,0.52.31,0.52.30,0.52.29,0.52.28,0.52.27,0.52.26,0.52.25,0.52.24,0.52.23,0.52.22,0.52.21,0.52.20,0.52.19,0.52.18,0.52.17,0.52.16,0.52.15,0.52.14,0.52.13,0.52.12,0.52.11,0.52.10,0.52.09,0.52.08,0.52.07,0.52.06,0.52.05,0.52.04,0.52.03,0.52.02,0.52.01,0.52.00,0.51.99,0.51.98,0.51.97,0.51.96,0.51.95,0.51.94,0.51.93,0.51.92,0.51.91,0.51.90,0.51.89,0.51.88,0.51.87,0.51.86,0.51.85,0.51.84,0.51.83,0.51.82,0.51.81,0.51.80,0.51.79,0.51.78,0.51.77,0.51.76,0.51.75,0.51.74,0.51.73,0.51.72,0.51.71,0.51.70,0.51.69,0.51.68,0.51.67,0.51.66,0.51.65,0.51.64,0.51.63,0.51.62,0.51.61,0.51.60,0.51.59,0.51.58,0.51.57,0.51.56,0.51.55,0.51.54,0.51.53,0.51.52,0.51.51,0.51.50,0.51.49,0.51.48,0.51.47,0.51.46,0.51.45,0.51.44,0.51.43,0.51.42,0.51.41,0.51.40,0.51.39,0.51.38,0.51.37,0.51.36,0.51.35,0.51.34,0.51.33,0.51.32,0.51.31,0.51.30,0.51.29,0.51.28,0.51.27,0.51.26,0.51.25,0.51.24,0.51.23,0.51.22,0.51.21,0.51.20,0.51.19,0.51.18,0.51.17,0.51.16,0.51.15,0.51.14,0.51.13,0.51.12,0.51.11,0.51.10,0.51.09,0.51.08,0.51.07,0.51.06,0.51.05,0.51.04,0.51.03,0.51.02,0.51.01,0.51.00,0.50.99,0.50.98,0.50.97,0.50.96,0.50.95,0.50.94,0.50.93,0.50.92,0.50.91,0.50.90,0.50.89,0.50.88,0.50.87,0.50.86,0.50.85,0.50.84,0.50.83,0.50.82,0.50.81,0.50.80,0.50.79,0.50.78,0.50.77,0.50.76,0.50.75,0.50.74,0.50.73,0.50.72,0.50.71,0.50.70,0.50.69,0.50.68,0.50.67,0.50.66,0.50.65,0.50.64,0.50.63,0.50.62,0.50.61,0.50.60,0.50.59,0.50.58,0.50.57,0.50.56,0.50.55,0.50.54,0.50.53,0.50.52,0.50.51,0.50.50,0.50.49,0.50.48,0.50.47,0.50.46,0.50.45,0.50.44,0.50.43,0.50.42,0.50.41,0.50.40,0.50.39,0.50.38,0.50.37,0.50.36,0.50.35,0.50.34,0.50.33,0.50.32,0.50.31,0.50.30,0.50.29,0.50.28,0.50.27,0.50.26,0.59.00,-0.58.99,-0.58.98,-0.58.97,-0.58.96,-0.58.95,-0.58.94,-0.58.93,-0.58.92,-0.58.91,-0.58.90,-0.58.89,-0.58.88,-0.58.87,-0.58.86,-0.58.85,-0.58.84,-0.58.83,-0.58.82,-0.58.81,-0.58.80,-0.58.79,-0.58.78,-0.58.77,-0.58.76,-0.58.75,-0.58.74,-0.58.73,-0.58.72,-0.58.71,-0.58.70,-0.58.69,-0.58.68,-0.58.67,-0.58.66,-0.58.65,-0.58.64,-0.58.63,-0.58.62,-0.58.61,-0.58.60,-0.58.59,-0.58.58,-0.58.57,-0.58.56,-0.58.55,-0.58.54,-0.58.53,-0.58.52,-0.58.51,-0.58.50,-0.58.49,-0.58.48,-0.58.47,-0.58.46,-0.58.45,-0.58.44,-0.58.43,-0.58.42,-0.58.41,-0.58.40,-0.58.39,-0.58.38,-0.58.37,-0.58.36,-0.58.35,-0.58.34,-0.58.33,-0.58.32,-0.58.31,-0.58.30,-0.58.29,-0.58.28,-0.58.27,-0.58.26,-0.58.25,-0.58.24,-0.58.23,-0.58.22,-0.58.21,-0.58.20,-0.58.19,-0.58.18,-0.58.17,-0.58.16,-0.58.15,-0.58.14,-0.58.13,-0.58.12,-0.58.11,-0.58.10,-0.58.09,-0.58.08,-0.58.07,-0.58.06,-0.58.05,-0.58.04,-0.58.03,-0.58.02,-0.58.01,-0.58.00,-0.57.99,-0.57.98,-0.57.97,-0.57.96,-0.57.95,-0.57.94,-0.57.93,-0.57.92,-0.57.91,-0.57.90,-0.57.89,-0.57.88,-0.57.87,-0.57.86,-0.57.85,-0.57.84,-0.57.83,-0.57.82,-0.57.81,-0.57.80,-0.57.79,-0.57.78,-0.57.77,-0.57.76,-0.57.75,-0.57.74,-0.57.73,-0.57.72,-0.57.71,-0.57.70,-0.57.69,-0.57.68,-0.57.67,-0.57.66,-0.57.65,-0.57.64,-0.57.63,-0.57.62,-0.57.61,-0.57.60,-0.57.59,-0.57.58,-0.57.57,-0.57.56,-0.57.55,-0.57.54,-0.57.53,-0.57.52,-0.57.51,-0.57.50,-0.57.49,-0.57.48,-0.57.47,-0.57.46,-0.57.45,-0.57.44,-0.57.43,-0.57.42,-0.57.41,-0.57.40,-0.57.39,-0.57.38,-0.57.37,-0.57.36,-0.57.35,-0.57.34,-0.57.33,-0.57.32,-0.57.31,-0.57.30,-0.57.29,-0.57.28,-0.57.27,-0.57.26,-0.57.25,-0.57.24,-0.57.23,-0.57.22,-0.57.21,-0.57.20,-0.57.19,-0.57.18,-0.57.17,-0.57.16,-0.57.15,-0.57.14,-0.57.13,-0.57.12,-0.57.11,-0.57.10,-0.57.09,-0.57.08,-0.57.07,-0.57.06,-0.57.05,-0.57.04,-0.57.03,-0.57.02,-0.57.01,-0.57.00,-0.56.99,-0.56.98,-0.56.97,-0.56.96,-0.56.95,-0.56.94,-0.56.93,-0.56.92,-0.56.91,-0.56.90,-0.56.89,-0.56.88,-0.56.87,-0.56.86,-0.56.85,-0.56.84,-0.56.83,-0.56.82,-0.56.81,-0.56.80,-0.56.79,-0.56.78,-0.56.77,-0.56.76,-0.56.75,-0.56.74,-0.56.73,-0.56.72,-0.56.71,-0.56.70,-0.56.69,-0.56.68,-0.56.67,-0.56.66,-0.56.65,-0.56.64,-0.56.63,-0.56.62,-0.56.61,-0.56.60,-0.56.59,-0.56.58,-0.56.57,-0.56.56,-0.56.55,-0.56.54,-0.56.53,-0.56.52,-0.56.51,-0.56.50,-0.56.49,-0.56.48,-0.56.47,-0.56.46,-0.56.45,-0.56.44,-0.56.43,-0.56.42,-0.56.41,-0.56.40,-0.56.39,-0.56.38,-0.56.37,-0.56.36,-0.56.35,-0.56.34,-0.56.33,-0.56.32,-0.56.31,-0.56.30,-0.56.29,-0.56.28,-0.56.27,-0.56.26,-0.56.25,-0.56.24,-0.56.23,-0.56.22,-0.56.21,-0.56.20,-0.56.19,-0.56.18,-0.56.17,-0.56.16,-0.56.15,-0.56.14,-0.56.13,-0.56.12,-0.56.11,-0.56.10,-0.56.09,-0.56.08,-0.56.07,-0.56.06,-0.56.05,-0.56.04,-0.56.03,-0.56.02,-0.56.01,-0.56.00,-0.55.99,-0.55.98,-0.55.97,-0.55.96,-0.55.95,-0.55.94,-0.55.93,-0.55.92,-0.55.91,-0.55.90,-0.55.89,-0.55.88,-0.55.87,-0.55.86,-0.55.85,-0.55.84,-0.55.83,-0.55.82,-0.55.81,-0.55.80,-0.55.79,-0.55.78,-0.55.77,-0.55.76,-0.55.75,-0.55.74,-0.55.73,-0.55.72,-0.55.71,-0.55.70,-0.55.69,-0.55.68,-0.55.67,-0.55.66,-0.55.65,-0.55.64,-0.55.63,-0.55.62,-0.55.61,-0.55.60,-0.55.59,-0.55.58,-0.55.57,-0.55.56,-0.55.55,-0.55.54,-0.55.53,-0.55.52,-0.55.51,-0.55.50,-0.55.49,-0.55.48,-0.55.47,-0.55.46,-0.55.45,-0.55.44,-0.55.43,-0.5

5.42,-0.55.41,-0.55.40,-0.55.39,-0.55.38,-0.55.37,-0.55.36,-0.55.35,-0.55.34,-0.55.33,-0.55.32,-0.55.31,-0.55.30,-0.55.29,-0.55.28,-0.55.27,-0.55.26,-0.55.25,-0.5

5.24,-0.55.23,-0.55.22,-0.55.21,-0.55.20,-0.55.19,-0.55.18,-0.55.17,-0.55.16,-0.55.15,-0.55.14,-0.55.13,-0.55.12,-0.55.11,-0.55.10,-0.55.09,-0.55.08,-0.55.07,-0.55.06,-0.55.05,-0.55.04,-0.55.03,-0.55.02,-0.55.01,-0.55.00,-0.54.99,-0.54.98,-0.54.97,-0.54.96,-0.54.95,-0.54.94,-0.54.93,-0.54.92,-0.54.91,-0.54.90,-0.54.89,-0.54.88,-0.54.87,-0.54.86,-0.54.85,-0.54.70,-0.54.69,-0.54.68,-0.54.67,-0.5

4.66,-0.5

4.65,-0.5

4.64,-0.54.63,-0.54.62,-0.54.61,-0.54.60,-0.54.59,-0.54.58,-0.54.57,-0.54.56,-0.54.55,-0.54.54,-0.54.53,-0.54.52,-0.54.51,-0.54.50,-0.54.49,-0.54.48,-0.54.47,-0.54.46,-0.54.45,-0.54.44,-0.54.43,-0.54.42,-0.54.41,-0.54.40,-0.54.39,-0.54.38,-0.54.37,-0.54.36,-0.54.35,-0.54.34,-0.54.33,-0.54.32,-0.54.31,-0.54.30,-0.54.29,-0.54.28,-0.54.27,-0.54.26,-0.54.25,-0.54.24,-0.54.23,-0.54.22,-0.54.21,-0.54.20,-0.54.19,-0.54.18,-0.54.17,-0.54.16,-0.54.15,-0.54.14,-0.54.13,-0.54.12,-0.54.11,-0.54.10,-0.54.09,-0.54.08,-0.54.07,-0.54.06,-0.54.05,-0.54.04,-0.54.03,-0.54.02,-0.54.01,-0.54.00,-0.53.99,-0.53.98,-0.53.97,-0.53.96,-0.53.95,-0.53.94,-0.53.93,-0.53.92,-0.53.91,-0.53.90,-0.5

3.89,-0.53.88,-0.53.87,-0.53.86,-0.53.85,-0.53.84,-0.53.83,-0.53.82,-0.53.81,-0.53.80,-0.53.79,-0.53.78,-0.53.77,-0.53.76,-0.53.75,-0.5

3.74,-0.53.73,-0.53.72,-0.53.71,-0.53.70,-0.5

3.69,-0.53.68,-0.53.67,-0.53.66,-0.53.65,-0.5

3.64,-0.53.63,-0.53.62,-0.53.61,-0.5

3.60,-0.53.59,-0.53.58,-0.53.57,-0.53.56,-0.5

3.55,-0.5

3.54,-0.53.53,-0.53.52,-0.53.51,-0.53.50,-0.5

3.49,-0.5

3.48,-0.5

3.47,-0.53.46,-0.5

3.45,-0.53.44,-0.53.43,-0.5

3.42,-0.53.41,-0.53.40,-0.53.39,-0.5

3.38,-0.53.37,-0.53.36,-0.5

3.35,-0.5

3.34,-0.5

3.33,-0.53.32,-0.53.31,-0.53.30,-0.53.29,-0.53.28,-0.53.27,-0.5

3.26,-0.5

3.25,-0.5

3.24,-0.5

3.23,-0.5

3.22,-0.5

3.21,-0.53.20,-0.53.19,-0.53.18,-0.53.17,-0.53.16,-0.53.15,-0.53.14,-0.53.13,-0.53.12,-0.5

3.11,-0.5

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5.42,-1.55.41,-1.55.40,-1.5

5.39,-1.55.38,-1.55.37,-1.55.36,-1.55.35,-1.55.34,-1.55.33,-1.55.32,-1.55.31,-1.55.30,-1.55.29,-1.55.28,-1.55.27,-1.55.26,-1.55.25,-1.55.24,-1.55.23,-1.55.22,-1.55.21,-1.55.20,-1.55.19,-1.55.18,-1.55.17,-1.55.16,-1.55.15,-1.55.14,-1.55.13,-1.55.12,-1.55.11,-1.55.10,-1.55.09,-1.55.08,-1.55.07,-1.55.06,-1.55.05,-1.55.04,-1.55.03,-1.55.02,-1.55.01,-1.55.00,-1.54.99,-1.54.98,-1.54.97,-1.54.96,-1.54.95,-1.54.94,-1.54.93,-1.54.92,-1.54.91,-1.54.90,-1.54.89,-1.54.88,-1.54.87,-1.54.86,-1.54.85,-1.54.70,-1.54.69,-1.54.68,-1.54.67,-1.5

4.66,-1.54.65,-1.5

4.64,-1.54.63,-1.54.62,-1.54.61,-1.54.60,-1.54.59,-1.54.58,-1.54.57,-1.54.56,-1.54.55,-1.54.54,-1.54.53,-1.54.52,-1.54.51,-1.54.50,-1.54.49,-1.54.48,-1.54.47,-1.54.46,-1.54.45,-1.54.44,-1.54.43,-1.54.42,-1.54.41,-1.54.40,-1.54.39,-1.54.38,-1.54.37,-1.54.36,-1.54.35,-1.54.34,-1.54.33,-1.54.32,-1.54.31,-1.54.30,-1.54.29,-1.54.28,-1.54.27,-1.54.26,-1.54.25,-1.54.24,-1.54.23,-1.54.22,-1.54.21,-1.54.20,-1.54.19,-1.54.18,-1.54.17,-1.54.16,-1.54.15,-1.54.14,-1.54.13,-1.54.12,-1.54.11,-1.54.10,-1.54.09,-1.54.08,-1.54.07,-1.54.06,-1.54.05,-1.54.04,-1.54.03,-1.54.02,-1.54.01,-1.54.00,-1.53.99,-1.53.98,-1.53.97,-1.53.96,-1.53.95,-1.53.94,-1.53.93,-1.53.92,-1.53.91,-1.53.90,-1.53.89,-1.53.88,-1.53.87,-1.53.86,-1.53.85,-1.53.84,-1.53.83,-1.53.82,-1.53.81,-1.53.80,-1.53.79,-1.53.78,-1.53.77,-1.53.76,-1.53.75,-1.5

3.74,-1.53.73,-1.53.72,-1.53.71,-1.53.70,-1.53.69,-1.53.68,-1.53.67,-1.53.66,-1.53.65,-1.53.64,-1.53.63,-1.53.62,-1.53.61,-1.53.60,-1.53.59,-1.53.58,-1.53.57,-1.53.56,-1.5

3.55,-1.5

3.54,-1.53.53,-1.53.52,-1.53.51,-1.53.50,-1.5

3.49,-1.5

3.48,-1.53.47,-1.5

3.46,-1.5

3.45,-1.53.44,-1.53.43,-1.53.42,-1.53.41,-1.53.40,-1.53.39,-1.5

3.38,-1.53.37,-1.53.36,-1.53.35,-1.5

3.34,-1.5

3.33,-1.53.32,-1.53.31,-1.53.30,-1.53.29,-1.53.28,-1.53.27,-1.5

3.26,-1.5

3.25,-1.5

3.24,-1.5

3.23,-1.53.22,-1.5

3.21,-1.53.20,-1.53.19,-1.53.18,-1.53.17,-1.53.16,-1.53.15,-1.53.14,-1.53.13,-1.53.12,-1.53.11,-1.5

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5.41,-2.55.40,-2.5

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5.23,-2.5

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4.64,-2.54.63,-2.54.62,-2.54.61,-2.54.60,-2.54.59,-2.54.58,-2.54.57,-2.54.56,-2.54.55,-2.54.54,-2.54.53,-2.54.52,-2.54.51,-2.54.50,-2.54.49,-2.54.48,-2.54.47,-2.54.46,-2.54.45,-2.54.44,-2.54.43,-2.54.42,-2.54.41,-2.54.40,-2.54.39,-2.54.38,-2.54.37,-2.54.36,-2.54.35,-2.54.34,-2.54.33,-2.54.32,-2.54.31,-2.54.30,-2.54.29,-2.54.28,-2.54.27,-2.54.26,-2.54.25,-2.54.24,-2.54.23,-2.54.22,-2.54.21,-2.54.20,-2.54.19,-2.54.18,-2.54.17,-2.54.16,-2.54.15,-2.54.14,-2.54.13,-2.54.12,-2.54.11,-2.54.10,-2.54.09,-2.54.08,-2.54.07,-2.54.06,-2.54.05,-2.54.04,-2.54.03,-2.54.02,-2.54.01,-2.54.00,-2.53.99,-2.53.98,-2.53.97,-2.53.96,-2.53.95,-2.53.94,-2.53.93,-2.53.92,-2.53.91,-2.53.90,-2.53.89,-2.53.88,-2.53.87,-2.53.86,-2.53.85,-2.53.84,-2.53.83,-2.53.82,-2.53.81,-2.53.80,-2.53.79,-2.53.78,-2.53.77,-2.53.76,-2.53.75,-2.53.74,-2.53.73,-2.53.72,-2.53.71,-2.53.70,-2.53.69,-2.53.68,-2.53.67,-2.53.66,-2.53.65,-2.53.64,-2.53.63,-2.53.62,-2.53.61,-2.53.60,-2.53.59,-2.53.58,-2.53.57,-2.53.56,-2.53.55,-2.53.54,-2.53.53,-2.53.52,-2.53.51,-2.53.50,-2.53.49,-2.53.48,-2.53.47,-2.53.46,-2.5

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5.41,-3.55.40,-3.5

5.39,-3.55.38,-3.55.37,-3.55.36,-3.55.35,-3.55.34,-3.55.33,-3.55.32,-3.55.31,-3.55.30,-3.55.29,-3.55.28,-3.55.27,-3.55.26,-3.55.25,-3.55.24,-3.5

5.23,-3.5

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4.63,-3.54.62,-3.54.61,-3.54.60,-3.54.59,-3.54.58,-3.54.57,-3.54.56,-3.54.55,-3.54.54,-3.54.53,-3.54.52,-3.54.51,-3.54.50,-3.54.49,-3.54.48,-3.54.47,-3.54.46,-3.54.45,-3.54.44,-3.54.43,-3.54.42,-3.54.41,-3.54.40,-3.54.39,-3.54.38,-3.54.37,-3.54.36,-3.54.35,-3.54.34,-3.54.33,-3.54.32,-3.54.31,-3.54.30,-3.54.29,-3.54.28,-3.54.27,-3.54.26,-3.54.25,-3.54.24,-3.54.23,-3.54.22,-3.54.21,-3.54.20,-3.54.19,-3.54.18,-3.54.17,-3.54.16,-3.54.15,-3.54.14,-3.54.13,-3.54.12,-3.54.11,-3.54.10,-3.54.09,-3.54.08,-3.54.07,-3.54.06,-3.54.05,-3.54.04,-3.54.03,-3.54.02,-3.54.01,-3.54.00,-3.53.99,-3.53.98,-3.53.97,-3.53.96,-3.53.95,-3.53.94,-3.53.93,-3.53.92,-3.53.91,-3.53.90,-3.53.89,-3.53.88,-3.53.87,-3.53.86,-3.53.85,-3.53.84,-3.53.83,-3.53.82,-3.53.81,-3.53.80,-3.53.79,-3.53.78,-3.53.77,-3.53.76,-3.53.75,-3.53.74,-3.5

3.73,-3.53.72,-3.5

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3.53,-3.5

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3.46,-3.5

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4.65,-4.5

4.64,-4.5

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3.89,-4.53.88,-4.53.87,-4.53.86,-4.5

3.85,-4.5

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3.76,-4.53.75,-4.5

3.74,-4.53.73,-4.53.72,-4.53.71,-4.5

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3.56,-4.53.55,-4.53.54,-4.53.53,-4.5

3.52,-4.53.51,-4.53.50,-4.5

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4.65,-5.54.64,-5.5

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3.85,-5.53.84,-5.5

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4.65,-6.54.64,-6.5

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3.89,-6.5

3.88,-6.5

3.87,-6.53.86,-6.5

3.85,-6.5

3.84,-6.5

3.83,-6.5

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3.70,-6.53.69,-6.53.68,-6.53.67,-6.53.66,-6.53.65,-6.53.64,-6.53.63,-6.53.62,-6.53.61,-6.53.60,-6.53.59,-6.53.58,-6.53.57,-6.5

3.56,-6.53.55,-6.53.54,-6.5

3.53,-6.5

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3.91,-7.53.90,-7.5

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3.58,-7.53.57,-7.5

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3.53,-7.5

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3.46,-8.5

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3.77,-9.5

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3.72,-9.53.71,-9.5

3.70,-9.53.69,-9.53.68,-9.53.67,-9.53.66,-9.53.65,-9.5

3.64,-9.5

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3.49,-9.5

3.48,-9.53.47,-9.5

3.46,-9.5

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3.40,-9.53.39,-9.5

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3.26,-9.53.25,-9.5

3.24,-9.5

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3.72,-10.5

3.71,-10.5

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3.49,-10.53.48,-10.5

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5.42,3.625.39,3.625.36,3.625.33,3.625.30,3.625.27,3.625.24,3.625.21,3.625.18,3.625.15,3.625.12,3.625.09,3.625.06,3.625.03,3.625.00,3.624.97,3.624.94,3.624.91,3.624.88,3.624.85,3.624.82,3.624.79,3.624.76,3.624.73,3.624.70,3.624.67,3.624.64,3.624.61,3.624.58,3.624.55,3.624.52,3.624.49,3.624.46,3.624.43,3.624.40,3.624.37,3.624.34,3.624.31,3.624.28,3.624.25,3.625.99,3.595.96,3.595.93,3.595.90,3.595.87,3.595.84,3.595.81,3.595.78,3.595.75,3.595.72,3.595.69,3.595.66,3.595.63,3.595.60,3.595.57,3.595.54,3.595.51,3.595.48,3.595.45,3.59

5.42,3.59

5.39,3.595.36,3.595.33,3.595.30,3.595.27,3.59

5.24,3.59

5.21,3.595.18,3.595.15,3.595.12,3.595.09,3.595.06,3.595.03,3.595.00,3.594.97,3.594.94,3.594.91,3.594.88,3.594.85,3.594.82,3.594.79,3.594.76,3.594.73,3.594.70,3.594.67,3.594.64,3.594.61,3.594.58,3.594.55,3.594.52,3.594.49,3.594.46,3.594.43,3.594.40,3.594.37,3.594.34,3.594.31,3.594.28,3.594.25,3.594.22,3.595.99,3.565.96,3.565.93,3.565.90,3.565.87,3.565.84,3.565.81,3.565.78,3.565.75,3.565.72,3.565.69,3.565.66,3.565.63,3.565.60,3.565.57,3.565.54,3.565.51,3.565.48,3.565.45,3.565.42,3.56

5.39,3.565.36,3.565.33,3.565.30,3.565.27,3.565.24,3.56

5.21,3.565.18,3.565.15,3.565.12,3.565.09,3.565.06,3.565.03,3.565.00,3.564.97,3.564.94,3.564.91,3.564.88,3.564.85,3.564.82,3.564.79,3.564.76,3.564.73,3.564.70,3.564.67,3.564.64,3.564.61,3.564.58,3.564.55,3.564.52,3.564.49,3.564.46,3.564.43,3.564.40,3.564.37,3.564.34,3.564.31,3.564.28,3.564.25,3.564.22,3.564.19,3.565.99,3.535.96,3.535.93,3.535.90,3.535.87,3.535.84,3.535.81,3.535.78,3.535.75,3.535.72,3.535.69,3.535.66,3.535.63,3.535.60,3.535.57,3.535.54,3.535.51,3.535.48,3.535.45,3.535.42,3.535.39,3.535.36,3.535.33,3.535.30,3.535.27,3.535.24,3.535.21,3.535.18,3.535.15,3.535.12,3.535.09,3.535.06,3.535.03,3.535.00,3.534.97,3.534.94,3.534.91,3.534.88,3.534.85,3.534.82,3.534.79,3.534.76,3.534.73,3.534.70,3.534.67,3.534.64,3.534.61,3.534.58,3.534.55,3.534.52,3.534.49,3.534.46,3.534.43,3.534.40,3.534.37,3.534.34,3.534.31,3.534.28,3.534.25,3.534.22,3.534.19,3.534.16,3.535.99,3.505.96,3.505.93,3.505.90,3.505.87,3.505.84,3.505.81,3.505.78,3.505.75,3.505.72,3.505.69,3.505.66,3.505.63,3.505.60,3.505.57,3.505.54,3.505.51,3.505.48,3.505.45,3.505.42,3.505.39,3.505.36,3.505.33,3.505.30,3.505.27,3.505.24,3.505.21,3.505.18,3.505.15,3.505.12,3.505.09,3.505.06,3.505.03,3.505.00,3.504.97,3.504.94,3.504.91,3.504.88,3.504.85,3.504.82,3.504.79,3.504.76,3.504.73,3.504.70,3.504.67,3.504.64,3.504.61,3.504.58,3.504.55,3.504.52,3.504.49,3.504.46,3.504.43,3.504.40,3.504.37,3.504.34,3.504.31,3.504.28,3.504.25,3.504.22,3.504.19,3.504.16,3.504.13,3.505.99,3.475.96,3.475.93,3.475.90,3.475.87,3.475.84,3.475.81,3.475.78,3.475.75,3.475.72,3.475.69,3.475.66,3.475.63,3.475.60,3.475.57,3.475.54,3.475.51,3.475.48,3.475.45,3.475.42,3.475.39,3.475.36,3.475.33,3.475.30,3.475.27,3.475.24,3.475.21,3.475.18,3.475.15,3.475.12,3.475.09,3.475.06,3.475.03,3.475.00,3.474.97,3.474.94,3.474.91,3.474.88,3.474.85,3.474.82,3.474.79,3.474.76,3.474.73,3.474.70,3.474.67,3.474.64,3.474.61,3.474.58,3.474.55,3.474.52,3.474.49,3.474.46,3.474.43,3.474.40,3.474.37,3.474.34,3.474.31,3.474.28,3.474.25,3.474.22,3.474.19,3.474.16,3.474.13,3.474.10,3.475.99,3.445.96,3.445.93,3.445.90,3.445.87,3.445.84,3.445.81,3.445.78,3.445.75,3.445.72,3.445.69,3.445.66,3.445.63,3.445.60,3.445.57,3.445.54,3.445.51,3.445.48,3.445.45,3.445.42,3.445.39,3.445.36,3.445.33,3.445.30,3.445.27,3.445.24,3.445.21,3.445.18,3.445.15,3.445.12,3.445.09,3.445.06,3.445.03,3.445.00,3.444.97,3.444.94,3.444.91,3.444.88,3.444.85,3.444.82,3.444.79,3.444.76,3.444.73,3.444.70,3.444.67,3.444.64,3.444.61,3.444.58,3.444.55,3.444.52,3.444.49,3.444.46,3.444.43,3.444.40,3.444.37,3.444.34,3.444.31,3.444.28,3.444.25,3.444.22,3.444.19,3.444.16,3.444.13,3.444.10,3.444.07,3.445.99,3.415.96,3.415.93,3.415.90,3.415.87,3.415.84,3.415.81,3.415.78,3.415.75,3.415.72,3.415.69,3.415.66,3.415.63,3.415.60,3.415.57,3.415.54,3.415.51,3.415.48,3.415.45,3.415.42,3.415.39,3.415.36,3.415.33,3.415.30,3.415.27,3.415.24,3.415.21,3.415.18,3.415.15,3.415.12,3.415.09,3.415.06,3.415.03,3.415.00,3.414.97,3.414.94,3.414.91,3.414.88,3.414.85,3.414.82,3.414.79,3.414.76,3.414.73,3.414.70,3.414.67,3.414.64,3.414.61,3.414.58,3.414.55,3.414.52,3.414.49,3.414.46,3.414.43,3.414.40,3.414.37,3.414.34,3.414.31,3.414.28,3.414.25,3.414.22,3.414.19,3.414.16,3.414.13,3.414.10,3.414.07,3.414.04,3.415.99,3.385.96,3.385.93,3.385.90,3.385.87,3.385.84,3.385.81,3.385.78,3.385.75,3.385.72,3.385.69,3.385.66,3.385.63,3.385.60,3.385.57,3.385.54,3.385.51,3.385.48,3.385.45,3.385.42,3.385.39,3.385.36,3.385.33,3.385.30,3.385.27,3.385.24,3.385.21,3.385.18,3.385.15,3.385.12,3.385.09,3.385.06,3.385.03,3.385.00,3.384.97,3.384.94,3.384.91,3.384.88,3.384.85,3.384.82,3.384.79,3.384.76,3.384.73,3.384.70,3.384.67,3.384.64,3.384.61,3.384.58,3.384.55,3.384.52,3.384.49,3.384.46,3.384.43,3.384.40,3.384.37,3.384.34,3.384.31,3.384.28,3.384.25,3.384.22,3.384.19,3.384.16,3.384.13,3.384.10,3.384.07,3.384.04,3.384.01,3.385.99,3.355.96,3.355.93,3.355.90,3.355.87,3.355.84,3.355.81,3.355.78,3.355.75,3.355.72,3.355.69,3.355.66,3.355.63,3.355.60,3.355.57,3.355.54,3.355.51,3.355.48,3.355.45,3.355.42,3.355.39,3.355.36,3.355.33,3.355.30,3.355.27,3.355.24,3.355.21,3.355.18,3.355.15,3.355.12,3.355.09,3.355.06,3.355.03,3.355.00,3.354.97,3.354.94,3.354.91,3.354.88,3.354.85,3.354.82,3.354.79,3.354.76,3.354.73,3.354.70,3.354.67,3.354.64,3.354.61,3.354.58,3.354.55,3.354.52,3.354.49,3.354.46,3.354.43,3.354.40,3.354.37,3.354.34,3.354.31,3.354.28,3.354.25,3.354.22,3.354.19,3.354.16,3.354.13,3.354.10,3.354.07,3.354.04,3.354.01,3.353.98,3.355.99,3.325.96,3.325.93,3.325.90,3.325.87,3.325.84,3.325.81,3.325.78,3.325.75,3.325.72,3.325.69,3.325.66,3.325.63,3.325.60,3.325.57,3.325.54,3.325.51,3.325.48,3.325.45,3.325.42,3.325.39,3.325.36,3.325.33,3.325.30,3.325.27,3.325.24,3.325.21,3.325.18,3.325.15,3.325.12,3.325.09,3.325.06,3.325.03,3.325.00,3.324.97,3.324.94,3.324.91,3.324.88,3.324.85,3.324.82,3.324.79,3.324.76,3.324.73,3.324.70,3.324.67,3.324.64,3.324.61,3.324.58,3.324.55,3.324.52,3.324.49,3.324.46,3.324.43,3.324.40,3.324.37,3.324.34,3.324.31,3.324.28,3.324.25,3.324.22,3.324.19,3.324.16,3.324.13,3.324.10,3.324.07,3.324.04,3.324.01,3.323.98,3.323.95,3.325.99,3.295.96,3.295.93,3.295.90,3.295.87,3.295.84,3.295.81,3.295.78,3.295.75,3.295.72,3.295.69,3.295.66,3.295.63,3.295.60,3.295.57,3.295.54,3.295.51,3.295.48,3.295.45,3.295.42,3.295.39,3.295.36,3.295.33,3.295.30,3.295.27,3.295.24,3.295.21,3.295.18,3.295.15,3.295.12,3.295.09,3.295.06,3.295.03,3.295.00,3.294.97,3.294.94,3.294.91,3.294.88,3.294.85,3.294.82,3.294.79,3.294.76,3.294.73,3.294.70,3.29

4.67,3.294.64,3.29

4.61,3.294.58,3.294.55,3.294.52,3.294.49,3.294.46,3.294.43,3.294.40,3.294.37,3.294.34,3.294.31,3.294.28,3.294.25,3.294.22,3.294.19,3.294.16,3.294.13,3.294.10,3.294.07,3.294.04,3.294.01,3.293.98,3.293.95,3.293.92,3.295.99,3.265.96,3.265.93,3.265.90,3.265.87,3.265.84,3.265.81,3.265.78,3.265.75,3.265.72,3.265.69,3.265.66,3.265.63,3.265.60,3.265.57,3.265.54,3.265.51,3.265.48,3.265.45,3.265.42,3.265.39,3.265.36,3.265.33,3.265.30,3.265.27,3.265.24,3.265.21,3.265.18,3.265.15,3.265.12,3.265.09,3.265.06,3.265.03,3.265.00,3.264.97,3.264.94,3.264.91,3.264.88,3.264.85,3.264.82,3.264.79,3.264.76,3.264.73,3.264.70,3.26

4.67,3.264.64,3.26

4.61,3.264.58,3.264.55,3.264.52,3.264.49,3.264.46,3.264.43,3.264.40,3.264.37,3.264.34,3.264.31,3.264.28,3.264.25,3.264.22,3.264.19,3.264.16,3.264.13,3.264.10,3.264.07,3.264.04,3.264.01,3.263.98,3.263.95,3.263.92,3.263.89,3.265.99,3.235.96,3.235.93,3.235.90,3.235.87,3.235.84,3.235.81,3.235.78,3.235.75,3.235.72,3.235.69,3.235.66,3.235.63,3.235.60,3.235.57,3.235.54,3.235.51,3.235.48,3.235.45,3.235.42,3.235.39,3.235.36,3.235.33,3.235.30,3.235.27,3.235.24,3.235.21,3.235.18,3.235.15,3.235.12,3.235.09,3.235.06,3.235.03,3.235.00,3.234.97,3.234.94,3.234.91,3.234.88,3.234.85,3.234.82,3.234.79,3.234.76,3.234.73,3.234.70,3.23

4.67,3.23

4.64,3.23

4.61,3.234.58,3.234.55,3.234.52,3.234.49,3.234.46,3.234.43,3.234.40,3.234.37,3.234.34,3.234.31,3.234.28,3.234.25,3.234.22,3.234.19,3.234.16,3.234.13,3.234.10,3.234.07,3.234.04,3.234.01,3.233.98,3.233.95,3.233.92,3.233.89,3.233.86,3.235.99,3.205.96,3.205.93,3.205.90,3.205.87,3.205.84,3.205.81,3.205.78,3.205.75,3.205.72,3.205.69,3.205.66,3.205.63,3.205.60,3.205.57,3.205.54,3.205.51,3.205.48,3.205.45,3.205.42,3.205.39,3.205.36,3.205.33,3.205.30,3.205.27,3.205.24,3.205.21,3.205.18,3.205.15,3.205.12,3.205.09,3.205.06,3.205.03,3.205.00,3.204.97,3.204.94,3.204.91,3.204.88,3.204.85,3.204.82,3.204.79,3.204.76,3.204.73,3.204.70,3.204.67,3.20

4.64,3.20

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3.02,1.73

P[1]

P[2

]

Glucose

Glucose

Maltose

Alanine

B) 1H-1H COSY A) 1H-J-RES

Glucose

Alanine Maltose

P[1]

P[2

]

Lysine

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For the other two areas, maltose at (5.41 ppm, 0.5 Hz) and a new metabolite, glucose at (3.25, -0.5

Hz) and (4.63 ppm, 3.5-4.5 Hz) were identified as significant. Glucose has been linked to stress in

many different organisms [5]. Especially in earthworms, glucose has been known to be a major

metabolite of response in gluconeogensis due to sub-lethal pyrene exposure [35]. For the COSY

loadings plot (Figure 2.7b), five main areas have been identified as significant using two-sample t-

tests (P<0.05). The first area located in the lower left, with values of (3.77, 1.46 ppm) and (3.80,

1.46 ppm), result from alanine. The second area located near the center with the value of (3.02,

1.73 ppm) was found to be significant and through comparison of the 2-D NMR of standards

previously identified as major metabolites in E. fetida [9], was deduced as lysine. Lysine is an

essential amino acid for the production of acetyl-CoA which is has a major role in the citric acid

cycle for energy production [36]. Specifically in E. fetida, studies have shown that lysine was

detected as an important metabolite of response during the exposure to sub-lethal concentrations of

naphthalene, phenanthrene, and pyrene [10]. For the last three areas in Figure 2.7b, all signals are

from sugars. Maltose was identified as the dominant metabolite with signal at (5.42, 3.59 ppm).

Glucose was also detected and the spectral signals were all in the ppm range of (δ=3.26-4.66 ppm).

Most of the above spectral signals were detected in the 1-D NMR techniques but the additional

proton connectivity and J-coupling information provided by J-RES and COSY respectively gave

higher confirmation of their presence. For example, the spectral signals at 3.25 and 3.26 ppm,

which were detected in all three 1-D NMR techniques were deduced through J-RES and COSY to

be glucose. In addition, the proton correlation by COSY provided higher dispersion of spectral

signals which allowed higher resolution for the identification of lysine. The 1-D NMR spectra,

including J-RES projections, were unable to resolve lysine due to the extensive overlap of sugar

signal peaks within the 2.8-5.0ppm region.

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In the HSQC 2-D loadings plots (Figures 2.8a and 2.8b), each data point displayed contains

two values with the first being the 1H chemical shift and the second the 13C chemical shift of each

C-H unit. In Figure 2.8a, a large spectral area (1H 0.25-6.0 ppm, 13C 10.0-110.0 ppm) was

investigated and four spectral areas were found to be significantly different using a two-sample t-

test (p<0.05) in the exposed earthworms compared to the control. The spectral signals (2.99,

41.75-42.25 ppm) were found to be matching the amino acid lysine. Maltose at various signals

(3.80-3.89, 62.75-64.25 ppm) and glucose (3.47-3.50, 78.75 ppm) were also observed which

further confirms the identity of these metabolites in the COSY and J-RES spectra.

Figure 2.8: Partial least-squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) 2-D loadings plots of 2-D NMR spectra for control and endosulfan-exposed Eisenia fetida using 1H–13C Single Quantum Coherence (HSQC) spectroscopy in the chemical shift range of: (a) 1H=6.0–0.25 ppm; 13C=110.0–10.0 ppm and (b) 1H=2.5–0.25 ppm; 13C=50.0–10.0 ppm. Each oval region represents areas of significance determined using a two-sample t-test with a confidence interval of 95% (P<0.05).

When a large spectral region is considered (1H 0.25-6.0 ppm, 13C 10.0-110.0 ppm), the 2-D

loadings plot is dominated by the most intense signals in the 2-D datasets (3.0-4.5 ppm, in the 1H

spectrum) in large part from sugars. To investigate whether complimentary information is

contained in the less intense aliphatic region which will likely contain many signals from amino

-0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

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5.42,103.255.39,103.25

5.36,103.255.33,103.25

5.30,103.255.27,103.255.24,103.255.21,103.255.18,103.255.15,103.255.12,103.255.09,103.255.06,103.255.03,103.255.00,103.254.97,103.254.94,103.254.91,103.254.88,103.254.85,103.254.61,103.254.58,103.254.55,103.254.52,103.254.49,103.254.46,103.254.43,103.254.40,103.254.37,103.254.34,103.254.31,103.254.28,103.254.25,103.254.22,103.254.19,103.254.16,103.254.13,103.254.10,103.254.07,103.254.04,103.254.01,103.253.98,103.253.95,103.253.92,103.253.89,103.253.86,103.253.83,103.253.80,103.253.77,103.253.74,103.253.71,103.253.68,103.253.65,103.253.62,103.253.59,103.253.56,103.253.53,103.253.50,103.253.47,103.253.44,103.253.41,103.253.38,103.253.35,103.253.32,103.253.29,103.253.26,103.253.23,103.253.20,103.253.17,103.253.14,103.253.11,103.253.08,103.253.05,103.253.02,103.252.99,103.252.96,103.252.93,103.252.90,103.252.87,103.252.84,103.252.81,103.252.78,103.252.75,103.252.72,103.252.69,103.252.66,103.252.63,103.252.60,103.252.57,103.252.54,103.252.51,103.252.48,103.252.45,103.252.42,103.252.39,103.252.36,103.252.33,103.252.30,103.252.27,103.252.24,103.252.21,103.252.18,103.252.15,103.252.12,103.252.09,103.252.06,103.252.03,103.252.00,103.251.97,103.251.94,103.251.91,103.251.88,103.251.85,103.251.82,103.251.79,103.251.76,103.251.73,103.251.70,103.251.67,103.251.64,103.251.61,103.251.58,103.251.55,103.251.52,103.251.49,103.251.46,103.251.43,103.251.40,103.251.37,103.251.34,103.251.31,103.251.28,103.251.25,103.251.22,103.251.19,103.251.16,103.251.13,103.251.10,103.251.07,103.251.04,103.251.01,103.250.98,103.250.95,103.250.92,103.250.89,103.250.86,103.250.83,103.250.80,103.250.77,103.250.74,103.250.71,103.250.68,103.250.65,103.250.62,103.250.59,103.250.56,103.250.53,103.250.50,103.250.47,103.250.44,103.250.41,103.250.38,103.250.35,103.250.32,103.250.29,103.250.26,103.255.99,102.755.96,102.755.93,102.755.90,102.755.87,102.755.84,102.755.81,102.755.78,102.755.75,102.755.72,102.755.69,102.755.66,102.755.63,102.755.60,102.755.57,102.755.54,102.755.51,102.755.48,102.755.45,102.755.42,102.75

5.39,102.75

5.36,102.755.33,102.75

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5.24,95.755.21,95.755.18,95.755.15,95.755.12,95.755.09,95.755.06,95.755.03,95.755.00,95.754.97,95.754.94,95.754.91,95.754.88,95.754.85,95.754.61,95.754.58,95.754.55,95.754.52,95.754.49,95.754.46,95.754.43,95.754.40,95.754.37,95.754.34,95.754.31,95.754.28,95.754.25,95.754.22,95.754.19,95.754.16,95.754.13,95.754.10,95.754.07,95.754.04,95.754.01,95.753.98,95.753.95,95.753.92,95.753.89,95.753.86,95.753.83,95.753.80,95.753.77,95.753.74,95.753.71,95.753.68,95.753.65,95.753.62,95.753.59,95.753.56,95.753.53,95.753.50,95.753.47,95.753.44,95.753.41,95.753.38,95.753.35,95.753.32,95.753.29,95.753.26,95.753.23,95.753.20,95.753.17,95.753.14,95.753.11,95.753.08,95.753.05,95.753.02,95.752.99,95.752.96,95.752.93,95.752.90,95.752.87,95.752.84,95.752.81,95.752.78,95.752.75,95.752.72,95.752.69,95.752.66,95.752.63,95.752.60,95.752.57,95.752.54,95.752.51,95.752.48,95.752.45,95.752.42,95.752.39,95.752.36,95.752.33,95.752.30,95.752.27,95.752.24,95.752.21,95.752.18,95.752.15,95.752.12,95.752.09,95.752.06,95.752.03,95.752.00,95.751.97,95.751.94,95.751.91,95.751.88,95.751.85,95.751.82,95.751.79,95.751.76,95.751.73,95.751.70,95.751.67,95.751.64,95.751.61,95.751.58,95.751.55,95.751.52,95.751.49,95.751.46,95.751.43,95.751.40,95.751.37,95.751.34,95.751.31,95.751.28,95.751.25,95.751.22,95.751.19,95.751.16,95.751.13,95.751.10,95.751.07,95.751.04,95.751.01,95.750.98,95.750.95,95.750.92,95.750.89,95.750.86,95.750.83,95.750.80,95.750.77,95.750.74,95.750.71,95.750.68,95.750.65,95.750.62,95.750.59,95.750.56,95.750.53,95.750.50,95.750.47,95.750.44,95.750.41,95.750.38,95.750.35,95.750.32,95.750.29,95.750.26,95.755.99,95.255.96,95.255.93,95.255.90,95.255.87,95.255.84,95.255.81,95.255.78,95.255.75,95.255.72,95.255.69,95.255.66,95.255.63,95.255.60,95.255.57,95.255.54,95.255.51,95.255.48,95.255.45,95.255.42,95.255.39,95.255.36,95.255.33,95.255.30,95.255.27,95.25

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5.24,94.75

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3.59,80.753.56,80.753.53,80.753.50,80.753.47,80.753.44,80.753.41,80.753.38,80.753.35,80.753.32,80.753.29,80.753.26,80.753.23,80.753.20,80.753.17,80.753.14,80.753.11,80.753.08,80.753.05,80.753.02,80.752.99,80.752.96,80.752.93,80.752.90,80.752.87,80.752.84,80.752.81,80.752.78,80.752.75,80.752.72,80.752.69,80.752.66,80.752.63,80.752.60,80.752.57,80.752.54,80.752.51,80.752.48,80.752.45,80.752.42,80.752.39,80.752.36,80.752.33,80.752.30,80.752.27,80.752.24,80.752.21,80.752.18,80.752.15,80.752.12,80.752.09,80.752.06,80.752.03,80.752.00,80.751.97,80.751.94,80.751.91,80.751.88,80.751.85,80.751.82,80.751.79,80.751.76,80.751.73,80.751.70,80.751.67,80.751.64,80.751.61,80.751.58,80.751.55,80.751.52,80.751.49,80.751.46,80.751.43,80.751.40,80.751.37,80.751.34,80.751.31,80.751.28,80.751.25,80.751.22,80.751.19,80.751.16,80.751.13,80.751.10,80.751.07,80.751.04,80.751.01,80.750.98,80.750.95,80.750.92,80.750.89,80.750.86,80.750.83,80.750.80,80.750.77,80.750.74,80.750.71,80.750.68,80.750.65,80.750.62,80.750.59,80.750.56,80.750.53,80.750.50,80.750.47,80.750.44,80.750.41,80.750.38,80.750.35,80.750.32,80.750.29,80.750.26,80.755.99,80.255.96,80.255.93,80.255.90,80.255.87,80.255.84,80.255.81,80.255.78,80.255.75,80.255.72,80.255.69,80.255.66,80.255.63,80.255.60,80.255.57,80.255.54,80.255.51,80.255.48,80.255.45,80.255.42,80.255.39,80.255.36,80.255.33,80.255.30,80.255.27,80.255.24,80.255.21,80.255.18,80.255.15,80.255.12,80.255.09,80.255.06,80.255.03,80.255.00,80.254.97,80.254.94,80.254.91,80.254.88,80.254.85,80.254.61,80.254.58,80.254.55,80.254.52,80.254.49,80.254.46,80.254.43,80.254.40,80.254.37,80.254.34,80.254.31,80.254.28,80.254.25,80.254.22,80.254.19,80.254.16,80.254.13,80.254.10,80.254.07,80.254.04,80.254.01,80.253.98,80.253.95,80.253.92,80.253.89,80.253.86,80.253.83,80.253.80,80.253.77,80.253.74,80.253.71,80.253.68,80.253.65,80.253.62,80.25

3.59,80.253.56,80.253.53,80.253.50,80.253.47,80.253.44,80.253.41,80.253.38,80.253.35,80.253.32,80.253.29,80.253.26,80.253.23,80.253.20,80.253.17,80.253.14,80.253.11,80.253.08,80.253.05,80.253.02,80.252.99,80.252.96,80.252.93,80.252.90,80.252.87,80.252.84,80.252.81,80.252.78,80.252.75,80.252.72,80.252.69,80.252.66,80.252.63,80.252.60,80.252.57,80.252.54,80.252.51,80.252.48,80.252.45,80.252.42,80.252.39,80.252.36,80.252.33,80.252.30,80.252.27,80.252.24,80.252.21,80.252.18,80.252.15,80.252.12,80.252.09,80.252.06,80.252.03,80.252.00,80.251.97,80.251.94,80.251.91,80.251.88,80.251.85,80.251.82,80.251.79,80.251.76,80.251.73,80.251.70,80.251.67,80.251.64,80.251.61,80.251.58,80.251.55,80.251.52,80.251.49,80.251.46,80.251.43,80.251.40,80.251.37,80.251.34,80.251.31,80.251.28,80.251.25,80.251.22,80.251.19,80.251.16,80.251.13,80.251.10,80.251.07,80.251.04,80.251.01,80.250.98,80.250.95,80.250.92,80.250.89,80.250.86,80.250.83,80.250.80,80.250.77,80.250.74,80.250.71,80.250.68,80.250.65,80.250.62,80.250.59,80.250.56,80.250.53,80.250.50,80.250.47,80.250.44,80.250.41,80.250.38,80.250.35,80.250.32,80.250.29,80.250.26,80.255.99,79.755.96,79.755.93,79.755.90,79.755.87,79.755.84,79.755.81,79.755.78,79.755.75,79.755.72,79.755.69,79.755.66,79.755.63,79.755.60,79.755.57,79.755.54,79.755.51,79.755.48,79.755.45,79.755.42,79.755.39,79.755.36,79.755.33,79.755.30,79.755.27,79.755.24,79.755.21,79.755.18,79.755.15,79.755.12,79.755.09,79.755.06,79.755.03,79.755.00,79.754.97,79.754.94,79.754.91,79.754.88,79.754.85,79.754.61,79.754.58,79.754.55,79.754.52,79.754.49,79.754.46,79.754.43,79.754.40,79.754.37,79.754.34,79.754.31,79.754.28,79.754.25,79.754.22,79.754.19,79.754.16,79.754.13,79.754.10,79.754.07,79.754.04,79.754.01,79.753.98,79.753.95,79.753.92,79.753.89,79.753.86,79.753.83,79.753.80,79.753.77,79.753.74,79.753.71,79.753.68,79.75

