the body in sport - learner

8/3/2019 The Body in Sport - Learner

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BTEC First Diploma in Sport

Unit 1

The Body in Sport

Learner Resource Pack


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Introduction

By the end of this unit you will be able to understand the structureand the functions of the skeletal, muscular, cardiovascular andrespiratory systems and how they are affected by exercise both inthe short and long term as well as how the body copes with avariety of stresses. You will also acknowledge the fundamentals ofthe energy systems by carrying out a range of sports activitiesthroughout this unit.


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Section One: The Skeletal System

Part 1.1: Structure of the skeleton

The skeleton provides us with a complex framework made up ofbones, joints and cartilage which protect our vital organs. Withoutthis framework we would be unable to perform any type ofmovement such as carrying out everyday tasks e.g. dressing orwashing to sporting movements e.g. running and jumping.

The skeleton is made up of over 300 bones at birth but the adultbody ends up with approximately 206 because some bones fusetogether. This means that some bones that are separated arejoined together to form one bone. An example of this is the skull as

this starts off as separate bones and as we grow the separate bonesfuse to form one bone.


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Anterior view of skeleton


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Posterior view of the skeleton


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The skeleton can be divided into 2 main parts.

The axial skeleton

The appendicular skeleton

The axial skeleton

The axial skeleton is made up of the skull, vertebral column, ribsand the sternum.

The bones are outlined below with some details about each one:

Skull craniumThe skull is made up of approximately 28 bones; these bones arefused as outlined previously. It protects the brain, eyes and the

ears.

SternumCommonly known as the breast bone the sternum is a flat bonewhich is at the front of the rib cage and helps protect the heart andlungs.

RibsThere are 12 pairs of ribs which join onto the vertebral column. 3pairs are attached and the last 2 pairs are unattached; these arecalled floating ribs. The ribcage provides protection for the heartand lungs.

Vertebral columnCommonly known as the spine there are 33 bones called vertebrae.The vertebral column has the responsibility of protecting the spinalcord, supporting the body, provision of posture, allowing formovement and the transmission of force to the various body parts.The vertebral discs acts as a shock absorber and allows formovement.


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The vertebral column


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The appendicular skeleton

The appendicular skeleton is made up of the arms, shoulder girdle,legs and hip girdle.

ClavicleCommonly known as the collar bone. There are 2 which attach atthe shoulders.

ScapulaeThere are 2 which link at the spine allowing movement at the armsand shoulders.

Humerus, radius and ulnaThese are the bones that form the upper and lower arm. There are 8

carpal bones in the wrist, 5 metacarpal bones in the hand as well as14 phalanges.

Femur, tibia and fibula and patellaThese are the bones that form the upper and lower leg. The kneecap is called the patella. There are 7 tarsals in the foot, 5metatarsals also in the foot as well as 14 phalanges.

PelvisThe pelvis forms the hip girdle which is made up of 2 halves fusedtogether on each side. Here weight is transmitted to the legs as well

as supporting the lower abdomen and protecting various vitalorgans.

Part 1.2: Joints

Joints are found where 2 or more bones meet; they are joined byligaments. Ligaments are fibrous tissues that join bone to bone andensure that the joint is stable.

Joints and movement

Joints can be classified based upon the amount of movementavailable and also their structure.

The three types of joint are outlined below:

1. freely movable (synovial)2. slightly movable (cartilaginous)3. fixed (fibrous)


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Joint type Example Range of movement

Freely movable(synovial)

Slightly movable(cartilaginous)

Fixed (fibrous)

Knee, hip andshoulder

Vertebral column

Sacrum, cranium

Wide range ofmovement

Slight movementbecause joints arelinked by cartilage

No movement at allbetween bones

Synovial joints

Synovial joints are the most commonly occurring type of joint in thebody. Examples include the hip, knee and ankle joint.

A typical synovial joint

The following characteristics are found within synovial joints:

Synovial fluid is found within the joint which lubricate it and thisallows for free movement


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Synovial membrane is a layer inside the capsule this secretes thesynovial fluid

Hyaline cartilage covers the head of the bone forming the joint. Itprotects the bone and reduces friction within the joint

There are six different types of synovial joints outlined below.

Type of synovialjoint/example

Description

Ball and socket e.g. hip,shoulder

Has the ability to move in alldirections

Pivot e.g. atlas and axisat the neck

One bone is able to turn from side toside around the other bone.

