the association of southeast asian nations (asean

THE ASSOCIATION OF SOUTHEAST ASIAN NATIONS

(ASEAN) COOPERATION IN COUNTER-TERRORISM

(2003 – 2013)

By

Citra Triana Hastuti

016201000082

A thesis presented to the

Faculty of International Relations, Communication and Law

President University

In partial fulfillment of the requirements for

Bachelor Degree in International Relations

Concentration in Strategic and Defense Studies

January 2014

ii

PANEL OF EXAMINER

APPROVAL SHEET

The Panel of Examiners declare that the thesis entitled “The Association

of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Cooperation in Counter-Terrorism

(2003-2013)” that was submitted by Citra Triana Hastuti majoring in

International Relations from the Faculty of International Relations,

Communication and Law was assessed and approved to have passed the

Oral Examinations on 30 January 2014.

Prof. Anak Agung Banyu Perwita, Ph.D.

Advisor

Isyana Adriani Arslan, Ba. M.Si.

Advisor

Hendra Manurung, MA

Examiner

iii

THESIS ADVISER

RECOMMENDATION LETTER

This thesis entitled “The Association of Southeast Asian Nations

(ASEAN) Cooperation in Counter-Terrorism (2003-2013)” prepared

and submitted by Citra Triana Hastuti in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree of Bachelor Degree in International Relations in the Faculty of International Relations, Communication and

Law has been reviewed and found to have satisfied the requirements for

a thesis fit to be examined. I therefore recommend this thesis for Oral

Defense.

Cikarang, Indonesia, 10 February 2014

___________________________________

Prof. Anak Agung Banyu Perwita, Ph.D.

iv

DECLARATION OF ORIGINALITY

I declare that this thesis, entitled “The Association of Southeast Asian

Nations (ASEAN) Cooperation in Counter-Terrorism (2003-2013)” is, to

the best of my knowledge and belief, an original piece of work that has

not been submitted, either in whole or in part, to another university to

obtain a degree.

Cikarang, Indonesia, 10 February 2014

_____________________


v

ABSTRACT

“The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Cooperation in Counter-

Terrorism (2003 – 2013)”

Terrorism has become a great enemy, not only to United States, but also to

Southeast Asian states. Therefore, this research attempts to analyze how ASEAN

member states have responded to the issue. ASEAN have committed in several

cooperation, including in counter-terrorism. This research will provide some

information about terrorist groups in Southeast Asia and the terrors they have caused.

The research will also provide some information about ASEAN cooperation in

political, economy and socio-cultural areas, as well as counter-terrorism. It takes the

time frame of 2003-2013 because it is the most active timeline for ASEAN in

implementing what they have agreed in order to counter terrorism, especially after

the infamous first Bali Bombing occurred. The method which is being used while

conducting this research is qualitative method, using books and official reports to

analyze via library research and online research. After analyzing, writer found out

that radicalization is quite easy in the era of globalization. To overcome this, ASEAN

member states have put a lot of efforts in implementing their programs to counter

terrorism. Polices in Southeast Asia have worked together to breakdown the terrorist

network in Southeast Asia. ASEAN member states also concern in deradicalizing

Islamist Extremists through rehabilitation program, although there are still some

doubts and criticisms about this program.

vi

ABSTRAK

“The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Cooperation in Counter-

Terrorism (2003 – 2013)”

Terorisme telah menjadi musuh besar, tidak hanya bagi Amerika Serikat,

tetapi juga untuk negara-negara di Asia Tenggara. Dengan demikian, penelitian ini

bertujuan untuk menganalisi bagaimana negara-negara Asia Tenggara merespon

masalah ini. ASEAN telah melakukan beberapa kerjasama, termasuk dalam

pemberantasan terorisme. Penelitian ini akan memberikan beberapa informasi

mengenai kelompok-kelompok teroris yang berada di Asia Tenggara dan teror yang

telah disebabkan oleh teroris-teroris tersebut. Penelitian ini juga akan memberikan

beberapa informasi tentang kerjasama ASEAN di bidang politik, ekonomi, dan social

budaya, termasuk dalam pemberantasan terorisme. Penelitian ini dibatasi dalam

periode waktu 2003-2013 karena merupakan waktu yang paling aktif untuk ASEAN

dalam menerapkan apa yang telah disepakati untuk melawan terorisme, terutama

setelah terjadinya Bom Bali I. Metode yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah

metode kualitatif, dengan menggunakan buku-buku dan laporan resmi untuk

dianalisis, melalui penelitian di perpustakaan maupun secara online. Setelah

menganalisa, penulisan mengetahui bahwa radikalisasi cukup mudah dilakukan di era

globalisasi. Untuk mengatasi hal tersebut, negara-negara yang tergabung dalam

ASEAN telah mengerahkan banyak upaya dalam melaksanakan program-program

pemberantasan terorisme. ASEAN berkomitmen untuk bekerja sama untuk

menghancurkan jaringan teroris di Asia Tenggara. Anggota ASEAN juga menaruh

perhatian dalam proses deradikalisasi mantan-mantan teroris atau ekstrimis Islam

melalu program rehabilitasi, meskipun masih ada keraguan dan kritik mengenai

program tersebut.

vii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Never once in my life before I imagined that working on thesis would be this

exhausting, time consuming and difficult. Now I have learned the hard way. I cannot

believe myself that I finally managed to finish this thesis. This is all possible because

of the dearest God, who helps me to get through anything. Thank you the almighty

Allah SWT up there for Your never ending love and blessing for me. Without You, I

will not be able to go this far.

Thank you to my parents for their endless love, support and encouragement in

my whole life. You are everything to me. This thesis is dedicated specially for you,

also to my two elder brothers, even though sometimes you two are so annoying, but I

love you guys! Shout out to my little nephew, Almira, whom I cherish the most.

Thank you for my huge family in Yogyakarta, Jakarta and Mataram, especially Ai

Sin who helped me during internship period and taught me a lot of life lessons.

I would like to express huge gratitude for Professor Anak Agung Banyu

Perwita for all your helps and advices. Even though you are always busy with your

schedules, but you always manage to spare time for your thesis students, including

me. Thank you for your guidance and encouragement for me to finish this thesis.

Thank you to Miss Isyana Adriani Arslan for the help and support as well. Our

consultations were always fruitful and fun at the same time because of your advices

and our spazzing time.

Thanks a lot to my classy yet silly sister-like friends, kak Ima and kak Yuna.

You both always cheer me up every time I was feeling down about my thesis with

your wise advices and our random conversation on Kakaotalk. Even though we

literally live far away, you both are always there for me. Thank you Nike (and her

kind-hearted family), Jovita and Alice! We always motivate each other. Our 3 year

(and still counting) of friendship at University is precious to me.

viii

My fellow International Relations batch 2010 friends who went through the

same misery as me, especially Shabrina, Echie, Isma, Denisa, Gina, Tari, Kai, Dikta,

Clinton, Garciano, Alvin, Ryan, Icut, Tiwi, Bimo, Winda, Hanita, Ejhy, Kiky, Vernal,

Yayan, Jendra, Isa, Stevie, Putri, Cornel, Ferdo, Ekky, Randy and those who I

haven‟t mentioned yet. Not forget to mention, all of my friends from International

Relations class 1. Thank you so much for the memories, I will definitely cherish

them forever. Let‟s not end our friendship after graduation. Let‟s keep it „til forever.

Last but not least, special thanks to Janine, Naomi, Hannah, the other KS circle of

friends, Panda and Mika. Your virtual encouragement really matters to me. You all

never fail to entertain me. I‟m sorry that I cannot mention all of my friends and

family members one by one in this acknowledgement, but thank you so much for the

support and love. It really means a lot to me.

Cikarang, January 2014


ix

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PANEL EXAMINERS APPROVAL SHEET ...........................................................ii

THESIS ADVISER RECOMMENDATION LETTER ........................................ iii

DECLARATION OF ORIGINALITY ...................................................................... iv

ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................... v

ABSTRAK ....................................................................................................................... vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...........................................................................................vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS .............................................................................................. ix

LIST OF ACRONYMS ................................................................................................xii

CHAPTER I - INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background of the Study .................................................................................... 1

1.2. Problem Identification......................................................................................... 4

1.3. Statement of the Problem ................................................................................... 6

1.4. Research Objectives ............................................................................................. 6

1.5. Significance of the Study ..................................................................................... 7

1.6. Theoretical Framework ...................................................................................... 7

1.6.1. How to Handle Terrorism ……………………………………………………………………………..7

1.7. Scope and Limitations of the Study................................................................. 13

1.8. Literature Review .............................................................................................. 13

1.9. Research Methodology ...................................................................................... 16

1.10. Definition of Terms .......................................................................................... 16

x

1.10.1. Terrorism……………………………………………………………….16

1.10.2. The Radicalization ……………………………………………………..17

1.10.3. Holy War ………………………………………………………………19

1.11. Thesis Structure …………………………………………………………. 20

1.11.1. Chapter I - Introduction ……………...……………………………….. 20

1.11.2. Chapter II - The Development of Terrorism in Southeast Asia ………. 20

1.11.3. Chapter III - ASEAN as a Regional Grouping in Southeast Asia ……. 20

1.11.4. Chapter IV - ASEAN Cooperation in Counter-Terrorism ……………. 21

1.11.5. Chapter V - Conclusion ………………………………………………. 21

CHAPTER II - THE DEVELOPMENT OF TERRORISM IN SOUTHEAST

ASIA

2.1. Terrorism in Southeast Asia............................................................................. 22

2.1.1. Terrorism in Indonesia .................................................................................. 26

2.1.2. Terrorism in The Philippines ........................................................................ 30

2.2. Terrorist Groups in Southeast Asia ................................................................ 32

2.2.1. Jemaah Islamiyah (JI) ................................................................................... 32

2.2.2. Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG) ........................................................................... 37

CHAPTER III - ASEAN as a Regional Grouping in Southeast Asia: Historical

Overview

3.1. Regional Mechanism ........................................................................................ 42

3.1.1. Political-Security Cooperation ..................................................................... 43

3.1.2. Finance and Economic Cooperation ............................................................ 47

xi

3.1.3. Social and Cultural Cooperation .................................................................. 50

3.2. ASEAN Security Cooperation .......................................................................... 54

3.3.1. ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) ................................................................. 55

3.3.2. Bilateral and Trilateral Security Cooperation of ASEAN ......................... 58

CHAPTER IV - ASEAN Cooperation in Counter-Terrorism

4.1. ASEAN Convention on Counter-Terrorism (ACCT) .................................. 64

4.1.1. Exchange Information and Data ................................................................... 65

4.1.2. Block the Flow of Fund to Terrorists ........................................................... 66

4.1.3. Joint Investigations and Military Trainings ……………………………. 68

4.1.4. Make Stricter Security and Border Control Mechanism ………………. 68

4.1.5. Cooperating with Citizens ……………………………………………... 69

4.2. The Implementation of ASEAN Cooperation in Counter-Terrorism ....... 71

4.3. The Obstacles that ASEAN Faces during Cooperating in Counter-

Terrorism .................................................................................................................... 76

4.3.1. Trust Issues between ASEAN Member States ………………………… 76

4.3.2. Stopping the Flow of Fund to Terrorist is Time Consuming …………... 78

4.3.3. Deradicalization is Uneasy …………………………………………….. 79

4.3.4. Keeping Up with the Development of Technology ……………………. 80

CHAPTER V - CONCLUSION………………………………………………….. 82

BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................................................................................................... 85

APPENDICES ...…………………………………………….……………………..86

xii

LIST OF ACRONYMS

ACCT ASEAN Convention on Counter-Terrorism

ADMM Plus ASEAN Defense Ministers Meeting Plus

AEC ASEAN Economic Community

AFTA ASEAN Free Trade Area

AICO ASEAN Industrial Cooperation Scheme

AJCTD ASEAN-Japan Counter Terrorism Dialogue

APSC ASEAN Political-Security Community

APT ASEAN Plus Three Cooperation

ARF ASEAN Regional Forum

ASCC ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community

ASEAN The Association of Southeast Asian Nations

ASG Abu Sayyaf Group

AYC ASEAN Youth Convention

DI Darul Islam

EU European Union

FPI Front Pembela Islam

GAM Gerakan Aceh Merdeka

JI Jemaah Islamiyah

MILF Moro Islamic Liberation Front

NII Negara Islam Indonesia

SEAN WFZ Southeast Asian Nuclear Weapon Free Zone

SEARCCT Southeast Asia Regional Centre for Counter-Terrorism

TAC Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia

xiii

TNI Tentara Nasional Indonesia

US United States

WTC World Trade Center

1

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

I.1. Background of the Study

Ever since the first Bali bombing occurred in October 12 2002, our country

Indonesia has not been the same anymore. At least 202 people1, both locals and

foreigners, were killed in this incident. There was also a Christmas bombing in 2000

which was supposed to be a wake-up call for the government, police and civilians.

The term terrorism seems to be more familiar to the people of Indonesia in the past

13 years. It has raised Government‘s awareness about the danger of this threat and at

the same time, it has gained distrust among foreigners about Indonesian security.

Indonesia is no longer safe for them to visit.

However, the terrorist attacks did not only happen in Indonesia. It also

happened in the other Southeast Asian countries. We cannot deny that terrorism is

also a globalization product. Therefore, globalization does not only have positive

impacts but also the negative ones. The advancement of technology, easier way to

communicate and so many others can facilitate terrorists to violate state security.

There are more illegal incidents that have occurred in the past few years. Southeast

Asia, which countries accept globalization with open arms, unfortunately has to face

the same threat including in Indonesia. Terrorists are not only originally coming from

Indonesia, but other countries as well, for example, Dr. Azahari from Malaysia. All

the transactions and plans in conducting terrorism can occur anywhere in Southeast

Asia. Therefore, Southeast Asia has to be prepared for terrorist taking safe havens

and conducting attacks anywhere in the regional. The first Bali Bombing, as an

1 The Sydney Morning Herald. Bali Bombings Data Interactive. The first Bali bombing: ten years on

from. Retrieved September 20th 2013 from: http://www.smh.com.au/data-point/bali-anniversary

2

infamous terrorist act occurring in a major Southeast Asian country, is a great

example of how Southeast Asia is not a safe place.

The police had found out later that those Bali bombers were working under

the name of Islam and they stated that this attack was more than just a bombing, but

it was a ‗holy war‘ (jihad). The concept of Jihad is actually about combating those

who are against God‘s way or infidels. It is a struggle in defending Islam. Prophet

Muhammad used to hold the greater Jihad in order to combat those who kept others

from God‘s way, disbelieving Him and Holy Mosque2. He conducted a war in order

for those people to realize that God existed and they were supposed to stop

worshiping cult statues.

Jihad has three different meanings of struggle for Muslims, such as:

It is an internal struggle for a Muslim to practice Islamic faith

To build Muslim society

To struggle in defending Islam even with force when it is necessary3

Since Muslims want to make their best effort in glorifying their God by doing

as instructed by the Holy Koran, they are willing to fight for the sake of their religion.

However, misinterpretation of the term jihad has led to the killing of innocent

civilians.

There are several Islamic organizations which have misinterpreted the Koran,

that not only misinterpreting the term of jihad but also indoctrinated some people to

have the same faith as their leaders. The most popular international organization

would be Al-Qaeda which was founded by Osama Bin Laden, who was killed on

2 Muhammad: Legacy of a Prophet, Muhammad and Violence and Jihad. Retrieved September 20,

2013 from http://www.pbs.org/muhammad/ma_violence.shtml 3 BBC Religions. Islam: Jihad. Retrieved September 20, 2013 from

http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/beliefs/jihad_1.shtml


3

May 1, 20114, between August 1988 and late 1989. Al-Qaeda is an Islamic militant

group that provides fund, recruitment, transportation and training for people in order

to form a strong Islamic army. They work together with other radical Islamic

organizations all over the world, especially those which have the same vision and

mission, to fight against what they call deviation against Islam. They want Islam to

rule the world. Al-Qaeda has bluntly shown their hatred for United States of America

and stated that it is their obligation to put an end to American civilization, military

and its alliances5.

Al-Qaeda was behind several terrorism acts that happened and one of the

biggest attacks which shocked the whole world was on September 11 2001 at New

York City‘s famous WTC (World Trade Centre) buildings and the Pentagon, in

Washington DC. The blast killed 3000 people in just one day and this has become a

wake-up call for The US government and American civilians that a serious threat

could be brought by Islamic terrorists. It was as if a war had been declared.

A year after that, it was not only the United States that went through the terror,

but our nation also had its turn. People never expected to get attacked by terrorists.

Moreover, the attack happened in Bali which was enough to gain international

attention about this Islamic organization, none other than Jemaah Islamiyah (JI).

This organization carried out their suicide attack carefully without people realizing

and expecting it. Jemaah Islamiyah was led by two radical Islamic leaders named

Abu Bakar Ba‘asyir and Hambali.

However, is Jemaah Islamiyah the only Islamic organization operating in

Southeast Asia that we should be afraid of? People‘s attention was all over this

organization after the bombing blasted in Bali for the first time, but actually the

desire to be rebel against the government has been there since Darul Islam era of

4 The Telegraph. Al-Qaeda and Osama Bin Laden. Retrieved September 20, 2013 from

http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/al-qaeda/ 5 Beri Kabar. Asal Mula dan Sejarah Al-Qaeda. Retrieved September 20, 2013 from

http://www.berikabar.com/2012/09/asal-mula-dan-sejarah-al-qaeda.html

http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/al-qaeda/

4

1948-1960. Despite of the fact that terrorism is one of the causes why people on earth

suffer, some people still have different perspectives about this. They are seeking for

justice and still fighting for what they think is right by using terrorism to intimidate.

They also use terrorism as their way to protest against the government.

ASEAN was first established on 8 August 1967 in Bangkok and signed by

five member states, such as: Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Singapore and

Philippines. Later, Myanmar, Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam

joined the organization. These countries share similarities in many aspects, such as

heritage, culture and past experience of being occupied by European countries. The

regional organization was built in order to create a better and stronger relation

between the neighboring countries of Southeast Asia. ASEAN aims to strengthen

member states‘ relations not only in terms of politics and economy but also security.

Not only sharing the past experience of being colonized, the ten ASEAN

countries are also facing the same threat. It is the threat of terrorism, which they are

already aware of. With the fact that terrorists can come from any country in

Southeast Asia and terrorists attacks can occur anywhere in the region, it is about

time ASEAN realized that the eradication of terrorism should not be the

responsibility of one country. ASEAN member states should join forces to enhance

regional security by overcoming terrorism.

I.2. Problems Identification

Terrorist attacks should be on ASEAN‘s top threats list because in fact, the

attacks keep occurring. Despite the fact that government, police and citizens of

ASEAN countries are now more aware of this danger, sometimes we are just too

careless and unguarded. It means that after years, some people think that the threat

will be slowly over while in fact, it will not.

5

Actually, in the case of Indonesia, the government has done better in security

compared to before the first Bali bombing. They have provided tighter security in

several areas and buildings and have successfully arrested and executed some of

terrorists involved in this incident. It could be considered as an effort. However, it

seems that we have to try harder and give more efforts in combating terrorist acts not

only in Indonesia, but also in Southeast Asia. The fact that terrorism attacks occurs in

almost all Southeast Asian countries, has brought ASEAN countries a start in their

cooperation.

After some investigations we found out that a radical Islamic organization

called JI, with the help of Al-Qaeda, was behind this. The problem had arisen when

people got the impression that Muslims did this for the sake of their religion. Some

people have stereotyped that almost all Islamic organizations are likewise. They

perhaps think that Islam has taught its believers to fight in a holy war, continuing

Prophet Muhammad‘s fights against infidels. What people may not know is that these

persons actually get the wrong idea about holy war.

However apart from that, the leaders of Jemaah Islamiyah also wanted to

make Indonesia an Islamic country. From this statement, it has raised another

question: is it really for the religion and is their struggle in the name of God? Or is it

actually only a political way to take over Indonesian governments‘ authority by using

religion as its modus? For another reason, these terrorists seem to enjoy triggering

fear in the general public.