3.65,79.75

3.62,79.75

3.59,79.753.56,79.753.53,79.753.50,79.753.47,79.753.44,79.753.41,79.753.38,79.753.35,79.753.32,79.753.29,79.753.26,79.753.23,79.753.20,79.753.17,79.753.14,79.753.11,79.753.08,79.753.05,79.753.02,79.752.99,79.752.96,79.752.93,79.752.90,79.752.87,79.752.84,79.752.81,79.752.78,79.752.75,79.752.72,79.752.69,79.752.66,79.752.63,79.752.60,79.752.57,79.752.54,79.752.51,79.752.48,79.752.45,79.752.42,79.752.39,79.752.36,79.752.33,79.752.30,79.752.27,79.752.24,79.752.21,79.752.18,79.752.15,79.752.12,79.752.09,79.752.06,79.752.03,79.752.00,79.751.97,79.751.94,79.751.91,79.751.88,79.751.85,79.751.82,79.751.79,79.751.76,79.751.73,79.751.70,79.751.67,79.751.64,79.751.61,79.751.58,79.751.55,79.751.52,79.751.49,79.751.46,79.751.43,79.751.40,79.751.37,79.751.34,79.751.31,79.751.28,79.751.25,79.751.22,79.751.19,79.751.16,79.751.13,79.751.10,79.751.07,79.751.04,79.751.01,79.750.98,79.750.95,79.750.92,79.750.89,79.750.86,79.750.83,79.750.80,79.750.77,79.750.74,79.750.71,79.750.68,79.750.65,79.750.62,79.750.59,79.750.56,79.750.53,79.750.50,79.750.47,79.750.44,79.750.41,79.750.38,79.750.35,79.750.32,79.750.29,79.750.26,79.755.99,79.255.96,79.255.93,79.255.90,79.255.87,79.255.84,79.255.81,79.255.78,79.255.75,79.255.72,79.255.69,79.255.66,79.255.63,79.255.60,79.255.57,79.255.54,79.255.51,79.255.48,79.255.45,79.255.42,79.255.39,79.255.36,79.255.33,79.255.30,79.255.27,79.255.24,79.255.21,79.255.18,79.255.15,79.255.12,79.255.09,79.255.06,79.255.03,79.255.00,79.254.97,79.254.94,79.254.91,79.254.88,79.254.85,79.254.61,79.254.58,79.254.55,79.254.52,79.254.49,79.254.46,79.254.43,79.254.40,79.254.37,79.254.34,79.254.31,79.254.28,79.254.25,79.254.22,79.254.19,79.254.16,79.254.13,79.254.10,79.254.07,79.254.04,79.254.01,79.253.98,79.253.95,79.253.92,79.253.89,79.253.86,79.253.83,79.253.80,79.253.77,79.253.74,79.253.71,79.253.68,79.253.65,79.25

3.62,79.25

3.59,79.253.56,79.253.53,79.253.50,79.253.47,79.253.44,79.25

3.41,79.253.38,79.253.35,79.253.32,79.253.29,79.253.26,79.253.23,79.253.20,79.253.17,79.253.14,79.253.11,79.253.08,79.253.05,79.253.02,79.252.99,79.252.96,79.252.93,79.252.90,79.252.87,79.252.84,79.252.81,79.252.78,79.252.75,79.252.72,79.252.69,79.252.66,79.252.63,79.252.60,79.252.57,79.252.54,79.252.51,79.252.48,79.252.45,79.252.42,79.252.39,79.252.36,79.252.33,79.252.30,79.252.27,79.252.24,79.252.21,79.252.18,79.252.15,79.252.12,79.252.09,79.252.06,79.252.03,79.252.00,79.251.97,79.251.94,79.251.91,79.251.88,79.251.85,79.251.82,79.251.79,79.251.76,79.251.73,79.251.70,79.251.67,79.251.64,79.251.61,79.251.58,79.251.55,79.251.52,79.251.49,79.251.46,79.251.43,79.251.40,79.251.37,79.251.34,79.251.31,79.251.28,79.251.25,79.251.22,79.251.19,79.251.16,79.251.13,79.251.10,79.251.07,79.251.04,79.251.01,79.250.98,79.250.95,79.250.92,79.250.89,79.250.86,79.250.83,79.250.80,79.250.77,79.250.74,79.250.71,79.250.68,79.250.65,79.250.62,79.250.59,79.250.56,79.250.53,79.250.50,79.250.47,79.250.44,79.250.41,79.250.38,79.250.35,79.250.32,79.250.29,79.250.26,79.255.99,78.755.96,78.755.93,78.755.90,78.755.87,78.755.84,78.755.81,78.755.78,78.755.75,78.755.72,78.755.69,78.755.66,78.755.63,78.755.60,78.755.57,78.755.54,78.755.51,78.755.48,78.755.45,78.755.42,78.755.39,78.755.36,78.755.33,78.755.30,78.755.27,78.755.24,78.755.21,78.755.18,78.755.15,78.755.12,78.755.09,78.755.06,78.755.03,78.755.00,78.754.97,78.754.94,78.754.91,78.754.88,78.754.85,78.754.61,78.754.58,78.754.55,78.754.52,78.754.49,78.754.46,78.754.43,78.754.40,78.754.37,78.754.34,78.754.31,78.754.28,78.754.25,78.754.22,78.754.19,78.754.16,78.754.13,78.754.10,78.754.07,78.754.04,78.754.01,78.753.98,78.753.95,78.753.92,78.753.89,78.753.86,78.753.83,78.753.80,78.753.77,78.753.74,78.753.71,78.753.68,78.75

3.65,78.753.62,78.753.59,78.753.56,78.75

3.53,78.75

3.50,78.753.47,78.75

3.44,78.75

3.41,78.753.38,78.753.35,78.753.32,78.753.29,78.753.26,78.753.23,78.753.20,78.753.17,78.753.14,78.753.11,78.753.08,78.753.05,78.753.02,78.752.99,78.752.96,78.752.93,78.752.90,78.752.87,78.752.84,78.752.81,78.752.78,78.752.75,78.752.72,78.752.69,78.752.66,78.752.63,78.752.60,78.752.57,78.752.54,78.752.51,78.752.48,78.752.45,78.752.42,78.752.39,78.752.36,78.752.33,78.752.30,78.752.27,78.752.24,78.752.21,78.752.18,78.752.15,78.752.12,78.752.09,78.752.06,78.752.03,78.752.00,78.751.97,78.751.94,78.751.91,78.751.88,78.751.85,78.751.82,78.751.79,78.751.76,78.751.73,78.751.70,78.751.67,78.751.64,78.751.61,78.751.58,78.751.55,78.751.52,78.751.49,78.751.46,78.751.43,78.751.40,78.751.37,78.751.34,78.751.31,78.751.28,78.751.25,78.751.22,78.751.19,78.751.16,78.751.13,78.751.10,78.751.07,78.751.04,78.751.01,78.750.98,78.750.95,78.750.92,78.750.89,78.750.86,78.750.83,78.750.80,78.750.77,78.750.74,78.750.71,78.750.68,78.750.65,78.750.62,78.750.59,78.750.56,78.750.53,78.750.50,78.750.47,78.750.44,78.750.41,78.750.38,78.750.35,78.750.32,78.750.29,78.750.26,78.755.99,78.255.96,78.255.93,78.255.90,78.255.87,78.255.84,78.255.81,78.255.78,78.255.75,78.255.72,78.255.69,78.255.66,78.255.63,78.255.60,78.255.57,78.255.54,78.255.51,78.255.48,78.255.45,78.255.42,78.255.39,78.255.36,78.255.33,78.255.30,78.255.27,78.255.24,78.255.21,78.255.18,78.255.15,78.255.12,78.255.09,78.255.06,78.255.03,78.255.00,78.254.97,78.254.94,78.254.91,78.254.88,78.254.85,78.254.61,78.254.58,78.254.55,78.254.52,78.254.49,78.254.46,78.254.43,78.254.40,78.254.37,78.254.34,78.254.31,78.254.28,78.254.25,78.254.22,78.254.19,78.254.16,78.254.13,78.254.10,78.254.07,78.254.04,78.254.01,78.253.98,78.253.95,78.253.92,78.253.89,78.253.86,78.253.83,78.253.80,78.253.77,78.253.74,78.253.71,78.253.68,78.253.65,78.253.62,78.253.59,78.253.56,78.25

3.53,78.253.50,78.25

3.47,78.253.44,78.253.41,78.253.38,78.253.35,78.253.32,78.253.29,78.253.26,78.253.23,78.253.20,78.253.17,78.253.14,78.253.11,78.253.08,78.253.05,78.253.02,78.252.99,78.252.96,78.252.93,78.252.90,78.252.87,78.252.84,78.252.81,78.252.78,78.252.75,78.252.72,78.252.69,78.252.66,78.252.63,78.252.60,78.252.57,78.252.54,78.252.51,78.252.48,78.252.45,78.252.42,78.252.39,78.252.36,78.252.33,78.252.30,78.252.27,78.252.24,78.252.21,78.252.18,78.252.15,78.252.12,78.252.09,78.252.06,78.252.03,78.252.00,78.251.97,78.251.94,78.251.91,78.251.88,78.251.85,78.251.82,78.251.79,78.251.76,78.251.73,78.251.70,78.251.67,78.251.64,78.251.61,78.251.58,78.251.55,78.251.52,78.251.49,78.251.46,78.251.43,78.251.40,78.251.37,78.251.34,78.251.31,78.251.28,78.251.25,78.251.22,78.251.19,78.251.16,78.251.13,78.251.10,78.251.07,78.251.04,78.251.01,78.250.98,78.250.95,78.250.92,78.250.89,78.250.86,78.250.83,78.250.80,78.250.77,78.250.74,78.250.71,78.250.68,78.250.65,78.250.62,78.250.59,78.250.56,78.250.53,78.250.50,78.250.47,78.250.44,78.250.41,78.250.38,78.250.35,78.250.32,78.250.29,78.250.26,78.255.99,77.755.96,77.755.93,77.755.90,77.755.87,77.755.84,77.755.81,77.755.78,77.755.75,77.755.72,77.755.69,77.755.66,77.755.63,77.755.60,77.755.57,77.755.54,77.755.51,77.755.48,77.755.45,77.755.42,77.755.39,77.755.36,77.755.33,77.755.30,77.755.27,77.755.24,77.755.21,77.755.18,77.755.15,77.755.12,77.755.09,77.755.06,77.755.03,77.755.00,77.754.97,77.754.94,77.754.91,77.754.88,77.754.85,77.754.61,77.754.58,77.754.55,77.754.52,77.754.49,77.754.46,77.754.43,77.754.40,77.754.37,77.754.34,77.754.31,77.754.28,77.754.25,77.754.22,77.754.19,77.754.16,77.754.13,77.754.10,77.754.07,77.754.04,77.754.01,77.753.98,77.753.95,77.753.92,77.753.89,77.753.86,77.753.83,77.753.80,77.753.77,77.753.74,77.753.71,77.753.68,77.753.65,77.753.62,77.753.59,77.753.56,77.753.53,77.753.50,77.753.47,77.753.44,77.753.41,77.753.38,77.753.35,77.753.32,77.753.29,77.753.26,77.753.23,77.753.20,77.753.17,77.753.14,77.753.11,77.753.08,77.753.05,77.753.02,77.752.99,77.752.96,77.752.93,77.752.90,77.752.87,77.752.84,77.752.81,77.752.78,77.752.75,77.752.72,77.752.69,77.752.66,77.752.63,77.752.60,77.752.57,77.752.54,77.752.51,77.752.48,77.752.45,77.752.42,77.752.39,77.752.36,77.752.33,77.752.30,77.752.27,77.752.24,77.752.21,77.752.18,77.752.15,77.752.12,77.752.09,77.752.06,77.752.03,77.752.00,77.751.97,77.751.94,77.751.91,77.751.88,77.751.85,77.751.82,77.751.79,77.751.76,77.751.73,77.751.70,77.751.67,77.751.64,77.751.61,77.751.58,77.751.55,77.751.52,77.751.49,77.751.46,77.751.43,77.751.40,77.751.37,77.751.34,77.751.31,77.751.28,77.751.25,77.751.22,77.751.19,77.751.16,77.751.13,77.751.10,77.751.07,77.751.04,77.751.01,77.750.98,77.750.95,77.750.92,77.750.89,77.750.86,77.750.83,77.750.80,77.750.77,77.750.74,77.750.71,77.750.68,77.750.65,77.750.62,77.750.59,77.750.56,77.750.53,77.750.50,77.750.47,77.750.44,77.750.41,77.750.38,77.750.35,77.750.32,77.750.29,77.750.26,77.755.99,77.255.96,77.255.93,77.255.90,77.255.87,77.255.84,77.255.81,77.255.78,77.255.75,77.255.72,77.255.69,77.255.66,77.255.63,77.255.60,77.255.57,77.255.54,77.255.51,77.255.48,77.255.45,77.255.42,77.255.39,77.255.36,77.255.33,77.255.30,77.255.27,77.255.24,77.255.21,77.255.18,77.255.15,77.255.12,77.255.09,77.255.06,77.255.03,77.255.00,77.254.97,77.254.94,77.254.91,77.254.88,77.254.85,77.254.61,77.254.58,77.254.55,77.254.52,77.254.49,77.254.46,77.254.43,77.254.40,77.254.37,77.254.34,77.254.31,77.254.28,77.254.25,77.254.22,77.254.19,77.254.16,77.254.13,77.254.10,77.254.07,77.254.04,77.254.01,77.253.98,77.253.95,77.253.92,77.253.89,77.253.86,77.253.83,77.253.80,77.253.77,77.253.74,77.253.71,77.253.68,77.253.65,77.253.62,77.253.59,77.25

3.56,77.253.53,77.253.50,77.253.47,77.253.44,77.253.41,77.253.38,77.253.35,77.253.32,77.253.29,77.253.26,77.253.23,77.25

3.20,77.253.17,77.253.14,77.253.11,77.253.08,77.253.05,77.253.02,77.252.99,77.252.96,77.252.93,77.252.90,77.252.87,77.252.84,77.252.81,77.252.78,77.252.75,77.252.72,77.252.69,77.252.66,77.252.63,77.252.60,77.252.57,77.252.54,77.252.51,77.252.48,77.252.45,77.252.42,77.252.39,77.252.36,77.252.33,77.252.30,77.252.27,77.252.24,77.252.21,77.252.18,77.252.15,77.252.12,77.252.09,77.252.06,77.252.03,77.252.00,77.251.97,77.251.94,77.251.91,77.251.88,77.251.85,77.251.82,77.251.79,77.251.76,77.251.73,77.251.70,77.251.67,77.251.64,77.251.61,77.251.58,77.251.55,77.251.52,77.251.49,77.251.46,77.251.43,77.251.40,77.251.37,77.251.34,77.251.31,77.251.28,77.251.25,77.251.22,77.251.19,77.251.16,77.251.13,77.251.10,77.251.07,77.251.04,77.251.01,77.250.98,77.250.95,77.250.92,77.250.89,77.250.86,77.250.83,77.250.80,77.250.77,77.250.74,77.250.71,77.250.68,77.250.65,77.250.62,77.250.59,77.250.56,77.250.53,77.250.50,77.250.47,77.250.44,77.250.41,77.250.38,77.250.35,77.250.32,77.250.29,77.250.26,77.255.99,76.755.96,76.755.93,76.755.90,76.755.87,76.755.84,76.755.81,76.755.78,76.755.75,76.755.72,76.755.69,76.755.66,76.755.63,76.755.60,76.755.57,76.755.54,76.755.51,76.755.48,76.755.45,76.755.42,76.755.39,76.755.36,76.755.33,76.755.30,76.755.27,76.755.24,76.755.21,76.755.18,76.755.15,76.755.12,76.755.09,76.755.06,76.755.03,76.755.00,76.754.97,76.754.94,76.754.91,76.754.88,76.754.85,76.754.61,76.754.58,76.754.55,76.754.52,76.754.49,76.754.46,76.754.43,76.754.40,76.754.37,76.754.34,76.754.31,76.754.28,76.754.25,76.754.22,76.754.19,76.754.16,76.754.13,76.754.10,76.754.07,76.754.04,76.754.01,76.753.98,76.753.95,76.753.92,76.753.89,76.753.86,76.753.83,76.753.80,76.753.77,76.75

3.74,76.753.71,76.753.68,76.753.65,76.753.62,76.753.59,76.753.56,76.753.53,76.753.50,76.753.47,76.753.44,76.753.41,76.753.38,76.753.35,76.753.32,76.75

3.29,76.75

3.26,76.753.23,76.75

3.20,76.753.17,76.753.14,76.753.11,76.753.08,76.753.05,76.753.02,76.752.99,76.752.96,76.752.93,76.752.90,76.752.87,76.752.84,76.752.81,76.752.78,76.752.75,76.752.72,76.752.69,76.752.66,76.752.63,76.752.60,76.752.57,76.752.54,76.752.51,76.752.48,76.752.45,76.752.42,76.752.39,76.752.36,76.752.33,76.752.30,76.752.27,76.752.24,76.752.21,76.752.18,76.752.15,76.752.12,76.752.09,76.752.06,76.752.03,76.752.00,76.751.97,76.751.94,76.751.91,76.751.88,76.751.85,76.751.82,76.751.79,76.751.76,76.751.73,76.751.70,76.751.67,76.751.64,76.751.61,76.751.58,76.751.55,76.751.52,76.751.49,76.751.46,76.751.43,76.751.40,76.751.37,76.751.34,76.751.31,76.751.28,76.751.25,76.751.22,76.751.19,76.751.16,76.751.13,76.751.10,76.751.07,76.751.04,76.751.01,76.750.98,76.750.95,76.750.92,76.750.89,76.750.86,76.750.83,76.750.80,76.750.77,76.750.74,76.750.71,76.750.68,76.750.65,76.750.62,76.750.59,76.750.56,76.750.53,76.750.50,76.750.47,76.750.44,76.750.41,76.750.38,76.750.35,76.750.32,76.750.29,76.750.26,76.755.99,76.255.96,76.255.93,76.255.90,76.255.87,76.255.84,76.255.81,76.255.78,76.255.75,76.255.72,76.255.69,76.255.66,76.255.63,76.255.60,76.255.57,76.255.54,76.255.51,76.255.48,76.255.45,76.255.42,76.255.39,76.255.36,76.255.33,76.255.30,76.255.27,76.255.24,76.255.21,76.255.18,76.255.15,76.255.12,76.255.09,76.255.06,76.255.03,76.255.00,76.254.97,76.254.94,76.254.91,76.254.88,76.254.85,76.254.61,76.254.58,76.254.55,76.254.52,76.254.49,76.254.46,76.254.43,76.254.40,76.254.37,76.254.34,76.254.31,76.254.28,76.254.25,76.254.22,76.254.19,76.254.16,76.254.13,76.254.10,76.254.07,76.254.04,76.254.01,76.253.98,76.253.95,76.25

3.92,76.253.89,76.253.86,76.253.83,76.253.80,76.253.77,76.253.74,76.25

3.71,76.253.68,76.25

3.65,76.253.62,76.253.59,76.253.56,76.253.53,76.253.50,76.253.47,76.253.44,76.253.41,76.253.38,76.253.35,76.25

3.32,76.253.29,76.253.26,76.253.23,76.253.20,76.253.17,76.253.14,76.253.11,76.253.08,76.253.05,76.253.02,76.252.99,76.252.96,76.252.93,76.252.90,76.252.87,76.252.84,76.252.81,76.252.78,76.252.75,76.252.72,76.252.69,76.252.66,76.252.63,76.252.60,76.252.57,76.252.54,76.252.51,76.252.48,76.252.45,76.252.42,76.252.39,76.252.36,76.252.33,76.252.30,76.252.27,76.252.24,76.252.21,76.252.18,76.252.15,76.252.12,76.252.09,76.252.06,76.252.03,76.252.00,76.251.97,76.251.94,76.251.91,76.251.88,76.251.85,76.251.82,76.251.79,76.251.76,76.251.73,76.251.70,76.251.67,76.251.64,76.251.61,76.251.58,76.251.55,76.251.52,76.251.49,76.251.46,76.251.43,76.251.40,76.251.37,76.251.34,76.251.31,76.251.28,76.251.25,76.251.22,76.251.19,76.251.16,76.251.13,76.251.10,76.251.07,76.251.04,76.251.01,76.250.98,76.250.95,76.250.92,76.250.89,76.250.86,76.250.83,76.250.80,76.250.77,76.250.74,76.250.71,76.250.68,76.250.65,76.250.62,76.250.59,76.250.56,76.250.53,76.250.50,76.250.47,76.250.44,76.250.41,76.250.38,76.250.35,76.250.32,76.250.29,76.250.26,76.255.99,75.755.96,75.755.93,75.755.90,75.755.87,75.755.84,75.755.81,75.755.78,75.755.75,75.755.72,75.755.69,75.755.66,75.755.63,75.755.60,75.755.57,75.755.54,75.755.51,75.755.48,75.755.45,75.755.42,75.755.39,75.755.36,75.755.33,75.755.30,75.755.27,75.755.24,75.755.21,75.755.18,75.755.15,75.755.12,75.755.09,75.755.06,75.755.03,75.755.00,75.754.97,75.754.94,75.754.91,75.754.88,75.754.85,75.754.61,75.754.58,75.754.55,75.754.52,75.754.49,75.754.46,75.754.43,75.754.40,75.754.37,75.754.34,75.754.31,75.754.28,75.754.25,75.754.22,75.754.19,75.754.16,75.754.13,75.754.10,75.754.07,75.754.04,75.754.01,75.753.98,75.753.95,75.753.92,75.753.89,75.753.86,75.753.83,75.753.80,75.753.77,75.75

3.74,75.75

3.71,75.753.68,75.753.65,75.753.62,75.753.59,75.753.56,75.753.53,75.753.50,75.753.47,75.753.44,75.753.41,75.753.38,75.753.35,75.753.32,75.753.29,75.753.26,75.753.23,75.753.20,75.753.17,75.753.14,75.753.11,75.753.08,75.753.05,75.753.02,75.752.99,75.752.96,75.752.93,75.752.90,75.752.87,75.752.84,75.752.81,75.752.78,75.752.75,75.752.72,75.752.69,75.752.66,75.752.63,75.752.60,75.752.57,75.752.54,75.752.51,75.752.48,75.752.45,75.752.42,75.752.39,75.752.36,75.752.33,75.752.30,75.752.27,75.752.24,75.752.21,75.752.18,75.752.15,75.752.12,75.752.09,75.752.06,75.752.03,75.752.00,75.751.97,75.751.94,75.751.91,75.751.88,75.751.85,75.751.82,75.751.79,75.751.76,75.751.73,75.751.70,75.751.67,75.751.64,75.751.61,75.751.58,75.751.55,75.751.52,75.751.49,75.751.46,75.751.43,75.751.40,75.751.37,75.751.34,75.751.31,75.751.28,75.751.25,75.751.22,75.751.19,75.751.16,75.751.13,75.751.10,75.751.07,75.751.04,75.751.01,75.750.98,75.750.95,75.750.92,75.750.89,75.750.86,75.750.83,75.750.80,75.750.77,75.750.74,75.750.71,75.750.68,75.750.65,75.750.62,75.750.59,75.750.56,75.750.53,75.750.50,75.750.47,75.750.44,75.750.41,75.750.38,75.750.35,75.750.32,75.750.29,75.750.26,75.755.99,75.255.96,75.255.93,75.255.90,75.255.87,75.255.84,75.255.81,75.255.78,75.255.75,75.255.72,75.255.69,75.255.66,75.255.63,75.255.60,75.255.57,75.255.54,75.255.51,75.255.48,75.255.45,75.255.42,75.255.39,75.255.36,75.255.33,75.255.30,75.255.27,75.255.24,75.255.21,75.255.18,75.255.15,75.255.12,75.255.09,75.255.06,75.255.03,75.255.00,75.254.97,75.254.94,75.254.91,75.254.88,75.254.85,75.254.61,75.254.58,75.254.55,75.254.52,75.254.49,75.254.46,75.254.43,75.254.40,75.254.37,75.254.34,75.254.31,75.254.28,75.254.25,75.254.22,75.254.19,75.254.16,75.254.13,75.254.10,75.254.07,75.254.04,75.254.01,75.253.98,75.253.95,75.253.92,75.253.89,75.253.86,75.253.83,75.253.80,75.253.77,75.25

3.74,75.25

3.71,75.253.68,75.253.65,75.253.62,75.253.59,75.253.56,75.25

3.53,75.253.50,75.253.47,75.253.44,75.253.41,75.253.38,75.253.35,75.253.32,75.253.29,75.253.26,75.253.23,75.253.20,75.253.17,75.253.14,75.253.11,75.253.08,75.253.05,75.253.02,75.252.99,75.252.96,75.252.93,75.252.90,75.252.87,75.252.84,75.252.81,75.252.78,75.252.75,75.252.72,75.252.69,75.252.66,75.252.63,75.252.60,75.252.57,75.252.54,75.252.51,75.252.48,75.252.45,75.252.42,75.252.39,75.252.36,75.252.33,75.252.30,75.252.27,75.252.24,75.252.21,75.252.18,75.252.15,75.252.12,75.252.09,75.252.06,75.252.03,75.252.00,75.251.97,75.251.94,75.251.91,75.251.88,75.251.85,75.251.82,75.251.79,75.251.76,75.251.73,75.251.70,75.251.67,75.251.64,75.251.61,75.251.58,75.251.55,75.251.52,75.251.49,75.251.46,75.251.43,75.251.40,75.251.37,75.251.34,75.251.31,75.251.28,75.251.25,75.251.22,75.251.19,75.251.16,75.251.13,75.251.10,75.251.07,75.251.04,75.251.01,75.250.98,75.250.95,75.250.92,75.250.89,75.250.86,75.250.83,75.250.80,75.250.77,75.250.74,75.250.71,75.250.68,75.250.65,75.250.62,75.250.59,75.250.56,75.250.53,75.250.50,75.250.47,75.250.44,75.250.41,75.250.38,75.250.35,75.250.32,75.250.29,75.250.26,75.255.99,74.755.96,74.755.93,74.755.90,74.755.87,74.755.84,74.755.81,74.755.78,74.755.75,74.755.72,74.755.69,74.755.66,74.755.63,74.755.60,74.755.57,74.755.54,74.755.51,74.755.48,74.755.45,74.755.42,74.755.39,74.755.36,74.755.33,74.755.30,74.755.27,74.755.24,74.755.21,74.755.18,74.755.15,74.755.12,74.755.09,74.755.06,74.755.03,74.755.00,74.754.97,74.754.94,74.754.91,74.754.88,74.754.85,74.754.61,74.754.58,74.754.55,74.754.52,74.754.49,74.754.46,74.754.43,74.754.40,74.754.37,74.754.34,74.754.31,74.754.28,74.754.25,74.754.22,74.754.19,74.754.16,74.754.13,74.754.10,74.754.07,74.754.04,74.754.01,74.753.98,74.753.95,74.753.92,74.753.89,74.753.86,74.753.83,74.753.80,74.753.77,74.753.74,74.75

3.71,74.753.68,74.753.65,74.75

3.62,74.75

3.59,74.753.56,74.75

3.53,74.753.50,74.753.47,74.753.44,74.753.41,74.753.38,74.753.35,74.753.32,74.753.29,74.753.26,74.753.23,74.753.20,74.753.17,74.753.14,74.753.11,74.753.08,74.753.05,74.753.02,74.752.99,74.752.96,74.752.93,74.752.90,74.752.87,74.752.84,74.752.81,74.752.78,74.752.75,74.752.72,74.752.69,74.752.66,74.752.63,74.752.60,74.752.57,74.752.54,74.752.51,74.752.48,74.752.45,74.752.42,74.752.39,74.752.36,74.752.33,74.752.30,74.752.27,74.752.24,74.752.21,74.752.18,74.752.15,74.752.12,74.752.09,74.752.06,74.752.03,74.752.00,74.751.97,74.751.94,74.751.91,74.751.88,74.751.85,74.751.82,74.751.79,74.751.76,74.751.73,74.751.70,74.751.67,74.751.64,74.751.61,74.751.58,74.751.55,74.751.52,74.751.49,74.751.46,74.751.43,74.751.40,74.751.37,74.751.34,74.751.31,74.751.28,74.751.25,74.751.22,74.751.19,74.751.16,74.751.13,74.751.10,74.751.07,74.751.04,74.751.01,74.750.98,74.750.95,74.750.92,74.750.89,74.750.86,74.750.83,74.750.80,74.750.77,74.750.74,74.750.71,74.750.68,74.750.65,74.750.62,74.750.59,74.750.56,74.750.53,74.750.50,74.750.47,74.750.44,74.750.41,74.750.38,74.750.35,74.750.32,74.750.29,74.750.26,74.755.99,74.255.96,74.255.93,74.255.90,74.255.87,74.255.84,74.255.81,74.255.78,74.255.75,74.255.72,74.255.69,74.255.66,74.255.63,74.255.60,74.255.57,74.255.54,74.255.51,74.255.48,74.255.45,74.255.42,74.255.39,74.255.36,74.255.33,74.255.30,74.255.27,74.255.24,74.255.21,74.255.18,74.255.15,74.255.12,74.255.09,74.255.06,74.255.03,74.255.00,74.254.97,74.254.94,74.254.91,74.254.88,74.254.85,74.254.61,74.254.58,74.254.55,74.254.52,74.254.49,74.254.46,74.254.43,74.254.40,74.254.37,74.254.34,74.254.31,74.254.28,74.254.25,74.254.22,74.254.19,74.254.16,74.254.13,74.254.10,74.254.07,74.254.04,74.254.01,74.253.98,74.253.95,74.253.92,74.25

3.89,74.253.86,74.25

3.83,74.253.80,74.25

3.77,74.253.74,74.253.71,74.253.68,74.253.65,74.25

3.62,74.25

3.59,74.253.56,74.25

3.53,74.25

3.50,74.253.47,74.253.44,74.253.41,74.253.38,74.253.35,74.253.32,74.253.29,74.253.26,74.253.23,74.253.20,74.253.17,74.253.14,74.253.11,74.253.08,74.253.05,74.253.02,74.252.99,74.252.96,74.252.93,74.252.90,74.252.87,74.252.84,74.252.81,74.252.78,74.252.75,74.252.72,74.252.69,74.252.66,74.252.63,74.252.60,74.252.57,74.252.54,74.252.51,74.252.48,74.252.45,74.252.42,74.252.39,74.252.36,74.252.33,74.252.30,74.252.27,74.252.24,74.252.21,74.252.18,74.252.15,74.252.12,74.252.09,74.252.06,74.252.03,74.252.00,74.251.97,74.251.94,74.251.91,74.251.88,74.251.85,74.251.82,74.251.79,74.251.76,74.251.73,74.251.70,74.251.67,74.251.64,74.251.61,74.251.58,74.251.55,74.251.52,74.251.49,74.251.46,74.251.43,74.251.40,74.251.37,74.251.34,74.251.31,74.251.28,74.251.25,74.251.22,74.251.19,74.251.16,74.251.13,74.251.10,74.251.07,74.251.04,74.251.01,74.250.98,74.250.95,74.250.92,74.250.89,74.250.86,74.250.83,74.250.80,74.250.77,74.250.74,74.250.71,74.250.68,74.250.65,74.250.62,74.250.59,74.250.56,74.250.53,74.250.50,74.250.47,74.250.44,74.250.41,74.250.38,74.250.35,74.250.32,74.250.29,74.250.26,74.255.99,73.755.96,73.755.93,73.755.90,73.755.87,73.755.84,73.755.81,73.755.78,73.755.75,73.755.72,73.755.69,73.755.66,73.755.63,73.755.60,73.755.57,73.755.54,73.755.51,73.755.48,73.755.45,73.755.42,73.755.39,73.755.36,73.755.33,73.755.30,73.755.27,73.755.24,73.755.21,73.755.18,73.755.15,73.755.12,73.755.09,73.755.06,73.755.03,73.755.00,73.754.97,73.754.94,73.754.91,73.754.88,73.754.85,73.754.61,73.754.58,73.754.55,73.754.52,73.754.49,73.754.46,73.754.43,73.754.40,73.754.37,73.754.34,73.754.31,73.754.28,73.754.25,73.754.22,73.754.19,73.754.16,73.754.13,73.754.10,73.754.07,73.754.04,73.754.01,73.753.98,73.753.95,73.753.92,73.753.89,73.753.86,73.753.83,73.753.80,73.753.77,73.753.74,73.753.71,73.753.68,73.753.65,73.753.62,73.753.59,73.753.56,73.753.53,73.753.50,73.753.47,73.753.44,73.753.41,73.753.38,73.753.35,73.753.32,73.753.29,73.753.26,73.753.23,73.753.20,73.753.17,73.753.14,73.753.11,73.753.08,73.753.05,73.753.02,73.752.99,73.752.96,73.752.93,73.752.90,73.752.87,73.752.84,73.752.81,73.752.78,73.752.75,73.752.72,73.752.69,73.752.66,73.752.63,73.752.60,73.752.57,73.752.54,73.752.51,73.752.48,73.752.45,73.752.42,73.752.39,73.752.36,73.752.33,73.752.30,73.752.27,73.752.24,73.752.21,73.752.18,73.752.15,73.752.12,73.752.09,73.752.06,73.752.03,73.752.00,73.751.97,73.751.94,73.751.91,73.751.88,73.751.85,73.751.82,73.751.79,73.751.76,73.751.73,73.751.70,73.751.67,73.751.64,73.751.61,73.751.58,73.751.55,73.751.52,73.751.49,73.751.46,73.751.43,73.751.40,73.751.37,73.751.34,73.751.31,73.751.28,73.751.25,73.751.22,73.751.19,73.751.16,73.751.13,73.751.10,73.751.07,73.751.04,73.751.01,73.750.98,73.750.95,73.750.92,73.750.89,73.750.86,73.750.83,73.750.80,73.750.77,73.750.74,73.750.71,73.750.68,73.750.65,73.750.62,73.750.59,73.750.56,73.750.53,73.750.50,73.750.47,73.750.44,73.750.41,73.750.38,73.750.35,73.750.32,73.750.29,73.750.26,73.755.99,73.255.96,73.255.93,73.255.90,73.255.87,73.255.84,73.255.81,73.255.78,73.255.75,73.255.72,73.255.69,73.255.66,73.255.63,73.255.60,73.255.57,73.255.54,73.255.51,73.255.48,73.255.45,73.255.42,73.255.39,73.255.36,73.255.33,73.255.30,73.255.27,73.255.24,73.255.21,73.255.18,73.255.15,73.255.12,73.255.09,73.255.06,73.255.03,73.255.00,73.254.97,73.254.94,73.254.91,73.254.88,73.254.85,73.254.61,73.254.58,73.254.55,73.254.52,73.254.49,73.254.46,73.254.43,73.254.40,73.254.37,73.254.34,73.254.31,73.254.28,73.254.25,73.254.22,73.254.19,73.254.16,73.254.13,73.254.10,73.254.07,73.254.04,73.254.01,73.253.98,73.253.95,73.253.92,73.253.89,73.253.86,73.253.83,73.25

3.80,73.253.77,73.253.74,73.253.71,73.253.68,73.253.65,73.253.62,73.253.59,73.253.56,73.253.53,73.25

3.50,73.253.47,73.253.44,73.253.41,73.25

3.38,73.253.35,73.253.32,73.253.29,73.253.26,73.253.23,73.253.20,73.253.17,73.253.14,73.253.11,73.253.08,73.253.05,73.253.02,73.252.99,73.252.96,73.252.93,73.252.90,73.252.87,73.252.84,73.252.81,73.252.78,73.252.75,73.252.72,73.252.69,73.252.66,73.252.63,73.252.60,73.252.57,73.252.54,73.252.51,73.252.48,73.252.45,73.252.42,73.252.39,73.252.36,73.252.33,73.252.30,73.252.27,73.252.24,73.252.21,73.252.18,73.252.15,73.252.12,73.252.09,73.252.06,73.252.03,73.252.00,73.251.97,73.251.94,73.251.91,73.251.88,73.251.85,73.251.82,73.251.79,73.251.76,73.251.73,73.251.70,73.251.67,73.251.64,73.251.61,73.251.58,73.251.55,73.251.52,73.251.49,73.251.46,73.251.43,73.251.40,73.251.37,73.251.34,73.251.31,73.251.28,73.251.25,73.251.22,73.251.19,73.251.16,73.251.13,73.251.10,73.251.07,73.251.04,73.251.01,73.250.98,73.250.95,73.250.92,73.250.89,73.250.86,73.250.83,73.250.80,73.250.77,73.250.74,73.250.71,73.250.68,73.250.65,73.250.62,73.250.59,73.250.56,73.250.53,73.250.50,73.250.47,73.250.44,73.250.41,73.250.38,73.250.35,73.250.32,73.250.29,73.250.26,73.255.99,72.755.96,72.755.93,72.755.90,72.755.87,72.755.84,72.755.81,72.755.78,72.755.75,72.755.72,72.755.69,72.755.66,72.755.63,72.755.60,72.755.57,72.755.54,72.755.51,72.755.48,72.755.45,72.755.42,72.755.39,72.755.36,72.755.33,72.755.30,72.755.27,72.755.24,72.755.21,72.755.18,72.755.15,72.755.12,72.755.09,72.755.06,72.755.03,72.755.00,72.754.97,72.754.94,72.754.91,72.754.88,72.754.85,72.754.61,72.754.58,72.754.55,72.754.52,72.754.49,72.754.46,72.754.43,72.754.40,72.754.37,72.754.34,72.754.31,72.754.28,72.754.25,72.754.22,72.754.19,72.754.16,72.754.13,72.754.10,72.754.07,72.754.04,72.754.01,72.753.98,72.753.95,72.75

3.92,72.753.89,72.753.86,72.753.83,72.753.80,72.753.77,72.753.74,72.753.71,72.753.68,72.753.65,72.753.62,72.753.59,72.753.56,72.753.53,72.753.50,72.753.47,72.753.44,72.753.41,72.75

3.38,72.75

3.35,72.753.32,72.753.29,72.753.26,72.753.23,72.753.20,72.753.17,72.753.14,72.753.11,72.753.08,72.753.05,72.753.02,72.752.99,72.752.96,72.752.93,72.752.90,72.752.87,72.752.84,72.752.81,72.752.78,72.752.75,72.752.72,72.752.69,72.752.66,72.752.63,72.752.60,72.752.57,72.752.54,72.752.51,72.752.48,72.752.45,72.752.42,72.752.39,72.752.36,72.752.33,72.752.30,72.752.27,72.752.24,72.752.21,72.752.18,72.752.15,72.752.12,72.752.09,72.752.06,72.752.03,72.752.00,72.751.97,72.751.94,72.751.91,72.751.88,72.751.85,72.751.82,72.751.79,72.751.76,72.751.73,72.751.70,72.751.67,72.751.64,72.751.61,72.751.58,72.751.55,72.751.52,72.751.49,72.751.46,72.751.43,72.751.40,72.751.37,72.751.34,72.751.31,72.751.28,72.751.25,72.751.22,72.751.19,72.751.16,72.751.13,72.751.10,72.751.07,72.751.04,72.751.01,72.750.98,72.750.95,72.750.92,72.750.89,72.750.86,72.750.83,72.750.80,72.750.77,72.750.74,72.750.71,72.750.68,72.750.65,72.750.62,72.750.59,72.750.56,72.750.53,72.750.50,72.750.47,72.750.44,72.750.41,72.750.38,72.750.35,72.750.32,72.750.29,72.750.26,72.755.99,72.255.96,72.255.93,72.255.90,72.255.87,72.255.84,72.255.81,72.255.78,72.255.75,72.255.72,72.255.69,72.255.66,72.255.63,72.255.60,72.255.57,72.255.54,72.255.51,72.255.48,72.255.45,72.255.42,72.255.39,72.255.36,72.255.33,72.255.30,72.255.27,72.255.24,72.255.21,72.255.18,72.255.15,72.255.12,72.255.09,72.255.06,72.255.03,72.255.00,72.254.97,72.254.94,72.254.91,72.254.88,72.254.85,72.254.61,72.254.58,72.254.55,72.254.52,72.254.49,72.254.46,72.254.43,72.254.40,72.254.37,72.254.34,72.254.31,72.254.28,72.254.25,72.254.22,72.254.19,72.254.16,72.254.13,72.254.10,72.254.07,72.254.04,72.254.01,72.253.98,72.253.95,72.253.92,72.253.89,72.253.86,72.253.83,72.253.80,72.253.77,72.253.74,72.253.71,72.253.68,72.253.65,72.253.62,72.253.59,72.253.56,72.253.53,72.253.50,72.253.47,72.253.44,72.25

3.41,72.25

3.38,72.25

3.35,72.253.32,72.253.29,72.253.26,72.253.23,72.253.20,72.253.17,72.253.14,72.253.11,72.253.08,72.253.05,72.253.02,72.252.99,72.252.96,72.252.93,72.252.90,72.252.87,72.252.84,72.252.81,72.252.78,72.252.75,72.252.72,72.252.69,72.252.66,72.252.63,72.252.60,72.252.57,72.252.54,72.252.51,72.252.48,72.252.45,72.252.42,72.252.39,72.252.36,72.252.33,72.252.30,72.252.27,72.252.24,72.252.21,72.252.18,72.252.15,72.252.12,72.252.09,72.252.06,72.252.03,72.252.00,72.251.97,72.251.94,72.251.91,72.251.88,72.251.85,72.251.82,72.251.79,72.251.76,72.251.73,72.251.70,72.251.67,72.251.64,72.251.61,72.251.58,72.251.55,72.251.52,72.251.49,72.251.46,72.251.43,72.251.40,72.251.37,72.251.34,72.251.31,72.251.28,72.251.25,72.251.22,72.251.19,72.251.16,72.251.13,72.251.10,72.251.07,72.251.04,72.251.01,72.250.98,72.250.95,72.250.92,72.250.89,72.250.86,72.250.83,72.250.80,72.250.77,72.250.74,72.250.71,72.250.68,72.250.65,72.250.62,72.250.59,72.250.56,72.250.53,72.250.50,72.250.47,72.250.44,72.250.41,72.250.38,72.250.35,72.250.32,72.250.29,72.250.26,72.255.99,71.755.96,71.755.93,71.755.90,71.755.87,71.755.84,71.755.81,71.755.78,71.755.75,71.755.72,71.755.69,71.755.66,71.755.63,71.755.60,71.755.57,71.755.54,71.755.51,71.755.48,71.755.45,71.755.42,71.755.39,71.755.36,71.755.33,71.755.30,71.755.27,71.755.24,71.755.21,71.755.18,71.755.15,71.755.12,71.755.09,71.755.06,71.755.03,71.755.00,71.754.97,71.754.94,71.754.91,71.754.88,71.754.85,71.754.61,71.754.58,71.754.55,71.754.52,71.754.49,71.754.46,71.754.43,71.754.40,71.754.37,71.754.34,71.754.31,71.754.28,71.754.25,71.754.22,71.754.19,71.754.16,71.754.13,71.754.10,71.754.07,71.754.04,71.754.01,71.753.98,71.753.95,71.753.92,71.753.89,71.753.86,71.753.83,71.753.80,71.753.77,71.753.74,71.753.71,71.753.68,71.753.65,71.753.62,71.753.59,71.753.56,71.753.53,71.753.50,71.753.47,71.753.44,71.753.41,71.75

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4.22,66.754.19,66.754.16,66.754.13,66.754.10,66.754.07,66.754.04,66.754.01,66.753.98,66.753.95,66.753.92,66.753.89,66.753.86,66.753.83,66.753.80,66.753.77,66.753.74,66.753.71,66.753.68,66.753.65,66.753.62,66.753.59,66.753.56,66.753.53,66.753.50,66.753.47,66.753.44,66.753.41,66.753.38,66.753.35,66.753.32,66.753.29,66.753.26,66.753.23,66.753.20,66.753.17,66.753.14,66.753.11,66.753.08,66.753.05,66.753.02,66.752.99,66.752.96,66.752.93,66.752.90,66.752.87,66.752.84,66.752.81,66.752.78,66.752.75,66.752.72,66.752.69,66.752.66,66.752.63,66.752.60,66.752.57,66.752.54,66.752.51,66.752.48,66.752.45,66.752.42,66.752.39,66.752.36,66.752.33,66.752.30,66.752.27,66.752.24,66.752.21,66.752.18,66.752.15,66.752.12,66.752.09,66.752.06,66.752.03,66.752.00,66.751.97,66.751.94,66.751.91,66.751.88,66.751.85,66.751.82,66.751.79,66.751.76,66.751.73,66.751.70,66.751.67,66.751.64,66.751.61,66.751.58,66.751.55,66.751.52,66.751.49,66.751.46,66.751.43,66.751.40,66.751.37,66.751.34,66.751.31,66.751.28,66.751.25,66.751.22,66.751.19,66.751.16,66.751.13,66.751.10,66.751.07,66.751.04,66.751.01,66.750.98,66.750.95,66.750.92,66.750.89,66.750.86,66.750.83,66.750.80,66.750.77,66.750.74,66.750.71,66.750.68,66.750.65,66.750.62,66.750.59,66.750.56,66.750.53,66.750.50,66.750.47,66.750.44,66.750.41,66.750.38,66.750.35,66.750.32,66.750.29,66.750.26,66.755.99,66.255.96,66.255.93,66.255.90,66.255.87,66.255.84,66.255.81,66.255.78,66.255.75,66.255.72,66.255.69,66.255.66,66.255.63,66.255.60,66.255.57,66.255.54,66.255.51,66.255.48,66.255.45,66.255.42,66.255.39,66.255.36,66.255.33,66.255.30,66.255.27,66.255.24,66.255.21,66.255.18,66.255.15,66.255.12,66.255.09,66.255.06,66.255.03,66.255.00,66.254.97,66.254.94,66.254.91,66.254.88,66.254.85,66.254.61,66.254.58,66.254.55,66.254.52,66.254.49,66.254.46,66.254.43,66.254.40,66.254.37,66.254.34,66.254.31,66.254.28,66.254.25,66.254.22,66.254.19,66.254.16,66.254.13,66.254.10,66.254.07,66.25

4.04,66.254.01,66.25

3.98,66.253.95,66.253.92,66.253.89,66.253.86,66.253.83,66.253.80,66.253.77,66.253.74,66.253.71,66.253.68,66.253.65,66.253.62,66.253.59,66.253.56,66.253.53,66.253.50,66.253.47,66.253.44,66.253.41,66.253.38,66.253.35,66.253.32,66.253.29,66.253.26,66.253.23,66.253.20,66.253.17,66.253.14,66.253.11,66.253.08,66.253.05,66.253.02,66.252.99,66.252.96,66.252.93,66.252.90,66.252.87,66.252.84,66.252.81,66.252.78,66.252.75,66.252.72,66.252.69,66.252.66,66.252.63,66.252.60,66.252.57,66.252.54,66.252.51,66.252.48,66.252.45,66.252.42,66.252.39,66.252.36,66.252.33,66.252.30,66.252.27,66.252.24,66.252.21,66.252.18,66.252.15,66.252.12,66.252.09,66.252.06,66.252.03,66.252.00,66.251.97,66.251.94,66.251.91,66.251.88,66.251.85,66.251.82,66.251.79,66.251.76,66.251.73,66.251.70,66.251.67,66.251.64,66.251.61,66.251.58,66.251.55,66.251.52,66.251.49,66.251.46,66.251.43,66.251.40,66.251.37,66.251.34,66.251.31,66.251.28,66.251.25,66.251.22,66.251.19,66.251.16,66.251.13,66.251.10,66.251.07,66.251.04,66.251.01,66.250.98,66.250.95,66.250.92,66.250.89,66.250.86,66.250.83,66.250.80,66.250.77,66.250.74,66.250.71,66.250.68,66.250.65,66.250.62,66.250.59,66.250.56,66.250.53,66.250.50,66.250.47,66.250.44,66.250.41,66.250.38,66.250.35,66.250.32,66.250.29,66.250.26,66.255.99,65.755.96,65.755.93,65.755.90,65.755.87,65.755.84,65.755.81,65.755.78,65.755.75,65.755.72,65.755.69,65.755.66,65.755.63,65.755.60,65.755.57,65.755.54,65.755.51,65.755.48,65.755.45,65.755.42,65.755.39,65.755.36,65.755.33,65.755.30,65.755.27,65.755.24,65.755.21,65.755.18,65.755.15,65.755.12,65.755.09,65.755.06,65.755.03,65.755.00,65.754.97,65.754.94,65.754.91,65.754.88,65.754.85,65.754.61,65.754.58,65.754.55,65.754.52,65.754.49,65.754.46,65.754.43,65.754.40,65.754.37,65.754.34,65.754.31,65.754.28,65.754.25,65.754.22,65.754.19,65.754.16,65.754.13,65.754.10,65.754.07,65.754.04,65.754.01,65.753.98,65.753.95,65.753.92,65.753.89,65.753.86,65.753.83,65.753.80,65.753.77,65.753.74,65.753.71,65.753.68,65.753.65,65.753.62,65.753.59,65.753.56,65.753.53,65.753.50,65.753.47,65.753.44,65.753.41,65.753.38,65.753.35,65.753.32,65.753.29,65.753.26,65.753.23,65.753.20,65.753.17,65.753.14,65.753.11,65.753.08,65.753.05,65.753.02,65.752.99,65.752.96,65.752.93,65.752.90,65.752.87,65.752.84,65.752.81,65.752.78,65.752.75,65.752.72,65.752.69,65.752.66,65.752.63,65.752.60,65.752.57,65.752.54,65.752.51,65.752.48,65.752.45,65.752.42,65.752.39,65.752.36,65.752.33,65.752.30,65.752.27,65.752.24,65.752.21,65.752.18,65.752.15,65.752.12,65.752.09,65.752.06,65.752.03,65.752.00,65.751.97,65.751.94,65.751.91,65.751.88,65.751.85,65.751.82,65.751.79,65.751.76,65.751.73,65.751.70,65.751.67,65.751.64,65.751.61,65.751.58,65.751.55,65.751.52,65.751.49,65.751.46,65.751.43,65.751.40,65.751.37,65.751.34,65.751.31,65.751.28,65.751.25,65.751.22,65.751.19,65.751.16,65.751.13,65.751.10,65.751.07,65.751.04,65.751.01,65.750.98,65.750.95,65.750.92,65.750.89,65.750.86,65.750.83,65.750.80,65.750.77,65.750.74,65.750.71,65.750.68,65.750.65,65.750.62,65.750.59,65.750.56,65.750.53,65.750.50,65.750.47,65.750.44,65.750.41,65.750.38,65.750.35,65.750.32,65.750.29,65.750.26,65.755.99,65.255.96,65.255.93,65.255.90,65.255.87,65.255.84,65.255.81,65.255.78,65.255.75,65.255.72,65.255.69,65.255.66,65.255.63,65.255.60,65.255.57,65.255.54,65.255.51,65.255.48,65.255.45,65.255.42,65.255.39,65.255.36,65.255.33,65.255.30,65.255.27,65.255.24,65.255.21,65.255.18,65.255.15,65.255.12,65.255.09,65.255.06,65.255.03,65.255.00,65.254.97,65.254.94,65.254.91,65.254.88,65.254.85,65.254.61,65.254.58,65.254.55,65.254.52,65.254.49,65.254.46,65.254.43,65.254.40,65.254.37,65.254.34,65.254.31,65.254.28,65.254.25,65.254.22,65.254.19,65.254.16,65.254.13,65.254.10,65.254.07,65.254.04,65.254.01,65.253.98,65.253.95,65.253.92,65.253.89,65.253.86,65.253.83,65.253.80,65.253.77,65.253.74,65.253.71,65.253.68,65.253.65,65.253.62,65.253.59,65.253.56,65.253.53,65.253.50,65.253.47,65.253.44,65.253.41,65.253.38,65.253.35,65.253.32,65.253.29,65.253.26,65.253.23,65.253.20,65.253.17,65.253.14,65.253.11,65.253.08,65.253.05,65.253.02,65.252.99,65.252.96,65.252.93,65.252.90,65.252.87,65.252.84,65.252.81,65.252.78,65.252.75,65.252.72,65.252.69,65.252.66,65.252.63,65.252.60,65.252.57,65.252.54,65.252.51,65.252.48,65.252.45,65.252.42,65.252.39,65.252.36,65.252.33,65.252.30,65.252.27,65.252.24,65.252.21,65.252.18,65.252.15,65.252.12,65.252.09,65.252.06,65.252.03,65.252.00,65.251.97,65.251.94,65.251.91,65.251.88,65.251.85,65.251.82,65.251.79,65.251.76,65.251.73,65.251.70,65.251.67,65.251.64,65.251.61,65.251.58,65.251.55,65.251.52,65.251.49,65.251.46,65.251.43,65.251.40,65.251.37,65.251.34,65.251.31,65.251.28,65.251.25,65.251.22,65.251.19,65.251.16,65.251.13,65.251.10,65.251.07,65.251.04,65.251.01,65.250.98,65.250.95,65.250.92,65.250.89,65.250.86,65.250.83,65.250.80,65.250.77,65.250.74,65.250.71,65.250.68,65.250.65,65.250.62,65.250.59,65.250.56,65.250.53,65.250.50,65.250.47,65.250.44,65.250.41,65.250.38,65.250.35,65.250.32,65.250.29,65.250.26,65.255.99,64.755.96,64.755.93,64.755.90,64.755.87,64.75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3.89,64.25