Hinge e.g. elbow This joint moves in one plane only

Movement is limitedGliding e.g. carpals inthe hand

This is when one bone slides on top ofanother. Movement is limited

Saddle e.g. thumb This joint moves in 2 planes.Movement is limited

Condyloid e.g. wrist Movement can be made possible in 2planes

Part 1.3: Functions of the skeleton

ShapeThe skeleton forms our shape or framework, giving us individuality.Otherwise we would all look alike.

ProtectionThe skeleton protects our vital organs. For example the skullprotects the brain, the vertebral column protects the spinal cord andthe rib cage protects the heart and the lungs.

Movement

The skeleton with its complex bones and joints allows us to move ina variety of ways whether it is carrying out daily tasks or playingsports.

SupportThe skeleton holds our vital organs in place, provides attachment forthe muscles and gives us our overall shape which in many casesdetermines the sports we go on to play.

Blood productionThe marrow of the bone produces red and white blood cells. Calcium

and as other minerals are also stored in the bones.


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Part 1.4: Bone and bone growth

Bone

Bone is the hardest tissue in the body. There are four differenttypes of bone which can be classified in relation to their shape, sizeand function. These are described below.

Bonetype

Description Function Example

Long These are thelonger bones inthe body

Involved inmain /largermovements

Femur,humerus

Short These are theshorter bonesfound in our handsand feet

Involved insmall/finermovements

Carpals,metatarsals

Flat These can attachto larger muscles

Provideattachment ofmuscle andsupport, alsoprotect

Cranium, pelvis

Irregular These are irregularin shape

Protection andsupport

Face andvertebrae

Bone growth and sport

Prior to birth (at embryo stage) our skeleton is made up of cartilagewhich is elastic but firm. Cartilage changes into bone as the embryogrows. Bone is harder and firmer making it resilient to the stressesof the stages of growth from childhood and then finally intoadulthood.

Ossification is the process of the development of bone fromcartilage. Exercise and sports activities aid the development of the

skeleton during the childhood stages of life.

Bone is a living tissue that has the capacity to repair itself when it isdamaged. Bones are enclosed by a membrane (periosteum); thisacts like a skin that holds it all together. Within the periosteumthere are three types of bone cells as outlined below:

Osteoblasts these produce collagen and minerals that areneeded for bone growth and the hardening of the bones

Osteocytes these are the main cells of the bone tissuerequired for maintaining healthy bones


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Osteoclasts when a bone is damaged these cells clean up thearea and are responsible for absorbing and removing bone sothat osteoclasts can then form the new bone

Below is a flow diagram of the process of bone growth:

Cartilage When we are born mostof our bone is cartilage and is softerthan the bone that we have whenwe are adults. This leads to thebones going through ossification.

Osteoblasts these cells producecollagen and minerals that hardenthe bone and change the bone fromcartilage.

Osteocytes these are the finalbone cells that allow the bones tobe hardened and in the form as weknow when we are adults.

Osteoclasts When we exercise orbreak our bones these cells helpclean up the area so thatossification can occur again and


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Bone growth

Part 1.5: Movement

All movements can be classified into certain patterns. Thesemovements are defined to help coaches and trainers review howindividuals are moving and how they can be changed to improveperformance.

Some movements and their descriptions are outlined below:

Movement

Description Example

Flexion The angle of the jointdecreases

Bending the knee to kick aball

Extension The angle of the jointincreases

Straightening the knee afterthe kick has taken place

Adduction The limb moves

closer to the mid lineof the body

Forehand shot in tennis

Abduction The limb moves awayfrom the mid line ofthe body

Backhand shot in badminton

Rotation The limb movestowards the mid lineof the body andchanges the positionof the body

Mobility movement during awarm up phase of an activity


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Part 1.6: Effects of exercise

Short term effects of exercise

When exercise is undertaken it will cause the joints to stimulate thesecretion of synovial fluid. This synovial fluid will become lessviscous (thick) and the range of movement around the joint willincrease.

Long term effects of exercise

If a long period of training is undertaken the following effects willoccur. There is an increase in bone density; bones become strongerand more resilient to the stresses imposed upon them through

exercise and sport. This in turn reduces the risk of osteoporosis.Strengthening of ligaments also occurs around the joint and this inturn helps the joints become more stable. The hyaline cartilagebecomes thicker which provides more protection and there is anoverall increase in the production of synovial fluid.