Some people have questioned the same issue. These people also need an

answer from the government and an action should be taken against these radical

Islamic organizations. There must be certain motives behind this terrorism because

terrorizing in the name of a religion remains irrelevant. Why would a religion teach a

person to hurt others especially innocent people?

6

The object of this research is the cooperation of Southeast Asia in handling

terrorist attacks, which have taken place in ASEAN member states, especially

Indonesia. The reason why this thesis focuses on ASEAN and radical Islamic

organization is because ASEAN as an international organization plays an important

role for Indonesia and this organization is so centered when it comes to terrorism or

rebellious acts of JI. This thesis also looks at how ASEAN member states have

worked together as an organization to eradicate terrorism from the grass root level

and create a thoroughly secure region.

I. 3. Statement of the Problem

Topic:

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Cooperation in Dealing with

Terrorism in Southeast Asia (2003 – 2013)

Question:

How do ASEAN member states cooperate to counter terrorism?

I. 4. Research Objectives

1. To find out about the development of terrorism in Southeast Asia

2. To analyze the implementation of ASEAN Convention on Counter-Terrorism

plans.

7

I. 5. Significance of the Study

Provide information about the development of terrorism in Southeast Asia

Provide information about terrorist networks in Southeast Asia

Provide information about how ASEAN member states governments work

together to counter terrorism.

I. 6. Theoretical Framework

I.6.1. How to handle terrorism

The world has been more aware than ever of threat of terrorism since 9/11.

Indonesia as one of the countries where terrorism has become one of the major

threats, the government should have come up with methods to handle terrorism. Not

only the government, but the citizens also have to be more aware and critical in

helping the government in handling it. The concept of preventing terrorism should

not only be developed but also implemented in real life.

As a democratic country, Indonesia has chosen law enforcement methods in

counterterrorism, where terrorism will be fought by the criminal justice system.

Criminal justice system involves the police and will be processed through court.

Some countries, for example Pakistan, chose military approach as their system to

counter terrorism. However, as a result, it threatens the country‘s stability in politics6.

The government could use both hard power and soft power for

counterterrorism. In this case, Indonesian government uses both ways. Hard power is

used when the police attempts to catch and arrest the terrorists. Terrorism should be

6 Kompas. Penanganan Terorisme. Retrieved October 29, 2013 from:

http://sains.kompas.com/read/2012/12/01/04025762/twitter.com

8

dealt with, according to the code of conduct or rule of management7. Even though

police should attack them and hard approach is very important, shooting the terrorists

right away to death would not be effective. If the police wants to get to know the

chain of their organization and more information, it is the best to arrest them first and

interrogate them.

Hard approach should be balanced with soft approach as well. Executing

terrorists will create sadness for the family who are left behind. In order to prevent

any possibility of the other family members to seek revenge, there should be soft

approach in the family by giving them more attention.

To apply soft power in counterterrorism, deradicalization is believed to be a

good way to reduce terrorism. Terrorism is usually started by radicalization, in which

individuals are indoctrinated with false ideologies or theories. Deradicalization is a

soft approach to nurture and lecture radicalized youth about what terrorism actually is

and how wrong it is.

In preventing terrorism, there should be good strategy and ideology. The

government has to emphasize to citizens that whoever helps and gets involved in

terrorist acts will be chased and punished8. All police, military bodies and the

government should work together to solve this problem. Even though there are not a

lot of terrorist attacks happening recently, everyone should still be aware and ready

for it and not let the guard down. They should also be aware if they have noticed any

abnormal or suspicious activities conducted by certain organizations, or even by their

neighbors.

7 Kompas. Penanganan Terorisme. Retrieved October 29, 2013 from:


8 Kompasiana. Strategi Mengatasi Ancaman Terorisme. Retrieved October 29, 2013 from:

http://umum.kompasiana.com/2009/07/26/strategi-mengatasi-ancaman-terorisme-14461.html


9

Terrorism comes in many forms. It comes the form of intelligence,

psychopath, conflict terrorism, legal terrorism and religion 9

. Although it comes in

different forms, all of them are dangerous and unpredictable. Intelligent terrorism can

also be called created terrorism or state-sponsored terrorism10

. It is made for several

reasons such as to maintain sovereignty against enemies and also divert public‘s

attention from certain issues. During the Soeharto administration (1966-1998),

snipers were hired to shoot anyone who was a threat to the government11

. They were

usually shot in public places or kidnapped, never to be heard of again. This method to

hush political opponents created a sense of terror to the people, further confirming

that they were not granted the freedom of speech. This kind of terror is still used

today privately by mafia heads and even influential businessmen, who sometimes

hire members of the police and the armed forces to kill anyone who is considered

dangerous to their business,

There was a secret and mysterious gunning down case which is also well-

known as ‗Petrus‘ (Penembakan Misterius)12

. The operation was held to kidnap and

eliminate those who were considered threats to civilians. However, this kind of

terrorism could also be used to threaten someone else for personal interest.

There is also psychopath terrorism in which the terrorists terrorize the others

for their own satisfaction. Psychopaths usually seek for attention, revenge or simply

just being happy of torturing the others. Conflict terrorism appears because of

conflicts or issues that made from two groups or countries13

. The terror is done to

9 Hasbullah, M. Academia.edu: Tesis-tesis tentang Terorisme. Retrieved October 3, 2013 from:

http://www.academia.edu/3637610/Tesis-tesis_tentang_Terorisme 10

Hasbullah, M. Academia.edu: Tesis-tesis tentang Terorisme. Retrieved October 3, 2013 from: http://www.academia.edu/3637610/Tesis-tesis_tentang_Terorisme 11

Tempo. Ini Kisah Pelaku Petrus Orde Baru. Retrieved October 3, 2013 from:

http://www.tempo.co/read/news/2012/07/31/078420311/Ini-Kisah-Pelaku-Petrus-Orde-Baru 12 Tempo. Ini Kisah Pelaku Petrus Orde Baru. Retrieved October 3, 2013 from:

http://www.tempo.co/read/news/2012/07/31/078420311/Ini-Kisah-Pelaku-Petrus-Orde-Baru 13

Hasbullah, M. Academia.edu: Tesis-tesis tentang Terorisme. Retrieved October 3, 2013 from:

http://www.academia.edu/3637610/Tesis-tesis_tentang_Terorisme




10

weaken enemies and show up the power they have, for example, terrorism which was

done by Israel towards Palestine.

Legal terrorism could be overcome with supports from the other countries14

.

It is usually done when countries feel threatened by certain radical or extremist

movement. Countries support each other in terms of security, for example, when

United States attacked Iraq and got supports from its alliance.

Terrorism which is done in the name of God or religion currently often

happens in the world, not only in Indonesia. Terrorist attacks are mostly caused by

the belief that the government is a heathen who stands in the way of God. Apart of

that, some people also feel betrayed by the country, thus they want to take revenge.

Among the most infamous terrorist attacks that occurred in Indonesia in recent years

are the Christmas bombing in 2000, the first and second Bali bombings in 2002 and

2005, and two J.W. Marriott bombings in 2003 and 2009 respectively.

Terrorism is a bully. It is conditioned in such a way to create fear, threatening

innocent civilians. Terrorists hope to get noticed and feared by people. M. Asfar in

his book titled ‗Agama, Terorisme dan Radikalisme‘, has explained that there are

three theories of terrorism background: structural, psychologist and rational choice.

Structural theory explains that the cause of terrorism lies in the contexts of politics,

economy, environment and social. This focuses on how the governments put their

attention on some factors in order to tend to its national security. These factors

consist of guaranteeing civilians of their safety and equal rights15

.

Psychologist theory questions why terrorists are willing to risk and sacrifice

their lives. There are a lot of terrorists who do this because of their disappointment

14

Hasbullah, M. Academia.edu: Tesis-tesis tentang Terorisme. Retrieved October 3, 2013 from:


15

Asfar, M. (2004). Agama, Terorisme Dan Radikalisme. N.p.: n.p., 2004.


11

with the government and other aspects. Some are disappointed because of the

negative effect of modernization, which they think is influenced by Western culture

and therefore stands in the way of God16

. Meanwhile, rational choice theory explains

the participation of terrorists in term of cost and benefit calculation17

.

Realists see that terrorism is a major threat and needed to be combated and

prevented18

. In realism and international relations theory, realists ―see that conflict is

in part situationally explained, but… believe that even were it not so; pride, lust and

quest for glory would cause the war of all against all to continue indefinitely.

Ultimately, conflict and war are rooted in human nature‖ (Waltz 1991: 35)19

. Realists

see that it is important to find out who are behind the mess and because in realism

theory, state is the key actor and really important20

, the relation between the act of

terrorism and people behind terrorism acts should be established21

.

Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu stated, ―International terrorism is

the use of terrorist violence against a given nation by another state, which uses the

terrorists to fight a proxy war as an alternative to conventional war. The first and

most crucial thing to understand is this. There is no international terrorism without

the support of sovereign states. International terrorism simply cannot be sustained for

long without the regimes that aid and abet it. Terrorists are not suspended in midair.

16


17


18

Realism vs. Liberalism in Development of Counterterrorism Strategy. Retrieved October 6, 2013.

http://smallwarsjournal.com/jrnl/art/realism-vs-liberalism-in-the-development-of-counterterrorism-

strategy 19

Donelly, J. (2000). Realism and International Relations. (DonellyJack, 2000)

20

Elman, C. (2009). Security Studies - an Introduction: Chapter 2. (ElmanCollin, 2009)

21

Reeson, G. (2006). Differing Viewpoints: Realism, Liberalism and the Phenomenon of Terrorism.

(ReesonGreg, 2006)

http://smallwarsjournal.com/jrnl/art/realism-vs-liberalism-in-the-development-of-counterterrorism-strategy


12

They train, arm, and indoctrinate their killers from within safe havens on territory

provided by terrorist states‖ (Netanyahu, 2001)22

.

Radical Islamic Organization also train, arm and indoctrinate people to fight

in the name God and their religion. The doctrine has already been rooted since a long

time ago, internationally. The history of radical Islamic group in Indonesia did not

only start from JI or recently, but it has already existed since Darul Islam era.

Kartosoewirjo was infamous for being a rebel against the country. His dream was to

make Indonesia as an Islamic country. His rebellion was started because of his

dissatisfaction with the results of Roem-Royen Agreement and Renville Agreement23

.

Then he created his own army and his very own structure of Indonesian Islamic State

or Negara Islam Indonesia (NII). As it stated that ―the ultimate sources of social

conflicts and injustices are to be found in the ignorance and selfishness of men‖

(Niebuhr 1932: 23)24

for his own idealism, he had indoctrinated some people to

follow his lead against the government. In his lead, there were several vandalisms

occurring in some areas, to show up his and his people‘s protests. His spirit of

making Indonesia as Islamic country still carries on until today. The terrorism act is

getting even worse.

At this point, realists see that terrorism could become a struggle of power in

states. A radical organization aims to change the government system which they

consider not right. Realists suggest using military power to fight against terrorism

and its actors.

22

Reeson, G. Differing Viewpoints: Realism, Liberalism and the Phenomenon of Terrorism.

(ReesonGreg, 2006)

23

Dewanto, N. Seri Buku Tempo: Tokoh Islam di Awal Kemerdekaan „Kartosoewirjo‟

(DewantoNugroho, 2011)

24


13

I.7. Scope and Limitation of the Study

This research will focus on the cooperation of Southeast Asian countries to

fight terrorism and radical Islamic groups in Southeast Asia, which not only

terrorizes the countries, but also trains and scouts new people to join their group. The

scope and limitation of this study would be started from the year 2003 until 2013.

The reason why said period time is chosen for the chosen time framework is because

ASEAN have been very active and eager in countering terrorism; especially after the

9/11 incident and first Bali Bombing occurred. On top of that, their key leader of the

major terrorist group in Southeast Asia, Jemaah Islamiyah, is now being arrested,

which probably would cause turmoil among the group. Until today, terrorist acts

have become varies.

I.8. Literature Review

In order to understand the development of ASEAN cooperation in terms of

handling terrorism, there is a book written by Amitav Acharya (2001). The title of his

book is Constructing a Security Community in Southeast Asia25

. In his book, he

explains about security communities and ASEAN in theoretical perspective. Security

community is a group of states which have known the value of peaceful interaction

and they also choose not to use force in dispute settlement among the community.

The community discusses and works together in solving any disputes involving

ASEAN members. Security community is also marked with the absence of arms race

or competitive military development among the members or no-war community. The

community members share the same beliefs in the undesirability of war and

cooperating in securing the states from any kind of threats coming from outside.

25

Acharya, A. (2001). Constructing a Security Community in Southeast Asia.

14

In his book, Amitav Acharya states that although security communities could

probably share interests and identities, it cannot form an alliance against other states.

In the community, they threaten to punish any kinds of act which endanger their

citizens, as well as the dangerous acts initiated by individuals or groupings against

others.

The first ASEAN Summit which was held in Bali in 1976 outlined an

agreement to keep ASEAN from becoming a military alliance by limiting defense

cooperation among member states to bilateral level and it resulted in five principles,

such as: (1) ‗Mutual respect for the independence, sovereignty, and territorial

integrity of all nations‘; (2) ‗The right of every state to lead its national existence free

from external interference, subversion and coercion‘; (3) ‗Non-interference in the

internal affairs of one another; (4) ‗Settlement of differences and disputes by peaceful

means‘; (5) ‗Renunciation of the threat use of force‘26

.

Discussing the idea of Islam as the base of a country, as what some terrorists

have aimed to create, there is a book titled The West, Islam and Islamism by

Caroline Cox and John Marks (2003). The book was originally written in order to

encourage the reconciliation between the West and Islam, and also create a mutual

understanding between the two. The concept of Islamic country that these people aim

for is explored in this book and can be applied not only in the West.

In this book, Cox and Marks state that in political terms, in order to assure

that religious freedom is still valid, the government needs to loosen up and limit their

power. On the other hand, to make it balanced, religious people need to abide the law

given by the government and do not force their faith on people or harm those who

wish to leave the faith.

26

ASEAN. The First ASEAN Summit. Retrieved October 20th 2014 from:

http://www.asean.org/news/item/the-first-asean-summit

15

Cox and Marks explain Ruthven‘s distinction of Islam in their book, which

can be categorized into three, such as: Islam as an identity, Islam as a faith and Islam

as a political ideology. ‗Islam as an identity‘ refers to someone who accepts his or

her identity as a Muslim because of their family, however it does not necessarily

mean that he or she is committed to Islam faith. ‗Islam as a faith‘ refers to those who

believe in the ideology of Islam and practice what the Prophets have taught them.

‗Islam for a political ideology‘ refers to those who aim to build an Islam state, using

Islam as the ideology of a country. In this case, there are a lot of Islam supporters

who share the same dream to build stronger and larger Islamic states, using so many

ways to achieve it.

The case of Jemaah Islamiyah, or some other terrorist attacks which recently

happened, can be the proof of Islam forced to be a political ideology. Not only do

they want to create fear by using the so-called holy war term, there is also a political

ideology which supports them in aiming to build Islamic country. These terrorists

believe that the West has already influenced a lot of governments, which they

consider infidels. Therefore, they initiated terrorism attacks against those so called

infidel governments. They voice out their protests against the West towards several

terrorism acts, thinking that these states are all the same and influenced by Western

power.

Southeast Asia apparently becomes their targets as well because of their quite

good cooperation with the West. The threat has led these states into discussion on

how to work together in not only catching the terrorists, but also preventing terrorist

attack to occur in the future. As it was stated on the first book, ASEAN will not

tolerate any kinds of threats coming from individuals or groups which violate their

states.

16

I.9. Research Methodology

This thesis is conducted using qualitative method. The writer used library

research as one of the methods to write this thesis as a lot of books and reports are

beneficial to support the thesis. There are a lot of books which are published to

discuss about ASEAN cooperation which will help the writer to understand more in

the process of thesis writing. However some books are quite difficult to find,

therefore, the writer also used internet research to help her in finishing the thesis. Not

only e-books, some reports regarding ASEAN cooperation can also be downloaded

on the internet. These methods were quite helping the writer in answering the

questions and doing the research.

I.10. Definition of Terms

I.10.1. Terrorism

According to Indonesian Law Number 2 Year 2002, terrorism is:

“A crime against humanity and civilization, also one of the serious

threats to sovereignty of each country, because terrorism has become

an international crime which causes danger in security, world peace

and also harm public welfare, so that a planned and sustainable

eradication is needed, in order to protect and upheld the human rights

of many people.”

Terrorism has become one of the major threats that Indonesia should face. It

is not only creating a great loss for the people or the country, but also fear as a result.

―Political terrorism is the use, or the use of threat, of violence by an individual or a

group, whether acting for or in opposition to established authority, when such action

is designed to create extreme anxiety and/or fear-inducing effects in a target group

17

larger than the immediate victims with the purpose of coercing that group into

acceding to the political demands of the perpetrators‖ (Wardlaw 1982: 16)27

.

Southeast Asia has been claimed to have more possibility of being attacked

by terrorists, especially Indonesia, after several counter attacks that happened in the

country. The attacks that occurred in Indonesia grabbed international attention.

Before the Christmas bombing or Bali bombings occurred, perhaps Indonesians were

not really aware of the terrorist threats. However, the threats are not only mainly in

Indonesia, but it can happen in other countries. This is why terrorism has become

also a regional issue that Southeast Asian countries have to fight.

Terrorism attacks usually are politically driven28

, especially when a

community felt left out. The attack aims to make people fear the terrorists and create

ruckus in the country. As a result of this terrorism act, a lot of innocent civilians

become victims.

I.10.2. The Radicalization

Radical is defined as ―deviating by extremes‖29

, it is also the synonym of

anarchistic, complete, entire, excessive, extremist, fanatical, insurgent,

insurrectionary, lawless, leftist, militant, and several more30

. An extremist group is

unlike any other group. They have their own ideals and beliefs which are difficult to

be changed by the others.

27

Rogers, P (2008). Security Studies (An Introduction) – Terrorism. New York: Routledge. P. 173 28 Crenshaw, M. (2000). The Psychology of Political Terrorism. New York: Syracuse College University of Law. 29

Thesaurus. Radical. Retrieved October 20, 2013 from: http://thesaurus.com/browse/radical 30

Dictionary.com. Radical. Retrieved October 20, 2013 from: http://dictionary.reference.com

http://dictionary.reference.com/

18

Radicalization in terrorism is the process of influencing and developing

extreme ideologies and beliefs31

. Radicalizing extremists‘ beliefs that violence is

justified by religion is one of the many ways to influence a person‘s thought to get

him involved in terrorism32

. Law enforcement and intelligent bodies have been eager

to do their research on radical Islamic organizations ever since counter-terrorism

enforced. The 9/11 incident triggered them more to get to know what radicalization is

and the actors behind it. However, it is quite difficult to get the data and proven it

because of some legal restriction and the other issues33

.

The process of radicalization in individuals can be running slowly, but for

some people it can happen so fast. Most of them seek for men to be radicalized, but

the roles of women and children are also important as well. In some analysis, a lot of

Western European radical Islamic organizations prefer to get together in a group

while practicing their terrorism act in United States34

.

Radicalization is not only conducted by meeting in person, but it can also be

done on internet, which is often the case with self radicalization. Since there are a lot

of influences made by extremists group on internet in order to radicalize people, it is

easier nowadays to get such material as how to make bombs. Thus, they become self-

radicalized. Self-radicalized people who learn from internet have high possibility in

31

Borum, R. Radicalization into Violent Extremism I: a Review of Social Science Theories. Retrieved

October 26, 2013 from: http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/jss/vol4/iss4/2

32

Borum, R. Radicalization into Violent Extremism I: a Review of Social Science Theories. Retrieved

October 26, 2013 from: http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/jss/vol4/iss4/2

33

Hunter, R. & Heinke, D. Perspective: Radicalization of Islamist Terrorists in the Western World . Retrieved October 27, 2013 from: http://www.fbi.gov/stats-services/publications/law-enforcement-

bulletin/september-2011/perspective

34

Hunter, R. & Heinke, D. Perspective: Radicalization of Islamist Terrorists in the Western World.