3.86,64.25

3.83,64.25

3.80,64.253.77,64.25

3.74,64.253.71,64.253.68,64.253.65,64.253.62,64.253.59,64.253.56,64.253.53,64.253.50,64.253.47,64.253.44,64.253.41,64.253.38,64.253.35,64.253.32,64.253.29,64.253.26,64.253.23,64.253.20,64.253.17,64.253.14,64.253.11,64.253.08,64.253.05,64.253.02,64.252.99,64.252.96,64.252.93,64.252.90,64.252.87,64.252.84,64.252.81,64.252.78,64.252.75,64.252.72,64.252.69,64.252.66,64.252.63,64.252.60,64.252.57,64.252.54,64.252.51,64.252.48,64.252.45,64.252.42,64.252.39,64.252.36,64.252.33,64.252.30,64.252.27,64.252.24,64.252.21,64.252.18,64.252.15,64.252.12,64.252.09,64.252.06,64.252.03,64.252.00,64.251.97,64.251.94,64.251.91,64.251.88,64.251.85,64.251.82,64.251.79,64.251.76,64.251.73,64.251.70,64.251.67,64.251.64,64.251.61,64.251.58,64.251.55,64.251.52,64.251.49,64.251.46,64.251.43,64.251.40,64.251.37,64.251.34,64.251.31,64.251.28,64.251.25,64.251.22,64.251.19,64.251.16,64.251.13,64.251.10,64.251.07,64.251.04,64.251.01,64.250.98,64.250.95,64.250.92,64.250.89,64.250.86,64.250.83,64.250.80,64.250.77,64.250.74,64.250.71,64.250.68,64.250.65,64.250.62,64.250.59,64.250.56,64.250.53,64.250.50,64.250.47,64.250.44,64.250.41,64.250.38,64.250.35,64.250.32,64.250.29,64.250.26,64.255.99,63.755.96,63.755.93,63.755.90,63.755.87,63.755.84,63.755.81,63.755.78,63.755.75,63.755.72,63.755.69,63.755.66,63.755.63,63.755.60,63.755.57,63.755.54,63.755.51,63.755.48,63.755.45,63.755.42,63.755.39,63.755.36,63.755.33,63.755.30,63.755.27,63.755.24,63.755.21,63.755.18,63.755.15,63.755.12,63.755.09,63.755.06,63.755.03,63.755.00,63.754.97,63.754.94,63.754.91,63.754.88,63.754.85,63.754.61,63.754.58,63.754.55,63.754.52,63.754.49,63.754.46,63.754.43,63.754.40,63.754.37,63.754.34,63.754.31,63.754.28,63.754.25,63.754.22,63.754.19,63.754.16,63.754.13,63.754.10,63.754.07,63.754.04,63.754.01,63.753.98,63.75

3.95,63.753.92,63.753.89,63.75

3.86,63.75

3.83,63.753.80,63.753.77,63.75

3.74,63.75

3.71,63.753.68,63.753.65,63.753.62,63.753.59,63.753.56,63.753.53,63.753.50,63.753.47,63.753.44,63.753.41,63.753.38,63.753.35,63.753.32,63.753.29,63.753.26,63.753.23,63.753.20,63.753.17,63.753.14,63.753.11,63.753.08,63.753.05,63.753.02,63.752.99,63.752.96,63.752.93,63.752.90,63.752.87,63.752.84,63.752.81,63.752.78,63.752.75,63.752.72,63.752.69,63.752.66,63.752.63,63.752.60,63.752.57,63.752.54,63.752.51,63.752.48,63.752.45,63.752.42,63.752.39,63.752.36,63.752.33,63.752.30,63.752.27,63.752.24,63.752.21,63.752.18,63.752.15,63.752.12,63.752.09,63.752.06,63.752.03,63.752.00,63.751.97,63.751.94,63.751.91,63.751.88,63.751.85,63.751.82,63.751.79,63.751.76,63.751.73,63.751.70,63.751.67,63.751.64,63.751.61,63.751.58,63.751.55,63.751.52,63.751.49,63.751.46,63.751.43,63.751.40,63.751.37,63.751.34,63.751.31,63.751.28,63.751.25,63.751.22,63.751.19,63.751.16,63.751.13,63.751.10,63.751.07,63.751.04,63.751.01,63.750.98,63.750.95,63.750.92,63.750.89,63.750.86,63.750.83,63.750.80,63.750.77,63.750.74,63.750.71,63.750.68,63.750.65,63.750.62,63.750.59,63.750.56,63.750.53,63.750.50,63.750.47,63.750.44,63.750.41,63.750.38,63.750.35,63.750.32,63.750.29,63.750.26,63.755.99,63.255.96,63.255.93,63.255.90,63.255.87,63.255.84,63.255.81,63.255.78,63.255.75,63.255.72,63.255.69,63.255.66,63.255.63,63.255.60,63.255.57,63.255.54,63.255.51,63.255.48,63.255.45,63.255.42,63.255.39,63.255.36,63.255.33,63.255.30,63.255.27,63.255.24,63.255.21,63.255.18,63.255.15,63.255.12,63.255.09,63.255.06,63.255.03,63.255.00,63.254.97,63.254.94,63.254.91,63.254.88,63.254.85,63.254.61,63.254.58,63.254.55,63.254.52,63.254.49,63.254.46,63.254.43,63.254.40,63.254.37,63.254.34,63.254.31,63.254.28,63.254.25,63.254.22,63.254.19,63.254.16,63.254.13,63.254.10,63.254.07,63.254.04,63.25

4.01,63.253.98,63.25

3.95,63.253.92,63.25

3.89,63.253.86,63.25

3.83,63.25

3.80,63.25

3.77,63.25

3.74,63.25

3.71,63.25

3.68,63.253.65,63.253.62,63.253.59,63.253.56,63.253.53,63.253.50,63.253.47,63.253.44,63.253.41,63.253.38,63.253.35,63.253.32,63.253.29,63.253.26,63.253.23,63.253.20,63.253.17,63.253.14,63.253.11,63.253.08,63.253.05,63.253.02,63.252.99,63.252.96,63.252.93,63.252.90,63.252.87,63.252.84,63.252.81,63.252.78,63.252.75,63.252.72,63.252.69,63.252.66,63.252.63,63.252.60,63.252.57,63.252.54,63.252.51,63.252.48,63.252.45,63.252.42,63.252.39,63.252.36,63.252.33,63.252.30,63.252.27,63.252.24,63.252.21,63.252.18,63.252.15,63.252.12,63.252.09,63.252.06,63.252.03,63.252.00,63.251.97,63.251.94,63.251.91,63.251.88,63.251.85,63.251.82,63.251.79,63.251.76,63.251.73,63.251.70,63.251.67,63.251.64,63.251.61,63.251.58,63.251.55,63.251.52,63.251.49,63.251.46,63.251.43,63.251.40,63.251.37,63.251.34,63.251.31,63.251.28,63.251.25,63.251.22,63.251.19,63.251.16,63.251.13,63.251.10,63.251.07,63.251.04,63.251.01,63.250.98,63.250.95,63.250.92,63.250.89,63.250.86,63.250.83,63.250.80,63.250.77,63.250.74,63.250.71,63.250.68,63.250.65,63.250.62,63.250.59,63.250.56,63.250.53,63.250.50,63.250.47,63.250.44,63.250.41,63.250.38,63.250.35,63.250.32,63.250.29,63.250.26,63.255.99,62.755.96,62.755.93,62.755.90,62.755.87,62.755.84,62.755.81,62.755.78,62.755.75,62.755.72,62.755.69,62.755.66,62.755.63,62.755.60,62.755.57,62.755.54,62.755.51,62.755.48,62.755.45,62.755.42,62.755.39,62.755.36,62.755.33,62.755.30,62.755.27,62.755.24,62.755.21,62.755.18,62.755.15,62.755.12,62.755.09,62.755.06,62.755.03,62.755.00,62.754.97,62.754.94,62.754.91,62.754.88,62.754.85,62.754.61,62.754.58,62.754.55,62.754.52,62.754.49,62.754.46,62.754.43,62.754.40,62.754.37,62.754.34,62.754.31,62.754.28,62.754.25,62.754.22,62.754.19,62.754.16,62.754.13,62.754.10,62.754.07,62.754.04,62.754.01,62.753.98,62.753.95,62.75

3.92,62.75

3.89,62.753.86,62.75

3.83,62.75

3.80,62.753.77,62.75

3.74,62.753.71,62.75

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4.94,57.254.91,57.254.88,57.254.85,57.254.61,57.254.58,57.254.55,57.254.52,57.254.49,57.254.46,57.254.43,57.254.40,57.254.37,57.254.34,57.254.31,57.254.28,57.254.25,57.254.22,57.254.19,57.254.16,57.254.13,57.254.10,57.254.07,57.254.04,57.254.01,57.253.98,57.253.95,57.253.92,57.253.89,57.253.86,57.253.83,57.253.80,57.253.77,57.253.74,57.253.71,57.253.68,57.253.65,57.253.62,57.253.59,57.253.56,57.253.53,57.253.50,57.253.47,57.253.44,57.253.41,57.253.38,57.253.35,57.253.32,57.253.29,57.253.26,57.253.23,57.253.20,57.253.17,57.253.14,57.253.11,57.253.08,57.253.05,57.253.02,57.252.99,57.252.96,57.252.93,57.252.90,57.252.87,57.252.84,57.252.81,57.252.78,57.252.75,57.252.72,57.252.69,57.252.66,57.252.63,57.252.60,57.252.57,57.252.54,57.252.51,57.252.48,57.252.45,57.252.42,57.252.39,57.252.36,57.252.33,57.252.30,57.252.27,57.252.24,57.252.21,57.252.18,57.252.15,57.252.12,57.252.09,57.252.06,57.252.03,57.252.00,57.251.97,57.251.94,57.251.91,57.251.88,57.251.85,57.251.82,57.251.79,57.251.76,57.251.73,57.251.70,57.251.67,57.251.64,57.251.61,57.251.58,57.251.55,57.251.52,57.251.49,57.251.46,57.251.43,57.251.40,57.251.37,57.251.34,57.251.31,57.251.28,57.251.25,57.251.22,57.251.19,57.251.16,57.251.13,57.251.10,57.251.07,57.251.04,57.251.01,57.250.98,57.250.95,57.250.92,57.250.89,57.250.86,57.250.83,57.250.80,57.250.77,57.250.74,57.250.71,57.250.68,57.250.65,57.250.62,57.250.59,57.250.56,57.250.53,57.250.50,57.250.47,57.250.44,57.250.41,57.250.38,57.250.35,57.250.32,57.250.29,57.250.26,57.255.99,56.755.96,56.755.93,56.755.90,56.755.87,56.755.84,56.755.81,56.755.78,56.755.75,56.755.72,56.755.69,56.755.66,56.755.63,56.755.60,56.755.57,56.755.54,56.755.51,56.755.48,56.755.45,56.755.42,56.755.39,56.755.36,56.755.33,56.755.30,56.755.27,56.755.24,56.755.21,56.755.18,56.755.15,56.755.12,56.755.09,56.755.06,56.755.03,56.755.00,56.754.97,56.754.94,56.754.91,56.754.88,56.754.85,56.754.61,56.754.58,56.754.55,56.754.52,56.754.49,56.754.46,56.754.43,56.754.40,56.754.37,56.754.34,56.754.31,56.754.28,56.754.25,56.754.22,56.754.19,56.754.16,56.754.13,56.754.10,56.754.07,56.754.04,56.754.01,56.753.98,56.753.95,56.753.92,56.753.89,56.753.86,56.753.83,56.753.80,56.753.77,56.753.74,56.753.71,56.753.68,56.753.65,56.753.62,56.753.59,56.753.56,56.753.53,56.753.50,56.753.47,56.753.44,56.753.41,56.753.38,56.753.35,56.753.32,56.753.29,56.753.26,56.753.23,56.753.20,56.753.17,56.753.14,56.753.11,56.753.08,56.753.05,56.753.02,56.752.99,56.752.96,56.752.93,56.752.90,56.752.87,56.752.84,56.752.81,56.752.78,56.752.75,56.752.72,56.752.69,56.752.66,56.752.63,56.752.60,56.752.57,56.752.54,56.752.51,56.752.48,56.752.45,56.752.42,56.752.39,56.752.36,56.752.33,56.752.30,56.752.27,56.752.24,56.752.21,56.752.18,56.752.15,56.752.12,56.752.09,56.752.06,56.752.03,56.752.00,56.751.97,56.751.94,56.751.91,56.751.88,56.751.85,56.751.82,56.751.79,56.751.76,56.751.73,56.751.70,56.751.67,56.751.64,56.751.61,56.751.58,56.751.55,56.751.52,56.751.49,56.751.46,56.751.43,56.751.40,56.751.37,56.751.34,56.751.31,56.751.28,56.751.25,56.751.22,56.751.19,56.751.16,56.751.13,56.751.10,56.751.07,56.751.04,56.751.01,56.750.98,56.750.95,56.750.92,56.750.89,56.750.86,56.750.83,56.750.80,56.750.77,56.750.74,56.750.71,56.750.68,56.750.65,56.750.62,56.750.59,56.750.56,56.750.53,56.750.50,56.750.47,56.750.44,56.750.41,56.750.38,56.750.35,56.750.32,56.750.29,56.750.26,56.755.99,56.255.96,56.255.93,56.255.90,56.255.87,56.255.84,56.255.81,56.255.78,56.255.75,56.255.72,56.255.69,56.255.66,56.255.63,56.255.60,56.255.57,56.255.54,56.255.51,56.255.48,56.255.45,56.255.42,56.255.39,56.255.36,56.255.33,56.255.30,56.255.27,56.255.24,56.255.21,56.255.18,56.255.15,56.255.12,56.255.09,56.255.06,56.255.03,56.255.00,56.254.97,56.254.94,56.254.91,56.254.88,56.254.85,56.254.61,56.254.58,56.254.55,56.254.52,56.254.49,56.254.46,56.254.43,56.254.40,56.254.37,56.254.34,56.254.31,56.254.28,56.254.25,56.254.22,56.254.19,56.254.16,56.254.13,56.254.10,56.254.07,56.254.04,56.254.01,56.253.98,56.253.95,56.253.92,56.253.89,56.253.86,56.253.83,56.253.80,56.253.77,56.253.74,56.253.71,56.253.68,56.253.65,56.253.62,56.253.59,56.253.56,56.253.53,56.253.50,56.253.47,56.253.44,56.253.41,56.253.38,56.253.35,56.253.32,56.253.29,56.25

3.26,56.25

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2.99,41.75

-0.2 -0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3

-0.1

0.0

0.1

0.2

2.49,49.752.46,49.752.43,49.752.40,49.752.37,49.752.34,49.752.31,49.752.28,49.752.25,49.752.22,49.752.19,49.752.16,49.752.13,49.75

2.10,49.752.07,49.752.04,49.752.01,49.751.98,49.751.95,49.751.92,49.751.89,49.751.86,49.751.83,49.751.80,49.75

1.77,49.751.74,49.751.71,49.751.68,49.751.65,49.751.62,49.751.59,49.751.56,49.751.53,49.751.50,49.751.47,49.751.44,49.751.41,49.75

1.38,49.751.35,49.751.32,49.751.29,49.751.26,49.751.23,49.751.20,49.751.17,49.751.14,49.751.11,49.751.08,49.751.05,49.751.02,49.750.99,49.750.96,49.750.93,49.750.90,49.750.87,49.750.84,49.750.81,49.750.78,49.750.75,49.750.72,49.750.69,49.750.66,49.750.63,49.750.60,49.750.57,49.750.54,49.750.51,49.750.48,49.750.45,49.75

0.42,49.750.39,49.750.36,49.750.33,49.750.30,49.750.27,49.752.49,49.252.46,49.252.43,49.252.40,49.252.37,49.252.34,49.252.31,49.252.28,49.252.25,49.252.22,49.252.19,49.252.16,49.252.13,49.252.10,49.252.07,49.252.04,49.252.01,49.251.98,49.251.95,49.251.92,49.251.89,49.251.86,49.251.83,49.251.80,49.251.77,49.251.74,49.251.71,49.251.68,49.251.65,49.251.62,49.251.59,49.251.56,49.251.53,49.251.50,49.251.47,49.251.44,49.251.41,49.251.38,49.251.35,49.251.32,49.251.29,49.251.26,49.251.23,49.251.20,49.251.17,49.251.14,49.251.11,49.251.08,49.251.05,49.251.02,49.250.99,49.250.96,49.250.93,49.250.90,49.250.87,49.250.84,49.250.81,49.250.78,49.250.75,49.250.72,49.250.69,49.250.66,49.250.63,49.250.60,49.250.57,49.250.54,49.250.51,49.250.48,49.250.45,49.250.42,49.250.39,49.250.36,49.250.33,49.250.30,49.250.27,49.252.49,48.752.46,48.752.43,48.752.40,48.752.37,48.752.34,48.752.31,48.752.28,48.752.25,48.752.22,48.752.19,48.752.16,48.752.13,48.752.10,48.752.07,48.752.04,48.752.01,48.751.98,48.751.95,48.751.92,48.751.89,48.751.86,48.75

1.83,48.751.80,48.751.77,48.751.74,48.751.71,48.751.68,48.751.65,48.751.62,48.751.59,48.751.56,48.751.53,48.751.50,48.751.47,48.751.44,48.751.41,48.751.38,48.751.35,48.751.32,48.751.29,48.751.26,48.751.23,48.751.20,48.751.17,48.751.14,48.751.11,48.751.08,48.751.05,48.751.02,48.75

0.99,48.750.96,48.750.93,48.750.90,48.750.87,48.750.84,48.750.81,48.750.78,48.75

0.75,48.750.72,48.750.69,48.750.66,48.750.63,48.750.60,48.750.57,48.750.54,48.750.51,48.750.48,48.750.45,48.750.42,48.750.39,48.750.36,48.750.33,48.750.30,48.750.27,48.752.49,48.252.46,48.252.43,48.252.40,48.252.37,48.252.34,48.25

2.31,48.252.28,48.252.25,48.252.22,48.252.19,48.252.16,48.252.13,48.252.10,48.252.07,48.252.04,48.252.01,48.251.98,48.251.95,48.251.92,48.25

1.89,48.251.86,48.251.83,48.251.80,48.251.77,48.251.74,48.251.71,48.251.68,48.251.65,48.251.62,48.251.59,48.251.56,48.251.53,48.25

1.50,48.251.47,48.251.44,48.251.41,48.251.38,48.251.35,48.251.32,48.251.29,48.25

1.26,48.251.23,48.251.20,48.251.17,48.251.14,48.251.11,48.251.08,48.251.05,48.25

1.02,48.250.99,48.25

0.96,48.250.93,48.250.90,48.250.87,48.250.84,48.250.81,48.250.78,48.250.75,48.250.72,48.250.69,48.250.66,48.250.63,48.250.60,48.250.57,48.250.54,48.250.51,48.250.48,48.250.45,48.250.42,48.250.39,48.250.36,48.250.33,48.250.30,48.250.27,48.252.49,47.752.46,47.752.43,47.752.40,47.752.37,47.752.34,47.752.31,47.752.28,47.752.25,47.752.22,47.75

2.19,47.752.16,47.752.13,47.752.10,47.752.07,47.752.04,47.752.01,47.751.98,47.751.95,47.751.92,47.751.89,47.751.86,47.751.83,47.75

1.80,47.751.77,47.751.74,47.751.71,47.751.68,47.751.65,47.751.62,47.75

1.59,47.751.56,47.751.53,47.751.50,47.751.47,47.75

1.44,47.751.41,47.751.38,47.751.35,47.751.32,47.751.29,47.751.26,47.751.23,47.751.20,47.751.17,47.751.14,47.751.11,47.751.08,47.751.05,47.751.02,47.750.99,47.750.96,47.750.93,47.750.90,47.750.87,47.750.84,47.750.81,47.750.78,47.750.75,47.75

0.72,47.750.69,47.750.66,47.750.63,47.750.60,47.750.57,47.750.54,47.750.51,47.750.48,47.75

0.45,47.750.42,47.750.39,47.750.36,47.750.33,47.750.30,47.750.27,47.752.49,47.252.46,47.252.43,47.252.40,47.252.37,47.252.34,47.252.31,47.252.28,47.252.25,47.252.22,47.252.19,47.252.16,47.252.13,47.252.10,47.252.07,47.252.04,47.252.01,47.251.98,47.251.95,47.251.92,47.251.89,47.251.86,47.251.83,47.251.80,47.251.77,47.25

1.74,47.251.71,47.251.68,47.251.65,47.251.62,47.251.59,47.251.56,47.251.53,47.251.50,47.251.47,47.251.44,47.251.41,47.251.38,47.251.35,47.251.32,47.251.29,47.251.26,47.251.23,47.251.20,47.251.17,47.251.14,47.251.11,47.251.08,47.251.05,47.251.02,47.250.99,47.250.96,47.250.93,47.250.90,47.250.87,47.250.84,47.250.81,47.250.78,47.250.75,47.250.72,47.250.69,47.250.66,47.250.63,47.250.60,47.250.57,47.250.54,47.250.51,47.250.48,47.250.45,47.250.42,47.250.39,47.250.36,47.250.33,47.250.30,47.250.27,47.252.49,46.752.46,46.752.43,46.752.40,46.752.37,46.752.34,46.752.31,46.752.28,46.75

2.25,46.752.22,46.752.19,46.752.16,46.752.13,46.752.10,46.752.07,46.752.04,46.752.01,46.751.98,46.751.95,46.75

1.92,46.751.89,46.751.86,46.751.83,46.751.80,46.751.77,46.751.74,46.751.71,46.751.68,46.751.65,46.751.62,46.751.59,46.751.56,46.75

1.53,46.751.50,46.751.47,46.751.44,46.751.41,46.751.38,46.751.35,46.751.32,46.751.29,46.751.26,46.751.23,46.751.20,46.751.17,46.751.14,46.751.11,46.751.08,46.751.05,46.751.02,46.75

0.99,46.750.96,46.750.93,46.750.90,46.750.87,46.750.84,46.750.81,46.750.78,46.750.75,46.750.72,46.750.69,46.750.66,46.750.63,46.750.60,46.75

0.57,46.750.54,46.750.51,46.75

0.48,46.750.45,46.750.42,46.750.39,46.750.36,46.750.33,46.750.30,46.750.27,46.752.49,46.252.46,46.25

2.43,46.252.40,46.252.37,46.252.34,46.252.31,46.252.28,46.252.25,46.252.22,46.25

2.19,46.252.16,46.252.13,46.252.10,46.252.07,46.252.04,46.252.01,46.251.98,46.251.95,46.251.92,46.251.89,46.251.86,46.251.83,46.251.80,46.251.77,46.251.74,46.251.71,46.251.68,46.251.65,46.25

1.62,46.251.59,46.251.56,46.251.53,46.251.50,46.251.47,46.251.44,46.251.41,46.251.38,46.251.35,46.251.32,46.251.29,46.251.26,46.251.23,46.251.20,46.251.17,46.25

1.14,46.251.11,46.251.08,46.251.05,46.251.02,46.250.99,46.250.96,46.250.93,46.250.90,46.250.87,46.25

0.84,46.250.81,46.250.78,46.250.75,46.250.72,46.250.69,46.250.66,46.250.63,46.250.60,46.250.57,46.250.54,46.250.51,46.250.48,46.250.45,46.250.42,46.250.39,46.250.36,46.250.33,46.250.30,46.250.27,46.252.49,45.75

2.46,45.752.43,45.752.40,45.75

2.37,45.752.34,45.752.31,45.75

2.28,45.752.25,45.752.22,45.752.19,45.752.16,45.752.13,45.752.10,45.752.07,45.752.04,45.752.01,45.751.98,45.751.95,45.751.92,45.751.89,45.751.86,45.751.83,45.751.80,45.751.77,45.751.74,45.751.71,45.751.68,45.751.65,45.751.62,45.751.59,45.751.56,45.751.53,45.751.50,45.751.47,45.751.44,45.75

1.41,45.751.38,45.751.35,45.751.32,45.751.29,45.751.26,45.75

1.23,45.751.20,45.751.17,45.751.14,45.751.11,45.751.08,45.751.05,45.751.02,45.750.99,45.750.96,45.750.93,45.750.90,45.750.87,45.750.84,45.750.81,45.750.78,45.750.75,45.750.72,45.750.69,45.750.66,45.750.63,45.750.60,45.75

0.57,45.750.54,45.750.51,45.750.48,45.750.45,45.750.42,45.750.39,45.75

0.36,45.750.33,45.750.30,45.750.27,45.752.49,45.252.46,45.252.43,45.252.40,45.25

2.37,45.252.34,45.252.31,45.252.28,45.252.25,45.252.22,45.252.19,45.252.16,45.252.13,45.252.10,45.252.07,45.252.04,45.252.01,45.251.98,45.251.95,45.251.92,45.251.89,45.251.86,45.251.83,45.251.80,45.251.77,45.251.74,45.251.71,45.251.68,45.251.65,45.251.62,45.251.59,45.251.56,45.251.53,45.251.50,45.251.47,45.251.44,45.251.41,45.251.38,45.251.35,45.251.32,45.25

1.29,45.251.26,45.251.23,45.251.20,45.251.17,45.251.14,45.251.11,45.251.08,45.251.05,45.251.02,45.250.99,45.250.96,45.250.93,45.250.90,45.250.87,45.250.84,45.250.81,45.250.78,45.250.75,45.250.72,45.250.69,45.250.66,45.250.63,45.250.60,45.250.57,45.250.54,45.250.51,45.250.48,45.250.45,45.250.42,45.250.39,45.250.36,45.250.33,45.250.30,45.250.27,45.25

2.49,44.752.46,44.752.43,44.75

2.40,44.752.37,44.752.34,44.752.31,44.752.28,44.752.25,44.752.22,44.752.19,44.752.16,44.75

2.13,44.752.10,44.752.07,44.752.04,44.752.01,44.751.98,44.751.95,44.751.92,44.751.89,44.751.86,44.751.83,44.751.80,44.751.77,44.751.74,44.751.71,44.751.68,44.751.65,44.751.62,44.751.59,44.751.56,44.751.53,44.751.50,44.751.47,44.751.44,44.751.41,44.751.38,44.751.35,44.751.32,44.75

1.29,44.751.26,44.751.23,44.751.20,44.751.17,44.751.14,44.751.11,44.751.08,44.751.05,44.751.02,44.750.99,44.750.96,44.750.93,44.750.90,44.750.87,44.750.84,44.750.81,44.750.78,44.750.75,44.750.72,44.750.69,44.75

0.66,44.750.63,44.750.60,44.750.57,44.750.54,44.750.51,44.750.48,44.750.45,44.750.42,44.750.39,44.750.36,44.750.33,44.750.30,44.750.27,44.752.49,44.252.46,44.252.43,44.252.40,44.252.37,44.25

2.34,44.252.31,44.252.28,44.252.25,44.252.22,44.252.19,44.252.16,44.252.13,44.252.10,44.252.07,44.252.04,44.252.01,44.251.98,44.25

1.95,44.251.92,44.251.89,44.251.86,44.251.83,44.251.80,44.25

1.77,44.251.74,44.251.71,44.251.68,44.251.65,44.251.62,44.25

1.59,44.251.56,44.251.53,44.251.50,44.251.47,44.251.44,44.251.41,44.25

1.38,44.251.35,44.251.32,44.251.29,44.251.26,44.251.23,44.251.20,44.25

1.17,44.251.14,44.251.11,44.251.08,44.251.05,44.251.02,44.250.99,44.250.96,44.250.93,44.250.90,44.250.87,44.250.84,44.250.81,44.250.78,44.250.75,44.250.72,44.250.69,44.250.66,44.250.63,44.250.60,44.250.57,44.250.54,44.25

0.51,44.250.48,44.250.45,44.250.42,44.250.39,44.25

0.36,44.250.33,44.250.30,44.250.27,44.252.49,43.752.46,43.752.43,43.752.40,43.75

2.37,43.752.34,43.752.31,43.752.28,43.752.25,43.752.22,43.75

2.19,43.752.16,43.752.13,43.752.10,43.752.07,43.752.04,43.752.01,43.751.98,43.751.95,43.751.92,43.751.89,43.751.86,43.751.83,43.751.80,43.751.77,43.751.74,43.751.71,43.751.68,43.75

1.65,43.75

1.62,43.75

1.59,43.75

1.56,43.75

1.53,43.751.50,43.751.47,43.751.44,43.751.41,43.751.38,43.751.35,43.751.32,43.751.29,43.751.26,43.751.23,43.751.20,43.75

1.17,43.751.14,43.751.11,43.751.08,43.751.05,43.751.02,43.750.99,43.750.96,43.750.93,43.750.90,43.750.87,43.750.84,43.750.81,43.750.78,43.750.75,43.750.72,43.750.69,43.750.66,43.750.63,43.750.60,43.750.57,43.750.54,43.750.51,43.750.48,43.750.45,43.750.42,43.750.39,43.750.36,43.750.33,43.750.30,43.750.27,43.752.49,43.252.46,43.252.43,43.252.40,43.252.37,43.252.34,43.252.31,43.252.28,43.252.25,43.252.22,43.252.19,43.252.16,43.252.13,43.252.10,43.252.07,43.252.04,43.252.01,43.251.98,43.251.95,43.251.92,43.251.89,43.251.86,43.251.83,43.251.80,43.251.77,43.251.74,43.251.71,43.251.68,43.251.65,43.25

1.62,43.251.59,43.25

1.56,43.251.53,43.251.50,43.251.47,43.251.44,43.251.41,43.251.38,43.251.35,43.251.32,43.251.29,43.251.26,43.251.23,43.251.20,43.251.17,43.251.14,43.251.11,43.251.08,43.251.05,43.251.02,43.250.99,43.250.96,43.250.93,43.250.90,43.250.87,43.250.84,43.250.81,43.250.78,43.250.75,43.250.72,43.250.69,43.250.66,43.250.63,43.250.60,43.250.57,43.250.54,43.250.51,43.250.48,43.250.45,43.250.42,43.250.39,43.250.36,43.250.33,43.250.30,43.250.27,43.252.49,42.752.46,42.752.43,42.752.40,42.752.37,42.752.34,42.752.31,42.752.28,42.752.25,42.752.22,42.752.19,42.752.16,42.752.13,42.752.10,42.752.07,42.752.04,42.752.01,42.751.98,42.751.95,42.751.92,42.751.89,42.751.86,42.751.83,42.75

1.80,42.751.77,42.75

1.74,42.751.71,42.75

1.68,42.751.65,42.751.62,42.75

1.59,42.751.56,42.751.53,42.751.50,42.751.47,42.751.44,42.751.41,42.751.38,42.751.35,42.751.32,42.751.29,42.75

1.26,42.751.23,42.751.20,42.751.17,42.751.14,42.751.11,42.751.08,42.751.05,42.751.02,42.750.99,42.750.96,42.750.93,42.750.90,42.750.87,42.750.84,42.750.81,42.750.78,42.750.75,42.750.72,42.75

0.69,42.750.66,42.750.63,42.750.60,42.750.57,42.750.54,42.750.51,42.750.48,42.750.45,42.750.42,42.750.39,42.750.36,42.750.33,42.750.30,42.750.27,42.752.49,42.252.46,42.252.43,42.252.40,42.25

2.37,42.252.34,42.252.31,42.252.28,42.252.25,42.252.22,42.252.19,42.252.16,42.252.13,42.252.10,42.252.07,42.252.04,42.252.01,42.251.98,42.251.95,42.251.92,42.25

1.89,42.251.86,42.251.83,42.251.80,42.251.77,42.25

1.74,42.251.71,42.25

1.68,42.251.65,42.25

1.62,42.251.59,42.251.56,42.251.53,42.251.50,42.251.47,42.251.44,42.251.41,42.25

1.38,42.251.35,42.25

1.32,42.251.29,42.251.26,42.251.23,42.251.20,42.25

1.17,42.251.14,42.25

1.11,42.251.08,42.251.05,42.251.02,42.250.99,42.250.96,42.250.93,42.250.90,42.250.87,42.250.84,42.250.81,42.250.78,42.250.75,42.250.72,42.25

0.69,42.250.66,42.250.63,42.250.60,42.250.57,42.250.54,42.250.51,42.250.48,42.250.45,42.250.42,42.25

0.39,42.250.36,42.250.33,42.250.30,42.250.27,42.25

2.49,41.752.46,41.752.43,41.752.40,41.752.37,41.752.34,41.752.31,41.752.28,41.752.25,41.752.22,41.752.19,41.752.16,41.752.13,41.752.10,41.752.07,41.752.04,41.75

2.01,41.751.98,41.751.95,41.751.92,41.751.89,41.751.86,41.751.83,41.751.80,41.751.77,41.751.74,41.751.71,41.75

1.68,41.751.65,41.751.62,41.751.59,41.751.56,41.751.53,41.751.50,41.751.47,41.751.44,41.751.41,41.751.38,41.751.35,41.751.32,41.751.29,41.751.26,41.751.23,41.75

1.20,41.751.17,41.751.14,41.751.11,41.751.08,41.751.05,41.751.02,41.75

0.99,41.750.96,41.750.93,41.750.90,41.750.87,41.750.84,41.750.81,41.750.78,41.750.75,41.750.72,41.75

0.69,41.750.66,41.75

0.63,41.750.60,41.750.57,41.750.54,41.750.51,41.750.48,41.750.45,41.750.42,41.75

0.39,41.750.36,41.750.33,41.750.30,41.750.27,41.752.49,41.252.46,41.252.43,41.252.40,41.252.37,41.252.34,41.252.31,41.252.28,41.252.25,41.252.22,41.252.19,41.252.16,41.252.13,41.252.10,41.252.07,41.252.04,41.252.01,41.251.98,41.251.95,41.251.92,41.251.89,41.251.86,41.251.83,41.251.80,41.251.77,41.251.74,41.251.71,41.251.68,41.251.65,41.251.62,41.251.59,41.251.56,41.251.53,41.251.50,41.251.47,41.251.44,41.251.41,41.251.38,41.251.35,41.251.32,41.251.29,41.251.26,41.251.23,41.251.20,41.251.17,41.251.14,41.251.11,41.251.08,41.251.05,41.251.02,41.250.99,41.250.96,41.250.93,41.250.90,41.250.87,41.250.84,41.250.81,41.250.78,41.250.75,41.250.72,41.250.69,41.250.66,41.250.63,41.250.60,41.250.57,41.250.54,41.250.51,41.250.48,41.250.45,41.250.42,41.250.39,41.250.36,41.250.33,41.250.30,41.250.27,41.252.49,40.75

2.46,40.752.43,40.752.40,40.752.37,40.752.34,40.75

2.31,40.752.28,40.752.25,40.752.22,40.752.19,40.752.16,40.752.13,40.752.10,40.752.07,40.752.04,40.752.01,40.751.98,40.751.95,40.751.92,40.751.89,40.751.86,40.751.83,40.751.80,40.75

1.77,40.751.74,40.751.71,40.751.68,40.751.65,40.751.62,40.751.59,40.751.56,40.751.53,40.751.50,40.751.47,40.751.44,40.751.41,40.751.38,40.751.35,40.751.32,40.751.29,40.751.26,40.751.23,40.75

1.20,40.751.17,40.751.14,40.751.11,40.751.08,40.751.05,40.751.02,40.75

0.99,40.750.96,40.750.93,40.750.90,40.750.87,40.750.84,40.750.81,40.750.78,40.75

0.75,40.750.72,40.750.69,40.750.66,40.750.63,40.750.60,40.750.57,40.750.54,40.750.51,40.750.48,40.750.45,40.750.42,40.750.39,40.750.36,40.750.33,40.750.30,40.750.27,40.752.49,40.252.46,40.252.43,40.252.40,40.252.37,40.252.34,40.252.31,40.25

2.28,40.252.25,40.252.22,40.252.19,40.252.16,40.252.13,40.252.10,40.252.07,40.252.04,40.252.01,40.251.98,40.25

1.95,40.251.92,40.251.89,40.251.86,40.251.83,40.251.80,40.251.77,40.251.74,40.251.71,40.251.68,40.251.65,40.251.62,40.251.59,40.251.56,40.251.53,40.251.50,40.251.47,40.251.44,40.251.41,40.251.38,40.251.35,40.251.32,40.251.29,40.25

1.26,40.251.23,40.251.20,40.251.17,40.251.14,40.251.11,40.251.08,40.251.05,40.251.02,40.250.99,40.250.96,40.250.93,40.250.90,40.250.87,40.250.84,40.250.81,40.250.78,40.250.75,40.250.72,40.25

0.69,40.250.66,40.250.63,40.250.60,40.250.57,40.250.54,40.250.51,40.250.48,40.250.45,40.250.42,40.250.39,40.250.36,40.250.33,40.25

0.30,40.250.27,40.252.49,39.752.46,39.752.43,39.752.40,39.752.37,39.75

2.34,39.752.31,39.752.28,39.752.25,39.752.22,39.752.19,39.752.16,39.752.13,39.752.10,39.752.07,39.752.04,39.752.01,39.75

1.98,39.751.95,39.751.92,39.751.89,39.751.86,39.751.83,39.751.80,39.751.77,39.751.74,39.751.71,39.751.68,39.751.65,39.751.62,39.751.59,39.751.56,39.751.53,39.751.50,39.751.47,39.751.44,39.751.41,39.751.38,39.751.35,39.75

1.32,39.751.29,39.751.26,39.751.23,39.751.20,39.751.17,39.751.14,39.751.11,39.751.08,39.75

1.05,39.751.02,39.750.99,39.750.96,39.750.93,39.750.90,39.750.87,39.750.84,39.750.81,39.750.78,39.750.75,39.750.72,39.750.69,39.75

0.66,39.750.63,39.750.60,39.750.57,39.750.54,39.750.51,39.750.48,39.750.45,39.750.42,39.750.39,39.750.36,39.750.33,39.75

0.30,39.750.27,39.752.49,39.252.46,39.252.43,39.252.40,39.252.37,39.25

2.34,39.252.31,39.252.28,39.252.25,39.252.22,39.252.19,39.252.16,39.252.13,39.252.10,39.252.07,39.252.04,39.252.01,39.251.98,39.251.95,39.251.92,39.251.89,39.251.86,39.251.83,39.251.80,39.251.77,39.251.74,39.251.71,39.251.68,39.251.65,39.251.62,39.251.59,39.251.56,39.251.53,39.251.50,39.251.47,39.251.44,39.251.41,39.251.38,39.251.35,39.251.32,39.251.29,39.251.26,39.251.23,39.251.20,39.251.17,39.251.14,39.251.11,39.251.08,39.251.05,39.251.02,39.250.99,39.250.96,39.250.93,39.250.90,39.250.87,39.250.84,39.250.81,39.250.78,39.250.75,39.250.72,39.250.69,39.250.66,39.250.63,39.250.60,39.250.57,39.250.54,39.250.51,39.250.48,39.250.45,39.250.42,39.250.39,39.250.36,39.250.33,39.250.30,39.250.27,39.252.49,38.752.46,38.752.43,38.752.40,38.752.37,38.75

2.34,38.752.31,38.752.28,38.752.25,38.752.22,38.752.19,38.752.16,38.752.13,38.752.10,38.752.07,38.752.04,38.752.01,38.751.98,38.751.95,38.751.92,38.751.89,38.75

1.86,38.751.83,38.751.80,38.751.77,38.751.74,38.751.71,38.751.68,38.751.65,38.751.62,38.751.59,38.751.56,38.751.53,38.751.50,38.751.47,38.75

1.44,38.751.41,38.75

1.38,38.751.35,38.751.32,38.751.29,38.751.26,38.751.23,38.751.20,38.751.17,38.751.14,38.751.11,38.751.08,38.751.05,38.751.02,38.750.99,38.750.96,38.750.93,38.750.90,38.750.87,38.75

0.84,38.750.81,38.750.78,38.750.75,38.750.72,38.750.69,38.750.66,38.750.63,38.750.60,38.750.57,38.750.54,38.750.51,38.75

0.48,38.750.45,38.750.42,38.750.39,38.750.36,38.750.33,38.750.30,38.750.27,38.752.49,38.252.46,38.252.43,38.252.40,38.252.37,38.252.34,38.252.31,38.252.28,38.252.25,38.252.22,38.252.19,38.252.16,38.252.13,38.252.10,38.252.07,38.252.04,38.252.01,38.251.98,38.251.95,38.251.92,38.251.89,38.251.86,38.251.83,38.251.80,38.251.77,38.251.74,38.251.71,38.251.68,38.251.65,38.251.62,38.251.59,38.251.56,38.251.53,38.251.50,38.251.47,38.251.44,38.251.41,38.25

1.38,38.251.35,38.251.32,38.251.29,38.251.26,38.251.23,38.251.20,38.251.17,38.251.14,38.251.11,38.251.08,38.251.05,38.25

1.02,38.250.99,38.25

0.96,38.250.93,38.250.90,38.250.87,38.250.84,38.25

0.81,38.250.78,38.250.75,38.250.72,38.250.69,38.250.66,38.250.63,38.250.60,38.250.57,38.25

0.54,38.250.51,38.250.48,38.250.45,38.25

0.42,38.250.39,38.250.36,38.250.33,38.250.30,38.25

0.27,38.252.49,37.752.46,37.752.43,37.752.40,37.75

2.37,37.752.34,37.752.31,37.752.28,37.752.25,37.752.22,37.752.19,37.752.16,37.752.13,37.752.10,37.752.07,37.752.04,37.752.01,37.751.98,37.751.95,37.751.92,37.751.89,37.751.86,37.751.83,37.751.80,37.751.77,37.751.74,37.751.71,37.751.68,37.751.65,37.751.62,37.751.59,37.75

1.56,37.751.53,37.751.50,37.751.47,37.751.44,37.751.41,37.751.38,37.751.35,37.751.32,37.751.29,37.751.26,37.751.23,37.751.20,37.751.17,37.751.14,37.751.11,37.751.08,37.751.05,37.75

1.02,37.750.99,37.750.96,37.750.93,37.750.90,37.750.87,37.750.84,37.750.81,37.750.78,37.750.75,37.750.72,37.750.69,37.750.66,37.750.63,37.750.60,37.750.57,37.750.54,37.750.51,37.750.48,37.750.45,37.750.42,37.750.39,37.75

0.36,37.750.33,37.750.30,37.750.27,37.75

2.49,37.252.46,37.252.43,37.252.40,37.252.37,37.252.34,37.252.31,37.252.28,37.252.25,37.252.22,37.252.19,37.252.16,37.252.13,37.252.10,37.252.07,37.252.04,37.252.01,37.251.98,37.251.95,37.251.92,37.251.89,37.251.86,37.251.83,37.251.80,37.251.77,37.251.74,37.251.71,37.251.68,37.251.65,37.251.62,37.251.59,37.251.56,37.251.53,37.251.50,37.251.47,37.251.44,37.251.41,37.251.38,37.251.35,37.251.32,37.251.29,37.251.26,37.251.23,37.251.20,37.251.17,37.251.14,37.251.11,37.251.08,37.251.05,37.251.02,37.250.99,37.250.96,37.250.93,37.250.90,37.250.87,37.250.84,37.250.81,37.250.78,37.250.75,37.250.72,37.250.69,37.250.66,37.250.63,37.250.60,37.250.57,37.250.54,37.250.51,37.250.48,37.250.45,37.250.42,37.250.39,37.250.36,37.250.33,37.250.30,37.250.27,37.25

2.49,36.752.46,36.752.43,36.752.40,36.752.37,36.752.34,36.75

2.31,36.752.28,36.75

2.25,36.75

2.22,36.752.19,36.752.16,36.75

2.13,36.752.10,36.75

2.07,36.752.04,36.752.01,36.751.98,36.751.95,36.751.92,36.751.89,36.751.86,36.751.83,36.751.80,36.75

1.77,36.751.74,36.751.71,36.751.68,36.751.65,36.751.62,36.751.59,36.751.56,36.751.53,36.75

1.50,36.751.47,36.751.44,36.751.41,36.751.38,36.751.35,36.751.32,36.751.29,36.751.26,36.751.23,36.751.20,36.751.17,36.75

1.14,36.751.11,36.751.08,36.751.05,36.751.02,36.750.99,36.750.96,36.750.93,36.750.90,36.750.87,36.750.84,36.750.81,36.750.78,36.750.75,36.750.72,36.750.69,36.750.66,36.750.63,36.750.60,36.750.57,36.750.54,36.75

0.51,36.750.48,36.750.45,36.750.42,36.750.39,36.750.36,36.750.33,36.750.30,36.750.27,36.752.49,36.252.46,36.252.43,36.252.40,36.252.37,36.25

2.34,36.252.31,36.252.28,36.25

2.25,36.252.22,36.252.19,36.252.16,36.252.13,36.252.10,36.252.07,36.252.04,36.252.01,36.251.98,36.251.95,36.251.92,36.251.89,36.251.86,36.251.83,36.251.80,36.251.77,36.251.74,36.251.71,36.251.68,36.251.65,36.251.62,36.251.59,36.251.56,36.251.53,36.251.50,36.25

1.47,36.251.44,36.251.41,36.251.38,36.251.35,36.251.32,36.251.29,36.251.26,36.251.23,36.251.20,36.251.17,36.251.14,36.251.11,36.251.08,36.251.05,36.251.02,36.250.99,36.250.96,36.250.93,36.250.90,36.250.87,36.250.84,36.250.81,36.250.78,36.25

0.75,36.250.72,36.250.69,36.250.66,36.250.63,36.250.60,36.250.57,36.250.54,36.250.51,36.250.48,36.250.45,36.250.42,36.250.39,36.250.36,36.250.33,36.250.30,36.250.27,36.252.49,35.752.46,35.752.43,35.752.40,35.75

2.37,35.75

2.34,35.752.31,35.75

2.28,35.752.25,35.752.22,35.752.19,35.752.16,35.752.13,35.752.10,35.752.07,35.752.04,35.752.01,35.751.98,35.751.95,35.751.92,35.751.89,35.751.86,35.751.83,35.751.80,35.751.77,35.751.74,35.751.71,35.751.68,35.751.65,35.751.62,35.751.59,35.751.56,35.751.53,35.751.50,35.751.47,35.751.44,35.75

1.41,35.751.38,35.751.35,35.751.32,35.751.29,35.751.26,35.751.23,35.751.20,35.751.17,35.751.14,35.751.11,35.751.08,35.751.05,35.751.02,35.750.99,35.750.96,35.750.93,35.750.90,35.750.87,35.750.84,35.750.81,35.750.78,35.75

0.75,35.750.72,35.750.69,35.750.66,35.750.63,35.750.60,35.750.57,35.750.54,35.750.51,35.750.48,35.750.45,35.750.42,35.750.39,35.750.36,35.750.33,35.750.30,35.750.27,35.752.49,35.252.46,35.252.43,35.25

2.40,35.252.37,35.252.34,35.252.31,35.252.28,35.252.25,35.252.22,35.252.19,35.252.16,35.252.13,35.252.10,35.252.07,35.252.04,35.252.01,35.251.98,35.251.95,35.251.92,35.251.89,35.251.86,35.251.83,35.251.80,35.251.77,35.251.74,35.251.71,35.251.68,35.251.65,35.251.62,35.251.59,35.251.56,35.251.53,35.251.50,35.251.47,35.251.44,35.251.41,35.251.38,35.251.35,35.251.32,35.251.29,35.251.26,35.251.23,35.251.20,35.251.17,35.251.14,35.251.11,35.251.08,35.251.05,35.251.02,35.250.99,35.250.96,35.250.93,35.250.90,35.250.87,35.250.84,35.250.81,35.250.78,35.250.75,35.250.72,35.250.69,35.250.66,35.250.63,35.250.60,35.250.57,35.250.54,35.250.51,35.250.48,35.250.45,35.250.42,35.250.39,35.250.36,35.250.33,35.250.30,35.250.27,35.252.49,34.752.46,34.752.43,34.75

2.40,34.752.37,34.75

2.34,34.752.31,34.75

2.28,34.752.25,34.752.22,34.752.19,34.752.16,34.752.13,34.752.10,34.752.07,34.752.04,34.752.01,34.751.98,34.751.95,34.751.92,34.751.89,34.751.86,34.75