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Section Two: The Muscular System

Part 2.1: Major muscles of the body and theirfunctions

The muscular system is a network of fibres that work together tocreate movement by contracting and extending (shortening andlengthening).There are in fact approximately 600 voluntary muscles in our body.The functions of the muscles are outlined below:

They give shape to our bodies

They create movement

When the muscles contract they generate heat

They help in the circulation of blood They provide protection for our vital organs and hold them in

place


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The major anterior and posterior muscles of the human body areshown on the following diagrams.

Anterior muscles of the body


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Posterior muscles of the body


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Part 2.2: Types of muscles

There are three types of muscle within the human body.

Smooth muscles these are smooth in appearance and workinvoluntarily e.g. they work without us thinking about them or inother words automatically. They work our internal organs. e.g.bowel, uterus and bladder.

Skeletal muscles these are striated in appearance in other wordsstriped. The skeletal muscles are voluntary and are under ourcontrol. We use these muscles when we carry out daily tasks andsports activities, e.g. ironing, walking, running and swimming toname but a few.

Cardiac muscle this muscle is also striated in appearance and isonly found in the heart. This muscle is also controlled involuntarily.It works on its own and is under constant nervous and chemicalcontrol.

Part 2.3: Muscle and movement

Movement occurs when muscles shorten (contract) and lengthen(extend).It is skeletal muscle that performs any visible movement that your

body makes and any non visible movement is as a result of othermuscular tissues performing (e.g. smooth and cardiac).

Muscles work in groups rather than on their own, with mostarranged in opposing pairs. The muscle responsible for themovement is called the prime mover or agonist.

Muscles work in opposing pairs. When the agonist contracts theopposing muscle has to relax to allow the movement to occur. Thismuscle is called the antagonist.

Example the bicep curlIf the prime mover is the bicep then the tricep is the antagonisticmuscle that relaxes in order for movement to take place (the bicepcurl). The antagonist and the agonist work together to produce themovement.

When a muscle contracts it either shortens, lengthens or stays thesame length. When it shortens or lengthens it is known as anisotonic contraction. If it stays the same length it is referred to asan isometric contraction. There are two types of isotonic

contractions concentric and eccentric. Below are descriptionsof the different types of contraction:


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Type ofcontraction

Description Example

Concentric The muscle shortens The leg kicking a ball

Eccentric The musclelengthens

Bicep curl on thedownward phase

Isometric The muscle stays thesame lengththroughout

The crucifix position holding a weight atarms length

TendonsTendons are made up of collagen and elastin and attach muscle tobone. Tendons are strong and inelastic and vary in both shape andsize.

Part 2.4: The effects of exercise on themuscular system


The following effects are seen when exercise is undertaken in themuscles:

There is an increase in muscular temperature and metabolic

activity The demand for oxygen is greater together with an increase in

blood supply as the muscular system becomes more efficient

As the muscles become warmer through activity they aremore pliable which reduces the risk of injury


The following long term effects are seen in the muscular system:

The muscular system becomes stronger and more resilient inorder for it to cope with demands imposed upon it

Muscle bulk and size will increase. The increased size of themuscle tissue is called hypertrophy

There will be improved range of flexibility if certain trainingactivities are undertaken

Muscle endurance will also increase resisting fatigue

The body shape will have a more toned look; posture will alsoimprove

The heart muscle will also increase in size if regular

cardiovascular training is undertaken


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All of these effects only occur and are maintained if individualscontinue exercising. If they stop exercising the effects will reverseand they will return to the state they were in before training.

Section Three The Cardiovascular

System and How it is Affected byExercise

Part 3.1: Structure of the cardiovascularsystem

The cardiovascular system is composed of three main parts: theheart, the blood vessels and the blood. Its function is to deliveroxygen and nutrients and excrete waste products from all the cells

of the body.

The heartThe heart is a large muscle that pumps blood and transports itaround the body via arteries and veins. It is made up of fourchambers, two upper atria and two lower ventricles. The walls of thefour chambers are made up of cardiac muscle, which is called themyocardium.

The blood vesselsBlood vessels are the transporters and allow the exchange of

materials to take place such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients,hormones, drugs and heat.

The bloodBlood is the fluid by which oxygen, carbon dioxide and nutrients aretransported throughout the body.

Part 3.2: Structure and function of the heart

The heart is an involuntary muscle that will become more efficient

with regular exercise. The role of the heart is to pump blood aroundthe body.