Retrieved October 27, 2013 from: http://www.fbi.gov/stats-services/publications/law-enforcement-


http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/jss/vol4/iss4/2


http://www.fbi.gov/stats-services/publications/law-enforcement-bulletin/september-2011/perspective




19

promoting their terrorism activities alone or with a few people, for example by the

gunning down attack.

Since terrorism is flexible, people develop more ways in radicalizing others

or recruiting cadres. There are three important points to make it easier for

radicalizing, such as finding people who still have identity crisis, influencing people

with Islamist ideology and also affecting individuals to join terrorism as a group35

.

I.10.3. Holy War

Radical Islamic group believe that they have to continue Prophet

Mohammed‘s implied teaching to fight infidels by Jihad. Jihad literally means holy

war. Basically, Jihad was made for self-defense. Islam permits Jihad in order to

protect Muslims when they are under attack36

. It is also permitted in order to

strengthen the religion and their faith, punishing infidels, making the wrong things

become right, and also protecting Muslims freedom in practicing their faith37

.

However, Jihad is not right when it is used for forcing people to convert to

Islam, conquering or colonizing other nations or certain territories, showing off

power, creating fear and also for dispute settlement. There are several other criteria in

conducting Jihad based on the right Islamic teaching. The most important criteria is

not to attack if they are not being attacked first. However in the recent years, radical

groups tend to get the wrong idea and they attack first.

35

Hunter, R. & Heinke, D. Perspective: Radicalization of Islamist Terrorists in the Western World . Retrieved October 27, 2013 from: http://www.fbi.gov/stats-services/publications/law-enforcement-


36

BBC - Religions. Islam: Jihad. Retrieved October 21, 2013 from:


37

BBC - Religions. Islam: Jihad. Retrieved October 21, 2013 from:




20

I.11. Thesis Structure

I.11.1. Chapter I – Introduction

The first chapter of this thesis will explain about the background of the

studies, the issue that is being raised and also the purpose of why this thesis is written.

Important details such as background, problems identification, statement o problems,

research objectives, significance of the study, theoretical framework, scope and

limitation of the studies, and definition of terms are included on this chapter. This

chapter was made to make readers interested in reading the next chapters.

I.11.2. Chapter II – The Development of Terrorism in Southeast Asia

Chapter two assesses the development of terrorism in Southeast Asia. The

writer will start to explain the background of terrorism which happened in Southeast

Asian countries that has been raised to people‘s awareness. The kinds of terrorism

attack which happened in Southeast Asia will be explained in detail.

I.11.3. Chapter III – ASEAN as a Regional Grouping in Southeast Asia: a

Historical Overview

The writer will explain about the cooperation of ASEAN in security area in

chapter three, which includes the cooperation in political, economy and socio-

cultural area. The agreement and principles that is stated in ASEAN Charter

regarding political-security affairs will be listed and explored.

21

I.11.4. Chapter IV – ASEAN Cooperation in Counter-Terrorism

In chapter four, the writer will start to explain about the cooperation of

Southeast Asian countries in dealing with terrorism. Not only the terrorist attacks that

have already happened, but the writer will also explore about how ASEAN react to

the regeneration of radical Islamic organizations. The implementation of ASEAN

agreement and the obstacles in handling terrorism will be explained as well.

I.11.5. Conclusion

Lastly, the writer will conclude the research in previous chapters. The last

chapter will consist of brief summary of what the writer has written from the

previous chapters.

22

CHAPTER II

THE DEVELOPMENT OF TERRORISM IN

SOUTHEAST ASIA

Ever since WTC in United States was attacked, the term terrorism is not new

anymore for people, including people in Southeast Asia. However, terrorist attacks

have always been there even before the 9/11 incident happened. The main culprit in

this huge terrorism attack was Al-Qaeda. The network of this organization is very

large and spread all over the world and Southeast Asia is on the list. Even though the

terrors were not being done directly by this organization, they still helped some local

terrorist organizations in Southeast Asia.

The threats posed by radical Islamic groups in Southeast Asia have been

nothing but harm to citizens since the 1990s38

. Governments in Southeast Asia have

been aware with the situation and they have tried to find ways to improve their

national security by working.

II.1. Terrorism in Southeast Asia

Most people were awakened by the danger of terrorism threats ever since the

first Bali Bombing occurred. The incident got so much attention from not only the

people of Indonesia, but all over the world. The terror did not stop of that, but it

continued with several other terrorist attacks coming after the bomb blasted.

Apparently, ever since the Soeharto regime ended in 199839

, more radical Islamic

38

Chalk, P., Rabasa, A., Rosenau, W., Piggott, L. (2009). The Evolving Terrorist Threat to Southeast

Asia: A Net Assesment. California: RAND Corporation. 39


Asia: A Net Assesment. California: RAND Corporation.

23

groups rebel and do something which even worse. More people were easily

radicalized, forming a new generation of jihad combatants. This is widely spread not

only all over Indonesia, but also almost all over Southeast Asia. Terrorism is also

common in Malaysia, Singapore, Southern Thailand and Southern Philippines.

There have been terror attacks occurring in Southeast Asia. The attacks were

carried by Jemaah Islamiyah (JI) cadres and splinter groups, Abu Sayyaf Group

(ASG) and Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF), supported by Al-Qaeda40

. The

attacks are usually conducted in Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines. The

following are some of said attacks41

:

In April 1995: Abu Sayyaf Group attacked Ipil, a small Christian town in the

Philippines. They were not only violating the people, but also robbed banks

and stores, and burned down the city. There were at least fifty people killed in

this incident.

In April 2000: Abu Sayyaf Group kidnapped 21 people from a Malaysian

Resort and took them to Jolo Island in the Philippines, including some

Western tourists. They were asking for money as an exchange. The money

was then reportedly was being paid by Libya.

In May 2001: The kidnapping act was not stopping in 2000 only. In 2001,

Abu Sayyaf Group kidnapped some American tourists and the other tourists

from the Dos Palmas Resort, which is located in Palawan, Southwestern

40

National Counterterrorism Center. Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG). Retrieved November 12, 2013 from:

http://www.nctc.gov/site/groups/asg.html

41

Yahoo News. The Associated Press. A look at major terror attacks in Southeast Asia. Retrieved

November 12, 2013 from: http://news.yahoo.com/look-major-terror-attacks-southeast-asia-

020936380.html


24

Philippines. There were two hostages killed, Guillermo Sober and Martin

Burnham.

In August 2001: There were thirty-three Christians in Balobo village in

Basilan Island, Southern Philippines, who were kidnapped. There were ten

hostages being executed by terrorists in this incident.

In October 2002: Terrorist attack occurred in Bali, killing at least 202

tourists, including 88 Australian. The attack was conducted by Jemaah

Islamiyah. However, the police added that Al-Qaeda might have supported

them with funds and training.

In October 2002: Another bomb was detonated in Southern Philippines,

Zamboanga. Another four bombings also occurred in this month. It killed four

people, including an American Green Beret. Police suspected Abu Sayyaf

Group were behind these attacks.

In August 2003: There was another suicide bombing occurring in Indonesia.

This time, the terrorists targeted JW Mariott Hotel in Jakarta as the target.

The attack killed eleven people.

In February 2004: A bomb detonated on a passenger ferry ship in Manila

Bay. There were 116 people killed in this incident.

In April 2004: A kidnap case occurred in Sabah, Malaysia. Three crew

members of a Malaysian boat were kidnapped and killed. However, it has not

been confirmed if they were dead because of illnesses or were being killed by

their captors. The case was allegedly masterminded by Abu Sayyaf Group.

25

In September 2004: There was another suicide bombing occurring in

Indonesia. The terrorists targeted Australian Embassy in Jakarta. There were

eleven people killed and 200 people injured.

In February 2005: There were bombings happening at the same time in

Manila and two cities which are located in Southern Philippines. The incident

killed eight and injured more than 100.

In October 2005: The same suicide bombing occurred once again in Bali,

known as the Bali Bombing II. This time, terrorist targeted a restaurant

located in Kuta Square Bali. There were twenty two people killed in this

terrorist attack and a lot of people injured.

In January 2009: Some gunmen abducted three aid workers from the

International Committee of the Red Cross. They were Italian, Filipino and

Swiss. The case was almost similar to the kidnap case that occurred in April

2000 in which the terrorists asked for a big amount of ransom. The hostages

were eventually freed in different areas, separately.

In July 2009: There were suicide bombings in JW Mariott and Ritz Carlton

Jakarta which killed seven people and wounded more than fifty people.

In July 2011: Yet another kidnapping occurred in the Philippines. This time,

an American with her son and a Filipino cousin were kidnapped. She was

freed two months after the kidnapping. Her son was freed in December.

26

In February 2012: Some gunmen kidnapped two a Dutch and Swiss in the

southern Philippines. They were also asking for some money in exchange42

.

There are several other terrorist attacks which are not on the list, for example

the gunning down of some police officers which lately happened in Indonesia. Apart

from that, the violence and rebellion acts also happened in Southern part of Thailand

which is well-known as deep south now. The clash among people who lived there

with some Malaysian Muslims separatism had been a huge problem since 1960s and

appeared on surface again since 200443

. The two highlights of the terrorisms in

Indonesia and Philippines will be further discussed. They took huge parts in term of

Southeast Asian terrorism.

II.1.1. Terrorism in Indonesia

Ever since Soeharto was forced to step down as a president in 1998,

not only Indonesia was economically unstable, but there are also a lot of

rebels finally take some actions to what they believe is right. Those rebels

terrorize the others and innocence. The control of politics in Indonesia is

loosened after the resignation. Radicalization became easier thus more radical

Islamic groups also took part in this rebellion, because their group has gotten

stronger with more recruitments and opportunities to terrorize. The bad

situation and also empty mentality of some people have become the trigger

for those people to rebel. In the midst of this chaos, people tried to find a way

out and somehow they found this way to protest the government.

42

Yahoo News. The Associated Press. A look at major terror attacks in Southeast Asia. Retrieved

November 12, 2013 from: http://news.yahoo.com/look-major-terror-attacks-southeast-asia-

020936380.html

43



27

Indonesia, as the most populous Muslims in the world, has to face the

rebels and what even worse is terrorist attack from radical Islamic groups.

Some experts began to worry that Indonesia could be the base of many radical

Islamic groups to practice its terrorism acts. As what these terrorists believe,

they do this in order to fight infidels, Jews and anyone related to United

States44

. Because Indonesia has been instable and the security was started to

loosened, these extremist groups took their opportunity to terrorize Indonesia.

Historically, the idea of proposing to build Islamic country did not

come out first by currently active terrorist group like Jemaah Islamiyah, for

instance. Long time ago, a certain radical Islamic group called Darul Islam

had proposed the same agenda, however it was still refused by the

government.

Darul Islam used to be led by Sekarmadji Maridjan Kartosoewirjo. He

was one of Indonesian heroes during Colonial era, but then he betrayed and

wanted to rebuild and change Indonesia from republic to Negara Islam

Indonesia or Islamic country. Kartosoewirjo declared about Negara Islam

Indonesia in 194945

. First of all, he felt like Muslims in West Java was left

behind and forgotten by the President. Kartosoewirjo was chosen to lead this

betrayal and has a lot of students, even though in fact, he was not really

religious as a man at first. Yet, he still taught his students about Islam and

influenced them with his own perception about the religion. Darul Islam did

their actions across Java, North Sumatra and South Sulawesi in 1950s46

.

44

Council on Foreign Relations. (2005). Terrorism Havens: Indonesia. Retrieved November 27, 2013 from: http://www.cfr.org/indonesia/terrorism-havens-indonesia/p9361

45

Crisis Group. (2010). Relevansi Darul Islam untuk Masa Kini. Retrieved November 30, 2013 from:

http://www.crisisgroup.org/en/regions/asia/south-east-asia/indonesia/op-eds/jones-relevansi-darul-

islam-untuk-masa-kini.aspx 46



http://www.cfr.org/indonesia/terrorism-havens-indonesia/p9361

http://www.crisisgroup.org/en/regions/asia/south-east-asia/indonesia/op-eds/jones-relevansi-darul-islam-untuk-masa-kini.aspx


28

He was deeply disappointed in the result of Roem-Royen Agreement

because he thought that by having the agreement, it was no different with

selling the country47

. He stated that Soekarno‘s regime and government are

infidels. Soekarno did not apply what has been taught in Al-Qur‘an in his

government, thus the government has to be fought and replaced48

. Apart from

that, he felt that Soekarno‘s government was deeply influenced by Western

power. Thus, Darul Islam believed that any kind of power came from

Western, especially United States, needs to be destroyed. This ideology seems

to inspire some Islam spiritual leaders. As a result, more radical Islamic

groups appeared in the future.

There are several radical Islamic groups in Indonesia listed, such as

Laskar Jihad, Laskar Jundullah, Front Pembela Islam (FPI), Komite Aksi

Penanggulangan Akibat Krisis (KOMPAK) Muhajiddin (KM), Angkatan

Muhajiddin Islam Nusantara (AMIN), Kelompok Banten (Ring of Banten),

and Hizb ut-Tahrir Indonesia (HTI) 49. Their networks have spread in

Indonesia and they have a lot of followers. Front Pembela Islam had

thousands of members spread in 22 provinces, as an example. These radical

Islamic groups can be divided again into several categories, such as:

1. Nationalist Islamist50

: radical Islamic groups like Laskar

Jihad and Front Pembela Islam are nationalist Islamist. They

47

Seri Buku TEMPO:Tokoh Islam di Awal Kemerdekaan. Kartosoewirjo. (2011)

48

Seri Buku TEMPO:Tokoh Islam di Awal Kemerdekaan. Kartosoewirjo. (2011)

49



50



29

do not aim to get Indonesian government down but they still

do some actions which they believe are right51

. They are

concerned and very critical that they are dared to take violent

actions to protest against what the government decided. They

do a lot of demonstrations and dared to rip or burn the other

countries‘ flags as their protests, and several other anarchic

acts.

2. Antistatist Islamist52

: Laskar Jundullah, KM, AMIN and

Ring Banten are in a group because these groups believe that

Indonesian Government is not legitimate. They are inspired by

Darul Islam that wanted to revert Indonesian Government as

Negara Islam Indonesia. These groups are active in their anti-

Christian movements.

3. Nascent Jihadist Network53

: HTI belongs to nascent jihadist

network. They want to set Islam free from infidels and

degradation. A group like HTI likes to stay hidden. They call

themselves as a party but they do not recognize the other

political parties or democratic politics.

After several attacks, a counterterrorism unit called ‗Detachment 88‘

has caught around 820 terrorists and 80 terrorists were killed in the process54

.

51



52



53



54

Indonesia‟s Key Terrorism Concern (2000). Today Online. Retrieved November 29, 2013 from:

http://www.todayonline.com/commentary/indonesias-key-terrorism-concerns


30

Even though they have successfully captured those terrorists, there are times

the other terrorists are caught the security off guard and did several bombings

or gunning down attacks. For example, post the first Bali bombing, the

second bombing was following and there were several bombings in other

areas, for instance in J.W. Marriott. Even though some of the key leaders of

the biggest terrorist network in Indonesia have been arrested, it does not mean

that the terrorism would stop. In fact, it fostered them to find a new way to

radicalize new people and it is so easy to self-radicalize nowadays because of

the technology and so forth.

II.1.2. Terrorism in The Philippines

Terrorism seems to be one of the most threatening dangers that The

Philippines has to face. The governments have tried so many possible ways to

fight the terrorists and prevent any terrorism to occur in the country again.

The country has become the base of major terrorist group which is in charge

in terrorizing Southeast Asia, specifically located in Central Mindanao55

. It

has become their training base.

The Philippines also has the same unstable political and economical

conditions like Indonesia. Those rebels perhaps have the same motivations in

terrorizing the country. The terrorists do not only limit their action in

bombing, but also kidnapping people, including Western tourists. The

infamous terrorist network based in The Philippines is Abu Sayyaf Group

(ASG). The group is responsible for some bombing and kidnapping crimes

and is operated in Southeast Asia.

55

Manalo, E.P. (2004). The Philippine Response to Terrorism: Abu Sayyaf Group. Retrieved

November 29, 2013 from: www.fas.org/irp/world/para/manalo.pdf

http://www.fas.org/irp/world/para/manalo.pdf

31

The history of terrorism in Philippines was started because of the

clash between Muslims and Christian in the country. There was a group of

Muslims called Bangsamoro in Mindanao who was not agreed with the

concept of Catholic Philippines polity. They felt discriminated and Christians

were dominated at that time. The unfairness that Muslims felt during that time

could clearly be seen in the difference of education system they got in

Mindanao. Most of them lived in poverty back then, contrary with the

Christians.

They felt like they were separated with the other religions, mostly

Christians. They were under the leadership of Ferdinand Marcos, former

Philippines‘ President in 1966 until 198656

, at that time. They also thought

that Ferdinand Marcos was assimilated them into a political framework which

was wider. The political framework was based on Catholics which was firstly

brought by Spanish, then United States, and the last one was the central

administration in Manila which was dominated by Catholics57

. Their anger

was worsened by how Christians or Catholics treated them at that time. In

order to revenge them, these Muslims started to rebel. They even threatened

and violated people in their area.

The rebellion of Muslims in Mindanao was only the beginning. More

rebels and separatists were born after Ferdinand Marcos announced the

declaration of martial law in 197258

. The situation was getting worse.

Communist Party of the Philippines was also started to rebel. Their hatred and

disagreement towards the declaration, added with their disagreement with

56

Biography. Ferdinand Marcos‟s Biography. Retrieved November 29, 2013 from:

http://www.biography.com/people/ferdinand-marcos-9398625

57



58

McKenna, T.M. (1998). Muslim Rulers and Rebels. California: University of California Press.


32

Governments‘ Christian oriented governmental were triggered them to come

up with the idea of rectify Christian influence in their government59

. Just like

in Indonesia, they also aim to build an Islamic country throughout the

Philippines which they think as the right influence for Philippines

government system.

II.2. Terrorist Groups in Southeast Asia

Al-Qaeda is one of the largest and the most famous terrorist groups existed.

Even though it does not base in Southeast Asia, the organization has its links and it

helped some other terrorist groups. The other terrorist groups in Southeast Asia

which getting help by Al-Qaeda are none other than Jemaah Islamiyah60

and Abu

Sayyaf Group in Philippines61

. The organization is not only trained some of its

representatives about how to make bomb and teach them about the value of the

religion and jihad, but the organization also will to fund their terrorism activities.

Jemaah Islamiyah and Abu Sayyaf Group are infamous for their terrorist acts which

mostly occurred in Indonesia and Philippines.

II.2.1. Jemaah Islamiyah (JI)

Jemaah Islamiyah (JI) has become more famous ever since the first

Bali bombing occurred in Bali. This militant group was established in

Malaysia at the end of 1980 by some Indonesian Islamists who ran away to

59



60

Biography. Profile: Jemaah Islamiyah. BBC News. Retrieved November 19, 2013 from:

http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-16850706

61

ABC News. Abu Sayyaf Group News. Retrieved November 19, 2013 from:

http://abcnews.go.com/topics/news/world/abu-sayyaf-group.htm


33

Malaysia62

. This organization is infamous for its based in Indonesia, but

actually it has some of its networks in Philippines, Malaysia, Singapore and

several areas in Southeast Asia as well. It could be crowned as the most active

jihadist group in Southeast Asia region. The organization engaged in several

terrorist acts, not only conducting but also planning, preparing, training,

assisting, and fostering people to terrorize in the name of God63

. They took

the idealism of Jihad from Mohammad prophet in conducting their activities.

Their networks spread around in Southeast Asia and the biggest networks

located in Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Philippines and Thailand64

. The

group was led by Abu Bakar Ba‘asyir who was then arrested for what he did

in the first Bali Bombing in 2002, and Hambali who was also the key leader

in Jemaah Islamiyah and arrested.

Jemaah Islamiyah is one of Al-Qaeda‘s best networks in Southeast

Asia because the organization has succeeded in recruiting people and also

conducting several terrorisms in the country. Governments in Southeast Asia

have begun to fear this organization. They terrorize people who they admitted

as infidels but in reality, innocent people always ended up becoming the

victims of their wrong doings. However apart from that, their main agenda is

none other than to build a strong Islamic country, not only in Indonesia, but

also in several other Southeast Asian countries.