1.83,34.751.80,34.751.77,34.751.74,34.751.71,34.751.68,34.751.65,34.751.62,34.751.59,34.751.56,34.751.53,34.751.50,34.75

1.47,34.751.44,34.751.41,34.751.38,34.751.35,34.751.32,34.751.29,34.751.26,34.751.23,34.751.20,34.751.17,34.751.14,34.751.11,34.751.08,34.751.05,34.751.02,34.750.99,34.750.96,34.750.93,34.750.90,34.750.87,34.750.84,34.750.81,34.75

0.78,34.750.75,34.750.72,34.750.69,34.750.66,34.750.63,34.750.60,34.750.57,34.750.54,34.750.51,34.750.48,34.750.45,34.750.42,34.750.39,34.750.36,34.750.33,34.750.30,34.750.27,34.75

2.49,34.252.46,34.252.43,34.252.40,34.25

2.37,34.25

2.34,34.252.31,34.252.28,34.25

2.25,34.252.22,34.252.19,34.252.16,34.252.13,34.252.10,34.252.07,34.252.04,34.252.01,34.251.98,34.251.95,34.251.92,34.251.89,34.25

1.86,34.251.83,34.251.80,34.251.77,34.251.74,34.251.71,34.251.68,34.251.65,34.251.62,34.251.59,34.251.56,34.251.53,34.251.50,34.251.47,34.251.44,34.251.41,34.251.38,34.251.35,34.251.32,34.251.29,34.251.26,34.25

1.23,34.251.20,34.251.17,34.251.14,34.251.11,34.251.08,34.251.05,34.251.02,34.250.99,34.250.96,34.250.93,34.250.90,34.250.87,34.250.84,34.250.81,34.25

0.78,34.250.75,34.250.72,34.250.69,34.250.66,34.250.63,34.250.60,34.250.57,34.250.54,34.250.51,34.250.48,34.250.45,34.250.42,34.250.39,34.250.36,34.250.33,34.250.30,34.250.27,34.25

2.49,33.752.46,33.75

2.43,33.752.40,33.752.37,33.752.34,33.752.31,33.752.28,33.752.25,33.752.22,33.75

2.19,33.752.16,33.752.13,33.752.10,33.752.07,33.752.04,33.752.01,33.751.98,33.751.95,33.751.92,33.751.89,33.751.86,33.75

1.83,33.751.80,33.751.77,33.751.74,33.75

1.71,33.751.68,33.751.65,33.751.62,33.751.59,33.751.56,33.751.53,33.751.50,33.751.47,33.751.44,33.751.41,33.751.38,33.751.35,33.751.32,33.751.29,33.751.26,33.751.23,33.751.20,33.751.17,33.751.14,33.751.11,33.751.08,33.751.05,33.75

1.02,33.750.99,33.750.96,33.750.93,33.750.90,33.750.87,33.750.84,33.750.81,33.750.78,33.750.75,33.750.72,33.750.69,33.750.66,33.750.63,33.75

0.60,33.750.57,33.750.54,33.750.51,33.750.48,33.750.45,33.750.42,33.750.39,33.750.36,33.750.33,33.750.30,33.750.27,33.752.49,33.252.46,33.252.43,33.252.40,33.252.37,33.252.34,33.252.31,33.252.28,33.252.25,33.252.22,33.252.19,33.252.16,33.252.13,33.252.10,33.252.07,33.252.04,33.252.01,33.251.98,33.251.95,33.251.92,33.251.89,33.251.86,33.251.83,33.251.80,33.251.77,33.251.74,33.251.71,33.251.68,33.25

1.65,33.251.62,33.251.59,33.251.56,33.251.53,33.251.50,33.251.47,33.251.44,33.251.41,33.251.38,33.251.35,33.251.32,33.251.29,33.251.26,33.251.23,33.251.20,33.251.17,33.251.14,33.251.11,33.251.08,33.251.05,33.251.02,33.250.99,33.250.96,33.250.93,33.250.90,33.250.87,33.250.84,33.250.81,33.250.78,33.250.75,33.250.72,33.250.69,33.250.66,33.250.63,33.250.60,33.250.57,33.250.54,33.250.51,33.250.48,33.250.45,33.250.42,33.250.39,33.250.36,33.250.33,33.250.30,33.250.27,33.25

2.49,32.752.46,32.752.43,32.752.40,32.752.37,32.752.34,32.752.31,32.752.28,32.752.25,32.752.22,32.752.19,32.752.16,32.752.13,32.75

2.10,32.752.07,32.752.04,32.752.01,32.75

1.98,32.751.95,32.751.92,32.75

1.89,32.751.86,32.751.83,32.751.80,32.751.77,32.751.74,32.75

1.71,32.75

1.68,32.75

1.65,32.751.62,32.751.59,32.751.56,32.75

1.53,32.751.50,32.751.47,32.751.44,32.751.41,32.751.38,32.751.35,32.751.32,32.751.29,32.751.26,32.751.23,32.751.20,32.751.17,32.751.14,32.751.11,32.75

1.08,32.751.05,32.751.02,32.750.99,32.750.96,32.750.93,32.750.90,32.750.87,32.750.84,32.750.81,32.750.78,32.750.75,32.750.72,32.750.69,32.750.66,32.750.63,32.75

0.60,32.750.57,32.750.54,32.750.51,32.750.48,32.750.45,32.750.42,32.750.39,32.750.36,32.750.33,32.75

0.30,32.750.27,32.752.49,32.252.46,32.252.43,32.252.40,32.252.37,32.252.34,32.252.31,32.252.28,32.25

2.25,32.252.22,32.252.19,32.252.16,32.252.13,32.25

2.10,32.252.07,32.252.04,32.25

2.01,32.251.98,32.251.95,32.251.92,32.251.89,32.251.86,32.251.83,32.251.80,32.25

1.77,32.251.74,32.251.71,32.251.68,32.251.65,32.25

1.62,32.251.59,32.251.56,32.251.53,32.25

1.50,32.251.47,32.251.44,32.251.41,32.251.38,32.251.35,32.25

1.32,32.251.29,32.251.26,32.251.23,32.251.20,32.251.17,32.251.14,32.251.11,32.251.08,32.251.05,32.25

1.02,32.250.99,32.250.96,32.250.93,32.250.90,32.250.87,32.250.84,32.250.81,32.250.78,32.250.75,32.250.72,32.25

0.69,32.250.66,32.250.63,32.25

0.60,32.250.57,32.250.54,32.250.51,32.250.48,32.250.45,32.250.42,32.250.39,32.250.36,32.250.33,32.250.30,32.250.27,32.252.49,31.752.46,31.752.43,31.752.40,31.752.37,31.752.34,31.752.31,31.752.28,31.752.25,31.752.22,31.752.19,31.752.16,31.752.13,31.752.10,31.752.07,31.75

2.04,31.75

2.01,31.751.98,31.751.95,31.751.92,31.751.89,31.751.86,31.75

1.83,31.751.80,31.751.77,31.751.74,31.751.71,31.751.68,31.751.65,31.751.62,31.751.59,31.751.56,31.751.53,31.751.50,31.751.47,31.751.44,31.751.41,31.751.38,31.75

1.35,31.751.32,31.751.29,31.751.26,31.751.23,31.751.20,31.75

1.17,31.751.14,31.751.11,31.751.08,31.751.05,31.751.02,31.750.99,31.750.96,31.750.93,31.750.90,31.750.87,31.750.84,31.750.81,31.750.78,31.750.75,31.750.72,31.750.69,31.750.66,31.750.63,31.750.60,31.750.57,31.750.54,31.75

0.51,31.750.48,31.750.45,31.750.42,31.750.39,31.750.36,31.750.33,31.75

0.30,31.750.27,31.752.49,31.252.46,31.252.43,31.252.40,31.252.37,31.252.34,31.252.31,31.252.28,31.252.25,31.252.22,31.252.19,31.252.16,31.252.13,31.252.10,31.252.07,31.252.04,31.252.01,31.251.98,31.251.95,31.251.92,31.251.89,31.251.86,31.251.83,31.251.80,31.251.77,31.251.74,31.251.71,31.251.68,31.251.65,31.251.62,31.251.59,31.251.56,31.251.53,31.251.50,31.251.47,31.251.44,31.251.41,31.251.38,31.251.35,31.251.32,31.251.29,31.251.26,31.251.23,31.251.20,31.251.17,31.251.14,31.251.11,31.251.08,31.251.05,31.251.02,31.250.99,31.250.96,31.250.93,31.250.90,31.250.87,31.250.84,31.250.81,31.250.78,31.250.75,31.250.72,31.250.69,31.250.66,31.250.63,31.250.60,31.250.57,31.250.54,31.250.51,31.250.48,31.250.45,31.250.42,31.250.39,31.250.36,31.250.33,31.250.30,31.250.27,31.252.49,30.752.46,30.752.43,30.752.40,30.752.37,30.752.34,30.752.31,30.75

2.28,30.752.25,30.752.22,30.752.19,30.75

2.16,30.752.13,30.752.10,30.752.07,30.75

2.04,30.75

2.01,30.751.98,30.75

1.95,30.751.92,30.75

1.89,30.751.86,30.751.83,30.751.80,30.751.77,30.751.74,30.751.71,30.75

1.68,30.751.65,30.751.62,30.751.59,30.751.56,30.751.53,30.751.50,30.751.47,30.751.44,30.751.41,30.751.38,30.751.35,30.75

1.32,30.751.29,30.751.26,30.751.23,30.751.20,30.751.17,30.751.14,30.751.11,30.751.08,30.751.05,30.751.02,30.750.99,30.750.96,30.750.93,30.750.90,30.750.87,30.750.84,30.750.81,30.750.78,30.75

0.75,30.750.72,30.750.69,30.750.66,30.750.63,30.750.60,30.750.57,30.750.54,30.750.51,30.750.48,30.750.45,30.750.42,30.75

0.39,30.750.36,30.750.33,30.750.30,30.750.27,30.75

2.49,30.252.46,30.252.43,30.252.40,30.252.37,30.252.34,30.252.31,30.252.28,30.252.25,30.252.22,30.252.19,30.25

2.16,30.25

2.13,30.25

2.10,30.252.07,30.25

2.04,30.252.01,30.251.98,30.25

1.95,30.251.92,30.25

1.89,30.25

1.86,30.251.83,30.251.80,30.251.77,30.251.74,30.251.71,30.251.68,30.251.65,30.251.62,30.251.59,30.251.56,30.251.53,30.251.50,30.251.47,30.251.44,30.251.41,30.251.38,30.251.35,30.251.32,30.251.29,30.251.26,30.251.23,30.251.20,30.251.17,30.251.14,30.251.11,30.251.08,30.251.05,30.251.02,30.25

0.99,30.250.96,30.250.93,30.250.90,30.250.87,30.250.84,30.25

0.81,30.250.78,30.250.75,30.250.72,30.250.69,30.250.66,30.250.63,30.250.60,30.250.57,30.250.54,30.250.51,30.250.48,30.250.45,30.250.42,30.250.39,30.250.36,30.250.33,30.250.30,30.250.27,30.252.49,29.752.46,29.752.43,29.752.40,29.752.37,29.752.34,29.752.31,29.752.28,29.752.25,29.752.22,29.75

2.19,29.752.16,29.752.13,29.75

2.10,29.75

2.07,29.752.04,29.752.01,29.751.98,29.751.95,29.751.92,29.75

1.89,29.751.86,29.751.83,29.751.80,29.751.77,29.75

1.74,29.75

1.71,29.751.68,29.751.65,29.75

1.62,29.751.59,29.751.56,29.751.53,29.751.50,29.751.47,29.751.44,29.751.41,29.751.38,29.751.35,29.751.32,29.751.29,29.751.26,29.751.23,29.751.20,29.751.17,29.751.14,29.751.11,29.751.08,29.751.05,29.751.02,29.75

0.99,29.750.96,29.750.93,29.750.90,29.750.87,29.750.84,29.75

0.81,29.750.78,29.750.75,29.750.72,29.750.69,29.750.66,29.750.63,29.750.60,29.750.57,29.750.54,29.750.51,29.750.48,29.750.45,29.750.42,29.750.39,29.750.36,29.750.33,29.750.30,29.750.27,29.752.49,29.252.46,29.252.43,29.252.40,29.252.37,29.252.34,29.252.31,29.252.28,29.252.25,29.252.22,29.25

2.19,29.252.16,29.252.13,29.252.10,29.252.07,29.252.04,29.25

2.01,29.251.98,29.251.95,29.251.92,29.251.89,29.251.86,29.251.83,29.251.80,29.251.77,29.25

1.74,29.25

1.71,29.251.68,29.251.65,29.251.62,29.251.59,29.251.56,29.251.53,29.251.50,29.251.47,29.251.44,29.251.41,29.251.38,29.251.35,29.251.32,29.251.29,29.251.26,29.251.23,29.251.20,29.251.17,29.251.14,29.251.11,29.251.08,29.251.05,29.251.02,29.250.99,29.250.96,29.25

0.93,29.250.90,29.250.87,29.250.84,29.250.81,29.250.78,29.250.75,29.250.72,29.250.69,29.250.66,29.250.63,29.250.60,29.250.57,29.250.54,29.250.51,29.250.48,29.250.45,29.250.42,29.250.39,29.250.36,29.250.33,29.250.30,29.250.27,29.252.49,28.752.46,28.752.43,28.752.40,28.752.37,28.752.34,28.752.31,28.752.28,28.752.25,28.752.22,28.75

2.19,28.752.16,28.752.13,28.752.10,28.75

2.07,28.752.04,28.752.01,28.751.98,28.751.95,28.751.92,28.751.89,28.751.86,28.751.83,28.75

1.80,28.751.77,28.75

1.74,28.75

1.71,28.75

1.68,28.751.65,28.751.62,28.751.59,28.751.56,28.751.53,28.751.50,28.751.47,28.751.44,28.751.41,28.751.38,28.751.35,28.75

1.32,28.751.29,28.751.26,28.751.23,28.751.20,28.751.17,28.751.14,28.751.11,28.75

1.08,28.751.05,28.751.02,28.750.99,28.750.96,28.75

0.93,28.750.90,28.750.87,28.750.84,28.750.81,28.750.78,28.750.75,28.750.72,28.750.69,28.750.66,28.750.63,28.750.60,28.750.57,28.75

0.54,28.750.51,28.750.48,28.750.45,28.750.42,28.750.39,28.750.36,28.750.33,28.750.30,28.750.27,28.75

2.49,28.252.46,28.252.43,28.252.40,28.252.37,28.252.34,28.252.31,28.252.28,28.25

2.25,28.252.22,28.252.19,28.252.16,28.25

2.13,28.252.10,28.252.07,28.252.04,28.252.01,28.251.98,28.251.95,28.251.92,28.251.89,28.251.86,28.251.83,28.251.80,28.251.77,28.25

1.74,28.251.71,28.251.68,28.251.65,28.251.62,28.251.59,28.251.56,28.251.53,28.251.50,28.251.47,28.251.44,28.251.41,28.251.38,28.251.35,28.251.32,28.25

1.29,28.251.26,28.251.23,28.251.20,28.25

1.17,28.251.14,28.251.11,28.251.08,28.25

1.05,28.251.02,28.250.99,28.25

0.96,28.250.93,28.250.90,28.250.87,28.25

0.84,28.250.81,28.250.78,28.250.75,28.250.72,28.250.69,28.250.66,28.250.63,28.250.60,28.250.57,28.250.54,28.250.51,28.250.48,28.250.45,28.250.42,28.250.39,28.250.36,28.250.33,28.250.30,28.250.27,28.252.49,27.752.46,27.752.43,27.752.40,27.752.37,27.752.34,27.752.31,27.752.28,27.75

2.25,27.752.22,27.752.19,27.75

2.16,27.752.13,27.752.10,27.752.07,27.752.04,27.75

2.01,27.751.98,27.751.95,27.751.92,27.751.89,27.751.86,27.751.83,27.751.80,27.751.77,27.751.74,27.751.71,27.751.68,27.75

1.65,27.75

1.62,27.751.59,27.75

1.56,27.751.53,27.751.50,27.75

1.47,27.751.44,27.751.41,27.751.38,27.751.35,27.751.32,27.751.29,27.751.26,27.751.23,27.751.20,27.751.17,27.751.14,27.751.11,27.751.08,27.751.05,27.751.02,27.750.99,27.75

0.96,27.750.93,27.750.90,27.75

0.87,27.750.84,27.750.81,27.750.78,27.750.75,27.750.72,27.750.69,27.750.66,27.750.63,27.750.60,27.750.57,27.750.54,27.750.51,27.750.48,27.750.45,27.750.42,27.750.39,27.750.36,27.750.33,27.750.30,27.750.27,27.75

2.49,27.252.46,27.252.43,27.252.40,27.252.37,27.252.34,27.252.31,27.252.28,27.252.25,27.252.22,27.252.19,27.252.16,27.252.13,27.252.10,27.252.07,27.252.04,27.252.01,27.251.98,27.251.95,27.251.92,27.251.89,27.251.86,27.251.83,27.251.80,27.251.77,27.25

1.74,27.251.71,27.251.68,27.251.65,27.25

1.62,27.251.59,27.251.56,27.251.53,27.251.50,27.251.47,27.251.44,27.251.41,27.251.38,27.251.35,27.251.32,27.251.29,27.251.26,27.251.23,27.251.20,27.251.17,27.251.14,27.251.11,27.251.08,27.251.05,27.251.02,27.250.99,27.250.96,27.25

0.93,27.250.90,27.250.87,27.250.84,27.250.81,27.250.78,27.250.75,27.250.72,27.250.69,27.250.66,27.250.63,27.250.60,27.250.57,27.250.54,27.250.51,27.250.48,27.250.45,27.250.42,27.250.39,27.250.36,27.250.33,27.250.30,27.250.27,27.252.49,26.752.46,26.752.43,26.752.40,26.752.37,26.75

2.34,26.752.31,26.752.28,26.752.25,26.752.22,26.75

2.19,26.752.16,26.752.13,26.752.10,26.752.07,26.752.04,26.752.01,26.75

1.98,26.751.95,26.751.92,26.751.89,26.751.86,26.751.83,26.751.80,26.751.77,26.75

1.74,26.751.71,26.75

1.68,26.75

1.65,26.751.62,26.751.59,26.751.56,26.751.53,26.751.50,26.751.47,26.751.44,26.751.41,26.751.38,26.751.35,26.751.32,26.751.29,26.751.26,26.751.23,26.751.20,26.751.17,26.751.14,26.751.11,26.751.08,26.751.05,26.751.02,26.750.99,26.750.96,26.75

0.93,26.750.90,26.750.87,26.750.84,26.750.81,26.750.78,26.750.75,26.750.72,26.750.69,26.750.66,26.750.63,26.750.60,26.750.57,26.750.54,26.75

0.51,26.750.48,26.750.45,26.750.42,26.750.39,26.750.36,26.750.33,26.750.30,26.750.27,26.752.49,26.25

2.46,26.252.43,26.252.40,26.252.37,26.252.34,26.252.31,26.252.28,26.252.25,26.252.22,26.252.19,26.252.16,26.252.13,26.252.10,26.252.07,26.252.04,26.252.01,26.251.98,26.251.95,26.251.92,26.251.89,26.251.86,26.251.83,26.251.80,26.251.77,26.25

1.74,26.251.71,26.251.68,26.251.65,26.25

1.62,26.251.59,26.251.56,26.251.53,26.251.50,26.251.47,26.251.44,26.251.41,26.25

1.38,26.251.35,26.251.32,26.251.29,26.251.26,26.251.23,26.251.20,26.251.17,26.251.14,26.251.11,26.251.08,26.251.05,26.251.02,26.25

0.99,26.25

0.96,26.25

0.93,26.250.90,26.250.87,26.250.84,26.250.81,26.250.78,26.250.75,26.250.72,26.250.69,26.250.66,26.250.63,26.250.60,26.25

0.57,26.250.54,26.250.51,26.250.48,26.250.45,26.250.42,26.250.39,26.250.36,26.250.33,26.250.30,26.250.27,26.25

2.49,25.752.46,25.752.43,25.75

2.40,25.752.37,25.752.34,25.752.31,25.752.28,25.752.25,25.752.22,25.752.19,25.75

2.16,25.752.13,25.752.10,25.752.07,25.752.04,25.752.01,25.751.98,25.751.95,25.751.92,25.751.89,25.751.86,25.751.83,25.751.80,25.751.77,25.751.74,25.75

1.71,25.751.68,25.751.65,25.751.62,25.751.59,25.751.56,25.751.53,25.751.50,25.751.47,25.751.44,25.75

1.41,25.751.38,25.751.35,25.751.32,25.751.29,25.751.26,25.751.23,25.75

1.20,25.751.17,25.751.14,25.751.11,25.751.08,25.751.05,25.751.02,25.750.99,25.75

0.96,25.75

0.93,25.75

0.90,25.75

0.87,25.750.84,25.750.81,25.750.78,25.750.75,25.750.72,25.750.69,25.750.66,25.750.63,25.750.60,25.750.57,25.750.54,25.750.51,25.750.48,25.750.45,25.750.42,25.750.39,25.750.36,25.75

0.33,25.750.30,25.750.27,25.752.49,25.252.46,25.252.43,25.252.40,25.252.37,25.252.34,25.252.31,25.252.28,25.252.25,25.252.22,25.252.19,25.252.16,25.252.13,25.252.10,25.252.07,25.252.04,25.252.01,25.251.98,25.251.95,25.251.92,25.251.89,25.251.86,25.251.83,25.251.80,25.251.77,25.251.74,25.251.71,25.251.68,25.251.65,25.251.62,25.251.59,25.251.56,25.251.53,25.251.50,25.251.47,25.251.44,25.25

1.41,25.251.38,25.251.35,25.251.32,25.251.29,25.251.26,25.251.23,25.251.20,25.251.17,25.251.14,25.251.11,25.251.08,25.251.05,25.251.02,25.250.99,25.25

0.96,25.25

0.93,25.25

0.90,25.25

0.87,25.250.84,25.250.81,25.250.78,25.250.75,25.250.72,25.250.69,25.250.66,25.250.63,25.250.60,25.250.57,25.250.54,25.250.51,25.250.48,25.250.45,25.250.42,25.250.39,25.250.36,25.250.33,25.250.30,25.250.27,25.252.49,24.752.46,24.752.43,24.752.40,24.752.37,24.752.34,24.752.31,24.75

2.28,24.752.25,24.752.22,24.75

2.19,24.752.16,24.752.13,24.752.10,24.752.07,24.752.04,24.75

2.01,24.751.98,24.751.95,24.751.92,24.751.89,24.751.86,24.75

1.83,24.751.80,24.751.77,24.751.74,24.751.71,24.751.68,24.751.65,24.751.62,24.751.59,24.75

1.56,24.751.53,24.751.50,24.751.47,24.751.44,24.75

1.41,24.751.38,24.75

1.35,24.75

1.32,24.751.29,24.751.26,24.751.23,24.751.20,24.75

1.17,24.751.14,24.751.11,24.751.08,24.751.05,24.751.02,24.75

0.99,24.75

0.96,24.75

0.93,24.75

0.90,24.75

0.87,24.750.84,24.750.81,24.750.78,24.750.75,24.750.72,24.750.69,24.750.66,24.750.63,24.75

0.60,24.750.57,24.75

0.54,24.750.51,24.750.48,24.750.45,24.750.42,24.750.39,24.750.36,24.750.33,24.750.30,24.750.27,24.752.49,24.252.46,24.252.43,24.252.40,24.252.37,24.252.34,24.252.31,24.252.28,24.252.25,24.252.22,24.252.19,24.252.16,24.252.13,24.252.10,24.252.07,24.252.04,24.252.01,24.251.98,24.251.95,24.251.92,24.251.89,24.251.86,24.251.83,24.251.80,24.25

1.77,24.251.74,24.251.71,24.251.68,24.251.65,24.251.62,24.251.59,24.25

1.56,24.251.53,24.25

1.50,24.25

1.47,24.251.44,24.251.41,24.251.38,24.251.35,24.251.32,24.251.29,24.251.26,24.25

1.23,24.251.20,24.251.17,24.251.14,24.251.11,24.251.08,24.251.05,24.25

1.02,24.250.99,24.25

0.96,24.250.93,24.25

0.90,24.25

0.87,24.25

0.84,24.250.81,24.250.78,24.250.75,24.250.72,24.250.69,24.250.66,24.250.63,24.250.60,24.250.57,24.250.54,24.250.51,24.250.48,24.250.45,24.250.42,24.250.39,24.250.36,24.25

0.33,24.250.30,24.250.27,24.252.49,23.752.46,23.752.43,23.752.40,23.752.37,23.752.34,23.75

2.31,23.752.28,23.752.25,23.752.22,23.752.19,23.752.16,23.75

2.13,23.752.10,23.75

2.07,23.752.04,23.752.01,23.751.98,23.751.95,23.751.92,23.75

1.89,23.751.86,23.751.83,23.75

1.80,23.751.77,23.751.74,23.751.71,23.751.68,23.751.65,23.751.62,23.75

1.59,23.751.56,23.751.53,23.751.50,23.751.47,23.751.44,23.751.41,23.751.38,23.751.35,23.751.32,23.751.29,23.751.26,23.751.23,23.75

1.20,23.751.17,23.751.14,23.751.11,23.751.08,23.751.05,23.75

1.02,23.750.99,23.75

0.96,23.750.90,23.75

0.87,23.75

0.84,23.750.81,23.750.78,23.750.75,23.750.72,23.750.69,23.750.66,23.750.63,23.750.60,23.750.57,23.750.54,23.75

0.51,23.750.48,23.750.45,23.750.42,23.75

0.39,23.750.36,23.750.33,23.750.30,23.750.27,23.75

2.49,23.252.46,23.252.43,23.252.40,23.252.37,23.252.34,23.252.31,23.252.28,23.252.25,23.252.22,23.252.19,23.252.16,23.252.13,23.252.10,23.252.07,23.252.04,23.252.01,23.251.98,23.251.95,23.251.92,23.251.89,23.25

1.86,23.251.83,23.251.80,23.251.77,23.251.74,23.251.71,23.25

1.68,23.251.65,23.251.62,23.251.59,23.251.56,23.251.53,23.251.50,23.251.47,23.251.44,23.251.41,23.251.38,23.251.35,23.251.32,23.251.29,23.251.26,23.251.23,23.251.20,23.251.17,23.251.14,23.251.11,23.25

1.08,23.251.05,23.251.02,23.250.99,23.25

0.96,23.25

0.93,23.250.90,23.250.87,23.25

0.84,23.250.81,23.250.78,23.250.75,23.250.72,23.250.69,23.250.66,23.250.63,23.250.60,23.250.57,23.250.54,23.250.51,23.250.48,23.250.45,23.250.42,23.250.39,23.250.36,23.250.33,23.250.30,23.250.27,23.252.49,22.752.46,22.752.43,22.752.40,22.752.37,22.752.34,22.752.31,22.752.28,22.752.25,22.752.22,22.752.19,22.752.16,22.752.13,22.752.10,22.752.07,22.752.04,22.752.01,22.751.98,22.751.95,22.751.92,22.751.89,22.751.86,22.751.83,22.751.80,22.751.77,22.751.74,22.751.71,22.751.68,22.751.65,22.751.62,22.751.59,22.751.56,22.751.53,22.751.50,22.751.47,22.751.44,22.751.41,22.751.38,22.751.35,22.751.32,22.751.29,22.751.26,22.75

1.23,22.751.20,22.751.17,22.751.14,22.751.11,22.751.08,22.751.05,22.751.02,22.750.99,22.75

0.96,22.75

0.93,22.750.90,22.750.87,22.750.84,22.750.81,22.750.78,22.750.75,22.750.72,22.750.69,22.750.66,22.750.63,22.750.60,22.750.57,22.750.54,22.750.51,22.750.48,22.750.45,22.750.42,22.750.39,22.750.36,22.750.33,22.750.30,22.750.27,22.75

2.49,22.252.46,22.252.43,22.252.40,22.252.37,22.252.34,22.252.31,22.252.28,22.252.25,22.25

2.22,22.252.19,22.252.16,22.252.13,22.25

2.10,22.252.07,22.252.04,22.252.01,22.251.98,22.251.95,22.251.92,22.251.89,22.25

1.86,22.251.83,22.251.80,22.25

1.77,22.251.74,22.251.71,22.251.68,22.251.65,22.251.62,22.251.59,22.251.56,22.251.53,22.251.50,22.251.47,22.251.44,22.25

1.41,22.251.38,22.25

1.35,22.251.32,22.25

1.29,22.251.26,22.251.23,22.25

1.20,22.251.17,22.251.14,22.251.11,22.251.08,22.25

1.05,22.251.02,22.25

0.99,22.25

0.96,22.25

0.93,22.250.90,22.250.87,22.250.84,22.250.81,22.250.78,22.25

0.75,22.250.72,22.250.69,22.250.66,22.250.63,22.250.60,22.250.57,22.250.54,22.250.51,22.25

0.48,22.250.45,22.250.42,22.25

0.39,22.250.36,22.250.33,22.250.30,22.250.27,22.252.49,21.752.46,21.752.43,21.752.40,21.752.37,21.752.34,21.752.31,21.752.28,21.752.25,21.75

2.22,21.752.19,21.752.16,21.752.13,21.752.10,21.752.07,21.752.04,21.75

2.01,21.751.98,21.751.95,21.751.92,21.751.89,21.75

1.86,21.751.83,21.751.80,21.751.77,21.751.74,21.751.71,21.751.68,21.751.65,21.751.62,21.751.59,21.751.56,21.751.53,21.751.50,21.751.47,21.751.44,21.75

1.41,21.751.38,21.751.35,21.75

1.32,21.751.29,21.751.26,21.751.23,21.751.20,21.751.17,21.751.14,21.75

1.11,21.751.08,21.751.05,21.751.02,21.750.99,21.750.96,21.75

0.93,21.750.90,21.75

0.87,21.750.84,21.75

0.81,21.750.78,21.750.75,21.750.72,21.750.69,21.750.66,21.750.63,21.750.60,21.750.57,21.75

0.54,21.750.51,21.750.48,21.750.45,21.750.42,21.750.39,21.750.36,21.750.33,21.750.30,21.750.27,21.75

2.49,21.252.46,21.252.43,21.252.40,21.252.37,21.252.34,21.252.31,21.252.28,21.252.25,21.252.22,21.252.19,21.25

2.16,21.252.13,21.252.10,21.252.07,21.252.04,21.252.01,21.251.98,21.251.95,21.251.92,21.251.89,21.251.86,21.251.83,21.251.80,21.251.77,21.251.74,21.251.71,21.251.68,21.25

1.65,21.251.62,21.251.59,21.251.56,21.251.53,21.251.50,21.251.47,21.251.44,21.25

1.41,21.251.38,21.251.35,21.25

1.32,21.251.29,21.251.26,21.251.23,21.251.20,21.251.17,21.251.14,21.251.11,21.251.08,21.251.05,21.251.02,21.250.99,21.250.96,21.250.93,21.25

0.90,21.250.87,21.250.84,21.250.81,21.250.78,21.250.75,21.250.72,21.250.69,21.250.66,21.250.63,21.250.60,21.250.57,21.25

0.54,21.250.51,21.250.48,21.250.45,21.250.42,21.250.39,21.250.36,21.250.33,21.25

0.30,21.250.27,21.25

2.49,20.752.46,20.752.43,20.752.40,20.752.37,20.752.34,20.752.31,20.752.28,20.752.25,20.752.22,20.752.19,20.752.16,20.752.13,20.752.10,20.752.07,20.752.04,20.752.01,20.751.98,20.751.95,20.751.92,20.751.89,20.751.86,20.751.83,20.751.80,20.751.77,20.751.74,20.751.71,20.751.68,20.751.65,20.751.62,20.751.59,20.751.56,20.751.53,20.751.50,20.751.47,20.751.44,20.751.41,20.751.38,20.751.35,20.751.32,20.751.29,20.751.26,20.751.23,20.751.20,20.751.17,20.75

1.14,20.751.11,20.751.08,20.751.05,20.751.02,20.750.99,20.750.96,20.750.93,20.750.90,20.750.87,20.750.84,20.750.81,20.750.78,20.750.75,20.750.72,20.750.69,20.750.66,20.750.63,20.750.60,20.750.57,20.750.54,20.750.51,20.750.48,20.750.45,20.750.42,20.750.39,20.750.36,20.750.33,20.750.30,20.750.27,20.752.49,20.252.46,20.252.43,20.252.40,20.252.37,20.252.34,20.252.31,20.252.28,20.252.25,20.25

2.22,20.252.19,20.252.16,20.252.13,20.252.10,20.252.07,20.252.04,20.252.01,20.251.98,20.251.95,20.251.92,20.25

1.89,20.251.86,20.251.83,20.251.80,20.251.77,20.251.74,20.251.71,20.251.68,20.251.65,20.251.62,20.251.59,20.251.56,20.251.53,20.251.50,20.251.47,20.251.44,20.251.41,20.251.38,20.25

1.35,20.25

1.32,20.25

1.29,20.251.26,20.25

1.23,20.251.20,20.251.17,20.251.14,20.251.11,20.251.08,20.25

1.05,20.251.02,20.25

0.99,20.250.96,20.25

0.93,20.250.90,20.250.87,20.25

0.84,20.250.81,20.250.78,20.250.75,20.250.72,20.250.69,20.250.66,20.250.63,20.250.60,20.250.57,20.250.54,20.250.51,20.250.48,20.250.45,20.25

0.42,20.250.39,20.250.36,20.250.33,20.250.30,20.250.27,20.252.49,19.752.46,19.752.43,19.752.40,19.752.37,19.752.34,19.752.31,19.752.28,19.75

2.25,19.752.22,19.752.19,19.752.16,19.752.13,19.752.10,19.752.07,19.752.04,19.752.01,19.751.98,19.751.95,19.75

1.92,19.751.89,19.751.86,19.751.83,19.751.80,19.751.77,19.751.74,19.751.71,19.751.68,19.751.65,19.751.62,19.751.59,19.75

1.56,19.751.53,19.75

1.50,19.751.47,19.75

1.44,19.751.41,19.75

1.38,19.75

1.35,19.751.32,19.751.29,19.751.26,19.751.23,19.75

1.20,19.751.17,19.751.14,19.751.11,19.751.08,19.751.05,19.75

1.02,19.750.99,19.750.96,19.75

0.93,19.750.90,19.75

0.87,19.750.84,19.750.81,19.750.78,19.750.75,19.750.72,19.750.69,19.750.66,19.750.63,19.750.60,19.750.57,19.75

0.54,19.750.51,19.750.48,19.750.45,19.750.42,19.750.39,19.750.36,19.750.33,19.750.30,19.750.27,19.752.49,19.252.46,19.252.43,19.252.40,19.252.37,19.252.34,19.252.31,19.252.28,19.252.25,19.252.22,19.252.19,19.252.16,19.252.13,19.252.10,19.252.07,19.252.04,19.252.01,19.251.98,19.251.95,19.251.92,19.25

1.89,19.251.86,19.251.83,19.251.80,19.251.77,19.251.74,19.251.71,19.251.68,19.251.65,19.25

1.62,19.251.59,19.25

1.56,19.251.53,19.251.50,19.25

1.47,19.25

1.44,19.25

1.41,19.251.38,19.251.35,19.251.32,19.251.29,19.251.26,19.251.23,19.25

1.20,19.251.17,19.251.14,19.251.11,19.251.08,19.251.05,19.251.02,19.250.99,19.25

0.96,19.250.93,19.250.90,19.250.87,19.250.84,19.250.81,19.250.78,19.250.75,19.250.72,19.250.69,19.250.66,19.250.63,19.250.60,19.250.57,19.25

0.54,19.250.51,19.250.48,19.250.45,19.250.42,19.250.39,19.250.36,19.250.33,19.250.30,19.250.27,19.252.49,18.752.46,18.752.43,18.752.40,18.752.37,18.752.34,18.752.31,18.752.28,18.752.25,18.752.22,18.752.19,18.752.16,18.752.13,18.752.10,18.752.07,18.752.04,18.752.01,18.751.98,18.751.95,18.751.92,18.751.89,18.751.86,18.751.83,18.751.80,18.751.77,18.751.74,18.751.71,18.751.68,18.751.65,18.751.62,18.751.59,18.751.56,18.751.53,18.751.50,18.751.47,18.75

1.44,18.751.41,18.751.38,18.751.35,18.751.32,18.751.29,18.751.26,18.751.23,18.751.20,18.751.17,18.751.14,18.751.11,18.751.08,18.751.05,18.751.02,18.750.99,18.750.96,18.750.93,18.750.90,18.750.87,18.750.84,18.750.81,18.750.78,18.750.75,18.750.72,18.750.69,18.750.66,18.750.63,18.750.60,18.750.57,18.750.54,18.750.51,18.750.48,18.750.45,18.750.42,18.750.39,18.750.36,18.750.33,18.750.30,18.750.27,18.752.49,18.252.46,18.252.43,18.252.40,18.252.37,18.252.34,18.252.31,18.252.28,18.252.25,18.252.22,18.252.19,18.252.16,18.252.13,18.252.10,18.252.07,18.252.04,18.25

2.01,18.251.98,18.251.95,18.251.92,18.251.89,18.251.86,18.251.83,18.251.80,18.251.77,18.251.74,18.251.71,18.251.68,18.251.65,18.251.62,18.251.59,18.251.56,18.251.53,18.251.50,18.25

1.47,18.251.44,18.251.41,18.25

1.38,18.251.35,18.25

1.32,18.251.29,18.251.26,18.251.23,18.251.20,18.251.17,18.25

1.14,18.251.11,18.251.08,18.251.05,18.25

1.02,18.250.99,18.250.96,18.25

0.93,18.250.90,18.250.87,18.250.84,18.250.81,18.250.78,18.250.75,18.250.72,18.250.69,18.250.66,18.250.63,18.250.60,18.25

0.57,18.250.54,18.250.51,18.25

0.48,18.250.45,18.250.42,18.250.39,18.250.36,18.250.33,18.25

0.30,18.250.27,18.252.49,17.752.46,17.752.43,17.752.40,17.752.37,17.752.34,17.752.31,17.752.28,17.752.25,17.752.22,17.752.19,17.75

2.16,17.752.13,17.752.10,17.752.07,17.752.04,17.752.01,17.751.98,17.751.95,17.751.92,17.751.89,17.751.86,17.751.83,17.751.80,17.751.77,17.751.74,17.751.71,17.751.68,17.751.65,17.751.62,17.751.59,17.751.56,17.751.53,17.751.50,17.751.47,17.751.44,17.751.41,17.751.38,17.75

1.35,17.751.32,17.751.29,17.751.26,17.751.23,17.751.20,17.751.17,17.75

1.14,17.751.11,17.751.08,17.751.05,17.75

1.02,17.750.99,17.750.96,17.750.93,17.75

0.90,17.750.87,17.750.84,17.75

0.81,17.750.78,17.750.75,17.750.72,17.750.69,17.750.66,17.750.63,17.750.60,17.750.57,17.75

0.54,17.750.51,17.750.48,17.750.45,17.750.42,17.750.39,17.750.36,17.750.33,17.750.30,17.750.27,17.752.49,17.252.46,17.252.43,17.25

2.40,17.252.37,17.252.34,17.252.31,17.252.28,17.252.25,17.252.22,17.252.19,17.252.16,17.252.13,17.252.10,17.25

2.07,17.252.04,17.252.01,17.251.98,17.251.95,17.251.92,17.251.89,17.251.86,17.251.83,17.251.80,17.251.77,17.251.74,17.251.71,17.251.68,17.251.65,17.251.62,17.251.59,17.251.56,17.251.53,17.251.50,17.251.47,17.251.44,17.251.41,17.251.38,17.251.35,17.251.32,17.251.29,17.251.26,17.251.23,17.25

1.20,17.251.17,17.251.14,17.251.11,17.251.08,17.251.05,17.25

1.02,17.250.99,17.25

0.96,17.250.93,17.250.90,17.250.87,17.250.84,17.250.81,17.250.78,17.250.75,17.250.72,17.250.69,17.250.66,17.250.63,17.250.60,17.250.57,17.25

0.54,17.250.51,17.250.48,17.250.45,17.250.42,17.250.39,17.250.36,17.25

0.33,17.250.30,17.250.27,17.252.49,16.752.46,16.752.43,16.752.40,16.752.37,16.752.34,16.752.31,16.752.28,16.752.25,16.752.22,16.752.19,16.752.16,16.75

2.13,16.752.10,16.752.07,16.752.04,16.752.01,16.751.98,16.751.95,16.751.92,16.751.89,16.751.86,16.751.83,16.751.80,16.751.77,16.751.74,16.751.71,16.751.68,16.751.65,16.751.62,16.751.59,16.751.56,16.751.53,16.751.50,16.751.47,16.751.44,16.751.41,16.751.38,16.751.35,16.751.32,16.751.29,16.751.26,16.751.23,16.751.20,16.751.17,16.751.14,16.751.11,16.751.08,16.751.05,16.751.02,16.750.99,16.750.96,16.750.93,16.750.90,16.750.87,16.750.84,16.750.81,16.750.78,16.750.75,16.750.72,16.750.69,16.750.66,16.750.63,16.750.60,16.750.57,16.750.54,16.750.51,16.750.48,16.750.45,16.750.42,16.750.39,16.750.36,16.750.33,16.750.30,16.750.27,16.752.49,16.252.46,16.252.43,16.25

2.40,16.252.37,16.252.34,16.252.31,16.252.28,16.252.25,16.25

2.22,16.252.19,16.252.16,16.252.13,16.252.10,16.252.07,16.25

2.04,16.252.01,16.251.98,16.251.95,16.251.92,16.251.89,16.251.86,16.251.83,16.251.80,16.251.77,16.251.74,16.251.71,16.251.68,16.251.65,16.251.62,16.251.59,16.25

1.56,16.251.53,16.251.50,16.251.47,16.251.44,16.251.41,16.251.38,16.251.35,16.251.32,16.251.29,16.251.26,16.251.23,16.251.20,16.251.17,16.251.14,16.251.11,16.251.08,16.251.05,16.251.02,16.250.99,16.250.96,16.250.93,16.25

0.90,16.250.87,16.250.84,16.250.81,16.250.78,16.250.75,16.250.72,16.25

0.69,16.250.66,16.250.63,16.250.60,16.250.57,16.250.54,16.250.51,16.250.48,16.250.45,16.250.42,16.250.39,16.250.36,16.250.33,16.250.30,16.250.27,16.252.49,15.752.46,15.752.43,15.752.40,15.752.37,15.752.34,15.752.31,15.752.28,15.752.25,15.752.22,15.752.19,15.752.16,15.752.13,15.752.10,15.752.07,15.752.04,15.752.01,15.751.98,15.751.95,15.751.92,15.751.89,15.751.86,15.751.83,15.751.80,15.751.77,15.751.74,15.751.71,15.751.68,15.751.65,15.751.62,15.751.59,15.751.56,15.751.53,15.751.50,15.751.47,15.751.44,15.751.41,15.751.38,15.751.35,15.751.32,15.751.29,15.751.26,15.751.23,15.751.20,15.751.17,15.751.14,15.75

1.11,15.75

1.08,15.751.05,15.751.02,15.750.99,15.750.96,15.750.93,15.750.90,15.750.87,15.750.84,15.750.81,15.750.78,15.75

0.75,15.750.72,15.750.69,15.750.66,15.750.63,15.750.60,15.750.57,15.750.54,15.75

0.51,15.750.48,15.750.45,15.750.42,15.750.39,15.750.36,15.750.33,15.750.30,15.750.27,15.75

2.49,15.252.46,15.252.43,15.252.40,15.252.37,15.252.34,15.252.31,15.252.28,15.252.25,15.252.22,15.25

2.19,15.252.16,15.252.13,15.252.10,15.252.07,15.252.04,15.252.01,15.251.98,15.251.95,15.251.92,15.251.89,15.251.86,15.251.83,15.251.80,15.251.77,15.251.74,15.251.71,15.25

1.68,15.251.65,15.251.62,15.251.59,15.251.56,15.251.53,15.251.50,15.251.47,15.25

1.44,15.251.41,15.251.38,15.251.35,15.251.32,15.251.29,15.251.26,15.25

1.23,15.251.20,15.251.17,15.251.14,15.251.11,15.251.08,15.251.05,15.251.02,15.250.99,15.250.96,15.250.93,15.25

0.90,15.250.87,15.250.84,15.250.81,15.250.78,15.250.75,15.250.72,15.250.69,15.250.66,15.250.63,15.250.60,15.250.57,15.250.54,15.250.51,15.250.48,15.250.45,15.250.42,15.250.39,15.250.36,15.250.33,15.250.30,15.25

0.27,15.252.49,14.752.46,14.752.43,14.752.40,14.752.37,14.752.34,14.752.31,14.752.28,14.752.25,14.752.22,14.752.19,14.752.16,14.752.13,14.752.10,14.752.07,14.752.04,14.752.01,14.751.98,14.751.95,14.751.92,14.751.89,14.751.86,14.751.83,14.751.80,14.751.77,14.751.74,14.751.71,14.751.68,14.751.65,14.751.62,14.751.59,14.751.56,14.751.53,14.751.50,14.751.47,14.751.44,14.751.41,14.751.38,14.751.35,14.751.32,14.751.29,14.751.26,14.751.23,14.751.20,14.751.17,14.751.14,14.751.11,14.751.08,14.751.05,14.751.02,14.750.99,14.750.96,14.750.93,14.750.90,14.750.87,14.750.84,14.750.81,14.750.78,14.750.75,14.750.72,14.750.69,14.750.66,14.750.63,14.750.60,14.750.57,14.750.54,14.750.51,14.750.48,14.750.45,14.750.42,14.750.39,14.750.36,14.750.33,14.750.30,14.750.27,14.752.49,14.252.46,14.25

2.43,14.252.40,14.252.37,14.252.34,14.252.31,14.252.28,14.252.25,14.252.22,14.252.19,14.252.16,14.252.13,14.25

2.10,14.252.07,14.252.04,14.252.01,14.251.98,14.251.95,14.25

1.92,14.251.89,14.251.86,14.251.83,14.251.80,14.251.77,14.251.74,14.251.71,14.251.68,14.251.65,14.251.62,14.251.59,14.251.56,14.251.53,14.251.50,14.251.47,14.251.44,14.251.41,14.251.38,14.251.35,14.251.32,14.251.29,14.251.26,14.251.23,14.25

1.20,14.251.17,14.251.14,14.251.11,14.251.08,14.251.05,14.25

1.02,14.250.99,14.250.96,14.250.93,14.250.90,14.250.87,14.250.84,14.25

0.81,14.250.78,14.250.75,14.250.72,14.250.69,14.250.66,14.250.63,14.250.60,14.250.57,14.250.54,14.250.51,14.250.48,14.250.45,14.250.42,14.25

0.39,14.250.36,14.250.33,14.250.30,14.250.27,14.252.49,13.752.46,13.752.43,13.752.40,13.752.37,13.752.34,13.752.31,13.752.28,13.752.25,13.752.22,13.752.19,13.752.16,13.752.13,13.75

2.10,13.752.07,13.752.04,13.752.01,13.751.98,13.751.95,13.751.92,13.751.89,13.751.86,13.751.83,13.751.80,13.751.77,13.751.74,13.751.71,13.75

1.68,13.751.65,13.751.62,13.751.59,13.751.56,13.751.53,13.751.50,13.751.47,13.751.44,13.751.41,13.751.38,13.75

1.35,13.751.32,13.751.29,13.751.26,13.751.23,13.751.20,13.751.17,13.751.14,13.751.11,13.751.08,13.751.05,13.75

1.02,13.750.99,13.750.96,13.75

0.93,13.750.90,13.75

0.87,13.750.84,13.750.81,13.750.78,13.750.75,13.750.72,13.75

0.69,13.750.66,13.750.63,13.750.60,13.750.57,13.750.54,13.750.51,13.750.48,13.750.45,13.750.42,13.75

0.39,13.750.36,13.750.33,13.750.30,13.750.27,13.75

2.49,13.252.46,13.252.43,13.252.40,13.252.37,13.252.34,13.252.31,13.252.28,13.252.25,13.252.22,13.252.19,13.252.16,13.252.13,13.252.10,13.252.07,13.252.04,13.252.01,13.251.98,13.251.95,13.251.92,13.251.89,13.251.86,13.251.83,13.251.80,13.251.77,13.251.74,13.251.71,13.25

1.68,13.251.65,13.251.62,13.251.59,13.251.56,13.251.53,13.251.50,13.251.47,13.251.44,13.251.41,13.251.38,13.251.35,13.251.32,13.251.29,13.251.26,13.251.23,13.251.20,13.25

1.17,13.251.14,13.251.11,13.251.08,13.251.05,13.251.02,13.250.99,13.25

0.96,13.250.93,13.25

0.90,13.250.87,13.25

0.84,13.250.81,13.250.78,13.250.75,13.250.72,13.250.69,13.250.66,13.250.63,13.25

0.60,13.250.57,13.250.54,13.250.51,13.250.48,13.250.45,13.250.42,13.250.39,13.250.36,13.250.33,13.250.30,13.250.27,13.252.49,12.752.46,12.752.43,12.752.40,12.752.37,12.752.34,12.752.31,12.752.28,12.752.25,12.752.22,12.752.19,12.752.16,12.752.13,12.752.10,12.752.07,12.752.04,12.752.01,12.751.98,12.751.95,12.751.92,12.751.89,12.751.86,12.751.83,12.751.80,12.751.77,12.751.74,12.751.71,12.751.68,12.751.65,12.751.62,12.751.59,12.751.56,12.751.53,12.751.50,12.751.47,12.751.44,12.751.41,12.751.38,12.751.35,12.751.32,12.751.29,12.751.26,12.751.23,12.751.20,12.751.17,12.751.14,12.751.11,12.751.08,12.751.05,12.751.02,12.750.99,12.750.96,12.750.93,12.75

0.90,12.750.87,12.750.84,12.750.81,12.750.78,12.750.75,12.750.72,12.750.69,12.750.66,12.750.63,12.750.60,12.750.57,12.750.54,12.750.51,12.750.48,12.750.45,12.750.42,12.750.39,12.750.36,12.750.33,12.750.30,12.750.27,12.752.49,12.252.46,12.252.43,12.252.40,12.252.37,12.252.34,12.25

2.31,12.252.28,12.252.25,12.252.22,12.25

2.19,12.252.16,12.252.13,12.252.10,12.252.07,12.252.04,12.252.01,12.251.98,12.251.95,12.251.92,12.251.89,12.25

1.86,12.251.83,12.251.80,12.251.77,12.251.74,12.251.71,12.251.68,12.251.65,12.251.62,12.251.59,12.25

1.56,12.251.53,12.251.50,12.25

1.47,12.251.44,12.251.41,12.251.38,12.251.35,12.251.32,12.25

1.29,12.251.26,12.251.23,12.251.20,12.251.17,12.251.14,12.251.11,12.251.08,12.251.05,12.251.02,12.250.99,12.250.96,12.250.93,12.25

0.90,12.250.87,12.250.84,12.250.81,12.250.78,12.250.75,12.250.72,12.250.69,12.250.66,12.250.63,12.250.60,12.250.57,12.250.54,12.250.51,12.250.48,12.250.45,12.250.42,12.250.39,12.250.36,12.250.33,12.250.30,12.250.27,12.252.49,11.752.46,11.75

2.43,11.752.40,11.75

2.37,11.752.34,11.752.31,11.752.28,11.752.25,11.752.22,11.752.19,11.752.16,11.75

2.13,11.752.10,11.752.07,11.752.04,11.752.01,11.751.98,11.751.95,11.751.92,11.751.89,11.751.86,11.751.83,11.751.80,11.75

1.77,11.751.74,11.751.71,11.751.68,11.751.65,11.751.62,11.751.59,11.751.56,11.751.53,11.751.50,11.751.47,11.751.44,11.751.41,11.75

1.38,11.751.35,11.751.32,11.751.29,11.751.26,11.751.23,11.751.20,11.751.17,11.751.14,11.751.11,11.751.08,11.751.05,11.751.02,11.750.99,11.750.96,11.750.93,11.75

0.90,11.750.87,11.750.84,11.750.81,11.750.78,11.750.75,11.750.72,11.750.69,11.750.66,11.750.63,11.750.60,11.750.57,11.750.54,11.750.51,11.750.48,11.750.45,11.750.42,11.750.39,11.750.36,11.750.33,11.750.30,11.750.27,11.752.49,11.252.46,11.252.43,11.252.40,11.252.37,11.25

2.34,11.252.31,11.252.28,11.252.25,11.252.22,11.252.19,11.252.16,11.252.13,11.25

2.10,11.252.07,11.252.04,11.252.01,11.251.98,11.25

1.95,11.251.92,11.251.89,11.251.86,11.251.83,11.251.80,11.251.77,11.251.74,11.251.71,11.251.68,11.251.65,11.251.62,11.251.59,11.251.56,11.251.53,11.251.50,11.251.47,11.251.44,11.251.41,11.251.38,11.251.35,11.251.32,11.251.29,11.251.26,11.251.23,11.251.20,11.251.17,11.251.14,11.251.11,11.251.08,11.251.05,11.251.02,11.250.99,11.25

0.96,11.250.93,11.250.90,11.250.87,11.250.84,11.250.81,11.250.78,11.250.75,11.250.72,11.250.69,11.250.66,11.250.63,11.250.60,11.250.57,11.250.54,11.250.51,11.250.48,11.250.45,11.250.42,11.250.39,11.250.36,11.250.33,11.250.30,11.250.27,11.25

2.49,10.752.46,10.752.43,10.752.40,10.752.37,10.752.34,10.752.31,10.752.28,10.752.25,10.752.22,10.752.19,10.752.16,10.752.13,10.752.10,10.752.07,10.752.04,10.752.01,10.751.98,10.751.95,10.751.92,10.751.89,10.751.86,10.751.83,10.751.80,10.751.77,10.751.74,10.751.71,10.751.68,10.751.65,10.751.62,10.751.59,10.751.56,10.751.53,10.751.50,10.751.47,10.751.44,10.751.41,10.751.38,10.751.35,10.751.32,10.751.29,10.751.26,10.751.23,10.751.20,10.751.17,10.751.14,10.751.11,10.751.08,10.751.05,10.751.02,10.750.99,10.750.96,10.750.93,10.750.90,10.750.87,10.750.84,10.750.81,10.750.78,10.750.75,10.750.72,10.750.69,10.750.66,10.750.63,10.750.60,10.750.57,10.750.54,10.750.51,10.750.48,10.750.45,10.750.42,10.750.39,10.750.36,10.750.33,10.750.30,10.750.27,10.752.49,10.252.46,10.252.43,10.252.40,10.252.37,10.25

2.34,10.252.31,10.252.28,10.252.25,10.252.22,10.252.19,10.252.16,10.252.13,10.252.10,10.252.07,10.252.04,10.252.01,10.251.98,10.251.95,10.251.92,10.251.89,10.251.86,10.251.83,10.251.80,10.251.77,10.251.74,10.251.71,10.251.68,10.251.65,10.251.62,10.251.59,10.251.56,10.251.53,10.251.50,10.25

1.47,10.251.44,10.251.41,10.25

1.38,10.251.35,10.251.32,10.251.29,10.251.26,10.251.23,10.251.20,10.251.17,10.251.14,10.251.11,10.251.08,10.251.05,10.251.02,10.250.99,10.25

0.96,10.250.93,10.250.90,10.250.87,10.250.84,10.250.81,10.250.78,10.250.75,10.250.72,10.250.69,10.250.66,10.250.63,10.250.60,10.250.57,10.250.54,10.250.51,10.25

0.48,10.250.45,10.250.42,10.250.39,10.250.36,10.250.33,10.250.30,10.250.27,10.25

P[1]

P[2

]

MaltoseGlucose

Maltose

Lysine

Alanine

Leucine

Glutamate

A) B)

P[1]

P[2

]

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74

acid side chains, a second HSQC PLS-DA was conducted to determine if any other significant

metabolites could be detected in the aliphatic region (1H 0.25-2.5 ppm, 13C 10.0-50.0 ppm). The

analysis of the aliphatic region was also performed using COSY and J-RES data but this did not

show any improvement in scores discrimination and thus is not shown or discussed. Figure 2.6b

shows the scores plot for the HSQC data for the aliphatic region between the control and exposed

earthworms with a MANOVA value of P=1.16 x 10-11. The separation is more pronounced than

the overall HSQC scores plot (Figure 2.6a) likely due to presence of numerous signals from amino

acids which exhibit flux during exposure. This is confirmed in the 2-D loadings plot where four

non-concentric clusters were detected (Figure 2.8b) as major contributors for the separation of the

two groups. Alanine (1.46, 19.25 ppm) and leucine (~0.92-0.95, ~23.75pm) were detected

respectively as metabolites of importance. At the bottom clusters, the detection of glutamate at

(~2.09, 29.75 ppm; and 2.33-2.37, 36.25 ppm) was also observed. Glutamate is known to be an

important amino acid in the nervous system as an excitatory neurotransmitter [37]. It has been

found that during stress conditions, the transport of glutamate in neurons can be affected due to

receptor-mediated depolarization and calcium influx causing cell death [38]. In the 1-D NMR

techniques, this region was difficult to elucidate from the PLS-DA model due to the signal overlap

in the PURGE and CPMG experiments and the large reduction in signal in this region from the J-

RES projections.