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Structure of the heart

The passage of blood through the heart

A description of the how the blood passes through the heart isoutlined below:

Deoxygenated blood is returned from the muscles and therest of the body via the superior and inferior vena cava into the

right atrium The blood then passes through the tricuspid valve into the

right ventricle

The blood then is pumped past the semilunar valve into thepulmonary artery

The blood is then passed through the lungs and oxygenated

The blood is then returned to the heart via the pulmonary veininto the left atrium

The blood is then pumped past the bicuspid valve into the leftventricle

The blood is then passed through the semilunar valve into theaorta


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The aorta then delivers the oxygenated blood to the rest ofthe body


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Part 3.3: Blood vessels

Blood vessels are responsible for carrying blood to all body parts.There are 3 types - arteries, veins and capillaries.

The arteries carry blood away from the heart to the working musclesand other parts of the muscles where oxygen is required. Thecapillaries surround the areas that require oxygen and allow theoxygen to be passed to the areas and waste products to be passedback into the blood and to be excreted. The veins take thedeoxygenated blood back to the heart.

Bloodvesseltype

Structure Function

Arteries In texture they are thickand very elastic. Theyhave the ability tocontract, forcing bloodtowards the capillaries.Arteries become smallerand smaller and they arecalled arterioles

They carry blood awayfrom the heart. The bloodis under pressure

Veins These are 2 layers thickcontaining pocket valvesand non elastic. These

veins become smaller andsmaller and are calledvenules

Deoxygenated bloodmoves from the capillariesto veins and venules.

They carry blood back tothe heart. Deoxygenatedblood then enters theheart from the largestveins the vena cava

Capillaries

These are thin andnarrow, only one cellthick. They connect veinsand arteries

Deliver nutrients andremove waste products

Blood

Blood is the transport system within the body. Its function is to:

Transport oxygen to the tissues and remove waste products suchas carbon dioxide

Transport nutrients to the cells

White blood cells are responsible for protecting the body frominfection


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Part 3.4: Effects of exercise on thecardiovascular system


When an individual starts exercising the following effects occur:

The heart starts working harder to supply blood to the workingmuscles which results in the heart rate increasing

When power sports are undertaken e.g. power lifting orsprinting, blood pressure also increases

Blood supply to the organs that are not needed may bereduced and the blood supply to the working muscles isincreased


When an individual trains over a period of time the following effectsoccur to the CV system:

The heart will increase in size and become more efficient atpumping blood around the body; this in turn results in areduction in heart rate

There is an increase in blood vessel size and number

There is an increase in stroke volume due to the increase inoxygen demand by the working muscles

An individual will have the ability to carry out sportingactivities for longer periods of time before tiring


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Section Four The Respiratory Systemand How it is Affected by Exercise

Part 4.1: Structure and function of therespiratory system

The respiratory system is responsible for the transportation ofoxygen via the lungs as well as removing carbon dioxide from theblood via the lungs. An average adult will inhale and exhaleapproximately 12 to 15 breaths per minute.

Structure of the respiratory system

Passage of air through the respiratory system

Below is an outline of the passage of air through the respiratorysystem:

Air enters the body through the nose and mouth. The nasalcavity removes dust particles by using the cilia (nasal hairs)

To stop food going down the windpipe there is a flap at the

back of the throat called the epiglottis. The epiglottis closeswhen food is swallowed to stop food getting into the trachea


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The air then passes down the trachea otherwise known asthe windpipe

The trachea branches off into 2 bronchial tubes which liebehind the sternum

The bronchial tubes branch out again into smaller bronchi

and then smaller still into tiny bronchioles Once the air has passed along this part of respiratory system

the air will arrive in the alveoli

Alveoli are thin walled air sacs. The alveoli will fill with air thenempty as an individual inspires and expires air into the lungcavities.

The alveoli allow oxygen and carbon dioxide to pass betweenthe blood and the lungs

The blood takes the oxygen and returns the carbon dioxide tothe lungs to be expired

The oxygenated blood is then taken to the heart to bedistributed to the rest of the body

The process when oxygen and carbon dioxide change places iscalled gaseous exchange.Thishappens when a highconcentration of gas moves to a low concentration of gas.

Part 4.2: Mechanics of breathing

The muscles involved in breathing are the intercostal muscles,

diaphragm and the external intercostal muscles. The diaphragm isa dome shaped muscle situated at the bottom of the lungs.

InspirationWhen an individual breathes in it is referred to as inspiration. Toallow inspiration to occur the diaphragm contracts. This causes thediaphragm to flatten at the bottom of the rib cage. The intercostalmuscles which lie across the rib cage also contract pulling the ribsupwards. This increases the area inside the lungs and thereforeallows air to pass into the lungs.