Jemaah Islamiyah is the heritage of Darul Islam which was led by

Kartosoewirjo. However, Jemaah Islamiyah was stronger because of the

62

BBC Indonesia. Profile Jemaah Islamiyah. Retrieved November 20, 2013 from:

http://www.bbc.co.uk/indonesia/berita_indonesia/2010/09/100922_jamaahislamiyah.shtml 63

Australian National Security. Jemaah Islamiyah. Retrieved November 20, 2013 from:

http://www.nationalsecurity.gov.au/agd/WWW/nationalsecurity.nsf/Page/What_Governments_are_doi

ng_Listing_of_Terrorism_Organisations_Jemahh_Islamiyah

64


http://www.bbc.co.uk/indonesia/berita_indonesia/2010/09/100922_jamaahislamiyah.shtml


http://www.nationalsecurity.gov.au/agd/WWW/nationalsecurity.nsf/Page/What_Governments_are_doing_Listing_of_Terrorism_Organisations_Jemahh_Islamiyah



34

supports from more people and the other terrorist organizations. Their

ideology about jihad is also stronger. The similarity is both Jemaah Islamiyah

and Darul Islam want to continue claiming Indonesia as Negara Islam

Indonesia, to take over the government. They both refused the current

government system in Indonesia. Darul Islam was officially disbanded in

1962, when Kartosoewirjo captured and gunned down by the police65

.

Although Darul Islam has ended up, the spirit has not vanished yet. There

were two adherents from Darul Islam named Abu Bakar Ba‘asyir and

Abdullah Sungkar who wanted to continue the regime66

.

Abu Bakar Ba‘asyir and Abdullah Sungkar were motivated to set up a

boarding school in 1972 named Pesantren Al‘Mukmin, which was located in

Solo. In 1973, the boarding school was relocated in Ngruki Village, which

then the school was famous as Pondok Ngruki. In Pondok Ngruki, they set up

a small group where they teach about Islam. They made the students swore to

separate themselves from infidels and do their activities according to what

they believe as Syari‟ah—the things that God and the Prophets allow to do67

.

After Soeharto regime ended in 1998, Jemaah Islamiyah, which could

only secretly operating, finally could be more freely in doing their activities.

Soeharto was famous for his strict rules and he strictly did not want any other

parties other than the three major parties that already existed. Islamist groups

were used to be restricted, and he would rather disband the organization

65

Crisis Group. Relevansi Darul Islam untuk Masa Kini (2010). Retrieved November 30, 2013 from:


66



67





35

before it went public68

. However, after his regime collapsed, it was not

anymore. Jemaah Islamiyah was able to conduct their terrorist acts during

Christmas Eve bombings in December 24, 2000. They were finally became

more opened to public69

.

Their aim to establish an Islamic regime in Indonesia is not enough

anymore for Jemaah Islamiyah. They began to aim to establish the Islamic

regime in all over Southeast Asia and also north Australia70

. Their action

started to make governments all over Southeast Asia fear them and put them

on the list of most wanted terrorists. Jemaah Islamiyah could come back

stronger than Darul Islam because its leaders and some of its followers

received direct trainings in Afghanistan and Pakistan71

. They became more

skillful. Their hatred for Western, especially United States, has become more

obvious. Jemaah Islamiyah leaders started to cooperate with the other Islamist

militant groups to cover their financial and arms needs, training and also

working together in carrying out an attack72

.

68

Carter, M.E. Islamic Terrorism in Southeast Asia: An Effect Based on U.S. Strategy against Jemaah

Islamiyah and Abu Sayyaf. Retrieved November 30, 2013 from: www.dtic.mil/cgi-

bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA437439

69



70

Vaughn, B., Avery, E.C., Dolven, B., Manyin, M.E., Martin, M.F., Niksch, L.A., (2009). Terrorism

in Southeast Asia. Congressional Research Service. 71

Transnational Terrorism: Jemaah Islamiyah. (2004). Australian Government: Department of

Foreign Affairs and Trade. Retrieved November 30, 2013 from:

http://www.dfat.gov.au/publications/terrorism/is4.html

72


in Southeast Asia. Congressional Research Service.

http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA437439


36

Jemaah Islamiyah has four sub-divisions across Southeast Asia or

usually called as mantiqis73. Those regional divisions are:

1. Mantiqi I: Their responsibility is to handle Jemaah

Islamiyah‘s financial. They are located in Singapore, Malaysia

(except Sabah) and Southern Thailand.

2. Mantiqi II: They are in charge in leadership and recruiting

people. They are located in Indonesia, except in Sulawesi and

Kalimantan.

3. Mantiqi III: They are responsible for purchasing weapons and

training. They are located in Sabah (Malaysia), Sulawesi,

Kalimantan (Indonesia) and southern Philippines.

4. Mantiqi IV: They are in charge of fund raising. They are

mainly located in Australia and Papua New Guinea.

(Singapore Ministry of Home Affairs, 2003, p. 10; Australian

Government, 2004, p. 50; Barton, 2008; International Center

for Political Violence and Terrorism Research, undated)74

.

Not only the Christmas Eve bombings in 2000, Jemaah Islamiyah is

also responsible for the other major bombings, such as in the first Bali

Bombing in 2002, JW Marriott Hotel Bombing in Jakarta in 2003, Australian

Embassy Bombing in Jakarta in 2004 and also the second Bali Bombing in

73



74



37

2005. Jemaah Islamiyah is suspected to be responsible for the first Bali

bombing and is believed that they chose Bali as their target because there are

a lot of Westerns coming to the Island. Besides, it will be easier for them to

grab more attention both locally and internationally. As a result, they were

successful to get the recognition they wanted. They became very famous as

terrorist group from Indonesia and at the same time, some of its leaders and

members become the most wanted list by police and governments in some

countries.

They also suspected to help the Philippines‘s Islamist militant group,

Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG) in conducting a terrorist attack in Philippine

Superferry 14 Bombing in February 27, 200475

. In the recent years, Jemaah

Islamiyah seemed to be unstable after the arrest or execution of its key leaders

and members, such as Abu Bakar Ba‘asyir, Hambali, Noordin M. Top, Dr.

Azahari and the others. However, that does not stop the radicalization which

happens in Southeast Asia.

II.2.2. Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG)

Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG) is an Islamist militant group from the

southern Philippines76

. The anti-Christians group operates in Mindanao and

on the Sulu Island77

. The militant conducted bombings, assassinations,

kidnappings, ransom and extortion. They blackmailed the government several

times and asked them for money in exchange with their hostages. Abu Sayyaf

75

CNN. Ferry Bomb Terror Suspect Held in Manila (2008). Retrieved November 30, 2013 from: http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/08/30/philippines.suspect/

76

National Counterterrorism Center. (2013). Abu Sayyaf Group. Retrieved November 30, 2013 from:


77


in Southeast Asia. Congressional Research Service.

http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/08/30/philippines.suspect/


38

Group is the continuation of Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) regime,

where Muslims in southern Philippines began to rebel against the country,

after they split78

. It was established in 1989 and led by Abdujarak Janjalani.

However, after his death in 1998, Abu Sayyaf Group is led by Khadaffi

Janjalani, his brother79

. The group was also funded by Al-Qaeda80

.

Abu Sayyaf Group was also known as Muhajideen Commando

Freedom Fighter81

. Their main objectives are to erase Christians‘ influence in

southern Philippines and Islamizing Mindanao, make it to Islamic state of

Mindanao82

. They do not only want to Islamize southern Philippines, but also

to gain some financial by doing their actions. Abu Sayyaf Group also gets

support from Al-Qaeda and sometimes it joints Jemaah Islamiyah in carrying

out their mission. They are responsible for several kidnappings of Western

tourists. They used to conduct kidnapping in April 2000. They successfully

kidnapped 21 persons, including 10 tourists in a Malaysian resort83

. In May

2001, Abu Sayyaf Group kidnapped 17 local people and 3 tourists from the

United States. They asked some money in exchange to their hostages. They

78



79



80

Abu Sayyaf Philippines Terrorist Group. Terrorist. Retrieved November 30, 2013 from:

http://terrorism.about.com/od/groupsleader1/p/AbuSayyaf.htm

81

Filler, A.L. (2002). The Abu Sayyaf Group: A Growing Menace to Civil Society. Retrieved November 30, 2013 from: http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/publication/books/global/filler.htm

82



83






http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/publication/books/global/filler.htm


39

ended up murdering some of their hostages, including one of the three U.S.

citizen hostages84

.

Under the Khadaffi‘s leadership, Abu Sayyaf Group created a huge

shock for Filipinos by Philippine Superferry 14 Bombing in February 27,

2004, which was heading to Bacolod, the central of Philippines85

. The terror

was helped by other militant groups, including Jemaah Islamiyah. The

incident killed at least 116 people out of 900 passengers. It was believed that

they used explosive device in blasting the ferry. Abu Sayyaf Group was

provoked to terrorize the ferry because the owner of the ferry, WG&A,

declined to give Abu Sayyaf Group sum of money in 200386

.

Abu Sayyaf Group is also behind several other bombings in

Philippines, for examples the ‗Valentine Bombing‘ in February 2005, located

in Davao City, General Santos City and Manila; bombing in Makati City,

which was crowded by business people and tourists; in March 2006, they

bombed a bar and a crowded supermarket in Jolo; motorcycle assassinations

in August 2006 which has 70 people killed as a result; and the other terrorist

acts87

.

Another joint force that Abu Sayyaf Group and Jemaah Islamiyah did

was proven by the existence of some key persons of Jemaah Islamiyah in Abu

Sayyaf Group. Dulmatin, Umar Patek and Marwan were under the protection

84



85

Bomb caused Philippine Ferry Fire (2004). BBC News. Retrieved November 30, 2013 from: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3732356.stm

86

Bomb caused Philippine Ferry Fire (2004). BBC News. Retrieved November 30, 2013 from:

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3732356.stm

87






40

of Abu Sayyaf Group88

when they were still chased by the police. They

stayed in Jolo Island. It was also reported that Abu Sayyaf Group and Jemaah

Islamiyah conducted their trainings together. Jemaah Islamiyah also trained

around 60 Abu Sayyaf Group‘s members in making bombs and how to

detonate it89

.

Besides Jemaah Islamiyah and Moro National Liberation Front, Abu

Sayyaf Group is also linked with Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF).

MILF facilitated a camp for some Jemaah Islamiyah terrorists to train and

plan their terrorist activities as well90

.

It was obvious that beside their anti-Christians protest, money is the

major orientation behind their terror in Philippines. Most of their actions

required money as the exchange or as the object of their blackmail. Some

experts argue that Abu Sayyaf Group is only religion terrorist. The group also

involves ethnic terrorism in the group because of its history91

.

Abu Sayyaf Group captured the world‘s attention by kidnapping. The

government are well-aware with this. Abdurajak Janjalani was once a veteran

in Afghanistan war. The radicalization in southern Philippines was not too

difficult because of their situation and anti-Christian. Their leader, Khadaffi,

was dead in September 200692

. Just like Jemaah Islamiyah, their operation

was not as obvious as before but the group perhaps still conducting or

planning several terrorisms.

88



Abuza, Z. (2005). The Return of the Abu Sayyaf. Carlisle, U.S: Army War College. Retrieved November 30, 2013 from: www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pdffiles/pub625.pdf 90





92

Abu Sayyaf Philippines Terrorist Group. Terrorist. Retrieved November 30, 2013 from:



41

CHAPTER III

ASEAN as a Regional Grouping in Southeast Asia: a

Historical Overview

Southeast Asia consists of neighboring countries which have diversity in

cultures, language, ethnics and even political system. Even though the differences

can be seen clearly, Southeast Asian countries have the same mission, which is to

make peaceful, stable and prosperous environment for their people93

. For those

reasons, the idea of establishing a regional group finally came up from five Southeast

Asian countries. The representatives were Indonesia (Adam Malik), Malaysia (Tun

Abdul Razak), Thailand (Thanat Khoman), Philippines (Narciso R. Ramos) and

Singapore (S. Rajaratnam)94

. They decided to call it ‗The Association of Southeast

Asian Nations (ASEAN)‘. ASEAN was officially established on 8 August 1967 in

Bangkok, Thailand. To mark the establishment of ASEAN, the five representatives

had agreed to sign Bangkok Declaration or also known as ASEAN Declaration.

Embracing Southeast Asian countries to cooperate as one would be a way to

achieve the peace and stability they have always wanted95

. That is why ASEAN was

established. After the establishment of ASEAN announced, more countries were

willing to join the regional group and work as a team. As neighboring countries,

Brunei Darussalam joined the organization on 7 January 1984, and then followed by

Vietnam on 28 July 1995, Laos and Myanmar on 23 July 1997. Cambodia was

93

Association of Southeast Asian Nation. NTI. Retrieved December 14, 2013 from:

http://www.nti.org/treaties-and-regimes/association-southeast-asian-nations-asean/

94

ASEAN. About ASEAN: Overview. Retrieved December 1, 2013 from:

http://www.asean.org/asean/about-asean

95

Rother, S. Identifying Regional Cultures of Cooperation: The ASEAN Logic of Anarchy. Cited

December 14, 2013 from: turin.sgir.eu/uploads/Rother-stefan_rother_asean_logic_of_anarchy.pdf‎



42

supposed to join the organization together with LAOS and Myanmar, but because of

the political issue in the country, Cambodia postponed it. Therefore, the last one to

join was Cambodia on 30 April 199996

. These countries have mutual interest and also

vision and mission with ASEAN. That is why they decided to join. After Cambodia

joined, ASEAN officially has ten members from Southeast Asia until today.

ASEAN‘s main agendas are to promote regional peace and stability, which

was why they formed the group in the first place. ASEAN members are also

committed to the rules that have been set by United Nations in UN Charter97

.

ASEAN also owns their principles that are written on ASEAN Charter, which legally

bind the members of ASEAN. They formed a group together to strengthen the

relationship between neighboring countries, to assist and help each other, and also to

cooperate in a lot of areas98

.

III.1. Regional Mechanism

Global economic has grown rapidly. Globalization has emerged in Southeast

Asia. Because of the globalization, cultures also change and develop around the

globe99

. ASEAN member states realize that they need to keep up with the change, or

else Southeast Asia will be left behind by developed countries. Globalization also

could cause problems. The awareness and concern about current security issues and a

lot of border or maritime disputes have got ASEAN member states to think that they

96



97

NTI. Association of Southeast Asian Nation. Retrieved December 14, 2013 from: http://www.nti.org/treaties-and-regimes/association-southeast-asian-nations-asean/

98



99







43

must do something about them. In order to equalize the pace of the global rapid

change and solve a lot of difficulties, they are committed to work together and help

each other. ASEAN realizes the fact that they cannot solve the problems alone.

Besides, the problems are not only one or two countries‘ problems, but also will

affect the whole region in Southeast Asia. Therefore, they finally decided to build

three major cooperation, which is also known as ‗ASEAN Plus Three Cooperation

(APT)‘. ASEAN Plus Three Cooperation includes Political-Security Cooperation,

Finance and Economic Cooperation and Socio-Cultural Cooperation. ‗Disaster

management, human trafficking, education, food and energy security, financial

cooperation, people-to-people contacts, rural development, poverty alleviation and

the other issues‟ are engaged together and included in the three major cooperation as

well100

.

III.1.1. Political-Security Cooperation

There are a lot of conflicts and disputes in Southeast Asia. What is

even worse is there are quite a lot of unsolved disputes which affect not only

one or two countries in Southeast Asia, but also the entire region. ASEAN

member states have committed in cooperating in political and security

cooperation. To show their commitment, they finally decided to make it

official, by forming ASEAN Political-Security Community or APSC, which

will be effective in 2015101

. Enhancing peace, stability and prosperity

throughout Southeast Asia are the duties that should be accomplished by this

cooperation. They wish Southeast Asian countries would live in a peaceful,

100

ASEAN: ASEAN Plus Three Cooperation. The Association of Southeast Asian Nations. Retrieved

December 1, 2013 from: http://www.asean.org/news/item/asean-plus-three-cooperation

101

Kementerian Luar Negeri Indonesia. Kerjasama Politik dan Keamanan ASEAN. Retrieved

December 3, 2013 from:

http://kemlu.go.id/Documents/Kerjasama%20Politik%20Keamanan%20ASEAN.doc

http://www.asean.org/news/item/asean-plus-three-cooperation


44

harmonious and democratic environment, thus they thought that the

community would be helpful102

. Dispute and conflict identification and

settlements between Southeast Asian countries will be handled in this

community. More importantly, they wish it could help them to avoid more

conflicts or clashes to happen in the future.

A legitimate set of objectives and rules should be legalized. It is to set

the boundaries, so no country will dare to violate the agreement. For that

reason, at the 14th

ASEAN Summit on 1 March 2009 which was held in Cha-

am or Hua Hin, Thailand, APSC produced The APSC Blueprint, where all the

details about rules, values and norms of APSC are written and signed103

. The

APSC Blueprint itself is based on ASEAN Charter, because APSC was

formed in order to implement what has been written on the ASEAN Charter.

The APSC Blueprint will be the guide for them to conduct the political-

security cooperation they want to do.

Besides to ensure peace, stability and prosperity of Southeast Asia, the

characteristics and elements of the APSC is to develop politics in Southeast

Asia. In politics, APSC promotes ―democracy in politics; good governance;

abiding to laws; respect, promotion and protection of human rights; and

fundamental freedom‖104

. With the realization of diversity in races, languages,

culture background, religions and so forth that ASEAN has, promoting the

understanding about those differences would be a mission for this community.

102

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations. ASEAN Plus Three Cooperation: ASEAN Political-

Security Community. Retrieved December 2, 2013 from: http://www.asean.org/communities/asean-

political-security-community

103




104




http://www.asean.org/communities/asean-political-security-community






45

They hope ASEAN countries will have closer relationships and mutual

understanding among each other, to avoid clashes in the future. APSC can

also be the bridge for the countries that already clashed to reunite. With the

discussion forums that APSC will hold, hopefully ASEAN members as well

as their partners can discuss and share more about how to solve the existing

problems, especially those that already created anxiety among the citizens105

.

Protecting human rights is one of APSC‘s duties as well. The current human

trafficking issues, terrorism, protection of workers who work overseas and

also the high number of corruption cases in Southeast Asia have already been

discussed, however it should be handled as soon as possible. APSC is

responsible for that.

Maritime security which caused a lot of ruckus in Southeast Asia,

especially in the South China Sea case will be handled under APSC as well.

Maritime issues have apparently become one of major issues in Southeast

Asia that should be tackled. It is APSC‘s mission to open a dialogue with

ASEAN‘s partners in maritime security, Japan and US, for examples106

.

APSC is also cooperating under the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in

Southeast Asia (TAC)107

.

The leaders of ASEAN earlier have produced the Southeast Asian

Nuclear Weapon Free Zone or also known as SEAN WFZ. They have held

several meetings about how dangerous nuclear weapons if they are located in

105

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations. ASEAN Political-Security Community Blueprint PDF.

Retrieved December 2, 2013 from: http://www.asean.org/communities/asean-political-security-

community

106



community

107



community

46

Southeast Asia, the disarmament and also the peaceful use of nuclear energy.

They have agreed to implement the plans of SEAN WFZ and APSC is

responsible to ensure it.

This Blueprint of APSC is a useful guide to remind them of the goals

they have to achieve. However, no matter how legal the existence of this

Blueprint is, it will not run well if there is no one to watch over and ensure

the implementation. Thus, the ASEAN Political and Security Community

Council is appointed for this job. They will record the activities as well. In

July 2009, at the 42nd

ASEAN Ministerial Meeting in Thailand, ASEAN

Member States have agreed to identify the eleven political issues, such as ―the

endorsement of the Terms of Reference of the ASEAN Human Right Body, the

establishment of ASEAN‟s new dispute settlement mechanism, the setting up

of guidelines for accession to the 1976 Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in

Southeast Asia, the enhancement of ASEAN cooperation regarding disaster

management, the enhancement of ASEAN cooperation on the fight against

human trafficking in persons and migrant workers, the setting up of an

ASEAN Fisheries Forum, enhancement of cooperation with civil society

organizations in the fight against non-traditional security problem, the

finalization of an ARF vision statement, the strengthening of the role of

ASEAN in peacekeeping and humanitarian assistance, the enhancement of

cooperation on the SEANWFZ Treaty and the last one is the drafting of

APSC‟s rules of procedures”108.