2.4.5. Merits of 1-D and 2-D NMR analysis as biomarker screening tools

The 1-D NMR techniques used in this study (PURGE, J-RES projections and CPMG) were

specifically chosen as they are used commonly in metabolomic based studies. One clear advantage

with the usage of 1-D NMR methods for metabolomics studies is their high through-put potential.

As shown in Table 2.1, all 1-D NMR experiments required a maximum of 13 minutes or less. The

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75

processing steps (phasing and statistical data analysis) are relatively simple for all the 1-D NMR

spectra. PLS-DA of the 1-D NMR spectra of the control and endosulfan-exposed earthworm tissue

extracts enabled a quick method to detect significant metabolites of response due to contaminant

exposure. However, from the previous discussion above, many overlapping regions especially in

the sugar-rich regions (1H NMR δ=3.0-5.0 ppm) are detected and the potential of multiple

resonances at specific areas can cause difficulties in deducing the identification of specific

metabolites. In 2-D NMR, spectral overlap is often reduced through the introduction of the second

dimension and additional information can be obtained for metabolite identification due to the

additional “connectivity” information. The use of 2-D NMR data in multivariate analysis is

relatively new in the field of metabolomics and has increased in the last few years [18]. Recently,

new studies have emerged from the usage of 1H-1H COSY [39], 1H-1H total correlation

spectroscopy (TOCSY) [18] and more recently 1H-13C HSQC [19, 40]. However, none have

analyzed their potential together in an environmental setting such as contaminant exposure.

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76

Table 2: Summary of metabolites identified with significant chemical shifts from partial

least-squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) loadings and acquisition times for the 1-D and

2-D NMR techniques. Note the 2-D experiments were optimised for fast acquisition (see Experimental section)

In this study, 1H-J-RES, 1H-1H COSY and 1H-13C HSQC were used to further assist the 1-

D NMR results to fully maximize biomarker screening potential. The results from the 2-D

loadings plots show the major advantages in utilizing 2-D NMR in metabolomics studies. The

additional connectivity information (J-coupling for J-RES, 1H-1H for COSY and 1H-13C for

HSQC) permitted easier identification of metabolites which was not often possible from the 1-D

1H NMR alone. With 1H-J-RES spectroscopy, most of the significant metabolites from the 1-D

NMR were confirmed but with the additional J-coupling information, the identification of glucose

Name of

Technique

1D/2D NMR

technique

Metabolites Identified using Significant

Chemical Shifts from PLS-DA Loadings Plot

(δ)

Total Time

Presaturation

UtilizaingRelaxation

Gradients and

Echos (PURGE)

1D Alanine: 1H:1.46-1.48 ppm

Leucine: 1H:0.94-0.96 ppmMaltose: 1H:5.39-5.40 ppm

9 mins and 12 s

Carr-Purcell-

Meiboom-Gill (CPMG)

1D Alanine: 1H:1.46-1.48 ppm

Leucine: 1H:0.94-0.96 ppmMaltose: 1H:5.39-5.40 ppm

8 mins and 54 s

J-Resolved (J-

RES) projections

1D Alanine: 1H:1.46-1.47 ppm

Maltose: 1H:5.39-5.40 ppm

12 mins and 58 s

1H- J-RES

Spectroscopy

2D Alanine: 1H:1.47 ppm. 3.5 Hz

Maltose: 1H:5.41 ppm, 0.5 HzGlucose:1H:3.25 ppm. -0.5 Hz

1H:4.63 ppm. 3.5-4.5 Hz

12 mins and 58 s

1H-1H

COrrelation Spectroscopy

(COSY)

2D Alanine: 1H:3.77 ppm, 1H:1.46 ppm1H:3.80 ppm, 1H:1.46 ppm

Maltose: 1H:5.42 ppm, 1H:3.59 ppmGlucose: 1H:4.64-4.67 ppm, 1H:3.23-3.29 ppm

Lysine: 1H:3.02 ppm,1H:1.73 ppm

27 mins and 7 s

1H-13C Single

Quantum Coherence

spectroscopy

(HSQC)

2D Alanine: 1H:1.46 ppm, 13C:19.25 ppm

Leucine: 1H:0.92-0.95 ppm, 13C:23.75 ppmMaltose: 1H:3.80-3.89 ppm, 13C:62.75-64.25 ppmGlucose : 1H:3.47-3.50 ppm,13C:78.75 ppm

Lysine: 1H:2.99 ppm, 13C:41.75-42.25 ppmGlutamate: 1H:2.09 ppm, 13C:29.75 ppm

1H:2.33-2.37 ppm,13C:36.25 ppm

47 mins and 26 s

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as a metabolite of response was deduced. The result was similar with 1H-1H COSY but the

additional proton connectivity information permitted the identification of lysine as a significant

metabolite of response. However, the advantages of 2-D NMR are most clearly seen in the HSQC

data. 1H-13C HSQC showed the highest discrimination between the control and exposed groups,

and the additional dispersion afforded by the carbon axis permitted the identification of glutamate

as an additional significant metabolite that was not identified by any of the other 1-D or 2-D NMR

methods (see Table 1). Furthermore HSQC identified all of the metabolites identified from all the

other 1-D and 2-D NMR techniques combined, highlighting its considerable potential as a

biomarker screening tool. McKelvie et al. [23] also detected alanine, leucine and maltose as

potential biomarkers in E. fetida exposed to endosulfan using PURGE NMR. GC-MS was used in

their study but was unable to derivitize leucine and maltose proved highly variable and could not

be confirmed as a significant metabolite from GC-MS. The application of 2-D NMR in our study

complimented McKelvie’s findings by confirming these metabolites and detecting additional

biomarkers due to exposure to endosulfan.

The increased information provided by 2-D NMR unfortunately comes at a cost of

increased computing processing/data resources and spectrometer time. The processing steps and

statistical data analysis for all 2-D spectra require more time and computing resources due to the

large increase in data. For example, the PLS-DA results for 1-D NMR needed only ~861 buckets

for each NMR spectrum. However, the PLS-DA results for HSQC required a total of 37,000

buckets for each NMR dataset. This increase in data size substantially required higher system

storage space and processing power but was within the limit of a well-equipped PC. As for

spectrometer time, after optimization, ~27 minutes and ~48 minutes were required to collect

COSY and HSQC datasets respectively (see Table 1). While this is more than any of the 1-D NMR

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techniques which required ~9mins, given the labor and time required to prepare metabolomic

samples, the additional information may be well worth the additional spectrometer time, especially

considering the 2-D NMR acquisition (as with the 1-D acquisition) can be fully automated.

However, 2-D is only feasible as long as metabolites are present at a concentration where they can

be easily observed by 2-D NMR. This is important to stress especially for HSQC as 2-D NMR

techniques are less sensitive than 1-D 1H NMR techniques. While it was adequate in this study to

provide a wealth of novel information on earthworm extracts, this may not be the case for all

biological fluids/extracts where metabolites are at lower concentrations. Therefore it is imperative

to test and optimize HSQC data acquisition on a select number of samples prior to undertaking a

large metabolomic screening program. Given the short acquisition time of 1-D NMR, it may be

prudent to combine a 1-D NMR approach along with HSQC to take advantage of both increased

sensitivity of 1-D NMR along with the increased dispersion of 2-D NMR.

The identification of biomarkers for ecotoxicology studies is crucial in environmental risk

assessment of contaminated areas. NMR is potentially a useful tool for this application as it is able

to detect changes in a wide range of metabolites in a non-targeted method. Bundy et al. [7]

utilized 1-D NMR to examine the metabolic profile of earthworm, Lumbricus rubellus, at various

metal contaminated field sites. PCA showed contaminant-specific effects on the metabolic profile

in the earthworms and detected zinc as the main contaminant causing a metabolic response in all

the sites. However, weak correlations to zinc within each site were seen due to the chemical and

biological variability from the earthworm metabolic profile. The usage of 2-D NMR techniques

such as HSQC can potentially alleviate this problem as the greater dispersion from the additional

dimension can enable a more detailed metabolic profile of each earthworm and help better

discriminate contaminant exposure. Jones et al. [35] assessed the exposure of earthworm,

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Lumbricus rubellus to different concentrations of pyrene, a well known PAH using 1H NMR and

GC-MS for tissue analysis. The 1H NMR results identified different metabolites due to exposure

but the author commented on the large number of overlap between peaks with the same chemical

shifts which could potentially miss smaller signals due to the larger resonances. The application of

COSY and HSQC can potentially improve the congestion of these peaks and provide additional

screening potential of metabolites hidden due to the overlap in the 1H NMR. From the results in

these studies [7, 35], the application of NMR in environmental metabolomics to discriminate

changes in the metabolic profile of organisms depends on a large part, the technique used to

discriminate the exposed and control groups. Therefore, this study highlights the application of a

simple presaturation 1-D NMR technique in combination of a 2-D NMR technique such as HSQC

can extend the screening potential of metabolites due to exposure in environmental metabolomic

samples.

2.5 Conclusion

This initial study demonstrates the biomarker screening potential of various 1-D and 2-D

NMR techniques on the toxicity of endosulfan to E. fetida. We have demonstrated that 1-D NMR

showed discrimination between the control and exposed earthworms with alanine, leucine and

maltose identified as potential biomarkers. However, specific regions such as sugars and lipids

can be problematic since their immense signals can overlap other peaks in that area. This study

was the first to compare different 2-D NMR techniques (J-RES, COSY and HSQC) in an

environmental context to highlight the potential of utilizing 2-D NMR in identifying metabolites of

response due to a contaminant. For J-RES, the additional J-coupling dimension provided further

information that allowed the deduction of glucose while the additional proton dimension from

COSY allowed higher dispersion to deduce lysine as well. However, HSQC provided a global

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metabolic profile and was valuable in identifying all the significant metabolites detected in the

other 1-D and 2-D NMR techniques combined with an additional key metabolite glutamate which

was not detected by the other methods. The HSQC data showed excellent discrimination in the

PLS-DA scores plot between the exposed and control groups with a MANOVA value three orders

lower than all the other 1-D and 2-D NMR techniques. However, given the lower acquisition time

and higher sensitivity in 1-D 1H NMR, the application of HSQC with a simple 1-D presaturation

technique has potential for statistical discrimination and significant metabolite identification in

environmental metabolomic studies.

2.6 Acknowledgment

Funding was provided by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council Strategic

Grants Program (NSERC). André Simpson would like to thank the government of Ontario for an

Early Researcher Award. Fellowships from NSERC and the Ontario Postdoctoral Program

(Ministry of Research and Innovation) to JRM are also acknowledged.

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CHAPTER THREE

1-D and 2-D NMR metabolomics of earthworm responses to sub-lethal trifluralin and endosulfan exposure

Published as: Yuk, J., Simpson, M.J., and Simpson, A.J., 1-D and 2-D NMR metabolomics of earthworm responses to sub-lethal trifluralin and endosulfan exposure. Environ.

Chem., 2011. 8(3): 281-294.

Reproduced with permission from Environmental Chemistry, 2011,(3): 281-294 (http://www.publish.csiro.au/paper/EN11033.htm). © Copyright CSIRO Publishing

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3.1 Abstract

1-D and 2-D Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is used to examine the

metabolic response of the earthworm (Eisenia fetida) after contact test exposure to an

organofluorine pesticide, trifluralin and an organochlorine pesticide, endosulfan. Three sub-lethal

concentrations were used for each pesticide (0.1 mg cm-2, 0.5 mg cm-2 and 1.0 mg cm-2 for

trifluralin and 0.5 µg cm-2, 1.0 µg cm-2 and 2.0 µg cm-2 for endosulfan). Principal Component

Analysis (PCA) of the trifluralin and endosulfan NMR datasets showed separation between the

unexposed and the exposed earthworm groups. Alanine, glycine, maltose and ATP were

significant in the highest concentration (1.0 mg cm-2) for trifluralin-exposed earthworms and may

result from a non-polar narcosis toxic mode of action (MOA). Leucine, phenylalanine, tryptophan,

lysine, glutamate, valine, glycine, isoleucine, methionine, glutamine, alanine, maltose, glucose,

meibiose, malate, fumarate and ATP were detected as significant in the 2 highest concentrations

(1.0 µg cm-2 and 2.0 µg cm-2) for endosulfan-exposed earthworms and a neurotoxic MOA is

postulated. This study highlights the usage of 1-D and 2-D metabolomics for understanding the

biochemical response of environmental contaminants to model organisms such as earthworms.

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3.2 Introduction

Since 1940, the use of halogenated agrochemicals has increased due to their optimal

biological efficacy and economic viability [1]. However, in the past decade, an increasing number

of studies have identified negative health effects such as birth defects, neurotoxicity and

genotoxicity [2-12] associated with many of these chemicals. Organochlorine pesticides is one

class of chemicals that has received widespread attention due to their ecological persistence and

potential carcinogenic and estrogenic properties [13]. In particular, endosulfan is widely used

throughout the world especially within the Indian sub-continent to control vector borne diseases

on a large variety of crop types such as fruit trees, plantation crops and cotton [14]. However,

toxicology studies have shown that endosulfan may have both tetragenic and mutagenic properties

and adversely affect the central nervous system, kidney and liver [14]. In the past 30 years, there

has been a shift to fluorine-substituted agrochemicals due to their significant biological activity.

However, due to the inertness of fluorinated compounds, the potential for persistence and

accumulation in the environment is of concern, especially for perfluoroalkyl substituents such as

trifluoromethyl groups [15]. Trifluralin is an organofluorinated herbicide used throughout the

world for grass control for a large variety of crops [16]. However, the benefits of trifluralin have

recently been offset by questions over its long-term environmental impact. Recent toxicity studies

have shown that trifluralin has genotoxic and carcinogenic properties in mammalian organisms

[17, 18]. Furthermore, very few studies have characterized the degradation products of the

trifluoromethyl group and to date only a small number of studies have focused on the biological

response of these products in living organisms [15]. Trifluralin binds strongly to soil organic

matter [19], promoting its persistence in soil for long periods of time [20]. Due to these

environmental concerns, further investigation into both endosulfan and trifluralin are necessary.

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The assessment of the long-term environmental impact from agrochemical use requires an

improved understanding of these chemicals and their interaction with soil organisms. However,

ecotoxicological studies have frequently focused on easily measurable endpoints such as mortality,

reproduction rates and growth [21, 22]. These tests have merit in understanding their overall

toxicity but do not provide an understanding of the toxic mechanisms at a molecular level and how

they affect the functional changes in an organism. An alternative approach would be to investigate

the changes in endogenous metabolites resulting from exposure at sub-lethal concentrations.

Metabolite characterization has conventionally been achieved through a series of specific

biochemical assays [23]. However, these assays can be expensive, time consuming and labor

intensive due to the high number of biological samples analyzed [23]. Environmental

metabolomics is a new alternative approach where the metabolite profiles of organisms in their

environment are analyzed from their tissues, cells and biofluids. The changes in their metabolites

can provide crucial information into an organism’s response to disease, toxicity and potential

environmental stressors present [24].

In the soil ecosystem, earthworms are vital species for their decomposing activities,

nutrient mineralization and soil formation abilities [25]. Due to their ubiquity in the soil

environments, they make ideal biological indicators for the risk assessment of soil health [26].

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy has been used extensively in earthworm

metabolomics as studies have examined their exposure to polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHS) [27,

28], metal contaminants [21, 29, 30] and halogenated anilines [31, 32]. 1-D NMR spectroscopy is

most frequently used in earthworm metabolomic studies but the identification of metabolites can

be difficult due to spectral overlap in complex biological samples [33, 34]. In our recent study

[34], various 1-D and 2-D NMR techniques were compared to alleviate the spectra overlap and 1-

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D Presaturation Utilizing Relaxation Gradients and Echos (PURGE) and 2-D 1H-13C Heteronuclear

Single Quantum Coherence (HSQC) NMR spectroscopy were found to be the most informative

experiments for the discrimination between the exposed and control earthworms and identification

of the response metabolites. In this study, 1-D PURGE is combined with 2-D HSQC NMR

spectroscopy to examine the response of the earthworm, Eisenia fetida (E. fetida) to two

pesticides, trifluralin and endosulfan across three sub-lethal exposure concentrations in contact

tests. The goal is to investigate the sub-lethal responses for these chemicals and if the toxic mode

of action (MOA) can be elucidated when data from both 1-D and 2-D NMR datasets are combined.

E. fetida has been used as standard test organisms for acute and chronic ecotoxicological studies

and is a recommended test organism from the Organization for Economic Co-operation and

Development (OECD) [35, 36]. Contact tests will be used as they are advantageous in

understanding the metabolic response of the earthworms under direct exposure to the contaminant

on a filter paper. Even though contact tests may not fully reflect the soil environment since it does

not consider pesticide exposure through ingestion [37], it is widely accepted for understanding

chemical risk or screening before studying more complex matrices such as soil [38].

Trajectory metabolomics analysis will also be performed in this study which compares

different contaminants together against the control to understand their differences or similarities on

the mode of action (MOA). Trajectory metabolomics analyses have been frequently used in

environmental studies such as developmental changes in an organism and time dependant changes

in an organism due to exposure by an environmental contaminant [33, 39, 40]. For example,

trajectory metabolomics analyses were used to study the exposure of a common groundwater

pollutant, trichloroethylene (TCE) to Japanese medaka at different development stages [33] and the

exposure of bacterial infections and chemicals such as Vibrio campbellii and 2,4 dinitrophenol

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(DNP) respectively on Atlantic blue crabs in a time dependent study [40]. Trajectory

metabolomics analysis will be used on the trifluralin- and endosulfan-exposed earthworms to

explore similarities or differences between the MOA’s of these two chemicals.

To the author’s knowledge, this will be the first study on analyzing the metabolic response

of E.fetida to trifluralin and endosulfan using 1-D and 2-D NMR metabolomic techniques. The

overall goal of this study is to investigate the potential of 1-D and 2-D NMR metabolomics as a

tool to monitor earthworm responses to endosulfan and trifluralin exposure.

3.3 Experimental methods

3.3.1 Earthworm contact test preparation and exposure

E. fetida specimens were purchased from The Worm Factory (Perth, ON, Canada) and

were maintained according to Brown et al. [41]. Mature earthworms with a visible clitellum were

depurated in groups of 5 in the dark for 96 hours on Whatman 4 Qualitative filter paper with a

diameter of 9 cm (Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA) in 500 mL jars to remove any residues

from their intestinal tracts [41]. The earthworms had a mean weight of 0.76 ± 0.03 g and there

were no significant differences in the average mass of the earthworms between the controls and

any of the concentrations for all the pesticides (ANOVA, F6,61=0.839, P=0.545) before exposure.

Earthworms were then transferred to individual 120 mL amber glass jars containing pre-treated

Whatman GF/A 4.25 cm diameter glass filter paper (Fisher Scientific). In the literature, the LC50

values for endosulfan and trifluralin were 5.7 µg cm-2 by Heimbach [42] and >1.0 mg cm-2 by

Roberts and Dorough [43] respectively. To ensure the exposure concentrations chosen for

endosulfan and trifluralin were sub-lethal; a preliminary experiment was conducted with 5

earthworms exposed to endosulfan and trifluralin concentrations near the LC50 values over 48

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hours. For endosulfan, the exposure concentrations used were 2.0 µg cm-2 and 5.0 µg cm-2 and for

trifluralin, the exposure concentrations used were 1.0 mg cm-2 and 2.0 mg cm-2. Earthworms

exposed to endosulfan survived at a concentration of 2.0 µg cm-2 but died after exposure at 5.0 µg

cm-2. For trifluralin, the earthworms all survived at 1.0 mg cm-2 but more than half died at 2.0 mg

cm-2. Based on these results, endosulfan (99 % purity; Sigma Aldrich, St Louis, MO, USA) was

applied to the filter paper at three sub-lethal concentrations (0.5 µg cm-2, 1.0 µg cm-2 and 2.0 µg

cm-2) using 1 mL of acetone (HPLC grade; Caldeon, Georgetown, ON, Canada) as the carrier

solvent. Trifluralin (98% purity; Borche Scientific) was applied to the filter paper at three

concentrations (0.1 mg cm-2, 0.5 mg cm-2 and 1.0 mg cm-2) using 1 mL of acetone as the carrier

solvent. Acetone (1 mL) was applied to filter papers to serve as control treatments. In all cases,

the acetone was allowed to evaporate and 1 mL of distilled water was added prior to the addition

of earthworms. Earthworms were kept in the dark for 48 hours, as recommended by the OECD

LC50 contact test guideline [35]. Earthworms were then flash frozen in liquid nitrogen, lyophilized

and stored frozen until extraction. The physical conditions and weight of each earthworm was

recorded after exposure before being flash frozen. There were 10 replicates for control and 10 for

each of the three concentrations of the contaminant for the exposed specimen. All earthworms

survived the exposures tests at the sub-lethal concentrations used.

3.3.2. Earthworm tissue extraction and preparation for NMR

The lyophilized earthworms were homogenized in a 1.5 mL centrifuge tube using a 5 mm

wide stainless steel spatula. Samples were then extracted using 1 mL of a 0.2 M monobasic

sodium phosphate buffer solution (NaH2PO4·2H2O; 99.3%; Fisher Chemicals) containing 0.1%

(w/v) sodium azide (99.5% purity; Sigma Aldrich) as a preservative [41]. Buffer solution was

made with D2O (99.9% purity, Cambridge Isotope Laboratories Inc, Andover, MA, USA) and

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adjusted to a pD of 7.4 using NaOD (30% w/w in 99.5% D2O, Cambridge Isotope Laboratories

Inc). The buffer solution for all NMR samples also contained 10 mg/L of 2,2-dimethyl-2-

silapentane-5-sulfonate sodium salt (DSS; 97%, Sigma Aldrich) as an internal standard. Samples

were vortexed for 30 seconds using a VX 100 vortexer (Labnet, NJ, USA) and then sonicated for

15 minutes using a FS60 sonicator (Fisher Scientific) to aid with the extraction. Samples were

then centrifuged at 14,000 rpm using an International Equipment Company 21000 Centrifuge

(Fischer Scientific, Ottawa, ON, Canada) for 20 minutes and the supernatant was transferred into a

new 1.5 mL centrifuge tube. The centrifuge process was then repeated two more times to ensure

all additional precipitates were removed and then transferred into 5 mm High Throughputplus NMR

tubes (Norell Inc., Landisville, NJ, USA). All samples were frozen immediately after preparation

and each sample was thawed prior to NMR analysis.

3.3.3. 1-D NMR Spectroscopy

All NMR spectra were acquired using a Bruker Avance 500 MHz spectrometer with a 1H-

19F-15N-13C 5 mm broadband Quadruple Inverse (QXI) probe fitted with an actively shielded Z

gradient (Bruker BioSpin, Rheinstetten, Germany). The 1H 90o pulse was calibrated for each

sample in the study. 1H NMR experiments were performed using Presaturation Utilizing Gradients

and Echoes (PURGE) water suppression [44] and 128 scans, a recycle delay of 3 s, and 16 K time

domain points. All 1-D NMR spectra were manually phased and calibrated to the DSS internal

reference methyl singlet, set to a chemical shift (δ) of 0.00 ppm.

3.3.4 2-D NMR Spectroscopy

1H-13C HSQC NMR experiments were optimized experimentally in terms of the relaxation

delay (d1) and the number of increments in the indirect dimension (F1) as described in Yuk et al.

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[34]. All HSQC NMR spectra were collected in phase-sensitive mode using echo/anti-echo

gradient selection, a 1J 1H-13C (145 Hz) and a relaxation delay of 0.5 s. Twenty scans and 2048

data points were collected for each of the 196 increments in the F1 dimension. The F2 dimension

was processed using an exponential function corresponding to a line broadening of 15 Hz while the

F1 dimension was processed using a sine-squared function with a π/2 phase shift. Both

dimensions were zero-filled by a factor of two while forward linear prediction using 32

coefficients was applied in the F1 dimension. All 2-D NMR spectra were manually phased and

calibrated to the DSS internal reference methyl singlet, set to a chemical shift (δ) of 0.00 ppm.

3.3.5. Data and Statistical Analysis

Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was performed on the 1-D and 2-D NMR spectra

using Analysis of Mixtures (AMIX) statistics package (version 3.9.7; Bruker BioSpin). The 1H

NMR spectra were divided into width bins of 0.01 ppm from the region 0.25-9.0 ppm and the

region from 4.70-4.85 ppm was not analyzed due to residual H2O/HOD signals present in this

region. In the 1H-13C HSQC experiments, the carbon spectrum (F2) was evaluated from regions

10.0-140.0 ppm which was divided into 0.50 ppm bins. For the 1H spectrum (F1), the region 0.25-

9.0 ppm was investigated and was divided into 0.05 ppm. The region 4.70-4.85 ppm for the 1H

spectrum with their associated carbon area from 10.0-140.0 ppm was also excluded due to the

residual H2O/HOD signals present. The “sum of intensities” was used as the integration mode and

the scaling was set to “total intensity”. An initial PCA was performed with the entire dataset to

identify any outliers. Two earthworms at the highest endosulfan concentration (2.0 µg cm-2) were

identified to be outside the Hotelling’s T2 ellipse at the 95% confidence interval and thus were

removed from the dataset prior to subsequent analysis [39, 45]. The initial PCA of the highest

endosulfan concentration with outliers before removal is provided in the Accessory publication

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(Figures A3.1a and A3.1b). PCA was performed at the 95% confidence level for each pesticide

(trifluralin and endosulfan) with their respective concentrations and any variances that represented

less than 1% or 2.5% in the bins for 1-D and 2-D NMR respectively were excluded [27, 39]. Mean

PCA scores and their associated standard errors for control and exposure concentrations for each

pesticide (endosulfan/trifluralin) were calculated and graphed to understand the differences

between the unexposed and exposed earthworm groups. In addition, an overall mean PCA scores

and their associated standard errors for controls and both pesticides with their respective

concentrations were calculated to understand the trajectories between the two pesticides. Analysis

of variance (ANOVA) with Dunnett’s multiple comparsion tests were conducted on the PC scores

to indicate which treatment groups were significantly different from the control group (p<0.05).

ANOVA, t-test and Dunnett’s multiple comparison tests were performed using SPSS 17.0 (IBM,

Somers, NY USA).

Multiple t-test filtered difference 1H NMR and 1H-13C HSQC NMR spectra were

constructed to identify increases or decreases in peaks between the control and each exposure

concentration set for each pesticide [46]. Each difference NMR spectrum (1-D and 2-D) was

generated by subtracting the averaged bucket intensities of the control group from each of the

exposed group concentrations. In addition, a t-test was conducted on each bin to determine if the

intensity difference was significantly different to the control (p<0.05). Any intensity values that

were significantly different were kept in the spectrum but if not, were replaced with a zero. The

final t-test filtered difference NMR spectrum allows the identification of potential metabolites

from the significant peaks that were increasing/decreasing after exposure. Influential peak signals

identified in the 1-D and 2-D NMR difference spectra were then matched with metabolite signals

from a previous study which identified the major metabolites in E. fetida [41] and were also

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compared to the Bruker Biofluid Reference Compound Database version 2-0-0 (Bruker BioSpin).

Percent changes for the identified metabolites in the difference spectrum (1-D and 2-D NMR) of

exposed earthworms relative to control were calculated by dividing the bucket intensity

corresponding to the identified metabolite from the exposed earthworm group by the control group

for each concentration.

3.4 Results and Discussions

3.4.1 Earthworm weight change during exposure

The mean percent change in weight between the control and the exposed earthworms to

various concentrations of each contaminant were calculated to examine changes in body weight

with pesticide exposure (Accessory Publication, Figure A3.2). Each earthworm was weighed

before and after exposure to examine their changes in body weight due to pesticide exposure. A

decrease in weight was seen with increasing trifluralin concentration with a loss of -16.7% ±3.3 at

the highest concentration (1.0 mg cm-2) after exposure. However, none of the trifluralin exposed

groups had a significant decrease in weight after exposure (ANOVA, F3,36=2.50, P=0.075)

compared to the control. Significant weight decrease was seen with the endosulfan exposed

groups (ANOVA, F3,34=17.5, p=4.80x 10-7) and through a dunnett t-test, which compares all the

exposure groups to each other and the control, identified 1.0µg cm-2 and 2.0 µg cm-2 endosulfan

groups were significantly decreased (-24.9% ±2.2 and -34.3% ±2.4 respectively after exposure)

compared to the controls (P <0.05). Analysis of weight change after exposure is a good indicator

of chemical stress and can provide a direct link to the energy dynamics in the earthworms [47].

Even at the two highest sub-lethal endosulfan concentrations (which were 1/5 and 1/3 respectively

of the LC50) significant perturbation on the earthworm’s weight was observed.

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3.4.2 Multivariate statistical analysis of trifluralin exposure

Mean PCA scores plots (Figures 3.1A and 3.1B) were calculated using the 1H NMR spectra

and 1H-13C HSQC (an example 1H and 1H-13C HSQC spectrum is provided in the Accessory

publication, Figures A3.3a and A3.3b respectively) of earthworm tissue extracts between the

control and trifluralin- exposed groups (The individual PCA scores plot using the 1H NMR spectra

and 1H-13C HSQC were also calculated for each trifluralin exposure concentration (Accessory

publications Figures A3.4a and A3.4b). The mean PCA scores plot consists of data points that

represent the average scores value with their associated error for each concentration class (i.e.

average over all the specimens in the class). This method allows for an overview of each exposure

concentration relative to each other and accounts for the variations seen in each class. The

variations in each group are related to: a) natural inter-differences between each earthworm, as

some organisms can have a more prominent response than others [48]; and b) potential

experimental errors from the extraction or analytical method [49]. The 1H NMR mean scores

PCA plot (Figure 3.1A) had the highest separation on PC1 versus PC2 axes which explained

49.6% and 27.8% respectively for a total of 77.4% of the total variance. Separation between the

trifluralin exposure groups and control increased on both the PC1 and PC2 axes but higher

separation was detected on the PC1 axis by the lower p-value in the ANOVA analysis (PC1:

ANOVA, F3,36=1.158, P=0.452 compared to PC 2: ANOVA, F3,36=0.285, P=0.834).

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Figure 3.1: Mean principal component analysis (PCA) score plots of PC1 v. PC2 of trifluralin-exposed Eisenia fetida aqueous tissue extracts using: (a) 1-D presaturation utilising relaxation gradients and echos (PURGE) and (b) 2-D 1H-13C heteronuclear single quantum coherence (HSQC) nuclear magnetic resonance spectra. Each point represents the mean PCA score for each exposure concentration and the error bar represents the standard error of the mean. The legend indicates the trifluralin exposure concentration for each point.

The highest trifluralin concentration at 1.0 mg cm-2 had the largest separation compared to control

with the lowest p-value of P=0.435. The 1H-13C HSQC mean PCA plot (Figure 3.1B) had similar

results as the 1-D NMR PCA scores plot (Figure 3.1A) with the highest separation on the PC1

versus PC2 axes which explained 48.4% and 28.3% respectively for a total variance of 76.7%.

Separation was more prominent on the PC1 axis compared to the PC2 axis as separation was not

seen on the PC2 axis for the 2 highest concentrations (0.5 mg cm-2 and 1.0 mg cm-2). The 1.0 mg

cm-2 trifluralin concentration had the largest separation compared to the control with the lowest p-

value of P=0.538 which was consistent with the 1-D NMR results. A concentration dependant

relationship could be seen in the mean 1-D and 2-D NMR PCA scores plots as the separation

increased from the lowest to the highest trifluralin concentration. Neither the 1-D or 2-D NMR

PCA scores plot displayed significance at the P<0.05 level from the ANOVA analysis but

A) 1D PURGE B) 2D HSQC

-0.2 0.0 0.2

-0.2

0.0

0.2 Control

0.1 mg cm-2

0.5 mg cm-2

1.0 mg cm-2

PC

2 (

27

.8%

Va

ria

nc

e)

PC1 (49.6% Variance)

-0.2 0.0 0.2-0.2

0.0

0.2 Control

0.1 mg cm-2

0.5 mg cm-2

1.0 mg cm-2

PC

2 (

28.3

% V

ari

an

ce)

PC1 (48.4% Variance)

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increasing separation could be seen in the exposed earthworm groups relative to the control group

indicated by the lower p value with exposure concentration. Therefore, the relative metabolite

change in the trifluralin-exposed earthworms was investigated further to understand if there were

statistically significant changes in specific metabolites not reflected in the overall PCA scores plot.

3.4.3. Relative metabolite changes in trifluralin-exposed earthworms

A t-test filtered NMR difference spectrum was constructed for the 1H NMR spectrum

(Figure 3.2) and 2-D HSQC NMR spectrum (Figure 3.3) for each exposure concentration (0.1 mg

cm-2, 0.5 mg cm-2 and 1.0 mg cm-2). The t-test filtered NMR difference spectra contain only

signals from metabolites that are statistically significant (p<0.05) and are the ones that contribute

to the separation in the mean PCA scores plot. The 1-D method has been utilized in other NMR

metabolomic studies to examine the significant changes in the NMR spectrum between different

treatment groups [45, 46]. Chemical shifts from the t-test filtered NMR difference spectra can be

matched against an NMR database to identify the responsible metabolites. The t-test filtered

difference spectra had similar results as the loading plots but allowed the visualization of which

metabolites are significant and thus are effective in understanding the metabolite flux in complex

mixtures. This is the first study, to our knowledge, that utilizes the application of 2-D t-test

filtered NMR difference spectra to identify metabolites resulting from contaminant exposure.

In the t-test filtered 1-D difference NMR spectrum (Figure 3.2), alanine (δ 1.46 ppm), maltose (δ

5.40 ppm) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) (δ 8.22 ppm) were identified as the metabolites that

were significantly different from the unexposed earthworms (p < 0.05).

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Figure 3.2: t-test filtered 1H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) difference spectra of Eisenia

fetida tissue extracts are obtained by subtracting the mean buckets of each trifluralin-exposed earthworm concentration: (a) 0.1, (b) 0.5 and (c) 1.0 mg cm-2 with the mean buckets of the control earthworms. Signals that are significantly different from the control (P<0.05) are retained whereas others are excluded.

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Chemical Shift (ppm)

1.4

6 A

lan

ine

4.7

-4.8

5 R

esid

ua

l Wa

ter

5.4

0 M

alto

se

8.2

2 A

TP

Ove

rlap

pin

g s

ug

ars

an

d a

min

o a

cid

s (3

.2-4

.5)

A) 0.1 mg cm-2

B) 0.5 mg cm-2

C) 1.0 mg cm-2

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Figure 3.3: t-test filtered 1H–13C heteronuclear single quantum coherence (HSQC) difference nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectra of Eisenia fetida tissue extracts are obtained by subtracting the mean buckets of each trifluralin-exposed earthworm concentration: (a) 0.1, (b) 0.5 and (c) 1.0 mg cm-2 with the mean buckets of the control earthworms. Signals that are significantly different from the control (P<0.05) are retained whereas everything else is excluded. Only metabolites that are detected in the 2-D NMR spectra and not in the 1-D NMR spectra are shown.

In the t-test filtered 2-D difference NMR spectrum (Figure 3.3), each contour represents a spectral

signal that is significantly different from the unexposed control (p< 0.05) and the increase or

decrease in intensity is indicated by the colour legend. At the 0.1 mg cm-2 trifluralin concentration

(Figure 3.3A), negligible signals were detected with no significant metabolites identified which

was consistent with the minor separation between the control and lowest exposure concentration

group in the 2-D NMR PCA scores plot. At the 0.5 mg cm-2 (Figure 3.3B) and 1.0 mg cm-2 (Figure

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

-1.200E-04

-7.200E-05

-2.400E-05

2.400E-05

7.200E-05

1.200E-04

13C

Ch

em

ical

Sh

ift

(pp

m)

1H Chemical Shift (ppm)

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1140

120

100

80

60

40

20

-7.500E-04

-4.500E-04

-1.500E-04

1.500E-04

4.500E-04

7.500E-04

1H Chemical Shift (ppm)

13C

Ch

em

ica

l S

hif

t (p

pm

)

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

-1.900E-04

-1.140E-04

-3.800E-05

3.800E-05

1.140E-04

1.900E-04

1H Chemical Shift (ppm)

13C

Ch

em

ical

Sh

ift

(pp

m)

B) 0.5 mg cm-2A) 0.1 mg cm-2

C) 1.0 mg cm-2

Glycine

Glycine

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3.3C) exposure levels, glycine (1H δ:3.525 ppm, 13C δ: 44.25 ppm) was identified as a metabolite

of exposure in the t-test filtered 2-D difference NMR and was not seen in the 1-D difference NMR

spectrum due to the spectral overlap in that region. Only metabolites not identified in the t-test

filtered 1-D difference NMR spectrum are shown in the t-test filtered 2-D difference NMR

spectrum (Figure 3.3) but the assignments of all significant metabolites in the 2-D difference NMR

spectrum are shown (for the highest trifluralin exposure concentration (1.0 mg cm-2)) in the

Accessory Publication Figure A3.5a.

To examine the metabolic flux from each metabolite, relative percent changes were

calculated from the 1-D and 2-D difference NMR spectra (Figure 3.4). Alanine concentrations

increased significantly as the concentration of trifluralin increased to 1.0 mg cm-2. The increase in

alanine has been known to be a primary stress signal in a variety of organisms [50, 51]. Studies

have shown that an increase of free alanine in organisms results in the production of heat shock

proteins or activity in protein kinase to handle various stress conditions [52-54]. Through in-vivo

and in-vitro experiments, it has been shown that the stimulation of heat-shock proteins allows a

strong cellular defense to infer tolerance against nutrient deprivation, chemical and metal toxicity

in cells [55-57]. Past earthworm studies with E. fetida have also observed increases in alanine

after exposure to organochlorine pesticides, DDT and endosulfan, [58] and polycyclic aromatic

hydrocarbons (PAHs) naphthalene, phenanthrene and pyrene [28]. Glycine concentrations also

increased as the trifluralin-exposure concentration increased and had a significant change at

concentrations 0.5 mg cm-2 and 1.0 mg cm-2. The increase in alanine and glycine are known to

stimulate the expression of stress proteins which offers a cytoprotective action against toxic injury

which is not shared by the increase in other amino acids such as glutamate, aspartate, arginine and

leucine [59].

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Figure 3.4: Percentage change (%) of all identified metabolites from the t-test-filtered 1-D and 2-D nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) difference spectra of trifluralin-exposed Eisenia fetida tissue extracts. Percentage changes that are significantly different from the control (P<0.05) are labelled with an asterisk. Each percentage change is shown with their associated standard error.

In addition, both alanine and glycine offer protection near the plasma membrane at the acceptor-

ligand interaction sites due to their small, neutral structure [60]. Their presence near membranes

can balance lipid fluidity as they are known osmolytes, but their exact protective mechanisms are

unknown [59]. Trifluralin is a highly hydrophobic contaminant and the accumulation of trifluralin

in the earthworm’s plasma membranes can cause possible non-polar narcosis. Many proteins are

found near cellular membranes and the accumulation of narcotic chemicals can cause the

5

10

15

Concentrations (mg cm-2)

Rela

tiv

e P

erc

en

t C

han

ge (

%)

*Alanine

0.1 0.5 1.0

0

20

40

60

80

*

Concentrations (mg cm-2)

Rela

tive P

erc

en

t C

han

ge (

%)

*

ATP

0.1 0.5 1.0

-25

-20

-15

-10

-5

0

Concentrations (mg cm-2)

Re

lati

ve

Perc

en

t C

han

ge

(%

)

*

Maltose0.1 0.5 1.0

10

20

30

40

50

*

Concentrations (mg cm-2)

Rela

tive P

erc

en

t C

han

ge (

%)

*

Glycine

0.1 0.5 1.0

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104

disturbance of membrane lipids [61, 62]. This can alter the function of membrane proteins since

many proteins are needed to fuse in order for activation. Therefore, the presence of trifluralin near

the protein-lipid interface can potentially affect the fluidity of the surrounding membrane lipids

and affect their operation.

Maltose decreased after exposure to trifluralin and was significantly different (p<0.05) at

the highest exposure concentration (1.0 mg cm-2) compared to control. Decreases in sugars can

indicate an up regulation of glycogenolysis and glycolysis which increases the production of ATP.

This was confirmed as ATP increased significantly at the higher trifluralin exposure concentrations

(0.5 mg cm-2 and 1.0 mg cm-2). This extra energy production by the earthworm due to trifluralin

exposure could be stress-induced and required for removal of trifluralin by the action of

cytochrome (Cyt) P450. Cytochrome (Cyt) P450 is found in many living organisms where their

crucial role is for the detoxification and inactivation of xenobiotics [63]. Hydrophobic xenobiotics

are converted to more polar compounds through a two phase process of functionalization and

conjugation [64] which makes the compound more water soluble to facilitate excretion [65]. Past

earthworm studies with E. fetida have detected the increase of Cyt P450 activity after exposure to

hydrophobic compounds such as pyrene [66] and benzo[a]pyrene [66, 67] using bioassays.

Therefore, the MOA of trifluralin in E. fetida may be due to its hydrophobic nature which results

in a non-specific perturbation of the metabolic profile. Bierkens et al. [68], conducted a battery of

bioassays using varying biological endpoints on E.fetida after exposure to trifluralin and found

their immunopathology and weight loss were most affected. In our study, the decrease in the

earthworm’s weight was detected in all concentrations but was not significant relative to the

control. However, metabolomics was able to explain a non-polar narcosis MOA by trifluralin

through the cytoprotective action by alanine and glycine near the cell membranes with the action

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105

of Cyt P450 to remove the xenobiotic from the earthworm’s system. Even though the 1-D and 2-D

PCA scores plot were not significant at the P<0.05 level, certain individual metabolites were

significantly different compared to the control after exposure to trifluralin. This result explains the

concentration dependent separation in the PCA scores plot of the control and trifluralin-exposed

groups, and demonstrates the importance of conducting a closer analysis using the 1-D and 2-D t-

test NMR difference spectra than just the overall PCA scores plot analysis.

3.4.4 Multivariate statistical analysis of endosulfan exposure

Mean PCA scores plots (Figures 3.5A and 3.5B) were performed on the 1H NMR and 1H-

13C HSQC NMR spectra of earthworm tissue extracts to detect concentration dependant

differences between the control and endosulfan-exposed groups (The individual PCA scores plot

using the 1H NMR spectra and 1H-13C HSQC were also calculated for each endosulfan exposure

concentration (Accessory publications Figures A3.6a and A3.6b). The 1H NMR PCA plot showed

the highest separation on the PC1 versus PC2 axes with an explained variance of 71.2% and 13.0%

respectively for a total variance of 84.2%. There was significant separation only on the PC1 axis

(PC1: ANOVA, F3,34=4.549,p=0.009, PC2: ANOVA, F3,36=0.363,p=0.780) and through a

dunnett’s t-test, the two highest concentrations (1.0 µg cm-2 and 2.0 µg cm-2) were found to be

significantly different than the control (P<0.05). The 2-D HSQC NMR PCA scores plot (Figure

3.5B) showed similar results with the largest separation on the PC1 versus PC2 axes of the control

and endosulfan-exposed groups. The variance for the PC1 and PC2 axes were 74.1% and 11.4%

respectively with a total variance of 85.5%.

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Figure 3.5: Mean principal component analysis (PCA) score plots of PC1 v. PC2 of endosulfan-exposed Eisenia fetida aqueous tissue extracts using: (a) 1-D presaturation utilising relaxation gradients and echos (PURGE) and (b) and 2-D 1H-13C heteronuclear single quantum coherence (HSQC) nuclear magnetic resonance spectra. Each point represents the mean PCA score for each exposure concentration and the error bar represents the standard error of the mean. The legend indicates the endosulfan exposure concentration for each point. The asterisk represents the mean concentrations that are significantly different from the control (P<0.05) using Dunnett’s multiple comparison test.

There was significant separation on the PC1 axis but not on the PC2 axis (PC1: ANOVA,

F3,34=4.712,p=0.007 compared to PC2: ANOVA, F3,36=0.017,P=0.997) with the two highest

concentrations (1.0 µg cm-2 and 2.0 µg cm-2) being significantly different (p<0.05) than the control

from the dunnett’s t-test. From the 1-D and 2-D NMR PCA scores plots, the earthworms may

have exhibited a concentration dependent response due to endosulfan exposure with a large

fluctuation in their metabolic response at the two highest concentrations. Further experiments with

a wider range of sub-lethal concentrations will be required to confirm this result.