ExpirationWhen an individual breathes out it is known as expiration. Duringexpiration the intercostal muscles relax and the ribs return to theirstarting position. The diaphragm also relaxes and pushes up intothe rib cage area. This causes the area inside the rib cage todecrease and forces the air to be expired from the lungs.


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Inspiration and expiration

Part 4.3: The effects of exercise on therespiratory system

The short term effects of exercise

When an individual takes part in exercise the demand for oxygen bythe working muscles increases once exercise is started. This leadsto an increase in breathing rate. There is also an increase efficiencyin the alveoli which leads to an increase in gaseous exchange.


The following effects of training on the respiratory system occur:

The ability to continue in any given activity for a longer periodof time

Increased vital capacity which is the maximum amount of airthat can be inhaled and exhaled in one breath

The VO2 max of the body is increased, this is the maximum

amount of oxygen that can be transported and used by workingmuscles


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Increased efficiency of the respiratory system

Section Five: Energy Systems

Part 5.1: Energy systems

To enable muscles to contract energy is required. There are threeenergy systems that allow muscles to contract as outlined below:

Energy system Description ExampleCreatine phosphatesystemUses creatinephosphate for energythat is present in the

muscle naturally

Immediate energysystem lasting for ashort period of timeapprox. 10 seconds.Oxygen is not

required

Explosive sports suchas shot put/javeline.g. 100 metre sprintand power sports

Lactic acid systemUses glucose tocreate energy fromour diets

Short term energysystem lastingbeyond 10 secondsat high intensity.There will be a buildup of lactic acid andmuscles will tirecausing fatigue.Oxygen is notrequired

Races lasting approx.180 seconds e.g.swimming, rugby andbasketball, 400mrunning

Aerobic systemUsesglucose/fat/proteinfor energy production

Long term energysupply. A readysupply of oxygen isneeded for thissystem

Skiing,marathon/longdistance running

The creatine phosphate system

This system provides energy immediately as it is found in themuscles in the form of phosphocreatine (PC) but it is in limited

supply and will be used up very quickly to create energy. Nooxygen is required for this and therefore this is used as the very firstsource of energy and is used very quickly.

The lactic acid system

This system provides short term energy. When we work harder e.g.breathing becomes deeper and quicker more oxygen is needed butit takes time to gain this extra supply. This is because the oxygentakes longer to get into the blood stream and then into the workingmuscles. This system is used when the CP system has beenexhausted.


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This system provides us with long term energy to allow us tocontinue for longer periods of time participating in a variety ofactivities. For example it can be used in events such as 400m. Nooxygen is required for this system, however lactic acid is produced

which causes the muscles to tire.The aerobic system

This system provides long term energy. This system is used in longdistance events e.g. marathons, 3000m running. The system usescarbohydrate, protein and fats for energy sources and can only beused in the presence of oxygen. This is why it takes a while for thesystem to start as the body has to wait for the presence of oxygen.

Energy system Advantages Disadvantages

Creatine phosphate ATP is found directlyin the muscle tissue.It does not requireoxygen to work andthere are no wasteproducts

Limited supplylasting only a shorttime

Lactic acid Chemical reactionsare very short and isdoes not requireoxygen to work

Again only a limitedsupply available athigh intensity andthere is build of lacticacid which can in

turn stop the activityAerobic This system can

store a far greateramount of energyand is readilyavailable. Activitiescan be sustained fora much longer periodof time

This system requiresthe presence ofoxygen

Part 5.2: Energy requirements of physicalactivity

Whatever we do in our daily lives requires the use of energy. Thiscould mean daily everyday tasks from walking to work, washing thecar to dusting and polishing as well as more strenuous activitiessuch as our involvement in sports activities at whichever level thatmay be.

Energy is measured in kilojoules.


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In order for individuals to maintain their weight they are required tobalance their energy intake and output e.g. in terms of food that iswhat is eaten in a day balanced against whatactivities/sport/exercise we do in a day. There must be a balance ofeach otherwise weight is gained or lost respectively.

Below is a table of the average amount of energy used in a numberof activities:


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Activity Energy used(per hour)

Walking 380 KjGolf 560Kj

Badminton 710KjRigorous gardening 880KjGymnastics 880KjTennis 1000KjRugby 1130KjSquash 1254KjBrisk jogging 1320KjCycling 1380KjSwimming 1500Kj

the body in sport - learner

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