Since the issues are already selected, hopefully as soon as APSC has

become effective in 2015, they could tackle the problems one by one. In

addition, APSC is made not only to solve disputes, but also to prevent them to

108

Ali, A.H. (2009). Kerjasama Politik Keamanan ASEAN dan Pembangunan Kapabilitas TNI

Angkatan Laut. Retrieved December 2, 2013 from: http://www.fkpmaritim.org/kerjasama-politik-

keamanan-asean-dan-pembangunan-kapabilitas-tni-angkatan-laut/

http://www.fkpmaritim.org/kerjasama-politik-keamanan-asean-dan-pembangunan-kapabilitas-tni-angkatan-laut/


47

happen again the future. It is made to watch over the implementation of their

principles and agreements that have already been made. ASEAN member

states should really utilize the community wisely and take every advice which

is given in the forum into account.

III.1.2. Finance and Economic Cooperation

Southeast Asia has experienced the Asian Monetary Crisis which

affected its social welfare, politics and especially economy109

. ASEAN

member states are also aware about how one Southeast Asian country‘s

economy can affect the others as well, especially in the era of globalization.

United States has always been a super power country that has strong and

powerful economy, as well as Japan. Suddenly, China appeared to challenge

US and Japan, and managed to become one of the super powers as well.

ASEAN does not want to be left behind. They need to compete as well in

order to survive in the emergence of global economy. In order to strengthen

their economy, they have to cooperate in helping each other. ASEAN looks

up to the success of European Union (EU) in economic cooperation and aims

to achieve the success as well. Besides political and security cooperation,

ASEAN member states found that finance and economic cooperation in

Southeast Asia is necessary110

.

The ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) shall be established in

2015. To compete in this globalization, there are a lot of economic barriers.

Creating more open opportunities in finance and economy areas in Southeast

109

Plummer, M.G. (2009). The Global Economic Crisis and Its Implication for Asian Economic

Cooperation. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies.

110

Plummer, M.G. (2009). The Global Economic Crisis and Its Implication for Asian Economic

Cooperation. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies.

48

Asia sounds relevant. AEC is established due to those reasons. More

cooperation in industrial sector, trade and the establishment of ASEAN Free

Trade Area (AFTA) shall be ensured. It includes ―human resources

development, enhanced infrastructure and communication connectivity, trade

financing measures, consultation of macroeconomics and financial policies,

development of electronic transaction through e-ASEAN and enhancing

private sector involvement”111.

Making Southeast Asian a region which is competitive in economy

will foster the economic rate in the region. Even though it is very competitive,

economy in Southeast Asia will be still integrated into the global economy.

AEC will implement a ‗single market‟ or „production base‟ as well as its

characteristics112

. ASEAN Leaders have agreed on the ASEAN Economic

Community by signing the ASEAN Economic Community Blueprint on

October 7 2003 at the Declaration of ASEAN Concord II in Bali, Indonesia113

.

The importance of making a competitive economic region is to make

ASEAN‘s economy as active as possible, yet there is still a policy on it. One

of AEC‘s plans is to develop infrastructure. Developed countries are now

facilitated with high and newer technology. The technology is not only to

raise the prestige of those countries, but also to give prosperity and security

for its people. Newer infrastructures will ensure people‘s safety.

111

ASEAN Plus Three Cooperation: ASEAN Economic Community. The Association of Southeast

Asian Nations. Retrieved December 3, 2013 from: http://www.asean.org/communities/asean-

economic-community 112

ASEAN Plus Three Cooperation: ASEAN Economic Community. The Association of Southeast

Asian Nations. Retrieved December 3, 2013 from: http://www.asean.org/communities/asean-

economic-community

113

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations. ASEAN Economic Community Blueprint PDF.

Retrieved December 3, 2013 from: http://www.asean.org/communities/asean-economic-community

http://www.asean.org/communities/asean-economic-community




49

Single market and production base consist of free flow of goods,

services, capital and skilled labors114

. These elements are really important to

boost Southeast Asian economy. The free flows will attract more people to do

their business and invest their money in Southeast Asian countries. It will

increase the countries‘ GDP and also reduce unemployment. ASEAN accepts

the challenge to improve its industries. The development of industry will be

one of the reasons why investors should come to Southeast Asia as well. They

will help with the development. Moreover, it will improve the technology

which comes to ASEAN and improve the skills of ASEAN in managing the

industry. It is also well-known as ASEAN Industrial Cooperation Scheme

(AICO)115

.

ASEAN has some cooperation that have already been implemented,

for examples AFTA, AICO or e-ASEAN. They also have some bilateral

cooperation with the other states, for examples Japan bilateral cooperation

with Indonesia, Singapore, Vietnam, the Philippines and Brunei Darussalam;

South Korea‘s bilateral cooperation with Thailand and Singapore; and so

many others116

. To record the implementation of this cooperation that AEC

wants to conduct, ASEAN member states have agreed to make a Scorecard

for AEC117

. It is also made to remind ASEAN member states of the

commitment and mechanisms of AEC which have already been agreed in

114

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations. ASEAN Economic Community Blueprint PDF.

Retrieved December 3, 2013 from: http://www.asean.org/communities/asean-economic-community

115

ASEAN Industrial Cooperation Scheme. The Association of Southeast Asian Nations. Retrieved

December 4, 2013 from: http://www.asean.org/communities/asean-economic-community/item/asean-

industrial-cooperation-scheme 116

Cuyver, R. & Tummers, R. (2007). The Road to an ASEAN Community: How Far Still to Go?

Retrieved December 15, 2013 from: webh01.ua.ac.be/cas/PDF/CAS57.pdf‎

117

The ASEAN Economic Community (AEC): an Alternative Scorecard Approach. CIMB ASEAN

Research Institute. Retrieved December 14, 2013 from: www.cariasean.org/wp-

content/uploads/.../Research-Project-Apr-2013.pdf

http://www.asean.org/communities/asean-economic-community/item/asean-industrial-cooperation-scheme


http://www.cariasean.org/wp-content/uploads/.../Research-Project-Apr-2013.pdf


50

ASEAN Economic Community Blueprint. AEC will be there to ensure that if

another economy crisis occurred once again, they are ready to face it. So far,

their wish to make ASEAN a highly competitive market region is still far

from what they have expected118

. The social and economy equality in

Southeast Asia still could be seen clearly. That is why the community

hopefully will help Southeast Asia to increase and develop its economy.

III.I.3. Social and Cultural Cooperation

The citizens who live around Southeast Asia are all important. They

have the same rights to be protected and to live in a peaceful region. ASEAN

has already emphasized that they are very people-oriented. ASEAN member

states gathered in a lot of meetings for those people. However, at the current

state of Southeast Asia, with a lot of conflicts, differences, threats and so

many others, the dream of people living in harmony is still very much out of

reach. This is why ASEAN member states think that it is necessary to keep

socio-cultural cooperation as the last pillar of ASEAN Plus Three

Cooperation. The ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community (ASCC) will also be

established because ASEAN feels responsible in ensuring people‘s

prosperity119

.

Humans, cultures and natural resources are the most important things

and they are linked to each other. They cannot live without one another. That

118

The ASEAN Economic Community (AEC): an Alternative Scorecard Approach. CIMB ASEAN

Research Institute. Retrieved December 14, 2013 from: www.cariasean.org/wp-

content/uploads/.../Research-Project-Apr-2013.pdf

119

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations. ASEAN Plus Three Cooperation: Socio-Culture

Community. Retrieved December 5, 2013 from: www.asean.org/communities/asean-socio-cultural-

community



http://www.asean.org/communities/asean-socio-cultural-community


51

is why ASCC will have to nurture them so they can live in harmony120

. We

cannot deny that there are times social cultural issues, including natural

resources issues, could lead some neighboring countries into conflicts. This is

why solidarity, unity and mutual understanding are needed. ASCC wants to

create a sharing and caring society in Southeast Asia121

.

On 20 November 2007, at the 13th

ASEAN Summit which was held in

Singapore, ASEAN Member States have agreed with the establishment of the

ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community Blueprint. The Blueprint consists of

some characteristics and elements of ASCC122

. A friendly environmental

where people can understand each other even though they have different

perspective is needed and ASCC should provide that. Respect towards each

other is the key in avoiding clashes, especially between ethnics and race.

Sharing and caring are just as important, for example in terms of natural

resources. The government gives citizens opportunities in managing natural

resources. Boundaries and limitation have already been set. It would not hurt

to obey the rules, by not taking the natural resources they do not own. ASCC

brings that issue to a discussion with ASEAN member states. They also focus

on the Narrow Development Gap (NDG). ASCC protects citizens from

poverty and any other harm created from social welfare123

.

120



community

121



community 122



community

123

Acharya, A. (2009). Constructing a Security Community in Southeast ASIA‟ ASEAN and the

Problem of Regional Order. New York: Routledge.







52

The key characteristics of ASCC are ―Human Development, Social

Welfare and Protection, Social Justice and Rights, Ensuring Environmental

Sustainability, Building the ASEAN Identity and the last one is Narrowing the

Development Gap”124. In order to achieve them, there are several things that

need to be done, for instance, improving education in Southeast Asia and

make it as a priority125

. Education is really important, especially for the future

generation. Until today, education systems in Southeast Asia are still behind

from the developed countries. Southeast Asian countries should raise the

quality of their education. On top of that, education should be equally

distributed, including in village and the other remote areas. The education

cooperation that ASEAN have already done is exchange students and teachers

between ASEAN countries, for example. This is one of ASEAN‘s agendas in

fostering education in Southeast Asia. Teachers in Southeast Asia were

gathered in a convention called as ASEAN Council of Teachers

Convention126

. Meanwhile, students who live in Southeast Asia are gathered

annually in ASEAN Youth Convention (AYC) where they can exchange

thoughts127

.

The mission of ASCC is to ensure the education, as well as

developing human resource quality. Apart from that, teaching women, youth,

elderly and also people who have disabilities about entrepreneurship is also

124

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations. The ASEAN Socio-Culture Community Blueprint

PDF. Retrieved December 5, 2013 from: www.asean.org/communities/asean-socio-cultural-

community

125



community 126

Napitulu, E.L. (2012). ASEAN Perkuat Jaringan Kerjasama Pendidikan. Retrieved December 15,

2013

from:http://edukasi.kompas.com/read/2012/12/08/14093526/ASEAN.Perkuat.Jaringan.Kerjasama.Pen

didikan

127

Global Youth Congress International. Retrieved December 15, 2013 from:

http://www.gyci.org/conventions_ayc.html

53

on the agenda. Unemployment is the issue which covers almost all Southeast

Asia. Besides teaching them more skills, teaching people on how to create a

business will be helpful to solve unemployment problems, relating to poverty

issue.

Poverty has been an unsolved issue for generations. It is time for

ASEAN member states to do something to reduce it. For that reason, they put

poverty alleviations on the list128

. If the government can enhance food and

security safety, and also the development of health access, they will be able to

reduce poverty as well.

There are three things that ASCC will find important as well129

. They

are the protection of human rights of elderly, women, children and people

with disabilities; protection of migrant workers; and also enhancing Corporate

Social Responsibility (CSR) programs in company. There are a lot of issues

involving elderly, women, children, people with disabilities and also migrant

workers, including human trafficking and mistreatments. ASCC will ensure

that those people are treated like human beings should. CSR programs should

be beneficial to help the governments in handling some issues as well. For

example, in ensuring environmental sustainability, this also has become

ASCC‘s‎concern‎too.

ASEAN member states wish through socio-culture cooperation,

people who live in Southeast Asia will find their sense of community. The

cooperation can be a place where they can promote their heritage, for instance,

by holding cultural events. The cultural events have caught people‘s attention

128



community

129

Sammuel, C.Y. (2011). The ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community (ASCC): Development and

Prospect. Taiwan: National Sun Yat-Sen University.

54

and quite successful. The implementation of ASCC‘s plans in its Blueprint

will be ensured by ASEAN ministerial bodies130

. They will keep the records

of which point of the Blueprint that ASEAN have implemented and make

sure that nobody violates it. By creating an understanding and caring

community, peace and stability can also be ensured.

III.2. ASEAN Security Cooperation

At first, the issue of security alliance was a very sensitive topic for

ASEAN member states. It could lead to misunderstanding and tension

between those countries. However, they realized that ASEAN are facing a lot

of challenging security issues in Southeast Asia. The issues include arms

races, territorial maritime disputes, border disputes, terrorism and the list goes

on. On the other hands, one of ASEAN priorities is to bring peace in the

region. They want to reduce conflicts to appear in Southeast Asia131

.

As a people-oriented community, ASEAN is concerned about the

safety of people who live in the region. Protecting them would be their

priority. In order to achieve that goal, ASEAN came up with the idea to form

a community named ASEAN Security Community (ASC). Previously,

ASEAN have stated that they wanted a peaceful, democratic and harmonious

environment for its people. To give those, ASEAN should be prepared first

with the defense and security in Southeast Asia. ASC will be responsible to

ensure that people and their lands will be protected from threats. Threats

come from anywhere, not only from the other countries, but also from

130



community

131



55

separatist groups or rebels, for examples. ASC will promote ‗good conduct

inter-state relations, come up with effective conflict prevention and

mechanisms to solve it, and post-conflict building activities‟132. Those are the

important plans that ASC should conduct.

Even though the awareness of threats has risen after several attacks or

conflicts, defense and security topic remains as a sensitive topic for Southeast

Asian countries. Thus, some of them would rather have bilateral or trilateral

cooperation among the countries. This is why a security community like ASC

plans to mediate bilateral cooperation between ASEAN member states and

also engaging its partners through meetings.

III.2.1. ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF)

There are a lot of security threats that Southeast Asia need to face. Not

only territorial or maritime disputes, but piracy, human trafficking and also

terrorism involving crime organizations also make the citizens of Southeast

Asia feel the insecurity. There are also tensions between the neighboring

countries about security, which lead them into arms races. Economy crisis,

environmental, social and political issues could be the causes of the threats133

.

There are a lot of unsolved problems remain in Southeast Asia that need to be

handled. If the conflicts are not solved as soon as possible, it will not give

impact to one country only but it could affect the other Southeast Asian

countries as well. On the other hand, United States also believe that the rise of

China could also become a threat for Southeast Asia. Besides the threat to

132

ASEAN Security Community Plan of Action. The Association of Southeast Asian Nations.

Retrieved December 5, 2013 from: http://www.asean.org/news/item/asean-security-community-plan-

of-action

133

Ruland, J. (2004). The Nature of Southeast ASEAN Security Challenges. Cited December 5, 2013

from: http://www.ssrnetwork.net/document_library/detail/4616/the-nature-of-southeast-asian-security-

challenges

http://www.asean.org/news/item/asean-security-community-plan-of-action


56

economic area, the South China Sea dispute can lead Southeast Asia to huge

trouble134

. The dialogue to see different perspective on security and to get

some advices is obviously needed by ASEAN. ASEAN Regional Forum

(ARF) was the solution that The 26th

ASEAN Ministerial Meeting and Post

Ministerial Conference in Singapore on 23-25 July 1993 were given135

. ARF

was formed as an open dialogue forum for ASEAN members and its partners,

to discuss about the political and security cooperation among them. There are

two objectives of ARF, such as:

1. to foster constructive dialogue and consultation on political

and security issues of common interest and concern

2. to make significant contributions to efforts towards

confidence-building and preventive diplomacy in the Asia-

Pacific region136

ARF can be seen as the improvement of cooperation in political and

security area. Why? Because it is a big step for ASEAN in the area of defense

security, judging from how Southeast Asia has been avoided in the topic

before. The current security state of ASEAN makes them wish that ARF

could cover the security in Asia-Pacific region through its dialogue

consultation. ARF considered quite successful for engaging 27 member states,

including Australia, Bangladesh, Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Canada,

China, European Union, India, Indonesia, Japan, Democratic Peoples‟

Republic of Korea, Republic of Korea, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Mongolia,

134

Asia‘s‎Security‎Threat,‎Real‎and‎Perceived‎(2010).‎East‎West‎Center‎News.‎Retrieved‎December‎7,‎

2013 from: http://www.eastwestcenter.org/news-center/east-west-wire/asias-security-threats-real-and-perceived

135

ASEAN Regional Forum. About: ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF). Retrieved December 6, 2013

from: http://aseanregionalforum.asean.org/about.html

136

ASEAN Regional Forum. About: ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF). Retrieved December 6, 2013

from: http://aseanregionalforum.asean.org/about.html

http://aseanregionalforum.asean.org/about.html


57

New Zealand, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Russian Federation,

Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Timor Leste, United States, and Vietnam137.

ARF should hold annual Ministerial meeting. It should produce mechanisms

in solving various political and security conflicts as well. In ARF, the

concepts of security community and cooperative security appeared.

According to Amitav Acharya, in security community, they ensure that the

members of that community will not fight each other physically or by arms

race, but instead they will find another way to settle the dispute138

.

The discussion held in ARF varies and it is developed in each meeting.

For examples, on ARF‘s 9th

Intersessional Meeting, the members were

sharing and discussing about Counterterrorism and Transnational Crime. ARF

members also concern about nuclear energy, thus the topic was being

discussed several times. On the 2nd ARF Intersessional Meeting on

Nonproliferation and Disarmament, they were discussing about the peaceful

use of nuclear energy. On the 13th

ARF, the topic developed into a discussion

of nuclear free zone as well as the disarmament of nuclear power139

. Not only

those, but ARF also succeed in bringing maritime security and disaster relief

into discussion as well.

The question is has ARF been effective through all those dialogues

and meetings? ASEAN biggest challenge would be to enhance peace and

prosperity that they aim for. Until now, ARF had succeeded for bringing the

presence of security in Southeast Asia. ARF also succeed in embracing a lot

of countries as members, including super power countries like US, China,

137

ASEAN Regional Forum. ASEAN Regional Forum PDF. Retrieved December 6, 2013 from: cns.miis.edu/inventory/pdfs/arf.pdf‎

138



139

ASEAN Regional Forum. ASEAN Regional Forum PDF. Retrieved December 6, 2013 from:

cns.miis.edu/inventory/pdfs/arf.pdf‎

58

Russia and Japan. The super power countries present at ARF meetings to give

a lot of advices in handling security issues because they are more experienced.

ARF is committed to cooperate and build security with the members, not to

go against them140

.Even though people are given that fact, the question

whether ARF is effective for conflict solving and contributing in regional

stability still remains.

III.2.2. Bilateral and Trilateral Security Cooperation of ASEAN

In securing the entire Southeast Asia, a solid cooperation between

ASEAN member states should be strengthened. They have agreed to conduct

bilateral or trilateral security cooperation between ASEAN member states and

also with the other countries. Their cooperation consists of assisting each

other against external threats, exchanging and helping with intelligent, joint

maritime surveillance or patrols, officers training, and so many others141

.

Even though some countries rejected the military alliance, there are

some of ASEAN member states which have already conducted cooperation,

Indonesia and Philippines, for instance. Indonesia and Philippines have

agreed to cooperate in the field of defense since 1997. The neighboring

countries continued the cooperation on 14 December 2010 in Makati City,

when the Department of National Defense of the Republic of the Philippines

140



141

Acharya, A. A Survey of Military Cooperation Among The ASEAN States: Bilaterlaism or Alliance?

Cited December 6, 2010 from: yorkspace.library.yorku.ca/xmlui/handle/10315/1421

59

held a meeting with Indonesia. The meeting was known as the Philippines-

Indonesia Joint Defense Cooperation Committee (JDSCC)142

.

Indonesia and Philippines engaged in military training, joint military

activities, exchange personnel and the military members, exchange

information and exchange of visits143

. The knowledge they got from each

other would be very useful. Not only in defense and security field, but

Indonesia and Philippines also cooperate in term of counterterrorism144

.

Indonesia and the Philippines are both dealing with radical Islamic groups.

Because they share mutual problem, they exchange opinions and willing to

assist each other. Indonesia and Philippines also work together in catching the

fugitives.