-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6-0.2

0.0

0.2 Control

0.5 µg cm-2

1.0 µg cm-2

2.0 µg cm-2

PC

2 (

11

.4%

Vari

an

ce

)

PC1 (74.1% Variance)

-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6-0.2

0.0

0.2 Control

0.5 µg cm-2

1.0 µg cm-2

2.0 µg cm-2

PC

2 (

13

.0%

Va

ria

nc

e)

PC1 (71.2% Variance)

A) 1D PURGE B) 2D HSQC

*

*

**

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107

3.4.5. Relative metabolite changes in endosulfan-exposed earthworms

A t-test filtered difference NMR spectrum was made for each exposure concentration (0.5

µg cm-2, 1.0 µg cm-2 and 2.0 µg cm-2) from the 1H NMR spectra (Figure 3.6) and 2-D HSQC NMR

spectra (Figure 3.7) to determine the metabolic differences from the control and the endosulfan-

exposed groups. In Figure 3.6, amino acids such as leucine (δ0.95 ppm), valine (δ 1.02), alanine

(δ1.46 ppm), lysine (δ 1.72 ppm), glutamate (δ 2.32 ppm), glutamine (δ 2.44 ppm), tryptophan (δ

7.19 ppm) and phenylalanine (δ 7.40 ppm) were found to be significantly different than the control

(P <0.05) in the 1-D NMR spectra. Other metabolites such as the sugar maltose (δ 5.40 ppm),

citric acid intermediate fumarate (δ 6.52 ppm) and energy metabolite ATP (δ 8.22 ppm) were also

found to be significantly different than the control (p <0.05). Due to the many overlapping peaks

seen in the 1-D NMR spectra, the t-test filtered difference 2-D NMR spectra (Figure 3.7) assisted

in the identification of other important metabolites as well due to the extended dispersion provided

by the carbon axis. Additional amino acids such as glycine (1H δ:3.525 ppm, 13Cδ: 44.25 ppm),

isoleucine (1H δ:0.925 ppm, 13Cδ: 13.25 ppm), methionine (1H δ:2.125 ppm, 13Cδ: 33.75 ppm),

sugars such as glucose (1H δ:3.775 ppm, 13Cδ: 74.25 ppm) and melibiose (1H δ:0.925 ppm, 13Cδ:

13.25 ppm) and citric acid cycle intermediate malate (1H δ: 4.975 ppm,13Cδ: 100.25 ppm) were

found to be significantly different relative to the control P <0.05). Only metabolites not identified

in the t-test filtered 1-D difference NMR spectrum are shown in the t-test filtered 2-D difference

NMR spectrum (Figure 3.7) but the assignments of all significant metabolites in the 2-D difference

NMR spectrum are shown (for the highest endosulfan exposure concentration (2.0 µg cm-2)) in the

Accessory Publication Figure A3.5b.

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108

Figure 3.6: t-test filtered 1H nuclear magnetic resonance difference spectra of Eisenia fetida tissue extracts are obtained by subtracting the mean buckets of each endosulfan-exposed earthworm: (a) 0.5, (b) 1.0 and (c) 2.0 mg cm-2 with the mean buckets of the control earthworms. Signals that are significantly different from the control (P<0.05) are retained whereas everything else is excluded.

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Chemical Shift (ppm)

Ove

rlap

pin

g s

ug

ars

an

d a

min

o a

cid

s (3

.2-4

.5)

0.9

5 L

eu

cin

e1

.02

Va

line

1.4

6 A

lan

ine

2.3

2 G

luta

ma

te2

.44

Glu

tam

ine

4.7

-4.8

5 R

esid

ua

l wa

ter

5.4

0 M

alto

se

7.1

9 T

ryp

top

ha

n7

.40

Ph

en

yla

lan

ine

8.2

2 A

TP

6.5

2 F

um

ara

te

1.7

2 L

ysin

e

A) 0.5 µg cm-2

B) 1.0 µg cm-2

C) 2.0 µg cm-2

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109

Figure 3.7: t-test filtered 1H–13C heteronuclear single quantum coherence (HSQC) difference nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectra of Eisenia fetida tissue extracts are obtained by subtracting the mean buckets of each endosulfan exposed earthworm concentration: (a) 0.5, (b) 1.0 and (c) 2.0 µg cm-2 with the mean buckets of the control earthworms. Signals that are significantly different from the control (P<0.05) are retained whereas everything else is excluded. Only metabolites that are detected in the 2-D NMR spectra and not the 1-D NMR spectra are identified.

The relative percent changes for each significant metabolite were calculated to understand

their flux through 3 different exposure concentrations from the 1H NMR spectra (Figure 3.8) and

2-D HSQC NMR spectra (Figure 3.9). Many amino acids (leucine, phenylalanine, tryptophan,

lysine, glutamate, valine, glycine, isoleucine, methionine) increased at the two highest

concentrations (1.0 µg cm-2 and 2.0 µg cm-2) with alanine and glutamine observed to be significant

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1140

120

100

80

60

40

20

-3.400E-04

-2.040E-04

-6.800E-05

6.800E-05

2.040E-04

3.400E-04

1H Chemical Shift (ppm)

13C

Ch

em

ica

l S

hif

t (p

pm

)

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

-8.000E-05

-4.800E-05

-1.600E-05

1.600E-05

4.800E-05

8.000E-05

1H Chemical Shift (ppm)

13C

Ch

em

ica

l S

hif

t (p

pm

)

A) 0.5 µg cm-2

C) 2.0 µg cm-2

B) 1.0 µg cm-2

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

-3.500E-04

-2.100E-04

-7.000E-05

7.000E-05

2.100E-04

3.500E-04

13C

Ch

em

ica

l S

hif

t (p

pm

)

1H Chemical Shift (ppm)

MalateGlucose

Melibiose

Methionine

MalateGlucose

Melibiose

Methionine

Glycine

Isoleucine

Glycine

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110

in all three concentrations. Glutamine is an important metabolite in the central nervous system and

has a major role in the synthesis of the neurotransmitters γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) [69].

Figure 3.8: Percentage change (%) of identified metabolites from the t-test-filtered 1-D nuclear magnetic resonance difference spectra of endosulfan exposed Eisenia fetida tissue extracts.

10

20

30

40

50

Concentrations (µµµµg cm-2)

*

**

Alanine

Rela

tive P

erc

en

t C

han

ge

(%

)

0.5 1.0 2.00

10

20

30

40

50

Re

lati

ve

Pe

rce

nt

Ch

an

ge

(%

)

**

Leucine

0.5 1.0 2.0

Concentrations (µµµµg cm-2)

10

20

30

*

Rela

tive P

erc

en

t C

han

ge

(%

)

*

*

Glutamine

0.5 1.0 2.0

Concentrations (µµµµg cm-2)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Re

lati

ve P

erc

en

t C

han

ge (

%)

*

*

Phenylalanine

0.5 1.0 2.0

Concentrations (µµµµg cm-2)

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Re

lati

ve P

erc

en

t C

han

ge (

%)

*

*

Tryptophan

0.5 1.0 2.0

Concentrations (µµµµg cm-2)

0

10

20

30

40

50

Lysine

*

*

Re

lati

ve P

erc

en

t C

han

ge (

%)

0.5 1.0 2.0

Concentrations (µµµµg cm-2)

-40

-30

-20

-10

0

Rela

tive P

erc

en

t C

han

ge

(%

)

**

Maltose0.5 1.0 2.0

Concentrations (µµµµg cm-2)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Rela

tive P

erc

en

t C

han

ge (

%)

*ATP

0.5 1.0 2.0

Concentrations (µµµµg cm-2)

-70

-60

-50

-40

-30

-20

-10

0

10

Fumarate

**R

ela

tive P

erc

en

t C

han

ge

(%

)

0.5 1.0 2.0

Concentrations (µµµµg cm-2)

0

10

20

30

40

Glutamate

Rela

tive P

erc

en

t C

han

ge

(%

)

*

*

0.5 1.0 2.0

Concentrations (µµµµg cm-2)

10

20

30

40

50

Valine

Re

lati

ve P

erc

en

t C

han

ge (

%)

**

0.5 1.0 2.0

Concentrations (µµµµg cm-2)

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111

Percentage changes that are significantly different from the control (P<0.05) are labelled with an asterisk. Each percentage change is shown with their associated standard error.

Figure 3.9: Percentage change (%) of identified metabolites from the t-test-filtered 2-D nuclear magnetic resonance difference spectra of endosulfan exposed Eisenia fetida tissue extracts. The percentage changes that were significantly different from the control (P<0.05) are labelled with an asterisk. Each percentage change is shown with their associated standard error.

This inhibitory neurotransmitter has been detected in many different tissues including the nervous

and gut tissue in earthworms and is found to be responsible for the regulation of gut motility [70].

Endosulfan is an organochlorine cyclodiene pesticide which targets the central nervous system.

Endosulfan is known to induce hyperexcitability in living organisms by the binding of the GABA

and glycine receptors to reduce the GABA-induced Cl- flux [71]. These receptors are critical in

the nervous system as they mediate inhibitory synaptic transmissions [71]. Physiological studies

using endosulfan on living organisms have identified mostly neurological problems such as

convulsions, irritability, muscular twitching and restlessness [72]. All the earthworms exposed to

-40

-30

-20

-10

0

Re

lati

ve P

erc

en

t C

han

ge

(%

)

**

Malate0.5 1.0 2.0

Concentrations (µµµµg cm-2)

-20

-15

-10

-5

0

R

ela

tiv

e P

erc

en

t C

ha

ng

e (

%)

**

Glucose0.5 1.0 2.0

Concentrations (µµµµg cm-2)

10

20

30

40

50

60

Re

lati

ve

Pe

rce

nt

Ch

an

ge

(%

)

**

Glycine

0.5 1.0 2.0

Concentrations (µµµµg cm-2)

-20

0

20

40

60

80

R

ela

tiv

e P

erc

en

t C

ha

ng

e (

%)

*Isoleucine

0.5 1.0 2.0

Concentrations (µµµµg cm-2)

-50

-40

-30

-20

-10

0

10

R

ela

tive

Pe

rce

nt

Ch

an

ge (

%)

Melibiose

0.5 1.0 2.0

Concentrations (µµµµg cm-2)

-10

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

R

ela

tive

Perc

en

t C

han

ge

(%

)

*

*

Methionine

0.5 1.0 2.0

Concentrations (µµµµg cm-2)

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112

endosulfan had similar behavioral symptoms of convulsions at lower concentrations (0.5 µg cm-2

and 1.0 µg cm-2) and body stiffness at the highest concentration (2.0 µg cm-2) before being flash

frozen. This increased physical excursion can explain the significant decreases in all the sugars

(maltose, glucose and melibiose) because glycolysis and glycogenolysis would take place to fuel

the production of ATP which was increased in all exposure concentrations. In addition, the citric

acid cycle metabolites fumarate and malate significantly decreased correlating to their usage for

ATP production. The increase in the other amino acids with increasing exposure concentration of

endosulfan suggests muscle and tissue breakdown to handle the neurotoxic stress induced on the

earthworms. Decreases in tissue weight were seen especially at the two highest concentration (1.0

µg cm-2 and 2.0 µg cm-2) as they were significantly different compared to the unexposed controls

(P<0.05). Past exposure studies with different concentrations of pyrene had similar results as

amino acids were increased and significant weight loss was detected especially at the highest

concentration [47, 73]. Drewes and Vining [74] reported similar physiological observations in E.

fetida after exposure to another organochlorine neurotoxic pesticide, dieldrin, using noninvasive

electrophysiological recordings of their escape reflex activity. From their results, spontaneous

bursts of muscle fibers were detected with tonic spasms and body stiffening at higher exposure

concentrations. The study also showed significant reduction in body weight and skin secretions as

body fluid discharge were detected from the disruption in the neurohormonally regulated ions after

exposure [74]. Other toxicity studies have detected DNA damage in E. fetida with comet assays

after sub-lethal exposure to endosulfan [75] and used the growth rate and total protein content as

suitable biomarkers for endosulfan exposure [76]. In this study, our results confirm the

physiological behaviour in E. fetida after exposure to endosulfan and using metabolomics,

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113

identified key metabolites to connect the biochemical understanding to the neurotoxic response by

the earthworm.

Endosulfan is considered a hydrophobic contaminant with a log n-octanol/water partition

coefficient (Kow) of 4.94 [77] and log organic carbon adsorption coefficient (Koc) of 3.6 [77]. A

non-polar narcosis MOA similar to trifluralin can potentially be exhibited in the earthworms but in

comparison to trifluralin (log Kow=5.34 [78] and log Koc=3.94 [79]), it is lower in hydrophobicity.

It is possible that both neurotoxic and non-polar narcosis MOAs are exhibited in the earthworms

but the neurotoxic response by endosulfan had a greater toxic MOA response than a non-specific

narcosis response seen with trifluralin.

3.4.6. Trajectory multivariate statistical analysis of trifluralin and endosulfan

An overall mean PCA scores plot was constructed from the 1H NMR and 1H-13C HSQC

NMR spectra of earthworm tissue extracts to compare trifluralin- and endosulfan-exposed

earthworms together with their respective exposure concentrations. Both 1-D and 2-D NMR

scores plots have similar results with the highest separation on the PC1 and PC2 axes with a total

variance of ~80% (Figures 3.10A and 3.10B). The results indicate that endosulfan- and trifluralin-

exposed earthworms display different trajectory pathways as the endosulfan-exposed earthworms

were more dominant in the PC1 axis and the trifluralin-exposed earthworm were more dominant in

the PC2 axis. Significant difference was observed in the PC1 axis in both datasets by the

endosulfan-exposed groups (PC1: ANOVA, F6,61=4.608, p=0.01) and through a dunnett’s t-test,

the higher two endosulfan concentrations (1.0 µg cm-2 and 2.0 µg cm-2) were significantly different

compared to the control (p <0.05). The PC2 axis was not significant from the ANOVA analysis

but a lower p value was seen with increasing trifluralin concentration. A concentration-dependant

relationship was detected for both agrochemicals as each exposure concentration for trifluralin and

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114

endosulfan had projected further away in the scores plots compared to the unexposed control group

but this trend should be further tested over a wider range of sub-lethal concentrations.

Figure 3.10: Mean principal component analysis (PCA) score plots of PC1 v. PC2 of trifluralin- and endosulfan-exposed Eisenia fetida aqueous tissue extracts using: (a) 1-D presaturation utilising relaxation gradients and echos (PURGE) and (b) 2-D 1H–13C heteronuclear single quantum coherence (HSQC) nuclear magnetic resonance spectra. Each point represents the mean PCA score for each exposure concentration and the error bar represents the standard error of the mean. The legend indicates the exposure concentrations for each point. The asterisk represents mean concentrations that are significantly different from that of the control (P<0.05) using Dunnett’s multiple comparison test. The arrows indicate the trajectory of exposure by trifluralin or endosulfan.

The difference in trajectories by endosulfan and trifluralin provide a clear illustration in how

different their MOAs are in the earthworm (non-polar narcosis by trifluralin and neurotoxic

response by endosulfan) and were clearly seen by their significant differences in their metabolite

changes discussed previously. Endosulfan-exposed earthworms had a greater metabolic response

compared to trifluralin as it had the highest separation compared to the trifluralin-exposed

earthworms. Even though a non-polar narcosis MOA could have been elicited in the endosulfan-

-0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6-0.2

0.0

0.2

Control

Trifluralin-0.1 mg cm-2

Trifluralin-0.5 mg cm-2

Trifluralin-1.0 mg cm-2

Endosulfan-0.5 µg cm-2

Endosulfan-1.0 µg cm-2

Endosulfan-2.0 µg cm-2

PC

2 (

17

.3%

Va

rian

ce)

PC1 (63.4% Variance)

-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6-0.2

0.0

0.2

Control

Trifluralin-0.1 mg cm-2

Trifluralin-0.5 mg cm-2

Trifluralin-1.0 mg cm-2

Endosulfan-0.5 µg cm-2

Endosulfan-1.0 µg cm-2

Endosulfan-2.0 µg cm-2

PC

2 (

15.0

% V

ari

an

ce

)

PC1 (65.1% Variance)

A) 1D PURGE B) 2D HSQC

**

**

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115

exposed earthworms, the neurotoxic response had a higher influence on their metabolic profile as it

had a different trajectory on PC1 compared to trifluralin-exposed earthworms on PC2.

3.5 Conclusion

This study demonstrates the potential of using 1-D and 2-D NMR metabolomics to

determine the MOA of two widely used agrochemicals, trifluralin and endosulfan. This is the first

study, to our knowledge, that utilizes 1H-13C HSQC NMR spectroscopy with the application of 2-

D t-test filtered difference spectrum in an environmental context to identify significant metabolites

of exposure. The 1-D 1H NMR and 2-D 1H-13C HSQC NMR PCA analysis showed increasing

discrimination between trifluralin- and endosulfan-exposed earthworms from the unexposed

controls as the exposure concentrations increased. Trifluralin-exposed earthworms had a

significant increase in amino acids, alanine and glycine and energy metabolite ATP with decreases

in the sugar maltose. The results suggest a non-polar narcosis MOA on E.fetida due to the high

non-polar nature of the contaminant with the energy expended for its removal by the action of Cyt

P450. Endosulfan-exposed earthworms had significant weight loss at the two highest

concentrations with physiological symptoms of convulsions and body stiffness after exposure.

Endosulfan-exposed earthworms had significant decreases in sugars (maltose, glucose and

melibiose) and citric acid intermediates, malate and fumarate, which correlate to the increase in

ATP production. The increases in neurological metabolite, glutamine, suggest a neurological

MOA by endosulfan on the earthworms through the inhibition of the GABA transmitters.

Trajectory metabolomic analysis was also performed on both pesticides with their respective

concentrations and showed completely different pathways for trifluralin- and endosulfan-exposed

earthworms. These different pathways correlate to a difference in MOAs and allow an

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116

understanding of which MOA had a greater response on the metabolic profile. The 2-D NMR

results compliment the 1-D NMR results in our study and assisted in the identification of

additional metabolites of response due to trifluralin- or endosulfan-exposure. In addition, the

multivariate PCA analysis from the 1-D and 2-D NMR showed consistent results with similar

increases and decreases in the metabolite changes which negate potential differences in the NMR

spectra. This study further demonstrates the great potential of NMR-based metabolomics for

understanding toxicity of problematic environmental pesticides on soil earthworms.

3.6 Acknowledgment

Funding was provided by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council Strategic

Grants Program (NSERC). André Simpson would like to thank the government of Ontario for an

Early Researcher Award. We would also like to extend to Dr. Melissa Whitfield Åslund and Brian

Lankadurai for technical assistance and valuable discussions.

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CHAPTER FOUR

Coelomic fluid: A complimentary biological medium to assess sub-lethal endosulfan exposure using 1H NMR-based earthworm metabolomics

Published as: Yuk, J., Simpson, M.J., and Simpson, A.J., Coelomic fluid: A complimentary

biological medium to assess sub-lethal endosulfan exposure using 1H NMR-based earthworm metabolomics. Ecotoxicology, 2012: (In Press).

Reproduced with permission from Ecotoxicology, 2012, In Press. (http://www.springerlink.com/content/f44h11206g4150wh/). © Copyright Springer Publishing

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4.1 Abstract

Endosulfan is an environmentally persistent pesticide and has been shown to be genotoxic,

neurotoxic and carcinogenic to surrounding organisms. Earthworms are widely used in

environmental metabolomic studies to assess soil ecotoxicity. Previous NMR-based metabolomic

studies have analyzed earthworm tissue extracts after exposure to endosulfan and identified some

key metabolic indicators that can be used as biomarkers of stress. However, some metabolites may

have been masked due to overlap with other metabolites in the tissue extract. Therefore, in this

study, the coelomic fluid (CF) and the tissue extract of the earthworm, Eisenia fetida, were both

investigated using 1H NMR-based metabolomics to analyze their metabolic profile in response to

endosulfan exposure at three sub-lethal (below LC50) concentrations. Principal component analysis

(PCA) determined the earthworm CF and earthworm tissue extract to both have significant

separation between the exposed and control at the two highest sub-lethal endosulfan exposures (1.0

µg cm-2 and 2.0 µg cm-2). Alanine, glycine, malate, alpha-ketoglutarate, succinate, betaine, myo-

inositol, lactate and spermidine in the earthworm CF and alanine, glutamine, fumarate, glutamate,

maltose, melibiose, ATP and lactate in earthworm tissue extract were all detected as having

significant fluctuations after endosulfan exposure. An increase in ATP production was detected by

the increase activity in the citric acid cycle and by anaerobic metabolism. A significant decrease in

the polyamine, spermidine after endosulfan exposure describes an apoptotic mode of protection

which correlates to a previous endosulfan exposure study where DNA damage has been reported.

This study highlights that earthworm CF is a complementary biological medium to tissue extracts

and can be helpful to better understand the toxic mode of action of contaminants at sub-lethal

levels in the environment.

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4.2 Introduction

Endosulfan is an organochlorine pesticide that emerged in the 1960’s as one of the leading

chemicals used against a wide spectrum of agriculturally important insect pests [1]. It is currently

produced in at least six countries around the world with India being one of the largest producers.

Endosulfan has been ubiquitously detected in air, soil and water, and at long distances from the

direct source of application [2]. In recent years, endosulfan has been recognized as a persistent

toxic substance by many environmental agencies such as the United Nations Environment

Programme, World Health Organization and Environmental Justice Foundation [3]. Endosulfan

has been shown to have genotoxic, neurotoxic and carcinogenic properties to mammals, birds, fish

and bees [3, 4]. Endosulfan has a half-life in water of around 180 days but in soil, it has much

higher persistence with a half-life close to 60-900 days [1]. Due to its persistence in the

environment, it is important to understand its impact on organisms in soil ecosystems at sub-lethal

levels.

Past studies have demonstrated that the total contaminant concentrations in soil do not

necessarily relate to the bioavailable fraction or to soil toxicity [5]. Several ecotoxicological tests

are frequently utilized that focuses on the endpoint of toxicity such as the organism’s mortality,

reproduction rates and overall growth [6]. However, these results do not allow the understanding

of the toxic mode of action (MOA) of the contaminant after sub-lethal exposure at a molecular

level and how it affects the organism at a function level [7]. Environmental metabolomics is an

emerging field of research that examines the changes in the metabolic profile of native living

organisms in their environment to potential environmental stressors [8]. Metabolomics offers the

advantage of understanding the dynamic state of the organism (cell, tissue or biofluid) which can

mechanistically relate to the organism’s phenotype [9]. The endogenous metabolites identified

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after exposure by metabolomics can uncover unforeseen relationships to further understand the

organism’s biochemical response to the contaminant and is finding an increasing number of

applications in ecotoxicology [10].

Earthworms play a major role in the decomposition activity of the soil environment and

contribute to the maintenance of the soil physical structure [11]. Their feeding and burrowing

activities in the soil increase soil fertility, water infiltration and soil aeration [12]. Earthworms

represent close to 60-80% of the soil total biomass, are ubiquitous in a vast range of soils [13] and

their absence or well-being in the soil is directly connected to microbial community health and

biodiversity [14]. Due to their importance in the soil, earthworms are common biological

indicators in ecotoxicological studies to assess the health of the soil environment. Metabolomic

studies using earthworms have been frequently used to detect subtle biomarkers of exposure to

environmental contaminants such as polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHS) [15, 16] and metal

contaminants [17-19]. Earthworm metabolomic studies have shown potential to be important

monitoring tools to detect stress in the soil system [16, 20]. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)

spectroscopy has been commonly used in earthworm metabolomics to identify key metabolites as

it is non-destructive and a rapid technique for high-throughput of samples [15, 21]. Previous

metabolomics studies have analyzed the exposure of the earthworm, Eisenia fetida to endosulfan

using one-dimensional (1-D) and two-dimensional (2-D) NMR spectroscopy [22-24] on their

aqueous tissue extract. From their results, leucine, phenylalanine, tryptophan, lysine, glutamate,

valine, glycine, isoleucine, methionine, glutamine, alanine, maltose, glucose, meibiose, malate,

fumerate and ATP were detected as significant in two sub-lethal concentrations (1.0 µg cm-2 and

2.0 µg cm-2) using the earthworm tissue extract and a neurotoxic MOA was postulated [24].

However, the analysis of the earthworm tissue extract may mask the metabolic change of

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endogenous metabolites because of its chemical heterogeneity [25]. In addition, certain

metabolites can be higher in concentration in the sample, dominate the spectrum to increase signal

overlap and decrease sensitivity to other metabolites in the same NMR region. Sugars are a major

component in earthworm tissue extracts and tend to exhibit complex NMR profiles which in turn

mask metabolites at lower concentration over a large spectral region in both -1-D and 2-D NMR

[23]. Past earthworm metabolomic studies [26, 27], have experimented using a three solvent

extraction system (chloroform, methanol and water) to separate the polar and non-polar

metabolites for NMR analysis. However, in both studies, the polar fraction still exhibited

significant overlap in the sugar region. Therefore, from both an analytical and ecotoxicity

perspective, it may be advantageous to investigate another biological medium especially one where

the concentration of sugars is reduced which in turn can help to detect obscured metabolites.

The earthworm coelomic fluid (CF) plays an important role in homeostasis and in immune

defenses against external stimuli [28]. CF has many haemolytic, proteolytic and cytotoxic

enzymes that are active against foreign cells and peptides [25]. Studies have shown alterations in

the components of the CF to be early indicators of immunotoxicity or biomarkers [29, 30]. A past

study analyzed the exposure of an environmental contaminant, 3-fluoro-4 nitrophenol, to the

earthworm CF using 1-D NMR and detected acetate and malonate to be significantly decreased in

the exposed earthworms [25]. Another study analyzed the earthworm CF on their exposure to 3-

trifluoromethylaniline using NMR spectroscopy and identified lactate as a potential biomarker of

acute toxic stress compared to the control earthworms [31]. Past metabolomic studies have shown

promise using either the earthworm tissue extracts or CF, however, to our knowledge, both have

not been compared simultaneously to assess their ability to discriminate metabolites of exposure to

a contaminant. In this study, the CF from one set of earthworms and the tissue extract from

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another set of earthworms (both with control and endosulfan-exposed treatments) will be analyzed

using NMR. Readers should note that the tissue extract set will also contain the CF but as

discussed previously, are masked due to the higher abundant metabolites such as carbohydrates.

As such, the isolation of the CF can potentially reduce this background and permit a more targeted

and in-depth analysis of the CF itself. The comparison of the CF to the remaining tissue after

extraction was not investigated based on the principle that earthworm metabolomic studies do not

remove the CF prior to analysis. Instead, this study compares the isolated CF to the whole tissue

analysis to investigate what additional information the CF can provide when compared to the

commonly employed technique in the field after contaminant exposure. Contacts tests are used to

examine the specific changes in both the metabolic profile of the CF and tissue extracts after

endosulfan exposure. Contacts tests are widely used for understanding chemical risk or screening

before studying more complex matrices such as soil [9]. The results from this study will further

our understanding of the MOA by an environmentally relevant contaminant such as endosulfan

and provide further insight on the potential of utilizing the earthworm CF for environmental

metabolomic studies.

4.3 Experimental methods

4.3.1. Earthworm contact test preparation and exposure

Eisenia fetida earthworms were purchased from The Worm Factory (Perth, ON, Canada)

and were maintained according to Brown et al. [21]. Mature earthworms with a visible clitellum

were depurated in groups of 5 in the dark for 96 hours on Whatman 4 Qualitative filter paper with

a diameter of 9 cm (Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA) in 500 mL jars to remove any residues

from their intestinal tracts [21]. To ensure there were no significant differences in the weights of

the earthworms before exposure for the control and endosulfan treatment groups, an analysis of

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variance (ANOVA) was conducted. The earthworms had a mean weight of 0.60 ± 0.13 g and from

the ANOVA analysis (ANOVA, F7,71=0.892,p=0.517), the p-value was higher than the α=0.05

level and therefore, no significant difference was seen between the controls (0.58 ± 0.08 g) and any

of the endosulfan concentrations groups (0.61± 0.14 g) before exposure. Earthworms were then

transferred to individual 120 mL amber glass jars containing pre-treated Whatman GF/A 4.25cm

diameter glass filter paper (Fisher Scientific). The half-lethal concentration (LC50) value for

endosulfan is reported to be 5.7 µg cm-2 [32]. To ensure the exposure concentrations chosen for

endosulfan were sub-lethal, endosulfan (99 % purity; Sigma Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA) was

applied to the filter paper at three sub-lethal concentrations: 1/9th (0.5 µg cm-2), 1/6th (1.0 µg cm-2)

and 1/3rd (2.0 µg cm-2) of the literature LC50 using 1 mL of acetone (HPLC grade; Caldeon,

Georgetown, ON, Canada) as the carrier solvent. One mL of acetone was applied to control

treatments. In all cases, the acetone was allowed to evaporate and 1 mL of distilled water was

added prior to the addition of earthworms. All earthworms survived the exposure tests.

Earthworms were kept in the dark for 48 hours, as recommended by the OECD LC50 contact test

guideline [33]. The experiment was kept at 24oC which is an optimal temperature for Eisenia

fetida [34]. Earthworms used for the CF extraction, were separated from the earthworms used for

the tissue extraction (detailed procedures are outlined below). There were 10 replicates for control

and 10 for each of the three concentrations of the contaminant for the exposed specimen.

4.3.2. Earthworm coelomic fluid extraction and preparation for NMR

Each earthworm after exposure (control or exposed) were placed in individual 25 mL glass

vials with 365 µL of 0.2 M monobasic sodium phosphate buffer solution (NaH2PO4·2H2O; 99.3%;

Fisher Scientific) containing 0.1% (w/v) sodium azide (99.5% purity; Sigma Aldrich) as a

preservative. Buffer solution was made with D2O (99.9% purity, Cambridge Isotope Laboratories

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Inc., Andover, MA, USA) and adjusted to a pD of 7.4 using NaOD (30% w/w in 99.5% D2O,

Cambridge Isotope Laboratories Inc). The buffer solution for all NMR samples also contained 10

mg/L of 2,2-dimethyl-2-silapentane-5-sulfonate sodium salt (DSS; 97%, Sigma Aldrich) as an

internal standard. Earthworm CF was extracted by electrical extrusion using a 9 V battery and

using short exposure (<1s) repeated 10 times [30, 35]. The earthworm was then removed and the

extracted fluid was placed in a 1.5 mL centrifuge tube and centrifuged for 20 minutes at 15,000

rpm (~17,000 x g) using an International Equipment Company 21000 Centrifuge (Fisher

Scientific, Canada) to remove any biosolids or coelomocytes. The supernatant was then

transferred into a 5 mm High Throughputplus NMR tubes (Norell Inc., Landisville, NJ, USA). All

samples were frozen immediately after preparation and each sample was thawed prior to NMR

analysis.

4.3.3. Earthworm tissue extraction and preparation for NMR

After exposure, earthworms were immediately flash frozen in liquid nitrogen and

lyophilized [21]. The lyophilized earthworms were homogenized in a 1.5 mL centrifuge tube

using a 5 mm wide stainless steel spatula. Samples were then extracted using 1 mL of a 0.2 M

monobasic sodium phosphate buffer solution (NaH2PO4·2H2O; 99.3%; Fisher Scientific)

containing 0.1% (w/v) sodium azide (99.5% purity; Sigma Aldrich) as a preservative [21]. Buffer

solution was made with D2O (99.9% purity, Cambridge Isotope Laboratories Inc) and adjusted to a

pD of 7.4 using NaOD (30% w/w in 99.5% D2O, Cambridge Isotope Laboratories Inc). The buffer

solution for all NMR samples also contained 10 mg/L of 2,2-dimethyl-2-silapentane-5-sulfonate

sodium salt (DSS; 97%, Sigma Aldrich) as an internal standard. Samples were vortexed for 30

seconds using a VX 100 vortexer (Labnet, Edison, NJ, USA) and then sonicated for 15 minutes

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using a FS60 sonicator (Fisher Scientific) to aid with the extraction. Samples were then

centrifuged at 14,000 rpm (~15,000 x g) using an International Equipment Company 21000

Centrifuge (Fisher Scientific) for 20 minutes and the supernatant was transferred into a new 1.5

mL centrifuge tube. The centrifuge process was then repeated two more times to ensure all

additional particulates were removed and then samples were transferred into a 5 mm High

Throughputplus NMR tubes (Norell Inc). All samples were frozen immediately after preparation

and each sample was thawed prior to NMR analysis.

4.3.4. NMR Spectroscopy

All NMR spectra were acquired using a Bruker Avance 500-MHz spectrometer with a 1H-

19F-15N-13C 5mm broadband Quadruple Inverse (QXI) probe fitted with an actively shielded Z

gradient (Bruker BioSpin, Rheinstetten, Germany). The 1H 90o pulse was calibrated for each

sample in the study. 1H NMR experiments were performed using Presaturation Utilizing

Relaxation Gradients and Echoes (PURGE) water suppression [36] and 512 scans, a recycle delay

of 3 s, and 65 K time domain points. All 1-D NMR spectra were manually phased and calibrated

to the DSS internal reference methyl singlet, set to a chemical shift (δ) of 0.00 ppm.

A 2-D 1H-13C HSQC NMR experiment was performed on one control earthworm for both

the CF and aqueous tissue homogenate samples to aid in spectral interpretation. HSQC was

collected in phase-sensitive mode using echo/anti-echo gradient selection, a 1J 1H-13C (145 Hz)

and a relaxation delay of 0.5 s. Eight hundred and eighty scans and 2048 data points were

collected for each of the 196 increments in the F1 dimension. The F2 dimension was processed

using an exponential function corresponding to a line broadening of 15 Hz while the F1 dimension

was processed using a sine-squared function with a π/2 phase shift. Both dimensions were zero-

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filled by a factor of two while forward linear prediction using 32 coefficients was applied in the F1

dimension. The 2-D NMR spectra were manually phased and calibrated to the DSS internal

reference methyl singlet, set to a chemical shift (δ) of 0.00 ppm.

4.3.5 Data and Statistical Analysis

Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was performed on the 1-D NMR spectra using an

Analysis of Mixtures (AMIX) statistics package (version 3.9.8, Bruker BioSpin). The earthworm

CF 1H NMR spectra were divided into width bins of 0.02 ppm from the region 0.25 to 9.0 ppm and

the region from 4.35 to 5.21 ppm was not analyzed due to residual H2O/HOD signals present in

this region. The earthworm tissue extract 1H NMR spectra were divided into width bins of 0.02

ppm from the region 0.25-9.0 ppm and the region from 4.75-4.90 ppm was not analyzed due to

residual H2O/HOD signals present in this region. The “sum of intensities” was used as the

integration mode and the scaling was set to “total intensity” for all the NMR spectra. PCA was

performed at the 95% confidence level and any variances that represented less than 1% were

excluded [16]. In the earthworm tissue extract dataset, one earthworm at the lowest endosulfan

concentration (0.5 µg cm-2) was identified as an outlier through the Hotelling’s T2 ellipse at the

95% confidence interval and was removed prior to analysis [20, 37]. Therefore in this study, each

treatment group and unexposed control had 10 earthworms for both CF and tissue extract

experiments with one excluded from the lowest concentration of endosulfan (0.5 µg cm-2), which

had 9 earthworms. Mean PCA scores and their associated standard errors for control and exposure

concentrations were calculated and graphed to understand the differences between the unexposed

and exposed earthworm groups. Individual PCA score plots for the earthworm CF and tissue

extract 1H NMR spectra were also calculated to understand the differences between each

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136

endosulfan exposure concentration and the control earthworm group. PCA is an exploratory data

analysis tool to identify general similarities and differences through a multivariate approach.

However, PCA scores plots themselves do not determine if the difference between various groups

is significant. To achieve this, Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) with a dunnett’s multiple

comparison test was used to determine if the separation between each treatment group compared to

the control group is significant (α=0.1 or α=0.05). [24, 38]. ANOVA in this study will be reported

as: ANOVA, Fdf=F value, p-value, where df is the degrees of freedom. A p-value of <0.1

generally indicates significance, whereas a p-value >0.1 indicates less statistical significance.

ANOVA, t-test and Dunnett’s multiple comparison tests were performed using SPSS 19.0 (IBM,

Somers, NY, USA).

Multiple t-test filtered difference 1H NMR spectra were constructed to identify increases or

decreases in the peaks between the control and each exposure concentration set [10]. Each

difference NMR spectrum was generated by subtracting the averaged bucket intensities of the

control group from each of the exposed group concentrations. In addition, a t-test was conducted

on each bin to determine if the intensity difference was significantly different to the control

(p<0.05). Any intensity values that were significantly different were kept in the spectrum but if

not, were replaced with a zero. The final t-test filtered difference NMR spectrum allows the

identification of potential metabolites from the significant peaks that were increasing/decreasing

after exposure. Influential peak signals identified in the 1-D difference spectra were then matched

with metabolite signals from a previous study which identified the major metabolites in E. fetida

[21] and were also compared to the Bruker Biofluid Reference Compound Database version 2-0-3

(Bruker BioSpin). The 1H-13C HSQC NMR spectra for the CF and tissue extract also assisted in

the identification of the major metabolites through the comparison with the Bruker Biofluid

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137

Reference Compound Database version 2-0-3 (Bruker BioSpin). Percent changes for the identified

metabolites in the difference spectrum of exposed earthworms relative to control were calculated

by the equation: (IE - IC)/IC x 100 where IE is the mean bucket intensity for the exposed earthworm

group and IC is the mean bucket intensity for the control earthworm group.

4.4 Results and Discussions

4.4.1 Comparison of 1H and

1H-

13C HSQC NMR spectra of earthworm extracts

A 1-D 1H NMR and 2-D 1H-13C HSQC NMR spectrum was acquired for both the

earthworm CF (Figure 4.1A and Figure 4.1B) and tissue extracts (Figure 4.2A and Figure 4.2B) to

identify the various metabolites in the samples and to understand their metabolic profile

differences. From the 1-D NMR spectrum of the earthworm CF (Figure 4.1A), carbohydrates are

present at trace levels (for example, glucose anomeric peak, detected at δ 5.22 ppm), which is in

sharp contrast to the tissue extract, where various sugars including maltose, glucose and melibiose

dominate the spectral profile between δ 3.0-5.4 ppm. The lower concentration of sugars in the

earthworm CF significantly reduces overlap in δ 3.0-5.4 ppm region and permits many obscured

metabolites such as myo-inositol (δ 3.53 and δ4.05 ppm), scyllo-inositol (δ3.34 ppm), citric acid

intermediates (malate (δ 2.33-2.36, δ 2.65-2.68 and δ 4.30 ppm), α-ketoglutarate (δ 2.43 and δ 2.99

ppm) and succinate (δ 2.39 ppm) and polyamines (putrescine (δ 3.04 ppm) and spermidine (δ 3.13

ppm)) to be identified with certainty in the NMR spectrum.

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138

Figure 4.1: 1-D and 2-D NMR spectra of control earthworm CF acquired using A) 1-D PURGE and B) 2-D 1H–13C HSQC NMR spectroscopy

Figure 4.2: 1-D and 2-D NMR spectra of control worm tissue extracts acquired using A) 1-D PURGE and B) 2-D 1H–13C HSQC NMR spectroscopy

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Chemical Shift (ppm)

8.4

48.2

6 A

TP

7.9

8 7.7

7 7.5

8

7.2

47.1

67.0

56.9

16.8

0

6.5

1 F

um

ara

te

5.2

2 G

luco

se

4.7

8 R

esid

ual

Wate

r

4.3

0 M

ala

te

3.7

93.7

7

3.7

53.5

53.5

33.3

4 S

cyllo

-In

osit

ol

3.2

5 B

eta

ine

3.1

3 S

perm

idin

e

2.9

9 α

-keto

glu

tara

te2.6

82.6

52.4

3 α

-keto

glu

tara

te2.3

9 S

uccin

ate

2.3

62.3

32.1

2 G

luta

min

e

1.9

1 L

ysin

e

1.4

6 A

lan

ine

1.3

1 L

acta

te

0.0

0 D

SS

In

tern

al S

tan

dard

Aro

mati

c M

eta

bo

lite

s

My

o-i

no

sit

ol

Ma

late

Ma

late

4.0

5 M

yo

-in

osit

ol

2.0

5 G

luta

mate

3.0

4 P

utr

escin

e

1.7

2 L

ysin

e1.7

6 P

utr

escin

eGly

cin

e

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1ppm

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

pp

m

Alanine

AlanineLysine

Putrescine

Glutamate/Glutamine/Lysine Glutamate

Glutamate

Malate

Malate

Succinate

α-ketoglutarateGlutamine

Myo-inositol

Scyllo-inositol

Betaine

Fumarate

Spermidine

Glycine

Aromatic

metabolites

Glucose

(1H)

(13C

)

A) B)

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1ppm

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

pp

m

Tyrosine

Histidine

Phenylalanine

Maltose

Glucose/Maltose

Melibiose

Overlapping

Sugar/Amino Acid

resonances

Serine

Betaine

Glycine

Phenylalanine

Histidine

Methionine

Iso-leucine

Alanine

Glutamine

Glutamate

Leucine

Lactate

Asparagine

Aspartate

Valine

Lysine

Arginine

Threonine

Arginine

Lysine/Putrescine

(1H)

(13C

)

Malate

Malate

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Chemical Shift (ppm)

8.34

Ad

en

ine

8.2

3A

TP

7.4

2

7.3

2

7.1

7 T

ryp

top

han

6.9

0 T

yro

sin

e

6.5

1 F

um

ara

te

5.4

0 M

alto

se

5.2

2 M

alto

se/G

luco

se

4.9

6 M

eli

bio

se

4.6

5 M

alto

se/G

luco

se

4.2

8

4.1

73.

96 3.9

23

.90

3.88

3.8

43

.77 3.7

13.

70

3.4

93

.39

3.2

43

.11

3.0

1 Ly

sin

e

2.34

Glu

tam

ate

2.1

0 G

luta

min

e/G

luta

ma

te

1.9

1 A

rgn

ine

/Lys

ine

1.7

2 L

ysi

ne

1.4

6 A

lan

ine

1.3

2 L

act

ate

1.0

4 V

alin

e0

.95

Le

uci

ne

0.0

0 D

SS I

nte

rnal

Sta

nd

ard

Ph

en

yla

lan

ine

Overlapping

resonances

from

Sugar & amino

acids

2.4

4 G

luta

min

e

A) B)

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139

In the tissue extract, the intense sugar resonances completely mask these metabolites and are not

seen. A larger water signal was present (δ 4.78 ppm) in the earthworm CF because of the natural

water content in the sample but did not disrupt the nearby peak resonances and was excluded prior

to the multivariate analysis. Many unique metabolite signals were detected in the aromatic region

(δ 6.9-8.0 ppm) of the earthworm CF but are as yet unidentified. None of these aromatic signals

matched any entries in our standard metabolite database (Bruker Biofluid Reference Compound

Database) and will require further investigation in future studies. In the 1-D NMR spectrum of the

earthworm tissue extract (Figure 4.2A), tyrosine (δ 6.90 ppm), tryptophan (δ 7.17 ppm) and

phenylalanine (δ7.32-7.42 ppm) were detected in the aromatic region but was not seen in the

earthworm CF.

Most of the metabolites identified in the 1-D NMR spectrum of the earthworm CF were

confirmed by the cross-peaks in the 2-D HSQC NMR spectrum (Figure 4.1B) and corresponds to

the chemical shifts of the proton and carbon connections. The tissue extract 2-D HSQC NMR

spectrum (Figure 4.2B) confirmed many of the metabolites identified in the 1-D NMR spectrum

and shows the complexity of this biological medium as many cross-peaks are detected compared to

the earthworm CF. However, with the decrease in sugars in the earthworm CF, myo-inositol,

scyllo-inositol and malate could be clearly discerned in that region with spermidine, α-

ketoglutarate, succinate and fumarate appeared as additional metabolites in other spectral regions

of the CF. The analysis of the earthworm CF provides a unique metabolic profile that cannot be

completely discerned from the whole tissue extract alone. This difference in the metabolic profile

may potentially enable an alternate window into understanding the earthworm’s response to

environmental contaminants.

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140

4.4.2. Multivariate statistical analysis of endosulfan exposure on earthworms

Mean PCA plots (Figures 4.3A and 4.3B) for the earthworm CF and tissue extract 1H NMR

datasets respectively were performed between the endosulfan-exposed earthworms and the control.

Individual PCA score plots for the earthworm CF and tissue extract 1H NMR datasets respectively

were also performed for each endosulfan exposure concentration and the control (Accessory

publication, Fig. A4.1A and A4.1B). For the earthworm CF (Figures 4.3A), the PC 1 vs PC 2

scores plot showed a trend for separation with the highest separation on the PC 2 axis while high

variance was detected on the PC 1 axis. The high variance in PC 1 could be biological variation

which is not related to the endosulfan treatment as this is occasionally seen with unsupervised PCA

analysis [39]. PC 2 had an explained variance of 19.7% while PC 1 had an explained variance of

48.2% for a total of 67.9% for total variance. There was significant separation on the PC 2 axis

(ANOVA, F3,36=21.1,p=4.69E-8) and through a dunnett’s t-test, which compares all the individual

concentrations with the control, the 2 highest concentrations (1.0 µg cm-2 and 2.0 µg cm-2) were

found to be significantly different than the control (p<0.05). For the earthworm tissue extract

(Figures 4.3B), separation was detected in the PC 1 versus PC 3 scores plot with an explained

variance of 67.6% and 8.4% respectively for a total variance of 76.0%. Higher PCs are commonly

analyzed in metabolomic studies using PCA analysis [16, 17, 27, 40, 41] as PCs explain the

highest amount of total data variation without discrimination in regard to the source of the

variation. Some PCs might not be related to the experimental treatment since other factors such as

metabolic variations (sampling error and natural biological variation) are incorporated [42].

Therefore, it is advantageous to explore higher order PCs to properly represent the metabolomic

datasets [43].

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141

Figure 4.3: Mean PCA scores plot of 1H NMR spectra of endosulfan exposed E. fetida using their A) CF (PC 1 vs PC 2) and B) aqueous tissue extract (PC 1 vs PC 3). Each point represents the mean PC score for each exposure concentration and the error bar represents the standard error of the mean. The legend indicates the endosulfan exposure concentration for each point. The ‘‘*’’ represents the mean concentrations that were significantly different from the control (p<0.05) using Dunnett’s multiple comparison test.

From ANOVA, separation was found on the PC 1 axis at α=0.1 (ANOVA, F3,35=2.248,p=0.100)

and PC 3 axis at α=0.05 (ANOVA, F3,35=4.277, p=0.011). To further evaluate the PCA separation,

a dunnett’s multiple comparison t-test determined that the 2 highest concentrations (1.0 µg cm-2

and 2.0 µg cm-2) were significantly different than the control (p<0.05). The earthworm CF

contains many immunocompetent cells which act as a protective hydrostatic skeleton around the

organism [44] and is the main communicator between the inner and outer environment [28].

Therefore, the earthworm CF was found to be as responsive to the subtle concentrations of

contaminants in an environment as the earthworm tissue extract. A concentration dependant

exposure was seen in both the earthworm CF and tissue extract from the PCA scores plot as

significance of the separation was increased according to the concentration. However, further

confirmation will be required using a wider range of sub-lethal concentrations.

A) Coelomic Fluid B) Tissue Extract

*

*

*

*

-0.2 0.0 0.2

-0.2

0.0

0.2

PC

2 (

19

.7%

Va

ria

nc

e)

PC1 (48.2% Variance)

Control

0.5 µg cm-2

1.0 µg cm-2

2.0 µg cm-2

-0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4-0.2

0.0

0.2

Control

0.5µg cm-2

1.0µg cm-2

2.0µg cm-2

PC

3 (

8.4

% V

ari

an

ce

)

PC1 (67.6% Variance)

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142

4.4.3. Relative metabolite changes in endosulfan-exposed earthworms

To determine the metabolic response differences that contribute to the separation in the

earthworm CF and tissue extract of the endosulfan-exposed earthworms PCA scores plots, a t-test

filtered difference NMR spectrum was made for each exposure concentration from the 1H NMR

spectra (Figures 4.4 and Figures 4.5 respectively). This method allows the identification of

significant metabolites that were specifically perturbed in the earthworm after endosulfan exposure

and has been frequently used in other metabolomic studies [10, 24, 37, 45]. In the earthworm CF

(Figure 4.4), lactate (δ 1.31 ppm), alanine (δ 1.45 ppm), succinate (δ 2.39 ppm), malate (δ 2.69

ppm and δ 4.29-4.31 ppm), α-ketoglutarate (δ 2.41 and 2.99 ppm), spermidine (δ 3.15 ppm),

betaine (δ 3.25 ppm), myo-inositol (δ 3.53 ppm) and glycine (δ 3.55 ppm) were detected as

significant (p<0.05) in the endosulfan-exposed earthworms compared to the control. None of the

unidentified aromatic signals in the earthworm CF were determined to be statistically significant in

relation to endosulfan exposure. In the earthworm tissue extract (Figure 4.5), similar metabolites

were detected as significant such as alanine and lactate, but many other metabolites such as

glutamate (δ 2.35 ppm), glutamine (δ 2.41 ppm), melibiose (δ 4.95 ppm), maltose (δ 5.40 ppm),

fumarate (δ 6.51 ppm) and ATP (δ 8.23 ppm) were identified as well.

To understand the metabolite level changes from each exposure concentration, the relative

percent change was calculated for each significant metabolite in the earthworm CF (Figure 4.6)

and tissue extract (Figure 4.7). In the earthworm CF, spermidine decreased to significant levels at

the lowest and highest endosulfan concentrations (0.5 µg cm-2 and 2.0 µg cm-2). Spermidine is part

of a class of aliphatic nitrogenous bases called polyamines which are found in all organisms [46].

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143

Figure. 4.4: t-test filtered 1H NMR difference spectra of E. fetida CF were obtained by subtracting the mean buckets of each endosulfan-exposed earthworm concentration: (a) 0.5 µg cm-2, (b) 1.0 µg cm-2 and (c) 2.0 µg cm-2 with the mean buckets of the control earthworms. Signals that were significantly different from the control (p<0.05) were retained while others are excluded. Only the major metabolites are labeled for clarity.