Their cooperation has worked well during Aceh Peace Process in

2005 where Philippines assisted Indonesia in the negotiations with Free Aceh

Movement or Gerakan Aceh Merdeka (GAM). On the other hands, Indonesia

is also willing to help The Philippines in overcoming issue with Islam

separatists in Southern Philippines145

. Indonesia and The Philippines also

have conducted joint practice between Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP)

142

Defense and Security Cooperation with Indonesia. The Office of the Assistant Secretary for

Strategic Assessment. Retrieved December 6, 2013 from: http://www.dndph.org/press-

releases/defense-and-security-cooperation-with-indonesia

143




144

The Jakarta Globe. Away from the Spotlight, Indonesia and the Philippines Have Forged a Tight

Bond. Retrieved December 6, 2013 from: http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/archive/away-from-the-

spotlight-indonesia-and-the-philippines-have-forged-a-tight-bond/

145

The Jakarta Globe. Away from the Spotlight, Indonesia and the Philippines Have Forged a Tight

Bond. Retrieved December 6, 2013 from: http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/archive/away-from-the-

spotlight-indonesia-and-the-philippines-have-forged-a-tight-bond/

http://www.dndph.org/press-releases/defense-and-security-cooperation-with-indonesia




http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/archive/away-from-the-spotlight-indonesia-and-the-philippines-have-forged-a-tight-bond/




60

and Tentara National Indonesia (TNI)146

. Seeing from the results, it seems

like the bilateral relation between Philippines and Indonesia are quite

effective.

The trilateral cooperation happened between Malaysia, Indonesia and

Philippines has been in securing Sulu-Celebes Sea. The three countries

surround the area and the area happens to be the lair of terrorist networks Abu

Sayyaf Group and Jemaah Islamiyah147

. The terrorist groups are not only

staying in those areas, but also threatening and pirating the ships which go

through the Sulu and Celebes Sea. Their cooperation provides dialogue

meetings and joint patrols around the sea148

.

ASEAN countries are also openly cooperating with other countries as

well. Japan, Australia and US also joined in the multilateral cooperation with

ASEAN in its maritime security. However, the cooperation between ASEAN

and the three countries is not only limited to political and security area, but

also in economy and socio-cultural area. ASEAN also engages in bilateral

cooperation with Japan, as an example149

.

The exchange dialogue of Japan and ASEAN was first conducted in

1973, however the first official summit was held in 1977. It is also known as

146




147

From The Oceans. The Current State of Maritime Security and CWS Role in Celebes and Sulu Seas. Retrieved December 6, 2013 from: http://oceans.oprf-info.org/analysis_en/c1206-2.html

148

From The Oceans. The Current State of Maritime Security and CWS Role in Celebes and Sulu

Seas. Retrieved December 6, 2013 from: http://oceans.oprf-info.org/analysis_en/c1206-2.html

149

Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan. MOFA: Relations between Japan and ASEAN. Retrieved

December 5, 2013 from: http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/asia-paci/asean/pmv9812/relation.html



http://oceans.oprf-info.org/analysis_en/c1206-2.html


61

The First Japan-ASEAN Summit Meeting150

. On the second Japan-ASEAN

Summit Meeting, Japan and ASEAN have agreed to cooperate in New

Partnership for Peace and Security. Japan is willing to assist ASEAN in

political and security related issues, such as counterterrorism and

International Organized Crime, for examples151

. Japan has participated on

ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF), ASEAN Plus Three (APT), the East Asia

Summit (EAS) and also ASEAN Defense Ministers Meeting Plus (ADMM

Plus).

Concerning the threat of terrorism in Southeast Asia, on November

2004 in Vientiane, Laos, Japan and ASEAN have produced a Joint

Declaration for Cooperation on the Fight against International Terrorism at

the 8th

ASEAN-Japan Summit. Following the declaration, another meeting

was held, which was the ASEAN-Japan Counter Terrorism Dialogue (AJCTD)

was held in March 2006. Japan is also willing to cooperate with ASEAN in its

maritime security152

.

150


December 5, 2013 from: http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/asia-paci/asean/pmv9812/relation.html 151


December 5, 2013 from: http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/asia-paci/asean/pmv9812/relation.html

152

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations. ASEAN-Japan Dialogue Relations. Retrieved

December 6, 2013 from: http://www.asean.org/news/item/external-relations-japan-overview-of-asean-

japan-relations

62

CHAPTER IV

ASEAN Cooperation in Counter-Terrorism

ASEAN member states are well-aware of how threatening terrorism attack

can be. Not only threatening peace, stability and the safety of people, terrorism also

brings impact to Southeast Asian economy and other areas. ASEAN member states

realize that they must do something about it immediately.

The plan and process of terrorism attacks occurred in almost all of South East

Asian countries. Terrorism does not involve only one country. Terrorism in Indonesia

involved terrorists from Malaysia and terrorism in Philippines involved terrorists

from Indonesia, for examples. All of ASEAN member states experience the same

terrorism threat and cooperating as one to counter terrorism seems to be the best idea

for South East Asia. However, has it been an effective way to decrease or even stop

the threat?

The idea of working together in countering terrorism has already started even

before major attacks in Southeast Asian countries occurred153

. ASEAN has always

been concerned in combating transnational crime, and terrorism is their main agenda.

At ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on Transnational Crime in 1997, terrorism was the

focus of ASEAN member states154

. In order to keep the stability and peace around

Southeast Asia, they really need to take terrorism into account. ASEAN member

states are willing to put more efforts in counter-terrorism. However, it was pushed

153

ASEAN.‎ASEAN‘S‎Contribution‎to‎Regional‎Efforts‎in‎Counter-Terrorism. Retrieved December

28, 2013 from: http://www.asean.org/resources/2012-02-10-08-47-56/speeches-statements-of-the-

former-secretaries-general-of-asean/item/asean-s-contribution-to-regional-efforts-in-counter-terrorism

154

Beng,‎P.K.‎ASEAN:‎Little‎Unity‎in‎the‎face‎of‎‗War‘.‎Asia Time. Retrieved December 29, 2013

from: http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/EF19Ae03.html

63

even more ever since the 9/11 occurred. United States have accused Southeast Asia

as the second most dangerous region in terms of terrorism155

. Southeast Asia has

quite a lot of number of Muslims and also extremist Islamic organizations. The

terrorism regime can be rooted in Southeast Asia due to its history. The governments

and citizens in Southeast Asia feel insecure because of this fact. Therefore, protecting

the people from terrorism threats is one of ASEAN‘s commitments, thus in 2001,

ASEAN member states had agreed to hold another meeting to discuss more about it.

As a result, they released the ASEAN Declaration of Joint Action to Counter

Terrorism156

.

In order to combat terrorism, the knowledge of the grass roots in terrorism

should be understood by each of ASEAN members. More importantly, the members

have to commit to their duties and able to cooperate well. Even though ASEAN has

had security cooperation already, cooperation in counter-terrorism needs to be

specialized. ASEAN member states have to put special attention in this area because

terrorist movements are very fast and their network covers a wide range of fields and

regions. These terrorists keep developing ways to plan and conduct their attacks. To

keep up and stop them, there is no way that a state can do the job alone.

For those reasons, strict laws regarding terrorism and law enforcement should

be formed. Each of ASEAN member states should have mutual understanding about

counter terrorism. These laws were already set in the previous declaration. However,

ASEAN needs further discussion and action to counter terrorism. Thus, ASEAN

Convention on Counter Terrorism was held in 2007 by ASEAN member states.

155

Long,‎T.D.‎(2011).‎The‎―Quiet‖‎Side‎of‎Counter‎Terrorism‎Operations:‎Combating‎Islamic‎

Extremism in Southeast Asia. 156

2001 ASEAN Declaration on Joint Action to Counter Terrorism. Retrieved December 28, 2013

from: http://www.asean.org/news/item/2001-asean-declaration-on-joint-action-to-counter-terrorism

64

IV.1. ASEAN Convention on Counter-Terrorism (ACCT)

Southeast Asian countries face mutual threat of terrorism. It can happen

anywhere and anytime. Terrorists do not care which country they are trying to

threaten as long as they get what they want. Terrorism network in Southeast Asia has

been spread like wildfire already, including in Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines,

Thailand and so on. To put more efforts addressing the issue especially in Southeast

Asia, ASEAN member states decided to hold another ASEAN Convention on

Counter-Terrorism in Cebu, The Philippines on January 13 2007157

. In this forum,

they discuss a lot about how to deal with the current issue and the anticipations that

should be taken by each ASEAN member through cooperation.

ASEAN member states have agreed with some methods to counter terrorism

through this forum, including understanding the roots of terrorism in Southeast Asia.

Understanding the roots of terrorism in Southeast Asia is important so they will know

the history of radical Islamic organizations around the states. ASEAN member states

are fully aware that terrorist attacks are indiscriminate violence in nature, which

means anyone in any country could be very well be attack targets158

, but a dangerous

crime which harms the safety their people. The only way to secure the people from it

is by fighting it. ASEAN member states pointed out several cooperation points that

ASEAN could do in counter-terrorism which were being discussed in the forum. The

pointers are as follows:

157

Tisnadibrata, I.L. (2013). ASEAN Counter-Terrorism Deal Spurs Calls for Action. Retrieved

January 3, 2014 from:

http://khabarsoutheastasia.com/en_GB/articles/apwi/articles/features/2013/03/12/feature-03

158

ASEAN Convention on Counter-Terrorism. The Association of Southeast Asian Nations. Retrieved

January 3, 2014 from: http://www.asean.org/news/asean-secretariat-news/item/asean-convention-on-

counter-terrorism-completes-ratification-process

65

IV.1.1. Exchange information and data

First of all, ASEAN member states have agreed to share information and data

regarding terrorists and its network from each of their respective intelligence

agencies159

. Each state in Southeast Asia has different record and information about

terrorism in their country. They have different focus in the terrorist groups, for

examples, Indonesia focuses on Jemaah Islamiyah (JI) and the Philippines focuses on

Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG).

This method has been used by the Philippines and Indonesia in their

cooperation regarding terrorism. They have exchanged information regarding the

terrorists that are based in their countries160

. The information about their whereabouts,

the records of the attacks that they have caused and many others are important. The

possibility of terrorist groups in Southeast Asia are linked to each other is high. It

would be easier to track the terrorist suspect who ran away to another Southeast

Asian country if ASEAN member states are cooperating.

Exchanging information between ASEAN member states includes giving an

early warning to each other about possible terrorist attack161

. Terrorism on the

internet has become more popular these days, as it is used as radicalization purposes.

These terrorists have found the other ways to radicalize people. Intelligent should

keep up and update each other about it. 159

Aritonang, M.S. Indonesia set to ratify Anti-Terror Pact. The Jakarta Post. Retrieved January 4,

2014 from: http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2012/03/09/indonesia-set-ratify-asean-anti-terror-pact.html 160

Lacorte, G. (2011). Philippines, Indonesia Deepen Cooperation vs Terrorism, Smuggling,

Trafficking. Retrieved January 4, 2014 from: http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/100217/philippines-

indonesia-deepen-cooperation-vs-terrorism-smuggling-trafficking

161




66

IV.1.2. Blocking the flow of fund to terrorists

Besides agreeing to exchange data and information regarding the threat, they

have also agreed to get to stop the flow of funds to terrorists162

. They have to cut off

the flow of money to terrorists in Southeast Asia. One of the biggest funds for

terrorists in the area comes from Al-Qaeda because they are affiliates163

.

United States has tried a method to cut off the flow of fund of Al-Qaeda.

They found out that the case of kidnappings by the organization had increased. The

organization got the fund by ransoms that governments of those hostages have to

give. To put an end to that, United States suggested them to stop giving ransoms to

Al-Qaeda164

. After giving them what they want, those terrorists will still come back

to do more kidnappings.

ASEAN has struggled to tackle the transnational crimes happening around

Southeast Asia even before the 9/11 attack occurred165

. It is not only suspected as

terrorists‘ way in getting funded but it also makes citizens feel insecure. In Southeast

Asia case, there were several cases when Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG) kidnapped some

citizens and tourists166

. They asked for a sum of money in exchange with their

162


2014 from: http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2012/03/09/indonesia-set-ratify-asean-anti-terror-

pact.html

163

Rottenberg, C. The Brewing Storm: The Merger between Jemaah Islamiyah and Abu Sayyaf Group.

Retrieved January 4, 2014 from: www.osgoodcenter.org/PDF/thebrewingstorm.pdf‎

164

Benjamin, D. (2011). Stop Funding Terrorists. New York Times. Retrieved January 4, 2014 from:

http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/18/opinion/18iht-edbenjamin18.html?_r=0#h[]

165

Pushpanathan, S. (2003). ASEAN Efforts to Combat Terrorism. Retrieved January 14, 2014 from:

http://www.asean.org/resources/item/asean-efforts-to-combat-terrorism-by-spushpanathan

166

Abu Sayyaf Group: Terrorist Group. National Counter-Terrorism Center (NTCT). Retrieved

January 4, 2014 from: http://www.nctc.gov/site/groups/asg.html

67

hostages as well. In order to set free the hostages, the government decided to pay for

the ransom167

. However, even though the hostage will be freed, the ransom will be

used for more dangerous mission to attack the country168

. If this happens again in the

future, the government has to refuse to pay for the ransom. Paying the ransom equals

helping those terrorists in funding their next terror attack. It is one of the ways to stop

the flow of funds to terrorists. The governments in Southeast Asia should also take an

immediate action if they knew someone from their country who supports those

terrorists with some funds. Anyone who helps in funding terrorism acts should be

punished as well.

In addition, to put an end to transnational crimes which happen around

Southeast Asia, ASEAN member states will have to tighten their security. More

intense patrols should be done. ASEAN should conduct some joint patrols, especially

in very important spots in Southeast Asia such as Malacca Strait, or in islands which

are located in the border of Indonesia and the Philippines, which are suspected to be

terrorists‘ lairs169

. These places are where the terrorists trade to obtain supplies of

weapons170

. Terrorists got their money by committing crimes. ASEAN‘s cooperation

will not only be limited by stopping terrorists from terrorizing but also from doing

crimes.

167

Mapping Militant Organization. Abu Sayyaf. Retrieved January 4, 2014 from:

http://www.stanford.edu/group/mappingmilitants/cgi-bin/groups/view/152

168

Benjamin, D. (2011). Stop Funding Terrorists. New York Times. Retrieved January 4, 2014 from:

http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/18/opinion/18iht-edbenjamin18.html?_r=0#h[]

169

Malau, I.L.F., Afrianti, D. (2009). Pulau Perbatasan RI-Filipina Rawan Terorisme. Retrieved

January 5, 2014 from: http://nasional.news.viva.co.id/news/read/29358-

pulau_perbatasan_ri_filipina_rawan_terorisme

170

Kompas. Perbatasan Indonesia, Sorga Pasokan Senjata. Retrieved January 5, 2014 from:

http://nasional.kompas.com/read/2012/09/09/22511914/Perbatasan.Indonesia..Surga.Pasokan.Senjata.

Teroris.

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IV.1.3. Joint investigations and military trainings

Thirdly, law enforcement body in each of Southeast Asian country should

work together in investigations171

and in search of terrorist suspects172

. There are

several cases when terrorist suspects ran away to other countries. This is when

intelligences in Southeast Asia need to work together in capturing the suspects.

ASEAN member states have agreed to hold joint military training between each

state‘s army and more regional meetings as well173

.

The joint military training will be very useful for the intelligence to gain more

knowledge and share information. There are simulations of how to defuse bombs,

how to catch and arrest terrorists, and the other activities related to Counter-

Terrorism.

IV.1.4. Make stricter security and border control mechanisms

The governments will tighten the security. We have to admit that before

various terrorist attacks or bombings occurred, the security was not as tight as today.

171


2014 from: http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2012/03/09/indonesia-set-ratify-asean-anti-terror-

pact.html

172




173




69

They have to put more efforts on it and create stricter border control mechanisms174

.

The security should not let suspicious people pass the border between countries

easily. They also need to be more careful with terrorists‘ fake identities and

documents175

. Whoever helps them in faking the data should also be punished. In

order to decrease the case, some Southeast Asia countries have applied electronic

national identity card. Electronic ID card will make the government track them

easier176

. It would be more difficult for terrorists to have many electronic identity

cards.

IV.1.5. Cooperating with citizens

Most importantly, ASEAN member states have to convince their citizens to

work together in Counter-Terrorism. The citizens have to realize that terrorist threats

are real, can occur anytime and anywhere and anyone can be a victim. Terrorism is

threatening their peace and stability of the nation. It‎ is‎ the‎ government‘s‎ duty‎ to‎

educate their citizens about the danger of terrorism and how to overcome it. More

open dialogues and forums should also be held for citizens, so they will have deeper

knowledge about it177

. Citizens can help the government by observing their

174

ASEAN Convention on Counter-Terrorism Completes Ratification Process. Retrieved January 5,

2014 from: http://www.demotix.com/news/2629190/joint-counter-terrorism-training-exercise-given-

green-light

175


January 3, 2014 from: http://www.asean.org/news/asean-secretariat-news/item/asean-convention-on-counter-terrorism-completes-ratification-process 176

Elektronik akan Tekan Gerak Teroris di Indonesia. Voice of America. Retrieved January 5, from:

http://www.voaindonesia.com/content/ktp-elektronik-tekan-gerak-teroris-126799828/96345.html

177

ASEAN Convention on Counter-Terrorism Completes Ratification Process. Retrieved January 5,

2014 from: http://www.demotix.com/news/2629190/joint-counter-terrorism-training-exercise-given-

green-light

70

environment and reporting some people who act suspiciously and most likely to be

involved in terrorism acts.

ASEAN member states have to be ready to handle the aftermath of an attack

which already happened. They also have to be ready to prevent the upcoming

possibility of attacks. This is why in depth knowledge about terrorism along with its

scheme and chemical power should be owned by each ASEAN member states‘

governments. Anyone involved in terrorism should be prosecuted. At ASEAN

Convention on Counter-Terrorism in 2007, ASEAN member states also discussed

about creating rehabilitation program for terrorists. These terrorists are going to be

deradicalized through this program. Through counseling programs, it is expected that

those terrorists will turn to help the police, becoming informants and aides178

. Some

countries in Southeast Asia, such as Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore have already

applied the rehabilitation program179

.

Beside cooperation among Southeast Asian countries, United States has

committed to build cooperation with ASEAN in Counter-Terrorism180

. For instance,

U.S. government has funded Detachment 88 in chasing terrorist suspects181

. Japan is

also committed in helping ASEAN in Counter-Terrorism. Both ASEAN and Japan

have‎opened‎a‎dialogue‎which‎is‎called‎‗ASEAN-Japan Counter-Terrorism Dialogue‘.

In this dialogue, they exchanged views and information about terrorism. Japan has

178

Montero, D. (2009). How effective are terrorist rehabilitation programs? Retrieved January 5,

2014 from: http://www.csmonitor.com/World/terrorism-security/2009/0907/p99s01-duts.html

179

Beam, C. What happened in terrorist rehab? Slate. Retrieved January 5, 2014 from:

http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/explainer/2009/01/jihadis_anonymous.html 180

U.S – ASEAN Regional Forum Cooperation. U.S. Department of State. Retrieved January 6, 2014

from: http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2011/07/169002.htm

181

Davies, E., Rondonuwu, O. (2010). U.S. funded Detachment 88, elite of Indonesia Security.

Reuters. Retrieved January 6, 2014 from: http://www.reuters.com/article/2010/03/18/us-indonesia-

usa-security-idUSTRE62H13F20100318

71

strengthened its relation with ASEAN by funding the Counter-Terrorism program

too182

.

VI. 2. The Implementation of ASEAN Cooperation in Counter-Terrorism

All sort of agreements are wasted if they are not implemented in real life.

Therefore, to prove that ASEAN member states are committed in countering

terrorism, some agreements in ASEAN Convention on Counter-Terrorism agenda

have been implemented bilaterally and multilaterally. After members of ASEAN

have signed the agreement in ASEAN Convention on Counter-Terrorism, they have

contributed something in order to defeat terrorism in Southeast Asia. They start to

tighten the security, especially in the state borders.

Multilateral Cooperation

ASEAN usually focuses their cooperation in political and economic sectors.

They tend to avoid joint military cooperation. However, in order prove their

commitment in counter-terrorism, ASEAN are willing to have joint military training.

The ASEAN Plus Eight joint training in counter-terrorism was held in Indonesia183

.

The event, that was participated by all ten ASEAN member states plus eight of its

external allies, not only trained and educated military personnel more about counter-

terrorism, but also held simulations and exchange information between the

182

MOFA:‎Overview‎of‎Japan‘s‎International‎Counter-Terrorism Cooperation. Retrieved January 6,

2014 from: http://www.mofa.go.jp/policy/terrorism/intl_coop.html

183

Indonesia to Host ASEAN Plus Eight Joint Counter-Terrorism Training. Embassy of Indonesia in

Oslo. Retrieved January 15, 2014 from: http://indonesia-oslo.no/indonesia-to-host-asean-plus-eight-

joint-counter-terrorism-training/

72

participants184

. To add the exchange of information between ASEAN member states,

Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Thailand and Cambodia signed the Agreement

of Information Exchange and Establishment of Communication Procedures185

. It

means that these countries are willing to share confidential information, yet still keep

it as a secret among them. This is needed because each country has its own

information and data regarding terrorism. The variety of information they exchange

would be an advantage for them in breaking down the terrorist network around

Southeast Asia.

Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Thailand, Myanmar and the Philippines put their

efforts in creating Cross Border Transport Agreement, in addressing the issue of

terrorism186

. Terrorists tend to cross the border in countries illegally, either to run

away from the police, recruiting people or conducting their attacks. Not only that,

they also do a lot of illegal transactions such as selling drugs, weapons and so many

others. In order to prevent terrorist from crossing the borders, ASEAN member states

should be more careful in letting people pass. With the existence of this agreement,

the six countries have agreed to conduct more workshops regarding cross-border

control capacity and also share information. They also need to train their staffs, so

they will improve the skills in detecting document fraud.

Bilateral Cooperation

So far, ASEAN member states have improved their bilateral cooperation in

military. For example, Indonesia and Philippines have engaged in defense

184

Indonesia to Host ASEAN Plus Eight Joint Counter-Terrorism Training. (2013). Antara News.

Retrieved January 15, 2014 from: http://www.antaranews.com/en/news/88704/indonesia-to-host-

asean-plus-eight-joint-counter-terrorism-training

185

Agreement of Information Exchange and Establishment of Communication Procedures. Retrieved

January 22, 2014 from: www.asean.org/archive/17346.pdf 186

International Cooperation/Partnership. Retrieved January 21, 2014 from:

http://www.immigration.gov.kh/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&id=38&Itemid=528

73

cooperation by exchanging information about terrorists, joint military training and

they both are willing to back up each other. The other bilateral relationships also

occur between Malaysia and Singapore, Singapore and Indonesia, Indonesia and

Thailand, Brunei and Singapore, and Singapore and Thailand187

. The multilateral

cooperation between ASEAN, however, do not extend to joint military training.

The joint military training is helpful. The cooperation between polices in

Southeast Asia in counter-terrorism becomes stronger. Since 2002, ASEAN Chiefs of

Police have agreed to monitor and combat all terrorists‘ activities together. Polices‘

cooperation is really important. They have to make the terrorists fear them. They help

each other in chasing and capturing the terrorist suspects. Indonesian police has been

successful in capturing the terrorist prisoners that escaped from Indonesia to

Malaysia188

. Since Indonesian police do not have full authority to act in the

neighboring country, polices of Malaysia helped them in chasing and capturing the

prisoners. The willingness of Malaysian police in helping to arrest the terrorist is one

of their efforts in countering terrorism together.

The cooperation between police in Southeast Asia have resulted in a lot more

terrorist suspects to be arrested, for example, in August 2003 Thai police with CIA

successfully captured one of the key persons in Jemaah Islamiyah, Hambali. Not only

that, the expert of explosive materials in JI was also captured in Manila in 2002 by

police of the Philippines. In February 2003, the leader of Jemaah Islamiyah based in

Singapore was captured in Riau, Indonesia189

.

187

Acharya, A. A Survey of Military Cooperation among the ASEAN States: Bilateralism or Alliance?

Centre for International and Strategic Studies 188

Ayyubi, S.A. (2013). Buronan Teroris Tanjung Gusta tertangkap di Malaysia. Retrieved January 16,

2014 from: http://daerah.sindonews.com/read/2013/12/03/24/812917/buronan-teroris-tanjung-gusta-

tertangkap-di-malaysia

189

Ramakrishna, K. (2005). The Southeast Asian Approach to Counter-Terrorism: Learning from

Indonesia and Malaysia.

74

When Indonesia successfully captured Abu Bakar Ba‘asyir, the spiritual

leader of Jemaah Islamiyah suspected to be involved in Bali Bombing incident,

Malaysian and Singaporean governments were helping Indonesia by sending the

video of Jemaah Islamiyah members in both countries190

. The video contains their

testimonials about the radical Islamic group and the spiritual leader.

In 2002, Indonesia, Malaysia and The Philippines agreed to sign Anti-

Terrorism Pact. They realized that terrorists tended to fly and stay in those three

countries. Thus, they have agreed that if they found any terrorist suspect in the three

countries, local police can detain them191

. This would be an effective and efficient

way to counter terrorism. Even though some countries hesitated at first, especially

Singapore, in October 2003 Thailand, Cambodia and Brunei Darussalam signed the

pact as well192

.

Indonesia ratified International Convention for the Suppression of the

Financing of Terrorism in 1999193

. To prove their commitment in stopping the flow

of fund to terrorist, Indonesia has finally ratified Law on Crime of Terrorism

Financing194

. The governments believe that terrorism acts will begin when certain

terrorist groups are funded195

. It is to accelerate terrorists‘ plans of attack.

190

Ramakrishna, K. (2005). The Southeast Asian Approach to Counter-Terrorism: Learning from

Indonesia and Malaysia.

191

Trio signs off on Anti-Terrorism Pact. (2002). Lubbock Online. Retrieved January 16, 2014 from:

http://lubbockonline.com/stories/022202/wor_022202057.shtml

192

John, W., Parashar, S. (2005). Terrorism in Southeast Asia: Implication for South Asia.

193

Undang-Undang Republik Indonesia No. 9 Tahun 2013 tentang Pencegahan dan Pemberantasan Tindak Pidana Pendanaan Terorisme

194

RUU Pendanaan Terorisme disahkan. (2013). Republika Online. Retrieved January 15, 2014 from:

http://www.republika.co.id/berita/nasional/hukum/13/02/12/mi45sq-uu-pendanaan-terorisme-disahkan

195

Undang-Undang Republik Indonesia No. 9 Tahun 2013 tentang Pencegahan dan Pemberantasan

Tindak Pidana Pendanaan Terorisme

75

With the ratification of this law, Indonesia now has full authority to judge

whoever helps the terrorists group by funding them or conducting any crimes to get

the money for the terrorists. The existence of law firm should help the government in

blocking their flow of financing. There are seven suspects of terrorism financing

cases which are ready to be judged in courts and sentenced196

.

The government in Singapore have to ensure that the religious teachers in

Singapore are eligible to teach religion, with the help of The Singaporean Council of

Clerics or Majelis Ulama Islam Singapura (MUIS)197

. They have to make sure that

they do not indoctrinate their students. There were several self-radicalized cases in

Singapore which were successfully uncovered. A self-radicalized terrorist almost

flew to Afghanistan to get military training. Luckily, he was captured before

conducting any terrorist acts. The government of Singapore works hard in

rehabilitation of self-radicalized victims and expects them to be able to come back to

society once more198

.

To raise the awareness of Southeast Asian civilians, ASEAN member states

have worked in several seminars and promote it on television or newspaper. There

are several websites which can be accessed as well. For instance, Malaysia has

created Southeast Asia Regional Centre for Counter-Terrorism (SEARCCT)199

. They

provide a lot of information regarding terrorism especially in Southeast Asia. They

also line up the programs to counter terrorism on the websites. It is necessary to help

196

2012 APEC Counter-Terrorism Action Plan. Retrieved January 16, 2014 from:

www.apec.org/~/media/Files/Groups/.../2013_cttf1_009_Indonesia.pdf

197

Singh, B. Youth-Self-Radicalization: Lessons from Singapore Narrative. Retrieved January 17,

2014 from: http://www.searcct.gov.my/publications/our-publications?id=66 198

Presentation of Mr. Albert Chua, Permanent Representative of Singapore. Southeast Asia

Challenges in Countering Terrorism. Retrieved January 13, 2014 from:

http://www.mfa.gov.sg/content/mfa/overseasmission/newyork/nyemb_statements/plenary/2012/20120

6/press_20120627.html

199

Official Websites of Southeast Asia Regional Centre for Counter-Terrorism. Retrieved January 17,

2014 from: http://www.searcct.gov.my/our-courses/training-introduction

76

the citizens to gain more knowledge about the current issue and get updated. The

ones who should cooperate are not only the governments of Southeast Asia, but also

their citizens. By this cooperation, the terrorism problem will become easier to tackle.

ASEAN member states have proven that they are committed in cooperating in

counter-terrorism. Indeed, it is the problem of every state in Southeast Asia. Even

though some people still doubt their multilateral cooperation, they have improved. It

is proven by their cooperation in joint military training and capturing the terrorists.

IV.3 The Obstacles that ASEAN Faces during Cooperating in Countering

Terrorism

In any kind of cooperation, ASEAN will find a lot of challenges in order to

bring their Counter-Terrorism programs into reality. ASEAN consists of 10 different

countries and each country has its own problems already. They have their own

interests and difficulties. Perhaps, not all of ASEAN countries consider it as their

biggest threat or more important than border conflicts and the other disputes.

Singaporean diplomat, Albert Chua, lined up the three big challenges that

Southeast Asia will face in countering terrorism, such as: how to dismantle the

terrorist networks around Southeast Asia and fight them, put an end to radicalization

and the growing of self-radicalization in society200

. Those will be tough tasks for

ASEAN to accomplish. Terrorist network around Southeast Asia is wide already.

They associate with each other, as well as with the huge terrorist group Al-Qaeda.

Alhough some of the terrorists have been arrested or killed, the threats still remain.

200





77

The situation can be even worse if the arrests and killings trigger the other terrorists

to revenge.

IV.3.1. Trust issues between ASEAN member states

ASEAN Convention on Counter-Terrorism is only a forum where ASEAN

member states can discuss about terrorism, make solutions and agreement on what

ASEAN should do in handling terrorism. Some of their goals are yet to be applied in

practice by all of ASEAN member states. Even though ASEAN‘s bilateral

cooperation has improved, they are still struggling with multilateral cooperation201

. If

the organization is willing to put more effort on it, they have to improve their

capabilities in multilateral cooperation. The problem that ASEAN member states face

during their multilateral cooperation is their lack of trust to one another.

As the Prime Minister of Vietnam said himself, ASEAN has been lacking in

unity202

. Competition among Southeast Asia countries and territorial disputes are the

causes why they lack in trust in each other. While actually, in order to strengthen

their cooperation, they need to trust and help each other. ASEAN member states

should not just think their own interest or trying to take sides to a country, especially

super power countries, to get benefits203

.

201

Abuza, Z. (2003). The War of Terrorism in Southeast Asia. Retrieved January 8, 2014 from:

http://www.nbr.org/publications/element.aspx?id=83#.Utajg_vKS8g

202

Nguyen Tan Dung: Building Strategic Trust for Peace, Cooperation and Prosperity in Asia-Pacific

Region. Retrieved January 15, 2014 from:

http://www.iiss.org/en/events/shangri%20la%20dialogue/archive/shangri-la-dialogue-2013-

c890/opening-remarks-and-keynote-address-2f46/keynote-address-d176

203

Nguyen Tan Dung: Building Strategic Trust for Peace, Cooperation and Prosperity in Asia-Pacific

Region. Retrieved January 15, 2014 from:

http://www.iiss.org/en/events/shangri%20la%20dialogue/archive/shangri-la-dialogue-2013-

c890/opening-remarks-and-keynote-address-2f46/keynote-address-d176

78

Territorial disputes or conflicts among ASEAN member states will create

tension and uncomfortable situation between ASEAN member states during their

mission204

. A great teamwork is needed in order to accomplish this mission. Counter-

Terrorism in Southeast Asia is not something which can be done only by one or two

countries. All the ten members of ASEAN with the help of its allies should work

together to improve the security, blocking and chasing the terrorists. Trust issue

among ASEAN member states should be solved, so they will be able to improve their

multilateral relationship.

IV.3.2. Stopping the flow of fund to terrorists is time consuming

Apart from that, one of ASEAN‘s cooperation in Counter-Terrorism is to put

an end on terrorism financing. The governments need to stop paying ransoms to

terrorists. They have to solve the transnational crimes which also caused by some

terrorists in order to get money. It seems like their job in stopping the flow of funding

in terrorism is a tough job. It is quite time consuming205

.

ASEAN has struggled in stopping the transnational crimes even before

terrorism became one of the biggest threats for Southeast Asia, especially in maritime.

The crimes mainly occur in Malacca Strait, around Celebes Sea and South China

Sea206

. It can be the obstacle for the governments because of the danger that terrorists

caused. No matter how much the governments have put their efforts on joint patrols

204

ASEAN Hadapi Tantangan Besar. (2013). Berita Satu. Retrieved January 15, 2014 from:

http://www.beritasatu.com/nasional-internasional/138930-okky-asokawati-asean-hadapi-tantangan-besar.html

205

Terrorists‘‎Funding:‎How‎can we stop the money supply? BBC News. Retrieved January 8, 2014

from: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/talking_point/1562640.stm

206

Bulkeley, J.C. (2003). Regional Cooperation on Maritime Piracy: a Prelude to Greater

Multilateralism in Asia? Princeton University: Princeton.

79

or individual patrol, however, the fund to terrorists in Southeast Asia continues to

flow in so many ways, including the aid from Al-Qaeda. Blocking the fund by

freezing suspicious bank account would be even harder especially in democratic state,

unless the government make stricter rules and monitoring in those accounts207

. In this

case, the governments should find a way to stricter the rules regarding suspicious

bank account.

Moreover, terrorists have various ways in getting funded. They are willing to

do anything to get the money. Not only by kidnapping, but they also do drug dealing,

robbery, piracy and the other transnational crimes208

. Because there are so many

crimes that are done by the terrorist groups, it would take a longer time to tackle the

problem one by one.

IV.3.3. Deradicalization is not easy

On the other hand, ASEAN seems to be optimistic in terrorist rehabilitation

program. However, has the program been effective to deradicalize the terrorist?

According to Richard Dawkins, former University of Oxford‘s professor and an

emeritus fellow of New College of Oxford, radicalization in religion is very easy209

.

It is easy because most people were taught to believe in religion ever since they were

born. Anything that religion teaches is right even though people never see any

207

Terrorists‘‎Funding:‎How‎can‎we‎stop‎the‎money‎supply?‎BBC News. Retrieved January 8, 2014

from: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/talking_point/1562640.stm 208

Feliantiar, O.D. (2013). APEC: Countries must work together to tackle terrorism funding.

Retrieved January 15, 2014 from:

http://khabarsoutheastasia.com/en_GB/articles/apwi/articles/features/2013/04/12/feature-02 209

Richard Dawkins: Radicalized Religion is Easy. Before It‟s News. Retrieved January 8, 2014 from:

http://beforeitsnews.com/alternative/2013/05/richard-dawkins-radicalized-religion-is-easy-

2634800.html

80

evidence in it210

. Therefore, some people are easily indoctrinated without knowing

that what they have taught is wrong.

Terrorists have strong faith in what they are doing and strong loyalty to their

group211

. They are considered as heroes in their community. The ideas have been

planted on their mind. It is difficult to deradicalize them. Therefore, some people

doubt if this method will really work in practice. It is possible when they have been

released from rehabilitation program to society that they will come back to their

group. To determine that the terrorists are willing to be deradicalized and becoming

normal persons will be complicated and hard to define.

IV.3.4. Keeping up with the development of technology

In the era of globalization, technology is much more improved. Almost

everybody can access internet and rely on it. Internet appeals people especially

teenagers because they can find almost everything on it. For that reason, terrorists

group take advantage of it and make use of the internet as their media to spread their

ideology. The increasing danger of self-radicalization on internet is a challenge for

ASEAN member states212

. Uploading the information or tutorial of self-radicalization

on websites is fast and easy. There are a lot of self-radicalization and tutorials on

210

Richard Dawkins: Radicalized Religion is Easy. Before It‟s News. Retrieved January 8, 2014 from:

http://beforeitsnews.com/alternative/2013/05/richard-dawkins-radicalized-religion-is-easy-

2634800.html

211

Sherzai, D. (2014). Extremism and Terrorism are Reciprocal. Retrieved January 8. 2014 from:

http://outlookafghanistan.net/topics.php?post_id=9011

212





81

how to terrorize on websites. It is also called as online radicalization213

. Using the

soft power, they are trying to appeal lone wolfs with their teachings.

Self-radicalization is considered as very dangerous because their movement is

unpredictable214

. They are unexpected until they did something which surprised the

government and law enforcement. In Southeast Asia, the websites which contain of

self-radicalized materials are already available not only in Arabic, but also in English,

Indonesian, and even Bahasa Melayu215

. They can be easily accessed by civilians.

Controlling this movement and internet expansion by the terrorist would be a

big challenge for ASEAN to face and they have to solve it immediately. Blocking the

websites will be tough job as well. People use internet for private reasons. Because of

its privacy, it is a bit difficult to detect people‘s access at the same time and there is

also no record on it216

. This is a huge advantage for some terrorists group that use this

method because of the possibility of getting caught has reduced. On the other hand,

some terrorist can disguise their radicalization website into another category217

. It

would be a bit difficult to detect the disguising websites.

213

Hallet, M. (2013). Self Radicalized by Internet? Retrieved January 13, 2014 from:

technorati.com/social-media/article/self-radicalized-by-the-internet/

214

FBI – Self-Radicalized Incited Violent Jihad Online. Retrieved January 13, 2014 from:

http://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/2013/july/self-radicalized-american-incited-violent-jihad-online

215

Youth Self-Radicalization: Lessons from the Singapore Narrative. Official Website of Southeast

Asia Regional Centre for Counter-Terrorism. Retrieved January 13, from:


216





217

Youth Self-Radicalization: Lessons from the Singapore Narrative. Official Website of Southeast

Asia Regional Centre for Counter-Terrorism. Retrieved January 13, from:


82

The governments of ASEAN will have another task to improve the

technology education for civilians. It is to prevent them to believe everything they

see on internet. Civilians need to understand that this type of cybercrime exists on

internet and they have to be careful of it.

83

CHAPTER V

Conclusion

Terrorism is the problem of every state. Terrorist groups have found many

ways to recruit people. Some people are easily radicalized by the idealism of jihad,

stating that it is instructed in Holy Koran. However, this idealism is misinterpreted by

terrorist groups and they end up killing hundred thousand of innocent civilians. They

are not only radicalized, but also trained to conduct some attacks, thinking that it is to

fight the infidels. What is even scarier is that radicalization is much easier these days

with the founding of advance technology. Self-radicalization has gotten very popular

among people, especially youth because it can be easily accessed on internet.

Therefore, terrorist network has become very wide and invaded a lot of

regions, including Southeast Asia. The attacks in Southeast Asia were carried by

some terrorist groups, supported by Al-Qaeda. The most infamous terrorist group in

Southeast Asia is Jemaah Islamiyah (JI), which has already crowned as the biggest

terrorist group in Southeast Asia, and also some splinter groups such as Abu Sayyaf

Group (ASG), as an example.

Most of terrorist groups in Southeast Asia are funded by Al-Qaeda. Not only

they are funded, they are also facilitated with some trainings as well. Terrorists also

conducted some other crimes in order to get money, which will be used to conduct

another terror attacks. ASEAN as a regional group has been concerned with

transnational crimes and has been eager to tackle the problems. Apparently, ASEAN

has been aware with terrorism as a problem even before the 9/11 occurred. Therefore,

after 9/11 incident occurred, ASEAN member states decided to put more attention to

this problem. They realize that terrorist attacks can occur everywhere, including their

84

states. Thus, they are willing to cooperate in countering terrorism. They consider

terrorism threatens their civilians.