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Chemical Shift (ppm)

0.5 µg cm-2

1.0 µg cm-2

2.0 µg cm-2

1.4

5 A

lan

ine

1.3

1 L

ac

tate

2.3

9 S

uc

cin

ate

2.6

9 M

ala

te2

.99

α-k

eto

glu

tara

te3

.15

Sp

erm

idin

e3

.25

Be

tain

e3

.53

My

o-in

osito

l

4.2

9-4

.31

Mala

te

2.4

1 α

-ke

tog

luta

rate

3.5

5 G

lyc

ine

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144

Figure 4.5: t-test filtered 1H NMR difference spectra of E. fetida tissue extracts were obtained by subtracting the mean buckets of each endosulfan-exposed earthworm: (a) 0.5 µg cm-2, (b) 1.0 µg cm-2 and (c) 2.0 µg cm-2 with the mean buckets of the control earthworms. Signals that were significantly different from the control (p<0.05) were retained while everything else were excluded. Only the major metabolites are labeled for clarity.

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Chemical Shift (ppm)

0.5 µg cm-2

1.0 µg cm-2

2.0 µg cm-2

1.4

5 A

lan

ine

1.3

1 L

ac

tate

2.4

1 G

luta

min

e2

.35

Glu

tam

ate

4.9

5 M

elib

iose

5.4

0 M

alto

se

6.5

1 F

um

ara

te

8.2

3 A

TP

Ov

erla

pp

ing

Su

ga

rs an

d

am

ino

ac

ids

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145

Figure 4.6: Percent change (%) of identified metabolites from the t test filtered 1-D NMR difference spectra of endosulfan-exposed E. fetida CF. Percent changes that were significantly different from the control (p<0.05) were labelled with ‘‘*’’. Each percent change is shown with their associated standard error. Polyamines have gained popularity in the last 15 years due to their role in gene regulation [47]. In

addition, polyamines are involved in cell growth and differentiation processes which mediate cell

apoptosis [48, 49]. Apoptosis is a gene-controlled process of cellular destruction where the

apoptotic cell is digested by phagocytes [48]. As DNA or other critical components are damaged

in organisms, death programs in affected cells are activated in order to prevent further insult [49].

-5

0

5

10

15

20

25

Concentrations (µµµµg cm-2)

Re

lati

ve

Pe

rce

nt

Ch

an

ge

(%

)

*

Glycine

0.5 1.0 2.0

-60

-50

-40

-30

-20

-10

0

Concentrations (µµµµg cm-2)

*

*

R

ela

tive

Perc

en

t C

han

ge

(%

)

*

Alpha-Ketoglutarate0.5 1.0 2.0

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

Concentrations (µµµµg cm-2)

*

**

R

ela

tiv

e P

erc

en

t C

ha

ng

e (

%)

Malate0.5 1.0 2.0

-40

-30

-20

-10

0

Concentrations (µµµµg cm-2)

*

R

ela

tiv

e P

erc

en

t C

han

ge

(%

)

Succinate0.5 1.0 2.0

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Concentrations (µµµµg cm-2)

R

ela

tiv

e P

erc

en

t C

ha

ng

e (

%)

**

Betaine

0.5 1.0 2.0 0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Concentrations (µµµµg cm-2)

Re

lati

ve

Pe

rce

nt

Ch

an

ge (

%)

*

*

Myo-inositol

0.5 1.0 2.0

-40

-30

-20

-10

0

Concentrations (µµµµg cm-2)

**

Re

lati

ve

Perc

en

t C

ha

ng

e (

%)

Spermidine2.01.00.5

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Re

lati

ve

Pe

rce

nt

Ch

an

ge (

%)

*

Alanine

0.5 1.0 2.0

Concentrations (µµµµg cm-2)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60 * *

R

ela

tive

Perc

en

t C

ha

ng

e (

%)

*

Lactate

0.5 1.0 2.0

Concentrations µµµµg cm-2

Page 167: THE APPLICATION OF NMR-BASED METABOLOMICS IN ......Coelomic fluid: A complimentary biological medium to assess sub-lethal endosulfan exposure using 1 H NMR-based earthworm metabolomics

146

Figure 4.7: Percent change (%) of identified metabolites from the t test filtered 1-D NMR difference spectra of endosulfan-exposed E. fetida tissue extracts. Percent changes that were significantly different from the control (p<0.05) were labelled with ‘‘*’’.

Studies have shown that the decrease in polyamines can cause apoptosis activation in organisms

especially spermidine [46, 48]. Putrescine, a precursor metabolite to spermidine and another

polyamine in the earthworm CF, decreased consistently in all three endosulfan concentrations

(~14%) but was not significant compared to the control (data not shown). Polyamines are known

to influence processes in carcinogenesis [46]. Cells with elevated levels of polyamines express

higher cell proliferation, decreased apoptosis and expressions of genes that allow tumor invasion

-5

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Concentrations (µµµµg cm-2)

*

R

ela

tiv

e P

erc

en

t C

ha

ng

e (

%)

*

ATP

2.01.00.5

-40

-20

0

20

40

Concentrations (µµµµg cm-2)

*

R

ela

tiv

e P

erc

en

t C

ha

ng

e (

%) Fumarate

0.5 1.0 2.0

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Concentrations (µµµµg cm-2)

*

*

R

ela

tiv

e P

erc

en

t C

ha

ng

e (

%) Glutamate

0.5 1.0 2.0

-50

-40

-30

-20

-10

0

Concentrations (µµµµg cm-2)

*

R

ela

tiv

e P

erc

en

t C

ha

ng

e (

%)

Maltose2.01.00.5

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Concentrations (µµµµg cm-2)

*

*

R

ela

tiv

e P

erc

en

t C

ha

ng

e (

%) Melibiose

2.01.00.5

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Concentrations (µµµµg cm-2)

R

ela

tiv

e P

erc

en

t C

ha

ng

e (

%)

*

Alanine

0.5 1.0 2.0

-5

0

5

10

15

20

Concentrations (µµµµg cm-2)

Glutamine

Re

lati

ve

Pe

rce

nt

Ch

an

ge

(%

)

*

*

0.5 1.0 2.00

5

10

15

20

25

30

Concentrations (µµµµg cm-2)

*

*

Lactate

0.5 1.0 2.0

Re

lati

ve

Pe

rce

nt

Ch

an

ge

(%

)

Page 168: THE APPLICATION OF NMR-BASED METABOLOMICS IN ......Coelomic fluid: A complimentary biological medium to assess sub-lethal endosulfan exposure using 1 H NMR-based earthworm metabolomics

147

and metastasis [46]. On the contrary, with decreased polyamine levels, higher apoptosis will be

exhibited with less gene expression for tumor formation [50]. In a recent study [3], comet assays

were conducted on E.fetida after sub-lethal exposure to endosulfan in soil and detected significant

DNA damage (p <0.01) from both concentration and length of exposure. This study concluded

that the early detection of DNA damage by comet assays could be an early detection for

endosulfan exposure in earthworms. In our study, the decrease of spermidine in the earthworm CF

could be an important biological indicator of a protective response from the earthworm to increase

apoptosis due to the genotoxic potential by endosulfan.

Amino acids, alanine and glycine, were increased to significant levels at the highest

endosulfan concentration (2.0 µg cm-2) compared to the controls in the earthworm CF. Alanine

was also identified in the earthworm tissue extract and similar to the earthworm CF, had the same

relative percent change. Alanine and glycine are both universal stress indicators and have been

known to provide a cytoprotective action against stress damage [51]. The increase in alanine and

glycine in separate studies have been found to increase the gene expression for stress protein

synthesis in organisms [52, 53]. This significant increase in both of these amino acids could elicit

a defensive mechanism from the exposure to endosulfan. Other amino acids, glutamine and

glutamate were detected in the earthworm tissue extract at 2 sub-lethal concentrations (0.5 µg cm-2

and 1.0 µg cm-2) and confirm our previous endosulfan-exposure results [24]. Both of these amino

acids are crucial in the excitatory and inhibitory synapses. Glutamine is the precursor for the

synthesis of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), a inhibitory neurotransmitter and also for glutamate

which is the excitatory neurotransmitter [54]. Endosulfan is a neurotoxin and is known to inhibit

the GABA-gated chloride channels which antagonize the action of GABA [55]. This inhibition by

endosulfan causes a partial repolarization of the neuron which leads to involuntary muscle

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contractions and convulsions [56]. The end result can potentially cause the earthworms to be

unable to regulate the flux of neurotransmitters, causing a large increase of these metabolites in

their system.

The increased muscle activity due to the neurotoxic response from endosulfan will cause a

large increase in the earthworm’s energy expenditure. The disaccharides, maltose and melibiose

detected in the earthworm tissue extract, were decreased after endosulfan exposure with maltose

decreasing significantly at the highest concentration (2.0 µg cm-2) and melibiose decreasing

significantly at the 2 highest concentrations (1.0 µg cm-2 and 2.0 µg cm-2). The large decrease in

disaccharides will increase the production of glucose by glucogenolysis to increase glycolysis.

The breakdown of glucose to pyruvate by glycolysis would then be linked to the citric acid cycle

(CAC), which is the main energy transfer cycle for energy production in living organisms [57].

The CAC intermediate, fumarate identified in the earthworm tissue extract, had a significant

decrease at the highest endosulfan concentration (2.0 µg cm-2). The increase in CAC activity is

further confirmed in the earthworm CF as other major (CAC) intermediates, malate, alpha-

ketoglutarate and succinate were all decreasing to significant levels after endosulfan exposure.

The heightened activity in glycogenolysis, glycolysis and CAC would be used to increase ATP

production which was confirmed in the earthworm tissue extract with significant increases at the

two highest concentrations (1.0 µg cm-2 and 2.0 µg cm-2). Lactate detected in both the earthworm

CF and tissue extract had similar increases in all endosulfan exposure concentrations. Lactate

which is the byproduct from anaerobic metabolism from pyruvate, is an additional energy pathway

when the muscle activity in an organism is beyond steady state and O2 levels are not enough for

oxidation phosphorylation after CAC [58]. The increase of lactate in the earthworm is an

indication for a greater dependency on ATP production by the toxic response to endosulfan where

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the overactivity in the aerobic energy cycles such as CAC and anaerobic pathways such as

glycolysis [58] are insufficient.

Betaine and myo-inositol, identified in the earthworm CF, were both significantly increased

after endosulfan exposure. Betaine and myo-inositol are well known osmolytes to regulate cell

volume due to the loss of inorganic ions and organic solutes [59]. Exposure to high salinity or

hydrophobic contaminants could cause an imbalance in the intracellular solute content or

extracellular osmolality [60, 61]. Past studies have reported the binding of hydrophobic

contaminants such as polyaromatic hydrocarbons to biological membranes which can decrease the

stability and alter the fluidity of molecules across the membrane [60, 62]. Even though the

increase or decrease of any organic solute can bring a cell to osmotic balance, only a set of organic

osmolytes such as betaine and myo-inositol are utilized in biological systems [59, 61]. In addition,

studies have shown that the increase in osmolytes in the cell during external stress does not affect

the cellular architecture and function [61, 63]. Endosulfan is considered a hydrophobic compound

due to its high log n-octanol/water partition coefficient (Kow) of 4.94 [2] and log organic carbon

adsorption coefficient (Koc) of 3.6 [2]. The exposure of endosulfan could potentially disrupt the

fluidity of the cell membrane and the increase in betaine and myo-inositol help maintain osmotic

balance in the earthworm.

4.5. Conclusions

Our study demonstrates the potential of using the earthworm’s CF and tissue extract in

combination to further our understanding of the sub-lethal exposure to endosulfan. The 1H and 1H-

13C HSQC NMR spectrum of the earthworm CF displayed a unique metabolic profile compared to

the tissue extract. The absence of sugars (maltose and melibiose) in the earthworm CF decreased

the signal overlap in the chemical shift region (3.0-4.5 ppm) and along with the different chemical

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composition of CF compared to tissue extracts, allowed a range of unique endogeneous

metabolites to be identified. The different metabolic profile of the earthworm CF allowed a new

perspective on the earthworm’s response to endosulfan. The earthworm CF was as sensitive to

endosulfan exposure as the earthworm tissue extract as significant separation between the exposed

and control was seen using PCA multivariate analysis in the highest two sub-lethal endosulfan

exposures. The t-test filtered difference NMR spectrum of the earthworm CF and tissue extract

detected a plethora of metabolites that had significant fluctuations compared to the controls. The

decrease of spermidine in the earthworm CF explains an apoptotic response after endosulfan

exposure due to its potential genotoxicity and can be an important biological indicator for DNA

damage. The decrease in CAC intermediates, alpha-ketoglutarate, malate and succinate in the

earthworm’s CF and fumarate in the tissue extract enabled a clearer depiction of the high activity

of the CAC for the increase production of ATP. The binding of cell membranes by endosulfan

could potentially occur as increases in osmolytes, betaine and myo-inositol in the earthworm CF

were detected. Alanine and lactate were both identified in the earthworm CF and tissue extract and

their similar increases in both biological mediums deter any differences in their biochemical

response. Even though the earthworm tissue extract is commonly used as the main biological

medium for earthworm metabolomic studies [16, 20, 22, 64], this study demonstrates the potential

of using both the earthworm CF and tissue extract to describe a more complete picture of the subtle

responses to environmental contaminants. Contact tests were used in this study as an initial basis

for method development and direct analysis of pesticide exposure. Future earthworm metabolomic

experiments using both biological mediums will transition to soil environments to understand other

important factors such as ingestion and pesticide-soil interactions. In addition, to validate the

apopotic response after endosulfan exposure, it would be interesting to conduct a fluorescence

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staining method of cells isolated from CF which would allow another method in understanding the

extent of apoptosis after endosulfan exposure [65].

4.6 Acknowledgment

Funding was provided by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council Strategic

Grants Program (NSERC). André Simpson would like to thank the government of Ontario for an

Early Researcher Award. We would also like to extend to Dr. Melissa Whitfield Åslund and Brian

Lankadurai for technical assistance and valuable discussions.

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CHAPTER FIVE

1-D and 2-D NMR-based metabolomics of earthworms exposed to endosulfan and endosulfan sulfate in soil

Content in this chapter has been submitted as:

Yuk, J., Simpson, M.J., and Simpson, A.J., 1-D and 2-D NMR metabolomics of earthworm responses to sub-lethal endosulfan and endosulfan sulfate exposure in soil. Environ. Pollut., 2012 (Submitted).

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5.1 Abstract

One-dimensional (1-D) and two-dimensional (2-D) nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)-

based metabolomics was used to investigate the toxic mode of action (MOA) of endosulfan, an

organochlorine pesticide, and its degradation product, endosulfan sulfate, to Eisenia fetida

earthworms in soil. Three soil concentrations (0.1, 1.0 and 10.0mg/kg) were used for both

endosulfan and endosulfan sulfate. Both earthworm coelomic fluid (CF) and tissues were

extracted and then analyzed using 1H and 1H-13C NMR techniques. A similar separation trajectory

was observed for endosulfan and endosulfan sulfate- exposed earthworms in the mean principal

component analysis (PCA) scores plot for both the earthworm CF and tissue extracts. A

neurotoxic and apoptotic MOA was postulated for both endosulfan and endosulfan sulfate exposed

earthworms as significant fluctuations in glutamine/GABA-glutamate cycle metabolites and

spermidine were detected respectively. This study highlights the potential of NMR-based

metabolomics to understand molecular-level toxicity of persistent organochlorine pesticides and

their degradation products directly in soil environments.

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5.2 Introduction

Organochlorine pesticides are a group of persistent environmental pollutants that have

caused major worldwide concern as many are semi-volatile, bioaccumulative and toxic [1]. Not

only are they environmentally persistent, they have potential to spread widely both regionally and

globally [2]. Endosulfan is an organochlorine pesticide that has been commonly used in

agriculture for the control of various pests [3]. Due to its semi-volatility and persistent

physicochemical properties, endosulfan has been observed in many environmental compartments

and often in areas far away from their location of direct application [4]. It is considered

carcinogenic and an endocrine disruptor [1]. Endosulfan is also believed to cause central nervous

system and neurodegenerative disorders in many mammals including humans [5]. Its breakdown

products include endosulfan sulfate, diol, ether, -hydroxy ether and –lactone: all of which are

considered to be less toxic [3] with the exception of endosulfan sulfate.

Endosulfan sulfate is the main metabolite of endosulfan degradation in soil and sediments

[6]. The half-life for endosulfan is around one to three months while endosulfan sulfate can persist

close to two to six years depending on the soil conditions [7]. Understanding the environmental

impact of contaminants and their degradation products in the soil has become a major priority for

the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and its member countries

[8]. Currently, most studies have examined the toxicity of endosulfan sulfate in aquatic

environments and results have shown similar toxicity levels to the parent compound, endosulfan [3,

9, 10]. However, little focus has been placed on the toxicity of endosulfan and endosulfan sulfate

in soil environments, especially to soil-dwelling organisms such as earthworms. Earthworms are

important soil organisms because they play a critical role in soil development such as aeration,

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drainage and transportation of lower soil to the surface [11]. With these major functions,

earthworms are useful biological indicators for soil fertility and soil ecosystem health [12].

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)-based metabolomics is a powerful diagnostic tool in

understanding the metabolic response of organisms to genetic modifications, external stimulus,

and/or stressors [13-15]. Environmental metabolomics is an emerging sub-discipline that

investigates the metabolic profile of native organisms in their environment to potential stressors

that they might encounter [16]. In addition, environmental metabolomics has the capability to

study biochemical fluxes in endogenous metabolites after exposure to sub-lethal concentrations of

contaminants [17]. This in turn allows the understanding of a contaminant’s toxic mode of action

(MOA), and the identification of the biomarkers that pertain to the exposure [18, 19]. In the soil

environment, earthworms have been commonly used in NMR-based metabolomic studies to

understand their response to various contaminants such as polyaromatic hydrocarbons [20, 21],

polychlorinated biphenyls [22] and metals [23].

In the present study, one-dimensional (1-D) and two-dimensional (2-D)-based

metabolomics will be used to understand the response of the earthworm, Eisenia fetida (E. fetida),

to various concentrations of endosulfan and endosulfan sulfate in soil. Both tissue extracts and

coelomic fluid (CF) are used in tandem to investigate the toxicity and MOA of endosulfan and

endosulfan sulfate. Our past metabolomic study [24] used various 1-D and 2-D NMR techniques

to examine endosulfan exposure using OECD acute toxicity tests on contact test filter paper [25].

The results found that 1H NMR (Presaturation Utilizing Relaxation Gradients and Echoes, PURGE)

and 1H-13C Heteronuclear Single Quantum Coherence (HSQC) techniques to be most effective in

identifying significant metabolites of exposure between the unexposed and exposed earthworms.

In a recent earthworm metabolomics study [26], the earthworm’s CF was tested as a

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complementary biological medium to the earthworm tissue extract after endosulfan exposure. The

CF is part of a hydrostatic skeleton around the earthworm and acts as the communicator between

the inner and outer environment [27]. The CF is responsible for cellular regulation of nutrition and

excretion, which could be potential biomarkers of stress from the exposure to contaminants [28].

The CF’s metabolic profile helped alleviate spectral overlap from certain metabolites, such as

sugars seen in the earthworm tissue extract, to allow the detection of other metabolites in the same

spectral region. Previous studies focused on contact tests and method development. Thus, this

study represents an important transition from traditional contact filter paper tests to endosulfan soil

exposure which will provide insight into contaminant-soil interactions and soil ingestion as another

mode of contact for earthworms. In addition, this study will investigate and compare the toxicity

and MOA of endosulfan sulfate in soil as well.

5.3 Experimental Methods

5.3.1. Soil Spiking

An artificial soil was prepared according to the OECD Earthworm Acute Toxicity test

protocol [25]. It was prepared using 10% sphagnum peat (Ward’s Natural Science, ON, Canada),

20% kaolin clay (Ward’s Natural Science) and 70% sand (Ward’s Natural Science).

Approximately 125g (dry weight) of the artificial soil was placed in each of seven 1 L clear glass

jars. Six jars were then spiked with 10ml of endosulfan (99.9 % purity; Sigma Aldrich, St. Louis,

MO, USA) or endosulfan sulfate (98.8 % purity; Sigma Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA) using three

different spiking concentrations (5mg/L, 50mg/L and 500mg/L) in acetone (HPLC grade, Fisher

Scientific). The exposure concentrations for endosulfan and endosulfan sulfate mimicked a comet

assay endosulfan study done on earthworms by Liu et al. 2009 using the OECD soil. Since no

study has analyzed endosulfan sulfate to earthworms in soil environments, the exposure

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concentrations were kept the same as endosulfan for a direct comparison. The last glass jar was

the unexposed control treatment and was spiked with 10ml of acetone (Fisher Scientific) only. All

the spiked jars were left in the fume hood to vent for 16 hours to allow all the acetone to evaporate

[22]. Soil (at 375 g) was then added to each of the seven spiked soil glass jars and mixed

thoroughly for a total endosulfan or endosulfan sulfate concentration of 0.1, 1.0 and 10.0mg/kg

(dry weight) for the pesticide-exposed treatments. To ensure proper moisture content [25], all the

soils were adjusted using deionized water to 35% moisture content of the soil dry weight. All

spiked endosulfan or endosulfan sulfate soil concentrations were confirmed after earthworm

exposure using soxhlet extraction and quantification via gas chromatography/mass spectrometry

(discussed in detail in Supplementary Material Section S5.1 and Table S5.1).

5.3.2. Earthworm exposure

E. fetida earthworms were purchased from The Worm Factory (Perth, ON, Canada) and

were maintained according to Brown et al. (2008). Twenty mature earthworms with a visible

clitellum were added to each of the endosulfan, endosulfan sulfate (3 each) and control soil (7 total

soil treatments). All the earthworms had a mean weight of 0.48 ± 0.015g and there were no

significant differences in the average mass of the earthworms between the controls and any of the

endosulfan and endosulfan sulfate treatment groups (P=0.953) before exposure (data not shown).

According to the OECD soil exposure tests [25], earthworms were kept in lightly closed

jars for 7 days at 21oC in natural light [29], then removed and depurated for 96 h on damp filter

paper to remove any excess soil in their gut [30]. Earthworms used for the CF extraction were

separated from the earthworms used for the tissue extraction (detailed procedures are outlined

below). For the highest endosulfan and endosulfan sulfate exposure concentration (10.0 mg/kg),

six and two earthworms died respectively after depuration and were removed from the study.

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5.3.3. Earthworm coelomic fluid and and tissue extraction and preparation for NMR

Each earthworm’s CF after exposure (control or exposed) were extracted non-invasively

using electrical stimulation described in Yuk et al. (2012) (Section S5.2). The earthworms that

were separated for tissue extraction were immediately flash frozen in liquid nitrogen, lyophilized

and prepared according to Yuk et al. (2011) (Section S5.2). All samples were frozen immediately

after preparation and each was thawed prior to NMR analysis.

5.3.4. 1-D and 2-D NMR Spectroscopy

All NMR spectra were acquired using a Bruker Avance III 500MHz spectrometer with a

1H-19F-15N-13C 5mm broadband Quadruple Inverse (QXI) probe fitted with an actively shielded Z

gradient (Bruker BioSpin, Rheinstetten, Germany). The 1H 90o pulse was calibrated for each

sample in the study. 1H NMR experiments were performed using Presaturation Utilizing Gradients

and Echoes (PURGE) water suppression [31] and 512 scans, a recycle delay of 3s, and 65K time

domain points. All 1-D NMR spectra were manually phased and calibrated to the DSS internal

reference methyl singlet, set to a chemical shift (δ) of 0.00 ppm.

1H-13C HSQC NMR experiments were optimized experimentally in terms of the relaxation

delay (d1) and the number of increments in the indirect dimension (F1) as described in Yuk et al.

(2010). All HSQC NMR spectra were collected in phase-sensitive mode using echo/anti-echo

gradient selection, a 1J 1H-13C (145 Hz), and a relaxation delay of 0.5s. Twenty scans and 2048

data points were collected for each of the 196 increments in the F1 dimension. The F2 dimension

was processed using an exponential function corresponding to a line broadening of 15Hz, while the

F1 dimension was processed using a sine-squared function with a π/2 phase shift. Both

dimensions were zero-filled by a factor of two while forward linear prediction using 32

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coefficients was applied in the F1 dimension. All 2-D NMR spectra were manually phased and

calibrated to the DSS internal reference methyl singlet, set to a chemical shift (δ) of 0.00 ppm.

5.3.5 Data and Statistical Analysis

Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was performed on the 1-D and 2-D NMR spectra of

the earthworm’s CF and tissue extracts using an Analysis of Mixtures (AMIX) statistics package

(version 3.9.8, Bruker BioSpin). The specific details about the binning procedures for the 1-D and

2-D NMR spectra of the CF and tissue extract are described in the supplementary material (Section

S5.3). Individual and mean PCA scores with their associated standard errors for control and

exposure concentrations were calculated and graphed to understand the differences between the

unexposed and exposed earthworm groups. Dunnett’s multiple comparison tests were conducted

on the PC scores to indicate which treatment groups were significantly different from the control

group (P<0.05). T-test and Dunnett’s multiple comparison tests were performed using SPSS 19.0

(IBM, Somers, NY, USA).

Multiple t-test filtered difference 1H NMR and 1H-13C HSQC NMR spectra were

constructed to identify increases or decreases in the peaks between the control and each exposure

concentration set for the identification of metabolites [32, 33]. T-test filtered difference NMR

spectra were calculated for each exposure concentration (0.1, 1.0 and 10.0mg/kg) from the 1H-

NMR spectra for the earthworm CF (Figures S5.3 and S5.4, respectively) and 1H NMR spectra for

the tissue extract, (Figures S5.5 and S5.6, respectively) and 1H-13C HSQC NMR spectra for the

tissue extract (Figures S5.7 and S5.8, respectively). More detail about the t-test filtered difference

NMR spectra and identification of metabolites are described in the supplementary material

(Section S5.4). Percent changes for the identified metabolites in the difference spectrum of

exposed earthworms relative to control were calculated by the equation: (IE - IC)/IC x 100. IE is the

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mean bucket intensity for the exposed earthworm group and IC is the mean bucket intensity for the

control earthworm group.

5.4 Results and Discussions

5.4.1. Multivariate analysis on earthworm CF and tissue extracts

Mean and individual PCA scores plots were calculated for the 1H NMR and 1H-13C HSQC

NMR spectra for the earthworm’s CF and tissue extract after endosulfan (Figure 5.1 and Figure

S5.1) and endosulfan sulfate exposure (Figure 5.2 and Figure S5.2). For mean PCA scores plot of

the endosulfan exposed earthworm CF (Figure 5.1A), the highest separation was seen in the first

two principal components (PC1 and PC2) and both accounted for 64.9% of the total variance.

Separation from the control group increased with endosulfan exposure concentration.

Figure 5.1 Mean PCA scores plots of PC1 versus PC2 of endosulfan-exposed E. fetida: A) coelomic fluid using 1-D NMR, B) tissue extracts using 1-D NMR, and C) tissue extracts using 2-D HSQC NMR spectra. Each point represents the mean PC score for each exposure concentration and the error bar represents the standard error of the mean. The legend indicates the exposure concentrations for each point. The “*” represents mean concentrations that were significantly different from the control (p<0.05) using Dunnett’s multiple comparison test.

The highest concentration (10 mg/kg), was found to be significantly different from the control

(P<0.05). The separation between the lowest and middle exposure concentration (0.1 and

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1.0mg/kg) were clustered close together and separation compared to the control group was seen.

This suggests similar response to endosulfan in that range of concentrations studied. For the mean

PCA scores plot of the endosulfan sulfate-exposed earthworm CF (Figure 5.2A), PC1 and PC2 had

the highest separation in PCA scores plot with both axes accounting for 54.2% of the total variance.

The endosulfan sulfate PCA scores separation was analogous to the endosulfan PCA scores and

there was comparable separation at the low and middle concentrations (0.1 and 1.0mg/kg), and at

the highest concentration (10mg/kg), there was significant separation in comparison compared to

the control group (P<0.05).

For the endosulfan-exposed earthworm tissue extracts, 1H NMR and 1H-13C HSQC NMR

PCA scores plot (Figures 5.1B and 5.1C) showed the greatest separation in the PC1 and PC2 axes

and both accounted for 90.6% and 90.9% of the total variance respectively. The highest

endosulfan concentration (10 mg/kg) was significant at α=0.05 level for both 1-D and 2-D NMR

PCA scores plots.

Figure 5.2: Mean PCA scores plots of PC1 versus PC2 of endosulfan sulfate-exposed E. fetida: A) coelomic fluid using 1-D NMR, B) tissue extracts using 1-D NMR, and C) tissue extracts using 2-D HSQC NMR spectra. Each point represents the mean PC score for each exposure concentration and the error bar represents the standard error of the mean. The legend indicates the exposure concentrations for each point. The “*” represents mean concentrations that were significantly different from the control (p<0.05) using Dunnett’s multiple comparison test.

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The endosulfan sulfate-exposed earthworm tissue extracts 1H NMR and 1H-13C HSQC

NMR PCA scores plots (Figures 5.2B and 5.2C) had similar separation trends along PC1 and PC2

axes and accounted for 89.1% and 93% of the total variance respectively. The low and middle

concentrations (0.1 and 1.0mg/kg) were close together in both 1-D and 2-D NMR mean PCA

scores plots. However, the highest endosulfan sulfate concentration (10 mg/kg) was significantly

different at the P<0.05 level.

Earthworm CF was more significant to endosulfan and endosulfan sulfate soil exposure

compared to the tissue extracts, especially at the highest exposure concentration (10mg/kg) from

comparison of their significance value (P=4.0x10-4 vs. P=0.04 for endosulfan and P=5.1x10-7 vs.

P=0.04 for endosulfan sulfate, respectively). The earthworm’s CF has a primary role in regulating

homeostasis and is the first immune defense against external stimuli [28]. With various

haemolytic, proteolytic and cytotoxic enzymes in the CF to constantly and actively protecting the

organism from any foreign substances [34], it is plausible that the CF may be more sensitive to

immediate changes in the soil environment by the presence of contaminants.

5.4.2. Metabolic response after endosulfan and endosulfan sulfate exposure

From Table 1, the advantage of analyzing both the earthworm’s CF and tissue extract using

1-D and 2-D NMR can be seen as a number of response metabolites can be identified to be

significant due to endosulfan and endosulfan sulfate exposure. From the relative percent change

for each identified metabolite in the CF (1H NMR) and tissue extracts (1H and 1H-13C NMR) for

each endosulfan exposure concentration (Figure 5.3 and Figure 5.4A and 5.4B, respectively) and

endosulfan sulfate exposure concentration (Figures 5.5 and Figure 5.6A and 5.6B, respectively),

the same metabolites of response were identified in both endosulfan and endosulfan sulfate

exposed earthworms with similar increases or decreases at the various exposure concentrations.

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The similar metabolic trends observed for both contaminants suggest a similar toxic MOA for

earthworms. Duplicate metabolites identified in the tissue extract by 1H-13C HSQC that were

already detected in the 1H NMR were added to the supplementary material (Figure S5.9 for

endosulfan and Figure S5.10 for endosulfan sulfate).

Table 5.1: Summary of metabolites identified after endosulfan or endosulfan sulfate exposure in E.fetida: A) coelomic fluid using 1-D NMR, B) tissue extract using 1-D NMR and C) tissue extract using 2-D NMR techniques.

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Figure 5.3: Percent change (%) of all identified metabolites from the t-test filtered 1-D NMR difference spectra of endosulfan-exposed E. fetida coelomic fluid. Percent changes that were significantly different from the control (p<0.05) are labelled with “*”. Each percent change is shown with their associated standard error.

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Figure 5.4: Percent change (%) of all identified metabolites from the t-test filtered A) 1-D NMR and B) 2-D NMR difference spectra of endosulfan-exposed E. fetida tissue extracts. Percent changes that were significantly different from the control (p<0.05) are labelled with “*”. Each percent change is shown with their associated standard error.

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Figure 5.5: Percent change (%) of all identified metabolites from the t-test filtered 1-D NMR difference spectra of endosulfan sulfate-exposed E. fetida coelomic fluid. Percent changes that were significantly different from the control (p<0.05) are labelled with “*”. Each percent change is shown with their associated standard error.

Endosulfan is known to inhibit the action of the neurotransmitter gamma aminobutyric acid

(GABA), which is responsible for the uptake of chloride ions by neurons [35]. This is a critical

biological process because GABA assists in returning the neuron into its homeostatic state after

depolarization.

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Figure 5.6: Percent change (%) of all identified metabolites from the t-test filtered A) 1-D NMR and B) 2-D NMR difference spectra of endosulfan sulfate-exposed E. fetida tissue extracts. Percent changes that were significantly different from the control (p<0.05) are labelled with “*”. Each percent change is shown with their associated standard error.

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However, the inhibitory action by endosulfan results in only a partial repolarization of the neuron

and leads to uncontrolled muscle contractions, convulsions and hyperactivity in organisms [5]. A

number of studies, using lethality experiments analyzed the toxicity of endosulfan sulfate and

suggested a similar toxicity to the parent compound in aquatic organisms [7, 9, 10]. In the present

study, the same response metabolites were detected with similar fluctuations in both endosulfan

and endosulfan sulfate exposed earthworms. This finding further suggests a similar neurotoxic

MOA in soil.

Glutamine, a precursor to GABA, and glutamate, an exhibitory neurotransmitter,

significantly increased compared to the control (P<0.05) in all exposure concentrations for both

endosulfan- and endosulfan sulfate-exposed earthworms. Neurons are considered to be

metabolically challenged as they do not have the mechanisms for producing glutamate and GABA

from simpler molecules such as glucose [36]. Therefore, an essential metabolic transport system

called the glutamine/GABA-glutamate cycle is used to regulate their concentrations from nearby

astrocytes for effective inhibitory and exhibitory transmissions [37]. Extracellular glutamate levels

has been reported in neurological stress conditions especially linked to environmental toxins [38]

and can cause an excitotoxic response in earthworms. The production of glutamate in astrocytes

comes from the citric acid cycle (CAC) intermediate alpha-ketoglutarate [39] and was detected to

be significantly decreased compared to the control at the highest concentration (10.0mg/kg) in the

endosulfan and endosulfan sulfate exposed earthworm’s CF. Due to the competitive inhibition of

the GABA chloride channels by endosulfan or endosulfan sulfate exposure, an influx of GABA

will be present in the neurons. The removal of excess GABA in the neurons is caused by

catabolism to the CAC intermediate succinate [39], and this increased in the CF of both the

endosulfan and endosulfan sulfate exposed earthworm. No other CAC intermediates in the

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exposed earthworms were significantly different compared to the control group and this illustrates

the sufficient regulation of the CAC for energy production during exposure. However in our past

research study [26], the CAC intermediates alpha-ketoglutarate, succinate, malate and fumarate

were significantly decreased compared to the control after sub-lethal endosulfan exposure using

contact test filter paper experiments [26]. In this study, the soil environments which contain

organic matter were used and can potentially provide a source of energy for the earthworms

compared to their exposure on contact test filter paper. Therefore, the transition into soil

environments can potentially provide the earthworms with the essential nutrients needed to sustain

important aerobic energy cycles such as the CAC even in the presence of contaminants.

An increased energy expenditure, due to the stress caused by endosulfan and endosulfan

sulfate exposure in the earthworms, was detected as sugar concentrations (maltose, melibiose and

glucose) decreased at all exposure concentrations, while ATP production increased to significant

levels (P<0.05) at the highest exposure concentration (10.0 mg/kg). Lactate, a key metabolite in

anaerobic metabolism for energy production and commonly detected in organisms after extraneous

muscle activity [10], increased as well in all exposure concentrations.

The polyamine spermidine decreased to significant levels in the earthworm’s CF for

endosulfan- and endosulfan sulfate-exposed earthworms. Polyamines are essential for cellular

proliferation and gene regulation. A past study has shown that their abnormal levels can impair

cellular function [40]. Significant decreases in spermidine concentrations are known to cause

apoptosis in cells due to external stressors [41]. A past study [42] detected DNA damage using

comet assays in E. fetida after endosulfan exposure in OECD soil. Significant DNA damage was

detected at soil concentrations (0.1, 1.0 and 10.0mg/kg) after 7, 14, 21 and 28 days exposure in

their study (P<0.01), and it was concluded that the usage of comet assays is a reliable indicator for

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endosulfan exposure. In this study, the results provided further biochemical insight for endosulfan

and gave a first look into endosulfan sulfate exposure using the same soil exposure concentrations

as the decrease in spermidine was also detected. An apoptotic MOA resulting from endosulfan

and endosulfan sulfate exposure could be due to a potential defensive mechanism by a significant

DNA damage in the earthworms. The rise in apoptosis will increase muscle and protein

degradation in organisms [43] and this was detected as free amino acids, lysine and methionine,

significantly increased in the endosulfan- and endosulfan sulfate-exposed earthworms compared to

the control.

Alanine and glycine also increased in the endosulfan- and endosulfan-exposed earthworm’s

CF and tissue extract compared to the unexposed earthworms. Alanine and glycine are both

known for their cytoprotective action in cells against stress damage by contaminants [44] and are

known to increase in cells to induce gene expression for stress protein synthesis [45, 46].

Osmolytes, betaine and myo-inositol, also increased in endosulfan- and endosulfan sulfate-exposed

earthworms compared to the unexposed earthworms. Hydrophobic contaminants such as

endosulfan and endosulfan sulfate can cause fluctuations in the intracellular solute content and

stability in biological membranes [47]. Betaine and myo-inositol are both common organic

osmolytes in biological systems that assist in maintaining osmotic balance in cells [48, 49].

Increases in betaine and myo-inositol were also identified in E. fetida from exposure to other

hydrophobic contaminants such as polyaromatic hydrocarbons [19].

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5.4.3. Comparison of endosulfan- and endosulfan sulfate- exposed earthworm CF and tissue

extracts using multivariate analysis

To investigate the relative toxicity between endosulfan and endosulfan sulfate, an overall

mean PCA scores plot was constructed using all exposure concentrations from the 1-D and 2-D

NMR spectra of the earthworm CF and tissue extract (Figure 5.7).

Figure 5.7: Mean PCA scores plots of PC1 versus PC2 of endosulfan- and endosulfan sulfate-exposed E. fetida: A) coelomic fluid using 1-D NMR, B) tissue extracts using 1-D NMR, and C) tissue extracts using 2-D HSQC NMR spectra. Each point represents the mean PC score for each exposure concentration and the error bar represents the standard error of the mean. The legend indicates the exposure concentrations for each point. The “*” represents mean concentrations that were significantly different from the control (p<0.05) using Dunnett’s multiple comparison test. The arrows indicate the trajectory of exposure of endosulfan and endosulfan sulfate.

Examining the separation trajectory using various contaminant exposure groups provides insight

into differences in their toxicity or MOAs. For example, in our previous earthworm NMR-based

metabolomics study [32], an overall PCA scores plot showed separate trajectories for two different

pesticides (trifluralin and endosulfan) using three sub-lethal exposure concentrations. Different

metabolites of response were detected for both trifluralin- and endosulfan- exposed earthworms

and explained two different toxic MOAs. In another study [50], two pesticides (carbaryl and

chlorpyrifos), three pharmaceuticals (carbamazephine, estrone and caffeine), two persistent

organohalogens (Aroclor 1254 and PBDE 209) and two industrial compounds (nonylphenol and

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dimethyl phthalate) were investigated on their sub-lethal exposure to E. fetida using an overall

PCA scores plot. Their results were able to identify contaminant specific biomarkers from the

various MOAs using 1-D NMR-based metabolomics.

In the overall mean PCA scores plot of the 1-D NMR spectra of the earthworm’s CF

(Figure 5.7A), the endosulfan- and endosulfan sulfate-exposed earthworms had similar separation

trajectories on the PC1 and PC2 axis as both axis represented a total variance of 57.5%. The low

and middle concentrations (0.1 and 1.0mg/kg) were closely grouped for both contaminants and

were similar in their separation to the control group on the PC1 axis. The two highest

concentrations of endosulfan and endosulfan sulfate (10mg/kg) were significantly different

compared to the control group at P<0.05. For the overall mean PCA scores plot of the 1-D and 2-

D NMR spectra of the earthworm tissue extract (Figure 5.7B and 5.7C, respectively), a similar

separation trajectory from the exposed earthworms to the control was seen on the PC1 and PC2

axes with a total variance of 89.2% and 92% respectively. Higher separation by the exposed

groups were seen for both 1-D and 2-D NMR PCA scores plots to the control group as the

concentration increased for both contaminants. The highest exposure concentrations of both the

endosulfan and endosulfan sulfate exposure groups were significantly different than the control

(P<0.05).

A similar separation trajectory, by the endosulfan and endosulfan sulfate exposure groups

to the control group in the PCA scores plot, shows the similarity of their toxicity. In addition, this

result explains the identical response metabolites detected in the t-test filtered difference NMR

spectra and confirms their MOA. There were no significant differences between each of the

endosulfan and endosulfan sulfate exposure groups even at the highest exposure concentration (10

mg/kg) in the earthworm CF and tissue extract. The results in this study confirm past endosulfan

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and endosulfan sulfate toxicity studies where only aquatic species were examined using

growth/survival bioassays [7] or half maximal effective concentrations (EC50) [10]. The use of

NMR-based metabolomics provided a rapid and in-depth approach in probing soil environments

using earthworms as biological indicators in comparing the toxic MOA of these two contaminants.

Generally, the degradation of pesticides in soil has a lower toxicity to native organisms compared

to the parent compound [51]. However, in this study, the main degradation product, endosulfan

sulfate, was detected to be just as toxic as the parent compound, endosulfan, in soil. Since

endosulfan sulfate is more persistent in the soil environment than endosulfan [52], higher priority

should be given to the identification of endosulfan sulfate in contaminated soils during

bioremediation efforts because the results from this study show that toxicity does not change as the

parent compound, endosulfan, degrade.

5.5 Conclusion

Understanding the environmental consequences by persistent organohalogen pesticides on

ecosystem health is a major priority for many environmental agencies such as the OECD and

United Nations Environment Program [42]. Our study demonstrates the potential of 1-D and 2-D

NMR-based metabolomics in delineating the toxic MOA of a persistent environmental

contaminant, endosulfan, and its main degradation product, endosulfan sulfate, at various exposure

concentrations in soil for seven days. The results displayed a similar toxicity for both

contaminants by the same increase in separation from the control group as the exposure

concentration increased in the PCA scores plot. A similar neurotoxic and apopotic MOA was

observed in both endosulfan and endosulfan sulfate exposed earthworms as identical metabolites

of response were detected compared to the unexposed earthworms. However, in this study, unaged,

spiked soil with only seven days of exposure were used as an initial experiment to understand the

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toxicity of contaminants and their degradation product to native soil organisms. Future studies

will use aged spiked soils and longer exposure times (> seven days) to assess contaminant toxicity

as past studies have shown the decrease in the bioavailability of contaminants over time in soil [21,

53] and a change in the earthworms metabolic response to contaminants over various times of

exposure [19]. In addition, a high earthworm mortality rate in the highest endosulfan and

endosulfan sulfate exposure concentrations occurred and a future study will be conducted to focus

on expanding the exposure concentrations between the middle (1.0mg/kg) and the highest

(10.0mg/kg) concentration. This will allow a better understanding of the sub-lethal range before

mortality occurs and assists in confirming the fluctuating metabolites detected in this study.

Nevertheless, this is the first metabolomics study that utilizes 1-D and 2-D NMR techniques and

tests both earthworm CF and tissue extracts to compare their biochemical response to a concerning

environmental contaminant and its main degradation product in soil. NMR-based metabolomics

can be a powerful ecotoxicology tool to provide vital toxicity information for assessing

contaminated soil sites using earthworms as biological indicators.

5.6. Acknowledgment

Funding was provided by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council Strategic

Grants Program (NSERC). André Simpson would like to thank the government of Ontario for an

Early Researcher Award. Jimmy Yuk would like to thank the government of Ontario for an

Ontario Graduate Scholarship (OGS). We would also like to extend to Dr. Melissa Whitfield

Åslund, Dr. Ronald Soong, Diana Tseng, Jasmine Wang and Brian Lankadurai for technical

assistance and valuable discussions.

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541.

2. Wania, F. and D. Mackay, Global fractionation and cold condensation of low volatility

organochlorine compounds in polar regions. Ambio, 1993. 22(1): p. 10-18.

3. Hose, G.C., R.P. Lim, and R.V. Hyne, The transport, fate and effects of endosulfan in the

Australian freshwater environment. Aust. J. Ecotoxicol. , 2003. 9(2): p. 101-111.

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CHAPTER SIX

Conclusions and future research

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6.1 Conclusions

The application of organohalogenated pesticides has been a milestone in today’s society for

crop protection. Agrochemical companies, academic institutions and government agencies have

made immense efforts in the past two decades to properly assess newly developed pesticides and to

create adequate regulating frameworks on existing ones for a safer environment. With the goals of

international environmental organisations such as REACH to register all new and existing

pesticides with reliable experimental data, efficient methods need to be explored that are high

through-put and inexpensive. Environmental NMR-based metabolomics is an emerging field that

examines the metabolic profile of native organisms in their environments and in the presence of

environment stressors [1, 2]. The application of this powerful technique, however, has not been

utilized for organohalogentated pesticides, especially in soil environments to native organisms

such as earthworms. The aim of this dissertation was to provide more insight into the sub-lethal

exposure to widely-used organohalogenated pesticides to an OECD recommended earthworm,

Eisenia fetida, using NMR-based metabolomics.

The results in this thesis determined that 1-D and 2-D NMR techniques, such as PURGE

and 1H-13C HSQC NMR, create an effective combination to compare exposed and control Eisenia

fetida earthworms, and to identify metabolites of response after sub-lethal exposure to a commonly

used organochlorine pesticide, endosulfan (Chapter 2). This finding was further investigated as

both PURGE and 1H-13C HSQC NMR techniques were applied to various sub-lethal

concentrations of endosulfan and a widely used organofluorinated pesticide, trifluralin. The PCA

results from this study (Chapter 3) revealed distinct separation between the exposed and control

earthworms at various sub-lethal concentrations for both contaminants. In addition, many

significant metabolites, arising after exposure, were identified by the 1-D and 2-D NMR

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techniques. Furthermore, a neurotoxic MOA for endosulfan and a non-polar narcotic MOA for

trifluralin were delineated. This dissertation also explored the potential of utilizing the

earthworm’s coelomic fluid (CF) as a complementary biological medium for NMR analysis to the

earthworm tissue extract in an endosulfan exposure metabolomic study (Chapter 4). The results

detected a number of significant metabolites due to endosulfan exposure that were masked in the

high number of overlapping resonances in the tissue extract NMR spectrum. An apoptotic MOA

was identified in the earthworm due to endosulfan exposure. This was not detected in past tissue

extract metabolomic studies. Since the experiments above were all conducted through contact test

filter experiments, the transition into soil environments was done to understand the toxicity of

endosulfan and its main degradation product, endosulfan sulfate (Chapter 5). Using the results

from previous experiments, PURGE and 1H-13C HSQC NMR techniques were used to analyze the

earthworm’s CF and tissue extract after exposure to the two contaminants. To the author’s

knowledge, this is the first comprehensive 1-D and 2-D NMR metabolomic study to understand the

toxic response of organohalogenated pesticides and their degradation products in soil to native soil

earthworms. The results clearly show similar toxicity between the parent and the degradation

product through similar patterns of PCA separation in the various exposure concentrations.

Similar neurotoxic and apopotic MOAs were observed in both endosulfan- and endosulfan sulfate-

exposed earthworms as similar metabolites of response were identified. This thesis showed the

potential of NMR-based metabolomics to probe soil environments using biological indicators such

as earthworms to various persistent organohalogenated pesticides.

6.2 Future Research

6.2.1 Assessment of organohalogenated field soils using NMR-based metabolomics

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Due to the long-term application of organohalogenated pesticides for agricultural use and

their high persistence in the environment, many soil sites will ultimately contain their residue [3].

With the large costs associated with remediating and assessing contaminated soils for their safety,

better methods need to be developed that are high-throughput and cost-effective. One future

application of this dissertation is to utilize 1-D and 2-D NMR-based metabolomics in the field to

assess organo-halogenated-contaminated soils using earthworms as biological indicators. A past

study has successfully applied NMR-based metabolomics using the earthworm, Lumbricus

rubellus, in seven different metal contaminated soil sites with various soil conditions [4]. Even

with the large confounding differences between each site, such as soil pH and different varying

concentrations of metals, the results were still able to pinpoint zinc as the main contaminant

causing a difference in their metabolic profile and detected both site- and contaminant-specific

responses. This dissertation has shown similar toxicity levels and toxic MOAs of endosulfan and

endosulfan sulfate to E. fetida earthworms in laboratory OECD soil at varying exposure

concentrations. The next step would be to apply similar techniques in contaminated fields.

Ecological surveys and laboratory tests of field soil are two approaches that can be used to

assess the contaminated field soils using NMR-based metabolomics. For the ecological survey

method, it will be similar to the metal-contaminated soil study done by Bundy et al. [4] as the

indigenous earthworm populations are sampled. A baseline of the earthworm metabolic profile

will need to be conducted from areas without contaminants (natural soil) and the perturbation of

the earthworm’s metabolic profile in the contaminated areas will be measured. The similarity of

the earthworm profile in the contaminated soils and the natural soils will determine the

effectiveness of remediation measures and the safety of contaminated sites. The advantage of this

method is a relatively easy and lower cost approach with all the biomarker responses indicative of

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all the potential abiotic factors (temperature and moisture) present. However, this method has its

limitations – the complexity of the environment can cause many confounding variables such as

unknown exposure history and potential for multiple species of earthworms present in the

contaminated and non-contaminated soils. This can be mitigated with laboratory tests of the field

soil. The contaminated soils can be removed from the site and the metabolic response of

earthworms to the soil can be done in a controlled laboratory environment. Laboratory tests on

contaminated soils provide many advantages as model earthworms (E.fetida) grown in laboratories

can be used with standardized test protocols (OECD) and abiotic factors controlled (moisture and

temperature). A key disadvantage of this method is the lack of ecological meaning because of

potential changes from the realistic environment. This could also lead to criticism about the

conclusions made on risk assessment using non-native soil species. Nevertheless, the ability of

NMR-based metabolomics to detect subtle responses to sub-lethal contaminant exposure can be a

powerful risk assessment and monitoring tool for contaminated and remediated soil sites.