To promote regional peace and stability, and also the prosperity of their

civilians, ASEAN has worked together in a lot of areas, including in politics,

economy, and socio-cultural. Even though they have been cooperating for so long

already, their bilateral cooperation still works better than multilateral cooperation,

especially in security cooperation. Competition, conflicts and disputes between

Southeast Asian countries create distance between them. This is one of those

obstacles that ASEAN need to overcome in order to cooperate. Meanwhile, terrorist

groups have worked hard in forming alliance and expanding their network

throughout Southeast Asia. In order to tackle this problem, the ASEAN member

states have to put aside some of the conflicts for a second and work together in

countering the terrorists.

Despite of those obstacles, their cooperation in countering terrorism need to

continue, otherwise, terrorist networks in Southeast Asia will not be able to be

stopped. ASEAN member states have agreed in several cooperation, such as:

exchanging information and data regarding terrorism, joint military training and

investigation, blocking the flow of fund to terrorists, making stricter rules in border

of states, rehabilitation programs for terrorists, and cooperate and educate citizens

about terrorism.

ASEAN member states have done a good job in cooperating through a lot of

bilateral and multilateral cooperation, especially their police officers. Polices have

worked together in capturing terrorist suspects in all over Southeast Asia. A lot of

terrorist suspects have been arrested or executed for justice. Some of them are sent to

terrorist rehabilitation program, to deradicalize and make them as informants. The

security has been tightened as well, especially after several bombings which occurred

in Southeast Asia, the Bali Bombing, for instance.

85

The governments in Southeast Asia have put their efforts in order to counter

terrorism. However, not only should the governments, the citizens are supposed to

also put the same effort in combating terrorism. They need to be educated about how

to prevent radicalism and what to do if they found suspicious activities conducted by

people in their surroundings. They need them because terrorism is not a problem

which can be solved by individual. To break its network, ASEAN member states, its

alliances, and the citizens should be committed to the tasks, cooperating as one. The

cooperation should be done not only to handle the issues which already happened,

but also to prevent the upcoming unwanted attacks which is conducted by these

terrorist groups.

86

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Appendices

A. ASEAN Convention on Counter-Terrorism

ASEAN Convention on Counter Terrorism

Member Countries of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) -

Brunei Darussalam, the Kingdom of Cambodia, the Republic of Indonesia, the

Lao‎People‘s‎Democratic‎Republic,‎Malaysia,‎the‎Union‎of‎Myanmar,‎the‎

Republic of the Philippines, the Republic of Singapore, the Kingdom of

Thailand,‎and‎the‎Socialist‎Republic‎of‎Viet‎Nam,‎hereinafter‎referred‎to‎as‎―the‎

Parties‖;

RECALLING the Charter of the United Nations and relevant principles of

international law, the relevant international conventions and protocols relating to

counter terrorism and relevant resolutions of the United Nations on measures

aimed at countering international terrorism, and reaffirming our commitment to

protect human rights, fair treatment, the rule of law, and due process as well as

the principles enshrined in the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast

Asia done at Bali on 24 February 1976;

REAFFIRMING that terrorism cannot and should not be associated with any

religion, nationality, civilisation or ethnic group;

RECALLING also the ASEAN Declaration on Joint Action to Counter

Terrorism and the Declaration on Terrorism adopted at the ASEAN Summits in

2001 and 2002 respectively;

REAFFIRMING our commitment to the Vientiane Action Programme done at

Vientiane‎on‎29‎November‎2004,‎particularly‎its‎thrust‎on‎―shaping‎and‎sharing‎

of‎norms‖‎and‎the‎need,‎among‎others,‎to‎work‎towards‎the‎conclusion‎of‎an‎

ASEAN Mutual Legal Assistance Agreement, and an ASEAN Convention on

Counter Terrorism, and the establishment of an ASEAN Extradition Treaty as

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envisaged by the 1976 Declaration of ASEAN Concord;

DEEPLY CONCERNED over the grave danger posed by terrorism to innocent

lives, infrastructure and the environment, regional and international peace and

stability as well as to economic development;

REALISING the importance of identifying and effectively addressing the root

causes of terrorism in the formulation of any counter terrorism measures;

REITERATING that terrorism, in all its forms and manifestations, committed

wherever, whenever, and by whomsoever, is a profound threat to international

peace and security and a direct challenge to the attainment of peace, progress and

prosperity for ASEAN and the realisation of ASEAN Vision 2020;

REAFFIRMING our strong commitment to enhance cooperation in countering

terrorism which covers the prevention and suppression of all forms of terrorist

acts;

REITERATING the need to improve regional cooperation on counter terrorism

and undertake effective measures through deepening cooperation among

ASEAN law enforcement agencies and relevant authorities in countering

terrorism;

ENCOURAGING the Parties to become parties as soon as possible to the

relevant international conventions and protocols relating to counter terrorism;

Have agreed as follows:

Article I

Objective

This Convention shall provide for the framework for regional cooperation to

counter, prevent and suppress terrorism in all its forms and manifestations and to

deepen cooperation among law enforcement agencies and relevant authorities of

the Parties in countering terrorism.

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Article II

Criminal Acts of Terrorism

1. For‎the‎purposes‎of‎this‎Convention,‎―offence‖‎means‎any‎of the offences

within the scope of and as defined in any of the treaties listed as follows:

a. Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft, signed at The Hague on 16 December 1970;

b. Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Civil Aviation, concluded at Montreal on 23 September 1971;

c. Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes Against Internationally Protected Persons, Including Diplomatic Agents, adopted in New York on 14 December 1973;

d. International Convention Against the Taking of Hostages, adopted in New York on 17 December 1979;

e. Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material, adopted in Vienna on 26 October 1979; f. Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts of Violence at Airports Serving International Civil Aviation, supplementary to the Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Civil Aviation, done at Montreal on 24 February 1988;

f. Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Maritime Navigation, done at Rome on 10 March 1988;

g. Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Fixed Platforms Located on the Continental Shelf, done at Rome on 10 March 1988;

h. International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings, adopted in New York on 15 December 1997;

i. International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, adopted in New York on 9 December 1999;

j. International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism, adopted in New York on 13 April 2005;

k. Amendment to the Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material, done at Vienna on 8 July 2005;

l. Protocol of 2005 to the Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Maritime Navigation, done at London on 14 October 2005; and

m. Protocol of 2005 to the Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Fixed Platforms Located on the Continental Shelf, done at London on 14 October 2005.

2. On depositing its instrument of ratification or approval, a Party which is not a

Party to a treaty listed in paragraph 1 of this Article may declare that, in the

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application of this Convention to that Party, that treaty shall be deemed not to be

included in paragraph 1 of this Article. This declaration shall cease to have an

effect as soon as the treaty enters into force for the Party having made such a

declaration, which shall notify the depositary as stated in paragraph 2 of Article

XX of this entry into force.

3. When a Party ceases to be a party to a treaty listed in paragraph 1 of this

Article, it may make a declaration as provided for in this Article, with respect to

that treaty.

Article III

Sovereign Equality, Territorial Integrity and Non-Interference

The Parties shall carry out their obligations under this Convention in a manner

consistent with the principles of sovereign equality and territorial integrity of

States and that of non-interference in the internal affairs of other Parties.

Article IV

Preservation of Sovereignty

Nothing in this Convention entitles a Party to undertake, in the territory of

another Party, the exercise of jurisdiction or performance of functions which are

exclusively reserved for the authorities of that other Party by its domestic laws.

Article V

Non-Application

This Convention shall not apply where the offence is committed within a single

Party, the alleged offender and the victims are nationals of that Party, the alleged

offender is found in the territory of that Party and no other Party has a basis

under this Convention to exercise jurisdiction.

Article VI

Areas of Cooperation

1. The areas of cooperation under this Convention may, in conformity with the

domestic laws of the respective Parties, include appropriate measures, among

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others, to:

a. Take the necessary steps to prevent the commission of terrorist acts, including by the provision of early warning to the other Parties through the exchange of information;

b. Prevent those who finance, plan, facilitate, or commit terrorist acts from using their respective territories for those purposes against the other Parties and/or the citizens of the other Parties;

c. Prevent and suppress the financing of terrorist acts; d. Prevent the movement of terrorists or terrorist groups by effective border

control and controls on issuance of identity papers and travel documents, and through measures for preventing counterfeiting, forgery or fraudulent use of identity papers and travel documents;

e. Promote capacity-building including trainings and technical cooperation and the holding of regional meetings;

f. Promote public awareness and participation in efforts to counter terrorism, as well as enhance inter-faith and intra-faith dialogue and dialogue among civilisations;

g. Enhance cross-border cooperation; h. Enhance intelligence exchange and sharing of information; i. Enhance existing cooperation towards developing regional databases under

the purview of the relevant ASEAN bodies; j. Strengthen capability and readiness to deal with chemical, biological,

radiological, nuclear (CBRN) terrorism, cyber terrorism and any new forms of terrorism;

k. Undertake research and development on measures to counter terrorism; l. Encourage the use of video conference or teleconference facilities for court

proceedings, where appropriate; and m. Ensure that any person who participates in the financing, planning, preparation

or perpetration of terrorist acts or in supporting terrorist acts is brought to justice.

2. Subject to the consent of the Parties concerned, Parties shall cooperate to

address the root causes of terrorism and conditions conducive to the spread of

terrorism to prevent the perpetration of terrorist acts and the propagation of

terrorist cells.

Article VII

State Jurisdiction

1. A Party shall take such measures as may be necessary to establish its

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jurisdiction over the offences covered in Article II of this Convention when:

a. The offence is committed in the territory of that Party; or b. The offence is committed on board a vessel flying the flag of that Party or an

aircraft which is registered under the laws of that Party at the time the offence is committed; or

c. The offence is committed by a national of that Party.

2. A Party may also establish its jurisdiction over any such offence when:

a. The offence is committed against a national of that Party; or b. The offence is committed against a state or government facility of that Party

abroad, including its embassy or other diplomatic or consular premises; or c. The offence is committed in an attempt to compel that Party to do or to

abstain from doing any act; or d. The offence is committed by a stateless person with habitual residence in the

territory of that Party.

3. A Party shall likewise establish its jurisdiction over the offences covered in

Article II of this Convention in cases where the alleged offender is present in its

territory and it does not extradite that person to any of the Parties that have

established their jurisdiction in accordance with paragraph 1 or 2 of this Article.

4. This Convention does not exclude the exercise of any criminal jurisdiction

established by a Party in accordance with its domestic laws.

Article VIII

Fair Treatment

1. Any person who is taken into custody or regarding whom any other measures

are taken or proceedings are carried out pursuant to this Convention shall be

guaranteed fair treatment, including enjoyment of all rights and guarantees in

conformity with the laws of the Party in the territory of which that person is

present and applicable provisions of international law, including international

human rights law.

2. Upon receiving information that a person who has committed or who is

alleged to have committed an offence covered in Article II of this Convention

may be present in its territory, the Party concerned shall take such measures as

may be necessary under its domestic laws to investigate the facts contained in

the information.

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3. Upon being satisfied that the circumstances so warrant, the Party in whose

territory the offender or alleged offender is present shall take the appropriate

measures‎under‎its‎domestic‎laws‎so‎as‎to‎ensure‎that‎person‘s‎presence‎for‎the‎

purpose of prosecution or extradition.

4. Any person regarding whom measures referred to in paragraph 3 of this

Article are being taken shall be entitled:

a. To communicate without delay with the nearest appropriate representative of the State of which that person is a national or which is otherwise entitled to protect that person's rights;

b. To be visited by a representative of that State; c. To be informed of that person's rights under subparagraphs (a) and (b) of

paragraph 4 of this Article.

5. The rights referred to in paragraph 4 of this Article shall be exercised in

conformity with the laws and regulations of the Party in the territory of which

the offender or alleged offender is present, subject to the provision that the said

laws and regulations must enable full effect to be given to the purposes for

which the rights accorded under paragraph 4 of this Article are intended.

6. When a Party, pursuant to the present Article, has taken a person into custody,

it shall immediately notify, directly or through the Secretary-General of ASEAN,

the Parties which have established jurisdiction in accordance with paragraph 1 or

2 of Article VII, and, if it considers it advisable, any other interested Parties, of

the fact that such person is in custody and of the circumstances which warrant

that‎person‘s‎detention.‎The‎Party‎which‎is‎carrying‎out‎the‎investigation

referred to in paragraph 2 of this Article shall promptly inform the said Parties of

its findings and shall indicate whether it intends to exercise jurisdiction over the

said person.

Article IX

General Provisions

1. The Parties shall adopt such measures as may be necessary, including, where

appropriate, national legislation, to ensure that offences covered in Article II of

this Convention, especially when it is intended to intimidate a population, or to

compel a government or an international organisation to do or to abstain from

doing any act, are under no circumstances justifiable by considerations of a

political, philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic, religious or other similar

nature.

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2. Pursuant to Article VI of this Convention, the Parties shall, where possible,

establish channels of communication between their competent agencies to

facilitate the exchange of information to prevent the commission of offences

covered in Article II of this Convention.

3. The Party where the alleged offender is prosecuted shall, upon the request of

the other Parties claiming jurisdiction over the same, communicate the status of

the case at any stage of the proceedings to those other Parties.

Article X

Status of Refugees

The Parties shall take appropriate measures, in conformity with the relevant

provisions of their respective domestic laws and applicable international law,

including international standards of human rights, before granting refugee status,

where the Parties recognise and grant such status, for the purpose of ensuring

that the asylum seeker has not planned, facilitated or participated in the

commission of terrorist acts.

Article XI

Rehabilitative Programmes

The Parties shall endeavour to promote the sharing of best practices on

rehabilitative programmes including, where appropriate, social reintegration of

persons involved in the commission of any of the offences covered in Article II

of this Convention with the objective of preventing the perpetration of terrorist

acts.

Article XII

Mutual Legal Assistance in Criminal Matters

1. The Parties shall, in conformity with their respective domestic laws, afford the

widest measure of assistance in connection with investigations or criminal

proceedings brought in respect of the offences covered in Article II of this

Convention.

2. The Parties shall, where they are parties to the Treaty on Mutual Legal

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Assistance in Criminal Matters done in Kuala Lumpur on 29 November 2004,

carry out their obligations under paragraph 1 of this Article in conformity with

that Treaty.

Article XIII

Extradition

1. The Party in the territory of which the alleged offender is present shall, in

cases to which Article VII of this Convention applies, if it does not extradite that

person, be obliged, without exception whatsoever and whether or not the offence

was committed in its territory, to submit the case without undue delay to its

competent authorities for the purpose of prosecution, through proceedings in

accordance with the domestic laws of that Party. Those authorities shall take

their decision in the same manner as in the case of any other offence of a grave

nature under the domestic laws of that Party.

2. The offences covered in Article II of this Convention shall be deemed to be

included as extraditable offences in any extradition treaty existing between any

of the Parties before the entry into force of this Convention. The Parties

undertake to include such offences as extraditable offences in every extradition

treaty to be subsequently concluded between them.

3. When a Party which makes extradition conditional on the existence of a treaty

receives a request for extradition from another Party with which it has no

extradition treaty, the requested Party may, at its option, and in conformity with

its domestic laws, consider this Convention as a legal basis for extradition in

respect of the offences covered in Article II of this Convention.

Article XIV

Political Offences Exception

None of the offences covered in Article II of this Convention shall be regarded

for the purposes of extradition under Article XIII of this Convention or mutual

legal assistance in criminal matters under Article XII of this Convention as a

political offence or as an offence connected with a political offence or as an

offence inspired by political motives. Accordingly, a request for extradition or

for mutual legal assistance in criminal matters based on such an offence may not

be refused on the sole ground that it concerns a political offence or an offence

connected with a political offence or an offence inspired by political motives.

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Article XV

Designation of Central Authorities or Coordinating Structures

Each Party shall designate, as appropriate, a central authority or coordinating

structure to enhance cooperation under this Convention.

Article XVI

Implementation, Monitoring and Review

The relevant ASEAN sectoral bodies involved in ASEAN cooperation on

countering terrorism shall be responsible for monitoring and reviewing the

implementation of this Convention.

Article XVII

Confidentiality

1. Each Party shall preserve the confidentiality and secrecy of documents,

records and other information received from any other Party, including the

source thereof.

2. No document, record or other information obtained pursuant to this

Convention shall be disclosed to or shared with any other Party, State or person

except with the prior written consent of the Party which provided such

document, record or information.

Article XVIII

Relationship with Other International Instruments

This Convention shall not derogate from obligations subsisting between the

Parties pursuant to other international agreements nor, where the Parties agree,

shall it prevent the Parties from providing assistance to each other pursuant to

other international agreements or the provisions of their respective domestic

laws.

Article XIX

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Settlement of Disputes

Any difference or dispute between the Parties arising from the interpretation or

application of the provisions of this Convention shall be settled amicably

through consultation and negotiation between the Parties through diplomatic

channels or any other peaceful means for the settlement of disputes as agreed

upon between the Parties.

Article XX

Ratification, Approval and Depositary

1. This Convention shall be subject to ratification or approval in accordance with

the internal procedures of the Parties.

2. The instruments of ratification or approval shall be deposited with the

Secretary-General of ASEAN who shall promptly inform the other Parties of

such deposit.

Article XXI

Entry into Force and Amendment

1. This Convention shall enter into force on the 30th (thirtieth) day following the

date of the deposit of the 6th (sixth) instrument of ratification or approval with

the Secretary-General of ASEAN in respect of those Parties that have submitted

their instruments of ratification or approval.

2. For any Party ratifying or approving this Convention after the deposit of the

6th (sixth) instrument of ratification or approval, but before the day the

Convention enters into force, the Convention shall also apply to that Party on the

date the Convention enters into force.

3. In respect of a Party ratifying or approving this Convention subsequent to its

entry into force pursuant to paragraph 1, it shall enter into force for that Party on

the date its instrument of ratification or approval is deposited.

4. This Convention may be modified or amended at any time by mutual written

consent of the Parties. Such modification or amendment shall enter into force on

such date as shall be mutually agreed upon by Parties and shall form part of this

Convention.

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5. Any modification or amendment shall not affect the rights and obligations of

the Parties arising from or based on the provisions of this Convention before the

entry into force of such modification or amendment.

Article XXII

Withdrawal

1. Any Party may withdraw from this Convention at any time after the date of

the entry into force of this Convention for that Party.

2. The withdrawal shall be notified by an instrument of withdrawal to the

Secretary-General of ASEAN.

3. The withdrawal shall take effect 180 (one hundred and eighty) days after the

receipt of the instrument of withdrawal by the Secretary-General of ASEAN.

4. The Secretary-General of ASEAN shall promptly notify all the other Parties

of any withdrawal.

Article XXIII

Registration

This Convention shall be registered by the Secretary-General of ASEAN to the

United Nations Secretariat pursuant to Article 102 of the Charter of the United

Nations.

DONE at Cebu, Philippines, this Thirteenth Day of January in the Year Two

Thousand and Seven, in a single original copy in the English language.

For Brunei Darussalam:

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HAJI HASSANAL BOLKIAH

Sultan of Brunei Darussalam

For the Kingdom of Cambodia:

SAMDECH HUN SEN Prime Minister

For the Republic of Indonesia:

DR. SUSILO BAMBANG YUDHOYONO President

For‎the‎Lao‎People‘s‎Democratic‎Republic:

BOUASONE BOUPHAVANH

Prime Minister

For Malaysia:

DATO’ SERI ABDULLAH AHMAD BADAWI

Prime Minister

For the Union of Myanmar:

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GENERAL SOE WIN Prime Minister

For the Republic of the Philippines:

GLORIA MACAPAGAL-ARROYO

President

For the Republic of Singapore:

LEE HSIEN LOONG Prime Minister

For the Kingdom of Thailand:

GENERAL SURAYUD CHULANONT (RET.)

Prime Minister

For the Socialist Republic of Viet Nam:

NGUYEN TAN DUNG Prime Minister