6.2.2 Application of NMR-based metabolomics to pesticide mixtures

Environmental metabolomics has the potential to understand the toxic MOA of

contaminants in the environment to native organisms at sub-lethal concentrations. This

dissertation was able to apply NMR-based metabolomics to delineate the toxic MOA of an

organochlorine pesticide, endosulfan, and its degradation product, endosulfan sulfate, and also an

organofluorine pesticide, trifluralin, to a native soil earthworm, E. fetida. However, in common

agricultural practices, a mixture of pesticides is often applied simultaneously for crop protection,

and this can lead to a combination of pesticide residues in the soil environment [5]. Furthermore,

mixed pesticides can cause significant synergistic toxic responses on non-target organisms, such as

earthworms, when individual pesticides would have originally been considered harmless. A past

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study reported that an organochlorine pesticide, atrazine, in combination of three organophosphate

insecticides (chlorpyrifos, methyl parathion, and diazinon) caused a significant increase in toxicity

to a common amphipod crustacean, Hyalella azteca; on its own, however, atrazine induces a much

lower toxic response [6]. Another study analyzed the enhancement in the impact of atrazine with

another organochlorine pesticide, cyanazine, to an aquatic midge, Chironomus tentans [7]. In soil

environments, a recent study conducted a 14-day OECD soil exposure toxicity test on E. fetida

using two organochlorine pesticides, cypermethrin and chlorpyrifos. Both of these pesticides are

widely used for crop protection in China and are often used in combination to give a wide-

spectrum insecticide potential [8]. From their results, the toxicity was significantly higher,

especially for the mortality tests, compared to exposure to the individual pesticides. At the lowest

exposure concentrations, the pesticide mixture caused significant reduction on the growth and

reproduction rates of the earthworms. However, on their own, they induced no adverse responses.

The results from the OECD study suggest that the toxicity data currently used in regulatory

agencies for single-pesticide exposures might underestimate the ecological risk of pesticides that

are actually in the field. The application of NMR-based metabolomics can provide insight into

metabolic profile fluctuations from exposure to mixed pesticides. Researchers can compare this to

the earthworm’s exposure to one pesticide on its own. Such a comparison can determine which

toxic MOA became more dominant or whether a new toxic MOA emerged due to the pesticide

mixture. However, many factors will need to be carefully assessed, for example: the different

combinations of pesticides to use, and the adequate levels of exposure concentrations. In addition,

the interactions of different pesticides can change their interactions in the soil and their physical

properties, such as degradation rates. For example, a past study found that a pesticide mixture of

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isoproturon and chlorothanoil had much higher degradation rates compared to its individual

components in soil [9].

6.2.3 Application of NMR-based metabolomics to genetic modified plants

With the advancement of genetic engineering, genes can now be introduced into the plant

genome to produce metabolites that will enhance their tolerance to biotic or abiotic stress [10].

Currently, this is a new approach for crop protection and represents a significant part of pesticide

research and development in agrochemical industries [11]. There have been genetically modified

(GM) plants that express insecticidal metabolites to minimize yield losses caused by insects.

There are, for example, plants that have been modified to express insecticidal properties from

Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt plants) and have been used in many agricultural practices [12]. Bacillus

thuringiensis is a gram positive, soil dwelling bacterium that produces δ-endotoxins, which cause

cell lysis in the cell membranes of various insects [13]. The usage of GM crops has presented a

new safety concern. Due to the alterations in the GM plant’s genome and the expression of

potentially harmful metabolites, there has been no extensive study that analyzes their response to

non-target organisms in the soil environments or animals. This dissertation has shown the

application of NMR-based metabolomics as a potential environmental monitoring or screening tool

in soil environments for organohalogenated pesticides. This presents a difficult challenge for

applying metabolomics to understand the safety of GM crops as there are complicating factors

which include the plants’ unique metabolome and their interaction with the surrounding

environment. Some initial NMR-based metabolomic studies have been applied to examine the

difference between wild and transgenic maize carrying the B. Thuringiensis Cry1Ab gene [14].

Their analyses revealed substantial differences in the metabolic profiles of the wild and transgenic

maize. The transgenic maize had higher concentrations of ethanol, citric acid, glycine, betaine,

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trehalose, as well as other compounds that could not be identified. A similar study was also

applied to understand the metabolic differences between non-transgenic and transgenic tomatoes

carrying two maize transcription factors leaf color (LC) and colourless-1 (C1) [15]. These

transcription factors in the tomato allow them to up-regulate their flavonoid biosynthesis and

enhance their antioxidant capacity. From the PCA and PLS results, the study identified six main

flavonoid glycosides and at least 15 different metabolites – such as citric acid, sucrose,

phenylalanine, and trigonelline – to be different between the two types of tomatoes. It would be

interesting to apply NMR-based metabolomics using earthworms developed in this thesis to probe

their metabolic profile in environments where transgenic plants are grown. This will enable

monitoring of significant perturbations in their metabolic profile compared to wild plant

environments especially if mortality occurs. Although currently, no direct conclusions can be

made on the safety of GM crops, it can be expected that the usage of NMR-based metabolomics

will play a major role in the future to provide an in-depth analysis on this concern.

6.2.4 Validation of biomarkers using a systems biology approach

The validation of biomarkers before using it as an early indicator for a contaminant in the

environment is crucial and essential for their effectivity in risk assessment. To properly assess the

usage of a biomarker detected from a contaminant, the sensitivity, variability, availability and

robustness must also be understood. This challenge can potentially be solved by a systems biology

approach where the combination of all “omic” technologies such as genomics, transcriptomics,

proteomics and metabolomics are utilized [16]. This approach allows a thorough understanding of

the toxic response of a contaminant from the gene/transcript level through to the protein expression

to the final metabolite level production. The synergistic combination of these cellular and

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molecular techniques captures the overall biological response of a contaminant from the initial

toxic insult to the clear toxic physical response. In this thesis, various biomarkers of response

were detected in the earthworm, Eisenia fetida, after organohalogenated pesticide exposure using

NMR-based metabolomics. To properly validate the significant metabolites that were detected

from the various studies in this thesis, it would be important to conduct future experiments

utilizing another “omic” technology such as genomics or proteomics to understand the biological

connection to the metabolomic results. For example, in chapter 3, a non-polar narcosis MOA for

trifluralin was postulated through the detection of alanine, glycine, maltose and ATP that were

significant at the highest exposure concentration (1.0 mg cm-2). Future validation experiments

should be conducted by studying the action of cytochrome p450, which is one of the main enzymes

used for detoxifying hydrophobic xenobiotics in living organisms [17]. This can be done through

a fluorescence assay of cytochrome P450 using 7-benzoyloxy-4-trifluoromethyl coumarin as the

probe substrate which undergoes O-dealkylation to give the fluorescent product 7-hydroxy-4-

trifluoromethyl coumarin (λexcitation 405 nm/λemission 510–545 nm) [18]. The decrease in

fluorescence will indicate the inhibition or activity by the xenobiotic such as trifluralin on the

cytochrome P450 binding sites and allow the understanding from a proteomic level if a non-polar

narcosis is occurring [18]. In addition to this experiment, a genomic approach can also be used

with the expression of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor. The aryl hydrocarbon receptor acts as a

ligand-dependent transcription factor [19]. When xenobiotics are present, specific regulatory DNA

motifs are bound which activate the receptor to regulate gene expression for various enzymes such

as cytochrome P450 for detoxification [20]. The overexpression of the aryl hydrocarbon

transcriptional factors will be another indicator for non-polar narcosis by trifluralin exposure. The

application of systems biology allows an integral approach in validating the biomarkers detected

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from NMR-based metabolomics presented in this thesis and assists in confirming the

contaminant’s MOA in the living organism.

6.2.5 Application of various analytical platforms for metabolomics studies

This thesis focused mainly on the application of NMR-based metabolomics in assessing

sub-lethal organo-halogenated pesticide exposures to earthworms using contact filter paper and

artificial soil environments. The utilization of NMR in this thesis allowed a high throughput and

reproducible method of analysis that required minimal sample preparation to visualize the

metabolic profile of the earthworm under stress. However, discussed in chapter one, a

disadvantage of NMR as a comprehensive metabolite profiling tool is its lower sensitivity which

could detect at most at the low micro molar range [2]. This potentially can overlook the low-

abundance metabolites that are below the limit of detection. Therefore to fully capture the broad

range of metabolites that could have been perturbed in the earthworm due to pesticide exposure, it

is prudent for future studies to apply a more sensitive analytical platform such as mass-

spectrometry (MS), liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS), gas chromatography–

mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and capillary electrophoresis-mass spectrometry (CE-MS) to increase

verify the metabolites detected and potentially identify additional biomarkers in this these past

exposure studies. This section will introduce a brief overview of other commonly used analytical

techniques used in metabolomics and readers are encouraged to read the following references for

more specific information [21-23].

MS has become a widely used analytical technique in metabolomic studies due to its higher

sensitivity (low nano molar range) and detection of a wide range of metabolites [2]. Direct

injection MS can provide a rapid technique to analyze a plethora of metabolites which is ideal for

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metabolite profiling. However, co-suppresion could present a problem as compounds with low

ionization efficiencies would have their signals lost. Therefore, it is common for MS to be

hyphenated with a separation technique first by either chromatography such as GC, LC or

electrophoresis such as CE. This decreases the complexity of compounds and offers the capability

of being a targeted approach. GC-MS is an ideal analytical technique for volatile and thermally

stable compounds. For compounds that do not fit these criteria, they must first be chemically

derivatized to provide volatility before analysis can be done. GC columns allow the separation of

compounds with different degrees of polarity and provide high chromatographic resolution of

compounds with the high sensitivity from the MS. Identification of metabolites can be done

through correlating the retention times or retention indexes and mass spectrum of the sample peak

with the run of various standards using the same conditions [21]. One major advantage is the vast

libraries of compounds readily available which allow easy identification of unknown compounds.

GC-MS has been successfully been utilized in various metabolomics studies such as urine

screening, intra-cellular and volatile metabolite analysis of plants and other biofluids [21, 22, 24].

LC-MS has been shown to have higher sensitivity and allows a wider range of analyte polarity and

molecular mass for identification that GC-MS [25]. This is due to the usage of capillary columns

which have greater resolution capability. LC usually uses electrospray ionization (ESI) which is

considered a soft ionization method and samples do not need to be derivatized in order for it to be

analyzed [25]. However, one disadvantage is the lack of ESI libraries compared to GC-MS but

metabolite identification can be done using accurate mass measurements and/or tandem MS

(MS/MS) [25]. Ultra Performance Liquid Chromatography is a new improvement in LC-MS

technology as it can provide 10-fold increase in speed and a 5 fold increase in sensitivity vs.

conventional HPLC [26] . Currently LC-MS has been widely used in clinical applications for the

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200

discovery of disease biomarkers [27]. CE-MS is an emerging technique and has gained notice in

the field of metabolomics [26]. CE-MS has very high resolving power due to high plate numbers

with rapid analysis time and only requires low µl of sample [25]. Many classes of metabolites can

be separated due to its ability to separate cations, anions and uncharged molecules in a single

analytical run. Current studies have utilized CE-MS for human urine profiling and plant

metabolite studies [22, 28].

The utilization of any of these techniques in tandem with NMR can provide a powerful

combination to verify the metabolites of response that are fluctuating in the earthworm due to

pesticide exposure. With an untargeted approach from NMR-based metabolomics, the knowledge

obtained from these studies can then be focused on targeted approaches using one of the separation

techniques (GC, LC or CE) coupled to a MS. However readers should be aware that there is no

single analytical technique that is ideal for detecting all the metabolites within a cell and will

require a combination of techniques in detecting the various metabolites of different polarity and

range of molecular weights [25]. To summarize the advantages and disadvantages of each

technique including NMR, table 6.1 shows each analytical technique used in metabolomics.

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Table: 6.1: Analytical techniques used in metabolomics [23,26-27] Analytical method Advantage Disadvantage

NMR • Rapid analysis • High resolution • No derivation required • Non-destructive

• Low sensitivity • Convoluted spectra • More than one peak per

component

LC-MS

• No derivation required (most of the time)

• Many modes of separation possible

• Large sample capacity

• Slow • Limited commercial libraries

GC-MS

• Sensitive • Robust • Large linear range • Large commercial and public

libraries

• Slow • Often requires derivation • Many analytes thermally

unstable or too large for analysis

CE-MS

• High separation power • Small sample requirementsd • Rapid analysis • Can separate neutrals, anions

and cations in a single run • No derivation required (most of

the time)

• Limited commercial libraries • Poor retention time

reproducibility

6.3 References

1. Bundy, J.G., et al., Environmental Metabonomics: Applying combination biomarker

analysis in earthworms at a metal contaminated site. Ecotoxicology, 2004. 13: p. 797-806.

2. Simpson, M.J. and J.R. McKelvie, Environmental metabolomics: New insights into

earthworm ecotoxicity and contaminant bioavailability in soil. Anal. Bioanal. Chem., 2009.

394(1): p. 137-149.

3. Zhang, Y., et al., Microemulsion-enhanced remediation of soils contaminated with

organochlorine pesticides. Environ. Technol., 2011. 32(16): p. 1915-1922.

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202

4. Bundy, J.G., et al., Metabolic profile biomarkers of metal contamination in a sentinel

terrestrial species are applicable across multiple sites. Environ. Sci. Technol., 2007.

41(12): p. 4458-4464.

5. Swarcewicz, M. and A. Gregorczyk, The effects of pesticide mixtures on degradation of

pendimethalin in soils. Environ. Monit. Assess., 2011: p. 1-8.

6. Anderson, T.D. and M.J. Lydy, Increased toxicity to invertebrates associated with a

mixture of atrazine and organophosphate insecticides. Environ. Toxicol. Chem., 2002.

21(7): p. 1507-1514.

7. Jin-Clark, Y., M.J. Lydy, and K.Y. Zhu, Effects of atrazine and cyanazine on chlorpyrifos

toxicity in Chironomus tentans (Diptera : Chironomidae). Environ. Toxicol. Chem., 2002.

21(3): p. 598-603.

8. Zhou, S.P., et al., Individual and combined toxic effects of cypermethrin and chlorpyrifos

on earthworm. J. Environ. Sci., 2011. 23(4): p. 676-680.

9. Fogg, P., A.B.A. Boxall, and A. Walker, Degradation of Pesticides in Biobeds:  The Effect

of Concentration and Pesticide Mixtures. J. Agr. Food. Chem., 2003. 51(18): p. 5344-5349.

10. Kos, M., et al., Transgenic plants as vital components of integrated pest management.

Trends Biotechnol., 2009. 27: p. 621-627.

11. Aliferis, K. and M. Chrysayi-Tokousbalides, Metabolomics in pesticide research and

development: review and future perspectives. Metabolomics, 2011. 7(1): p. 35-53.

12. Betz, F.S., B.G. Hammond, and R.L. Fuchs, Safety and advantages of Bacillus

thuringiensis-protected plants to control insect pests. Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. , 2000.

32(2): p. 156-173.

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203

13. Roh, J.Y., et al., Bacillus thuringiensis as a specific, safe, and effective tool for insect pest

control. J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. , 2007. 17(4): p. 547-559.

14. Piccioni, F., et al., NMR Metabolic Profiling of Transgenic Maize with the Cry1A(b) Gene.

J. Agr. Food. Chem., 2009. 57(14): p. 6041-6049.

15. Le Gall, G., et al., Metabolite profiling of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) using H-1

NMR spectroscopy as a tool to detect potential unintended effects following a genetic

modification. J. Agr. Food. Chem., 2003. 51(9): p. 2447-2456.

16. Robertson, D.G., et al., Metabonomics in Toxicity Assessment. Vol. 1st. 2005, New York:

Taylor and Francis Group. 536.

17. Rocha-e-Silva, T.A.A., et al., Spectral characteristics of a compound altering cytochrome

P450 spectra from vertebrate microsomes suggest that it is a functional protein. Comp.

Biochem. Physiol. C: Toxicol. Pharmacol., 2001. 130(1): p. 53-66.

18. Cheng, Q., C.D. Sohl, and F.P. Guengerich, High-throughput fluorescence assay of

cytochrome P450 3A4. Nat. Protoc., 2009. 4(9): p. 1258-1261.

19. McAlister, D.R., et al., Application of an aryl hydrocarbon receptor based screening assay

for assessing U.S. EPA draft remediation goals for dioxin in soil and sediment samples. Int.

J. Environ. Anal. Chem., 2011: p. 1-13.

20. Akahoshi, E., et al., Tyrosine hydroxylase assay: a bioassay for aryl hydrocarbon receptor-

active compounds based on tyrosine hydroxylase promoter activation. Toxicol. Mech.

Methods., 2012. 22(6): p. 458-460.

21. Dunn, W.B. and D.I. Ellis, Metabolomics: Current analytical platforms and methodologies.

Trends in Analytical Chemistry, 2005. 24(4): p. 285-294.

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204

22. Hollywood, K., D.R. Brison, and R. Goodacre, Metabolomics: Current technologies and

future trends. Proteomics, 2006. 6: p. 4716-4723.

23. Shulaev, V., Metabolomics technology and bioinformatics. Briefings in Bioinformatics,

2006. 7(2): p. 128-139.

24. Alvarez, I., et al., Simultaneous determination of methadone, heroin, cocaine and their

metabolites in urine by GC-MS. Analyt. Lett., 2006. 39(7): p. 1393-1399.

25. Shulaev, V., Metabolomics technology and bioinformatics. Brief Bioinform 2006. 7(2): p.

128-139.

26. Zhang, A.H., et al., Modern analytical techniques in metabolomics analysis. Analyst, 2012.

137(2): p. 293-300.

27. Lenz, E.M. and I.D. Wilson, Analytical strategies in metabonomics. J. Proteome Res., 2007.

6(2): p. 443-458.

28. Sato, S., et al., Simultaneous determination of the main metabolites in rice leaves using

capillary electrophoresis mass spectrometry and capillary electrophoresis diode array

detection. Plant J. 2004. 40(1): p. 151-163.

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205

Appendix A

Supplementary Material for Chapter Three

Published as: Yuk, J., Simpson, M.J., and Simpson, A.J., 1-D and 2-D NMR metabolomics of

earthworm responses to sub-lethal trifluralin and endosulfan exposure. Environ.

Chem., 2011. 8(3): 281-294.

Reproduced with permission from Environmental Chemistry, 2011,(3): 281-294 (http://www.publish.csiro.au/paper/EN11033.htm). © Copyright CSIRO Publishing

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206

Figure A3.1: PCA scores plot of PC1 versus PC2 of endosulfan-exposed E. fetida (●) at 2.0 µg cm-2 and control E. fetida (■) (n = 10) using: A) 1-D PURGE and B) 2-D 1H-13C HSQC NMR spectra. The P value for control and endosulfan exposed earthworms for the PCA components are reported using a two-sample t-test. Two earthworms at the highest endosulfan concentration (2.0 µg cm-2) were identified to be outside the Hotelling’s T2 ellipse at the 95% confidence interval and thus were removed from the dataset prior to subsequent analysis.

A) 1D PURGE B) 2D HSQC

-1.6 -0.8 0.0 0.8 1.6 2.4 3.2

-0.8

-0.4

0.0

0.4

0.8

PC

2 (1

0.3

9%

Vari

an

ce

; p

=0

.180

)

PC1 (81.85% Variance; p =0.004)

-1.2 -0.6 0.0 0.6 1.2 1.8

-0.4

0.0

0.4

PC

2 (7

.76

% V

ari

an

ce

; p

=0

.650

)

PC1 (83.65% Variance; p =0.001)

Outliers Outliers

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207

Figure A3.2: Average percent weight change of E.fetida after exposure to trifluralin and endosulfan. The exposure concentrations are given below each bar and each “*” represents significant weight change compared to control. Significance was determined by a two-sample t-test with a confidence interval of 95% (p<0.05). The chemical structures of trifluralin and endosulfan are shown below their respective bar graphs.

-35

-30

-25

-20

-15

-10

-5

0

*

*

Pe

rce

nt

ch

an

ge in

we

igh

t aft

er

ex

po

su

re (

%) Control

Treatments

Trifluralin Endosulfan

0.5

µµ µµg

cm

-2

1.0

µµ µµg

cm

-2

2.0

µµ µµg

cm

-2

0.1

mg

cm

-2

0.5

mg

cm

-2

1.0

mg

cm

-2

S

O

O

O

Cl

Cl

Cl Cl

Cl

Cl

N+

N+

N

O-

O-

O

O

F

F

F

CH3

CH3

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208

Figure A3.3: 1-D and 2-D NMR spectra of control worm tissue extracts acquired using A) 1-D PURGE and B) 2-D 1H-13C HSQC NMR spectroscopy.

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1Chemical Shift (ppm)

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1ppm

20

40

60

80

100

120

ppm

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1ppm

20

40

60

80

100

120

ppm

A) 1D PURGE B) 2D HSQC

(1H)

(13C

)

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209

Figure A3.4: PCA scores plot of PC1 versus PC2 of trifluralin-exposed E. fetida (●) and control E. fetida (■) (n = 10) using A) 1-D PURGE and B) 2-D 1H-13C HSQC NMR spectra at: i) 0.1 mg cm-2, ii) 0.5 mg cm-2 and iii) 1.0 mg cm-2. The P value for control and endosulfan exposed earthworms for the PCA components are reported using a two-sample t-test.

-0.8 -0.4 0.0 0.4 0.8

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0.0

0.2

0.4

PC

2 (27

.89

% V

ari

an

ce

; p

=0

.196

)

PC1 (51.02% Variance; p =0.277)

-0.8 -0.4 0.0 0.4 0.8

-0.4

-0.2

0.0

0.2

0.4

PC

2 (2

1.4

7%

Vari

an

ce; p

=0.1

36

)PC1 (63.60% Variance; p =0.403)

-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6-0.4

-0.2

0.0

0.2

0.4

PC

2 (

22

.37

% V

ari

an

ce; p

=0

.44

2)

PC1 (59.91% Variance; p =0.885)

-0.4 0.0 0.4 0.8

-0.4

-0.2

0.0

0.2

0.4

PC

2 (2

5.7

2%

Va

ria

nc

e; p

=0.1

35

)

PC1 (50.96% Variance; p =0.403)

-0.4 0.0 0.4 0.8-0.4

-0.2

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

PC

2 (2

6.7

1%

Va

ria

nc

e; p

=0

.46

2)

PC1 (56.48% Variance; p =0.306)

-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0.0

0.2

0.4

PC

2 (2

7.3

3%

Vari

an

ce

; p

=0

.68

3)

PC1 (47.47% Variance; p =0.524)

A) 1D PURGE

B) 2D HSQC

i) 0.1 mg cm-2 ii) 0.5 mg cm-2 iii) 1.0 mg cm-2

i) 0.1 mg cm-2 ii) 0.5 mg cm-2 iii) 1.0 mg cm-2

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Figure A3.5: T-test filtered 1H-13C HSQC difference spectra of E. fetida tissue extracts were obtained by subtracting the mean buckets of: A) trifluralin-exposed earthworms at 1.0mg cm-2 and B) endosulfan-exposed earthworms at 2.0 µg cm-2 concentrations, with the mean buckets of the control earthworms. Signals that were significantly different from the control (p<0.05) were retained while everything else were excluded.

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1140

120

100

80

60

40

20

-3.400E-04

-2.040E-04

-6.800E-05

6.800E-05

2.040E-04

3.400E-04

1H Chemical Shift (ppm)

13C

Ch

em

ica

l S

hif

t (p

pm

)

B) Endosulfan (2.0 µg cm-2)

Malate

Glucose

Melibiose

MethionineGlycine

Isoleucine

Phenylalanine

Maltose

Glutamine

Glutamate

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1140

120

100

80

60

40

20

-7.500E-04

-4.500E-04

-1.500E-04

1.500E-04

4.500E-04

7.500E-04

1H Chemical Shift (ppm)

13C

Ch

em

ica

l S

hif

t (p

pm

)

A) Trifluralin (1.0 mg cm-2)

Glycine

Maltose

Alanine

Leucine

Lysine

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211

Figure A3.6: PCA scores plot of PC1 versus PC2 of endosulfan-exposed E. fetida (●) and control E. fetida (■) (n = 10) using A) 1-D PURGE and B) 2-D 1H-13C HSQC NMR spectra at: i) 0.5 µg cm-2, ii) 1.0 µg cm-2 and iii) 2.0 µg cm-2. The P value for control and endosulfan exposed earthworms for the PCA components are reported using a two.

-0.8 -0.4 0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2

-0.4

-0.2

0.0

0.2

PC

2 (9

.36

% V

ari

an

ce

p =

0.5

13

)

PC1 (80.07% Variance p =0.001)

-0.8 -0.4 0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0.0

0.2

0.4

PC

2 (15

.23

% V

ari

an

ce

p =

0.9

32

)PC1 (70.31% Variance p =0.004)

-0.8 -0.4 0.0 0.4 0.8

-0.4

-0.2

0.0

0.2

PC

2 (11

.41

% V

ari

an

ce

p =

0.8

40

)

PC1 (74.18% Variance p=0.094)

-0.8 -0.4 0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2-0.4

-0.2

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

PC

2 (

13

.42

% V

ari

an

ce

p =

0.9

82

)

PC1 (75.70% Variance p =0.0003)

-0.8 -0.4 0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0.0

0.2

0.4

PC1 (72.84% Variance p =0.002)

PC

2 (12

.65

% V

ari

an

ce

p =

0.7

24

)

-0.8 -0.4 0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0.0

0.2

0.4

PC

2 (1

2.4

5%

Va

ria

nce

p =

0.9

26

)

PC1 (75.84% Variance p =0.066)

A) 1D PURGE

B) 2D HSQC

i) 0.5 µg cm-2 ii) 1.0 µg cm-2 iii) 2.0 µg cm-2

i) 0.5 µg cm-2 ii) 1.0 µg cm-2 iii) 2.0 µg cm-2

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Appendix B

Supplementary Material for Chapter Four

Published as: Yuk, J., Simpson, M.J., and Simpson, A.J., Coelomic fluid: A complimentary

biological medium to assess sub-lethal endosulfan exposure using 1H NMR-based earthworm metabolomics. Ecotoxicology, 2012: (In Press).

Reproduced with permission from Ecotoxicology, 2012, In Press. (http://www.springerlink.com/content/f44h11206g4150wh/). © Copyright Springer Publishing

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213

Figure A4.1: PCA scores plot of endosulfan-exposed Eisenia fetida (●) and control (■) of the earthworms (A) coelomic fluid and (B) tissue extract 1H-NMR spectra at: (i) 0.5 µg cm-2, (ii) 1.0 µg cm-2 and (iii) 2.0 µg cm-2. The p-value for control and endosulfan exposed earthworms for the PCA components are reported using a two-sample t-test.

A) Coelomic Fluid

B) Tissue Extract

i) 0.5 µg cm-2 ii) 1.0 µg cm-2 iii) 2.0 µg cm-2

i) 0.5 µg cm-2 ii) 1.0 µg cm-2 iii) 2.0 µg cm-2

-0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

-0.8

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

PC1 (76.3% Variance p=0.037)

PC

3 (

7.6

% V

ari

an

ce

p=

0.0

04

)

-0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

-0.8

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

PC

3 (

7.9

% V

ari

an

ce

p=

0.0

10

)

PC1 (72.2% Variance p=0.070)

-0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8-0.8

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

PC

3 (

8.3

% V

ari

an

ce

p=

0.0

85)

PC1 (62.9% Variance p=0.076)

-0.8 -0.4 0.0 0.4 0.8

-0.8

-0.4

0.0

0.4

0.8

PC

2 (

32

.7%

Va

ria

nc

e p

=2

.94

E-0

6)

PC1 (39.3% Variance p=0.784)-0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

-0.8

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

PC

2 (

15

.3%

Va

ria

nc

e p

=0

.00

28

)PC1 (47.9% Variance p=0.432)

-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

PC

2 (

13

.8%

Va

rian

ce

p=

0.0

34

)

PC1 (62.4% Variance p=0.689)

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214

Appendix C

Supplementary Material for Chapter Five

Content in this chapter has been submitted as:

Yuk, J., Simpson, M.J., and Simpson, A.J., 1-D and 2-D NMR metabolomics of earthworm responses to sub-lethal endosulfan and endosulfan sulfate exposure in soil. Environ. Pollut., 2012 (Submitted).

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215

S5.1 Analysis of soil endosulfan or endosulfan sulfate concentrations

Endosulfan and endosulfan sulfate spiked soils used in the earthworm exposure

experiments were extracted and quantified using Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

methods 3540C and 8081B [1, 2]. The determination of percent dry weight was determined before

analysis with approximately 10g (wet weight) of each soil used for the earthworm soil

experiments. A separate 10 g (wet weight) of each soil was collected , mixed with 10 g sodium

sulfate (Na2SO4, Fisher Scientific), and spiked with 100 µl of 10 µg /ml tetrachloro-m-xylene (min

99.9% purity, Supelco) as a surrogate standard. The samples were then soxhlet extracted for 24

hours using 200 mL hexane: acetone (1:1) (Optima grade, Fisher Scientific). Extracts were then

concentrated by rotary evaporation and an N2 gas blower. Triplicates for each exposure

concentration for endosulfan and endosulfan sulfate were performed.

Endosulfan and endosulfan sulfate concentrations were analyzed using an Agilent 6890 N

Gas chromatograph coupled to an Agilent 5973 quadrupole mass selective detector equipped with

an HP-5MS column (30 m x 0.25 mm i.d., 0.25 µm film thickness) and an Agilent 7683

autosampler. Using the recommended settings from EPA methods 8081B [2], the injection volume

used was 1.0 µL (splitless), inlet temperature was set at 225oC and total flow was 1.0 mL/min.

The starting temperature was set at 100oC which was held for 2 min and then ramped at 15oC/min

to 160oC and finally 5oC/min to 270oC. The mass spectrometer was operated in electron impact

mode (EI) at 70 eV ionization energy and in selective ion monitoring mode (m/z 207 and 244 for

ml tetrachloro-m-xylene, 195 and 236.9 for endosulfan and 228.9 and 271.8 for endsulfan sulfate).

The data was analyzed using Agilent Chemstation G 1701 DA software and endosulfan and

endosulfan sulfate were identified and quantified using external standards. The endosulfan and

endosulfan sulfate concentration in the soil were corrected for extraction efficiency using the

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216

surrogate standard percent recovery and calculated on a dry weight basis by comparison to the

measured soil percent dry weight [1]. The relative standard deviation between all the triplicate

samples was 6% and the average surrogate recovery was 80%.

S5.2 Earthworm coelomic fluid and tissue extraction and preparation for NMR

Each earthworm after exposure (control or exposed) were placed in individual 25 mL glass

vials with 415 µL of 0.2 M monobasic sodium phosphate buffer solution (NaH2PO4·2H2O; 99.3%;

Fisher Scientific) containing 0.1% (w/v) sodium azide (99.5% purity; Sigma Aldrich) as a

preservative. Buffer solution was made with D2O (99.9% purity, Cambridge Isotope Laboratories

Inc., Andover, MA, USA) and adjusted to a pD of 7.4 using NaOD (30% w/w in 99.5% D2O,

Cambridge Isotope Laboratories Inc). The buffer solution for all NMR samples also contained 10

mg/L of 2,2-dimethyl-2-silapentane-5-sulfonate sodium salt (DSS; 97%, Sigma Aldrich) as an

internal standard. A non-invasive electrical extrusion technique was done to extract the earthworm

CF using a 9 V battery and short exposure (<1s) repeated 10 times [3-5]. The earthworm was then

removed and the extracted fluid was placed in a 1.5 mL centrifuge tube and centrifuged for 20

minutes at 15,000 rpm (~17,000 x g) using an International Equipment Company 21000

Centrifuge (Fisher Scientific, Canada) to remove any biosolids or coelomocytes. The supernatant

was then transferred into a 5 mm High Throughputplus NMR tubes (Norell Inc., Landisville, NJ,

USA).

The lyophilized earthworms were homogenized in a 1.5 mL centrifuge tube using a 5 mm

wide stainless steel spatula. The homogenized samples were then extracted using 1 mL of a 0.2 M

monobasic sodium phosphate buffer solution (NaH2PO4·2H2O; 99.3%; Fisher Scientific)

containing 0.1% (w/v) sodium azide (99.5% purity; Sigma Aldrich) as a preservative [6]. Buffer

solution was made with D2O (99.9% purity, Cambridge Isotope Laboratories Inc) and adjusted to a

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217

pD of 7.4 using NaOD (30% w/w in 99.5% D2O, Cambridge Isotope Laboratories Inc). The buffer

solution for all NMR samples also contained 10 mg/L of 2,2-dimethyl-2-silapentane-5-sulfonate

sodium salt (DSS; 97%, Sigma Aldrich) as an internal standard. Samples were vortexed for 30

seconds using a VX 100 vortexer (Labnet, Edison, NJ, USA) and then sonicated for 15 minutes

using a FS60 sonicator (Fisher Scientific) to aid with the extraction. Samples were then

centrifuged at 14,000 rpm using an International Equipment Company 21000 Centrifuge (Fisher

Scientific) for 20 minutes and the supernatant was transferred into a new 1.5 mL centrifuge tube.

The centrifuge process was then repeated two more times to ensure all additional particulates were

removed and then samples were transferred into a 5 mm High Throughputplus NMR tubes (Norell

Inc).

S5.3 Preparation of NMR spectral data for Principal Component Analysis (PCA)

The earthworm CF 1H NMR spectra were divided into width bins of 0.02 ppm from the

region 0.25-9.0 ppm using Analysis of Mixtures (AMIX) statistics package (version 3.9.8, Bruker

BioSpin) and the region from 4.35-5.21 ppm was not analyzed due to residual H2O/HOD signals

present in this region. The earthworm tissue extract 1H NMR spectra were divided into width bins

of 0.02 ppm from the region 0.25-9.0 ppm and the region from 4.75-4.90 ppm was not analyzed

due to residual H2O/HOD signals present in this region. For the earthworm tissue extract 1H-13C

HSQC spectra, the carbon spectrum (F2) was divided into width bins of 0.50 ppm from the region

of 10.0-140.0 ppm and the 1H spectrum (F1) was divided into width bins of 0.05 ppm from the

region 0.25-9.0 ppm. The region of 4.75-4.90 ppm on the 1H spectrum with their associated

carbon spectrum from the region 10.0-140.0 ppm was excluded due to the residual H2O/HOD

signals present in this region. The “sum of intensities” was used as the integration mode and the

scaling was set to “total intensity” for all the NMR spectra. PCA was performed at the 95%

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218

confidence level and any variances that represented less than 1% or 2.5% in the bins for 1-D and 2-

D NMR spectra were excluded [7, 8]. Therefore in this study, each treatment group and

unexposed control group had ten earthworms each for both CF and tissue extract experiments

except for the highest endosulfan concentration (10.0mg/kg) which had six earthworms in the

earthworm CF group and eight earthworms in the tissue extract group and for the high endosulfan

sulfate concentration (10.0mg/kg) which had eight earthworms in the tissue extract group.

S5.4. 1-D and 2-D t-test filtered NMR difference plots

Each difference NMR spectrum was generated by subtracting the averaged bucket

intensities of the control group from each of the exposed group concentrations. In addition, a t-test

was conducted on each bin to determine if the intensity difference was significantly different to the

control (p<0.05). Any intensity values that were significantly different were kept in the spectrum

but if not, were replaced with a zero. The final t-test filtered difference NMR spectrum allows the

identification of potential metabolites from the significant peaks that were increasing/decreasing

after exposure. Influential peak signals identified in the 1-D and 2-D difference spectra were then

matched with metabolite signals from a previous study which identified the major metabolites in E.

fetida [6] and were also compared to the Bruker Biofluid Reference Compound Database version

2-0-3(BrukerBioSpin).

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219

S5.5 References

1. (EPA), U.S.E.P.A., Method 3540C Soxhlet Extraction, P.C.M. Test Methods for Evaluating

Solid Waste, Editor 1996, National Technical Information Service (NTIS): Springfield,

VA.

2. (EPA), U.S.E.P.A., Method 8081B Organochlorine Pesticides by Gas Chromatography. ,

D.o. Commerce, Editor 2007, National Technical Information Services (NTIS):

Springfield, VA.

3. Bundy, J.G., et al., Earthworm species of the genus Eisenia can be phenotypically

differentiated by metabolic profiling. FEBS Let, 2002. 521: p. 115-120.

4. Hendawi, M., et al., A new ultrasound protocol for extrusion of coelomocyte cells from the

earthworm Eisenia fetida. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf., 2004. 59(1): p. 17-22.

5. Yuk, J., M.J. Simpson, and A.J. Simpson, Coelomic fluid: A complimentary biological

medium to assess sub-lethal endosulfan exposure using 1H NMR-based earthworm

metabolomics. Ecotoxicology, 2012: p. In Press.

6. Brown, S.A.E., A.J. Simpson, and M.J. Simpson, Evaluation of sample preparation

methods for nuclear magnetic resonance metabolic profiling studies with Eisenia fetida.

Environ. Toxicol. Chem., 2008. 27(4): p. 828-836.

7. Brown, S.A.E., et al., 1H NMR metabolomics of earthworm exposure to sub-lethal

concentrations of phenanthrene in soil. Environ. Pollut., 2010.

8. Yuk, J., M.J. Simpson, and A.J. Simpson, 1-D and 2-D NMR metabolomics of earthworm

responses to sub-lethal trifluralin and endosulfan exposure. Environ. Chem., 2011. 8(3): p.

281-294.

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220

Table S5.1. Total endosulfan and endosulfan sulfate concentrations extracted by soxhlet

extractions and analyzed using GC/MS

Spiked endosulfan and

endosulfan concentration

(mg/kg dry weight)

Measured endosulfan

concentration (mg/kg dry

weight)

Measured endosulfan sulfate

concentration (mg/kg dry

weight)

0 (Control) Below detection limits Below detection limits 0.1 0.098 0.086 1.0 0.92 0.88

10.0 12.25 8.85

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221

Figure S5.1 PCA scores plot of PC1 versus PC2 of endosulfan-exposed E. fetida (●) and control E. fetida (■) using A) Coelomic fluid (1-D PURGE), B) Tissue extract (1-D PURGE ) and C) Tissue extract (2-D HSQC) NMR spectra at: i) 0.1 mg kg-1, ii) 1.0 mg kg-1 and iii) 10.0 mg kg-1.

A) Coelomic Fluid (1D PURGE)

i) 0.1 mg kg-1 ii) 1.0 mg kg-1 iii) 10.0 mg kg-1

B) Tissue Extract (1D PURGE)

C) Tissue Extract (2D HSQC)

i) 0.1 mg kg-1 ii) 1.0 mg kg-1 iii) 10.0 mg kg-1

i) 0.1 mg kg-1 ii) 1.0 mg kg-1 iii) 10.0 mg kg-1

-0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4

-0.4

-0.2

0.0

0.2

0.4

PC

2 (

26

.0%

Va

ria

nc

e)

PC1 (33.1% Variance)-0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4

-0.4

-0.2

0.0

0.2

0.4

PC1 (40.6% Variance)P

C2

(2

6.0

% V

ari

an

ce

)-1.2 -0.8 -0.4 0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2

-1.2

-0.8

-0.4

0.0

0.4

0.8

1.2

PC1 (56.2% Variance)

PC

2 (

17

.7%

Va

ria

nc

e)

-1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5-1.5

-1.0

-0.5

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

PC

2 (

8.0

% V

ari

an

ce

)

PC1 (83.8% Variance)

-1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5-1.5

-1.0

-0.5

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

PC

2 (

7.3

% V

ari

an

ce

)

PC1 (85.9% Variance)

-1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5-1.5

-1.0

-0.5

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

PC

2 (

6.9

% V

ari

an

ce

)

PC1 (85.3% Variance)

-2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0-2.0

-1.5

-1.0

-0.5

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

PC

2 (

5.9

% V

ari

an

ce

)

PC1 (85.6% Variance)

-2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0-2.0

-1.5

-1.0

-0.5

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

PC

2 (

6.4

% V

ari

an

ce

)

PC1 (87.6% Variance)

-2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0-2.0

-1.5

-1.0

-0.5

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

PC

2 (

4.7

% V

ari

an

ce

)

PC1 (84.5% Variance)

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222

Figure S5.2 PCA scores plot of PC1 versus PC2 of endosulfan sulfate-exposed E. fetida (●) and control E. fetida (■) using A) Coelomic fluid (1-D PURGE), B) Tissue extract (1-D PURGE ) and C) Tissue extract (2-D HSQC) NMR spectra at: i) 0.1 mg kg-1, ii) 1.0 mg kg-1 and iii) 10.0 mg kg-1.

A) Coelomic Fluid (1D PURGE)

i) 0.1 mg kg-1 ii) 1.0 mg kg-1 iii) 10.0 mg kg-1

B) Tissue Extract (1D PURGE)

C) Tissue Extract (2D HSQC)

i) 0.1 mg kg-1 ii) 1.0 mg kg-1 iii) 10.0 mg kg-1

i) 0.1 mg kg-1 ii) 1.0 mg kg-1 iii) 10.0 mg kg-1

-0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4

-0.4

-0.2

0.0

0.2

0.4

PC

2 (

22

.4%

Va

rian

ce

)

PC1 (33.9% Variance)

-0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4-0.4

-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

PC

2 (

27

.8%

Va

rian

ce

)PC1 (29.4% Variance)

-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

PC

2 (

16

.0%

Va

rian

ce

)

PC1 (46.4% Variance)

-1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5-1.5

-1.0

-0.5

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

PC

2 (

9.4

% V

ari

an

ce)

PC1 (80.0% Variance)

-1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5-1.5

-1.0

-0.5

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

PC

2 (

7.9

% V

ari

an

ce)

PC1 (83.9% Variance)

-1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5-1.5

-1.0

-0.5

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

PC

2 (

8.0

% V

ari

an

ce)

PC1 (84.8% Variance)

-1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5-1.5

-1.0

-0.5

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

PC

2 (

7.8

% V

ari

an

ce)

PC1 (83.2% Variance)

-2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

-2.0

-1.5

-1.0

-0.5

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

PC

2 (

8.6

% V

ari

an

ce)

PC1 (85.5% Variance)

-2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0-2.0

-1.5

-1.0

-0.5

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

PC

2 (

6.0

% V

ari

an

ce)

PC1 (87.2% Variance)

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223

Figure S5.3: T-test filtered 1H NMR difference spectra of E. fetida coelomic fluid were obtained by subtracting the mean buckets of each endosulfan-exposed earthworm concentration: A) 0.1 mg kg-1, B) 1.0 mg kg-1 and C) 10.0 mg kg-1 with the mean buckets of the control earthworms. Spectral signals that were significantly different from the control (p<0.05) were retained while others are excluded.

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Chemical Shift (ppm)

1.3

1 L

ac

tate

1.4

5 A

lan

ine

2.3

9 S

ucc

ina

te

2.9

9 α

-ke

tog

luta

rate

3.1

1 S

pe

rmid

ine

3.2

5 B

eta

ine

3.5

5 G

lycin

e3

.59

My

o-i

no

sito

l

A)

B)

C)

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224

Figure S5.4: T-test filtered 1H NMR difference spectra of E. fetida coelomic fluid were obtained by subtracting the mean buckets of each endosulfan sulfate-exposed earthworm concentration: A) 0.1 mg kg-1, B) 1.0 mg kg-1 and C) 10.0 mg kg-1 with the mean buckets of the control earthworms. Spectral signals that were significantly different from the control (p<0.05) were retained while others are excluded.

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Chemical Shift (ppm)

1.3

1 L

ac

tate

1.4

5 A

lan

ine

2.3

9 S

uc

cin

ate

2.9

9 α

-ke

tog

luta

rate

3.1

1 S

pe

rmid

ine

3.2

5 B

eta

ine

3.5

5 G

lyc

ine

3.5

9 M

yo

-in

osi

tol

A)

B)

C)

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225

Figure S5.5: T-test filtered 1H NMR difference spectra of E. fetida tissue extract were obtained by subtracting the mean buckets of each endosulfan-exposed earthworm concentration: A) 0.1 mg kg-

1, B) 1.0 mg kg-1 and C) 10.0 mg kg-1 with the mean buckets of the control earthworms. Spectral signals that were significantly different from the control (p<0.05) were retained while others are excluded.

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Chemical Shift (ppm)

1.3

1 L

ac

tate

1.4

5 A

lan

ine

2.4

3 G

luta

min

e

Ov

erl

ap

pin

g

Su

ga

rs a

nd

am

ino

ac

ids

4.9

6 M

eli

bio

se

5.4

1 M

alt

ose

8.2

3 A

TP

A)

B)

C)

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226

Figure S5.6: T-test filtered 1H NMR difference spectra of E. fetida tissue extract were obtained by subtracting the mean buckets of each endosulfan-exposed earthworm concentration: A) 0.1 mg kg-

1, B) 1.0 mg kg-1 and C) 10.0 mg kg-1 with the mean buckets of the control earthworms. Spectral signals that were significantly different from the control (p<0.05) were retained while others are excluded.

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Chemical Shift (ppm)

1.3

1 L

ac

tate

1.4

5 A

lan

ine

2.4

3 G

luta

min

e

Ov

erl

ap

pin

g

Su

ga

rs a

nd

am

ino

ac

ids

4.9

6 M

eli

bio

se

5.4

1 M

alt

ose

8.2

3 A

TP

A)

B)

C)

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227

Figure S5.7: T-test filtered 1H-13C HSQC difference spectra of E. fetida tissue extract were obtained by subtracting the mean buckets of each endosulfan-exposed earthworm concentration: A) 0.1 mg kg-1, B) 1.0 mg kg-1 and C) 10.0 mg kg-1 with the mean buckets of the control earthworms. Spectral signals that were significantly different from the control (p<0.05) were retained while others are excluded.

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1140

120

100

80

60

40

20

-0.003500

-0.002938

-0.002375

-0.001812

-0.001250

-6.875E-04

-1.250E-04

4.375E-04

1.000E-03

1H Chemical Shift (ppm)

13C

Ch

em

ical

Sh

ift

(pp

m)

Glutamine

A)

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1140

120

100

80

60

40

20

-0.003500

-0.002938

-0.002375

-0.001812

-0.001250

-6.875E-04

-1.250E-04

4.375E-04

1.000E-03

1H Chemical Shift (ppm)

13C

Ch

em

ical S

hif

t (p

pm

)

B)

C)

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1140

120

100

80

60

40

20

-0.003500

-0.002938

-0.002375

-0.001812

-0.001250

-6.875E-04

-1.250E-04

4.375E-04

1.000E-03

1H Chemical Shift (ppm)

13C

Ch

em

ical

Sh

ift

(pp

m)

Alanine

Lactate

Methionine

Glutamate

Lysine

Glycine

Betaine

Maltose

Glucose

Melibiose

Glutamine

LactateGlutamate

Glycine

Betaine

Glucose

Melibiose

Glutamine

Lactate

Methionine

Glutamate

Lysine

Betaine

Glucose

Melibiose

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228

Figure S5.8: T-test filtered 1H-13C HSQC difference spectra of E. fetida tissue extract were obtained by subtracting the mean buckets of each endosulfan sulfate-exposed earthworm concentration: A) 0.1 mg kg-1, B) 1.0 mg kg-1 and C) 10.0 mg kg-1 with the mean buckets of the control earthworms. Spectral signals that were significantly different from the control (p<0.05) were retained while others are excluded.

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

-0.003500

-0.002938

-0.002375

-0.001812

-0.001250

-6.875E-04

-1.250E-04

4.375E-04

1.000E-03

1H Chemical Shift (ppm)

13C

Ch

em

ical

Sh

ift

(pp

m)

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1140

120

100

80

60

40

20

-0.003500

-0.002938

-0.002375

-0.001812

-0.001250

-6.875E-04

-1.250E-04

4.375E-04

1.000E-03

1H Chemical Shift (ppm)

13C

Ch

em

ica

l S

hif

t (p

pm

)

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1140

120

100

80

60

40

20

-0.003500

-0.002938

-0.002375

-0.001812

-0.001250

-6.875E-04

-1.250E-04

4.375E-04

1.000E-03

1H Chemical Shift (ppm)

13C

Ch

em

ica

l S

hif

t (p

pm

)

Glutamine

Alanine

Lactate

Methionine

Glutamate

Lysine

Glycine

Betaine

Maltose

Glucose

Melibiose

Glutamine

Lactate

Glucose

Glutamine

Melibiose

A) B)

C)

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229

Figure S5.9: Percent change (%) of identified metabolites from the t-test filtered 1H-13C HSQC NMR difference spectra of endosulfan-exposed E. fetida tissue extracts. Percent changes that were significantly different from the control (p<0.05) are labelled with “*”. These metabolites have been already identified in the t-test filtered 1H NMR difference spectra of endosulfan-exposed E.

fetida tissue extracts and were not repeated again. Each percent change is shown with their associated standard error.

-20

0

20

40

60

80

p<0.1

*

*

Rela

tive P

erc

en

t C

han

ge (

%) Alanine

Concentrations (mg kg-1)

0.1 1.0 10.00

10

20

30

40

50

60* *

R

ela

tive P

erc

en

t C

han

ge (

%)

*

Glutamine

Concentrations (mg kg-1)

0.1 1.0 10.00

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

**

R

ela

tive P

erc

en

t C

han

ge (

%)

*

Lactate

Concentrations (mg kg-1)

0.1 1.0 10.0

-80

-70

-60

-50

-40

-30

-20

-10

0

*

*

R

ela

tive P

erc

en

t C

han

ge (

%)

*

Maltose

Concentrations (mg kg-1)

0.1 1.0 10.0

-90

-80

-70

-60

-50

-40

-30

-20

-10

0

*

*

R

ela

tive P

erc

en

t C

han

ge

(%

)

*

Melibiose

Concentrations (mg kg-1)

0.1 1.0 10.0

Page 251: THE APPLICATION OF NMR-BASED METABOLOMICS IN ......Coelomic fluid: A complimentary biological medium to assess sub-lethal endosulfan exposure using 1 H NMR-based earthworm metabolomics

230

Figure S5.10: Percent change (%) of identified metabolites from the t-test filtered 1H-13C HSQC NMR difference spectra of endosulfan sulfate-exposed E. fetida tissue extracts. Percent changes that were significantly different from the control (p<0.05) are labelled with “*”. These metabolites have been already identified in the t-test filtered 1H NMR difference spectra of endosulfan sulfate-exposed E. fetida tissue extracts and were not repeated again. Each percent change is shown with their associated standard error.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80*

R

ela

tiv

e P

erc

en

t C

ha

ng

e (

%)

*

Lactate

Concentrations (mg kg-1)

0.1 1.0 10.0

-80

-70

-60

-50

-40

-30

-20

-10

0

*

R

ela

tiv

e P

erc

en

t C

ha

ng

e (

%)

Maltose

Concentrations (mg kg-1)

0.1 1.0 10.0

-60

-50

-40

-30

-20

-10

0

*

*

R

ela

tiv

e P

erc

en

t C

ha

ng

e (

%)

Melibiose

Concentrations (mg kg-1)

0.1 1.0 10.0

0

20

40

60

80

100

*

R

ela

tiv

e P

erc

en

t C

han

ge

(%

) Alanine

Concentrations (mg kg-1)

0.1 1.0 10.00

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

*

*

R

ela

tiv

e P

erc

en

t C

han

ge

(%

)

*

Glutamine

Concentrations (mg kg-1)

0.1 1.0 10.0