the changing function of art education in pakistan author

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National Art Education Association

The Changing Function of Art Education in PakistanAuthor(s): Alan PeshkinSource: Studies in Art Education, Vol. 5, No. 2 (Spring, 1964), pp. 12-20Published by: National Art Education AssociationStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1319749

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THECHANGING FUNCTIONOFART EDUCATIONN PAKISTAN

Alan Peshkin /University of Wisconsin, Madison

IntroductionThe purpose of this paper is to describe and analyze the changeswhich have taken place in art educationat the elementaryand secondarylevel in Pakistan during the brief span of years since winning its inde-pendencefrom Englandin 1947.The school systemin Pakistan,duringmost of the periodsince 1947,was generallya ten-year programwith a curriculumwhich varied some-what from region to region and which served a small percentageof thepopulation.(Literacyin this nation of 90 million is estimatedbetween15and 20 per cent.) The five years of primaryschool and five years of

secondaryschool created a unit which essentially preparedstudents forentrance to higher education.The content of education in Pakistan, aswell as its form, was a legacy of its colonial period: hence the schoolshad been criticizedby educatorsand government fficersbecausethey wereof anotherera and becausethey were not fashioned in light of the needsof the newly independentnation. In addition,the schools were criticizedfor their narrowpurpose: they were overlyliteraryand academic n char-acter, neglecting the technical and scientific subjects; they ignored theindividual differencesof the learners; and they provided an educationprimarilysuited to the work of clerical assistants.Widespreaddiscontent with the schools is evident in the numerousreportsof educational eformand reconstruction roups published hrough-out the period since 1947.1 Underlying the proposals made by thesegovernment-authorizedeformgroupsis the notionthat schools must servenational ends by preparingindividuals with the knowledge, skills, andattitudesrequisitefor political unity and economicgrowth.Art education'srole in this effortis established n the 1957 Karachisyllabus for art andparticularly n the 1960 national syllabi, the productof a then recentlyestablishedreformgovernment.Changes n art educationcan be discernedmost clearly by examiningthe curriculum or the period between 1947 and 1960 and for the post-1960 period.I use 1960 as a turning point because of the significantedu-cationalevents (to be describedbelow) which occurred n that year. Theas yet undetermined onsequencesof these events precludelabelling theseperiods"traditional" nd "modern," lthoughit is temptingto do so.Pakistan is primarilya Muslim nation with a large Hindu minority

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13residing in the eastern wing of this geographically divided nation. She hasinherited a rich artistic tradition from her Islamic forebears who ruledIndia for many centuries prior to the arrival of the British in the early17th century. This tradition is particularly rich in architecture andcalligraphy, although quality design is observed in varied craft products.Paintings from the Mughul era, which lasted approximately from the 16thto the 18th century, look highly stylistic and unimaginative to the 20thcentury viewer.In both pre- and post-independence Pakistan, art as a subject in theelementary and secondary schools is largely a western import, but this is tobe expected, considering the importance of the British in shaping theschools of the subcontinent. In addition to the influence of the west, arteducation has been affected by the availability of materials and also by agrowing desire among educators and political leaders for education toreflect indigenous traditions and contribute to practical ends. While retain-ing its western flavor and a particularly intellectual character in theupper grades, nine and ten, art education in the post-independence periodexhibited the effect of varying if not contradicting intentions. This will bedemonstrated as we examine the curricula of art education.Art Education in Pre-1960 PakistanHolding 1960 as an apparent turning point in elementary and secondaryeducation in Pakistan, I will first discuss the course of studies in arteducation prior to that date. It should come as no surprise to the arteducator to learn that in terms of the number of hours devoted to art andof the importance attached to its study, art is clearly a second-class citizenamong educational subjects. The study of some content termed "art"appears in every class from one to ten, generally as a compulsory subjectin classes one to eight and one of a number of optional subjects in classesnine and ten. The subjects studied in classes nine and ten have specialimportance because they form the basis of the matriculation or finalexamination given at the termination of the high school period. Success onthis examination provides entry to higher education and the best job oppor-tunities; failure condemns the student to relatively less attractive workand to restricted further educational choices. In East Pakistan as of 1957,two of approximately 39 periods in a six-day week were set aside for arteducation. At the same time in Karachi, West Pakistan, two 45-minuteperiods were devoted to art and three 45-minute periods were devoted topractical art.

By and large, art education as found in Karachi and in East Pakistanrepresents the range of differences in the content of this subject in Pakistanprior to 1960. Karachi was the capital city of Pakistan, located in thewestern wing of the nation, and had its own director of education and itsown syllabi. There were other syllabi and other directors of education inthe different areas of West Pakistan. In contrast, East Pakistan was apolitically unified province since 1947 and operated under a single educa-THE CHANGING FUNCTION OF ART EDUCATION IN PAKISTAN


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14tional administration and a single course of studies. The syllabi inKarachi and in East Pakistan are compared for the year 1957 because ofthe availability of parallel data, although there is sufficient evidence todocument the fact that only minor if any changes had been made since1947 or even earlier. For example, the 1957 syllabus3 for education inEast Pakistan includes verbatim the 1939 letter of the director of publicinstruction regarding the time to be spent on art in grades three to ten,indicating that its provisions were still in effect 18 years later.The 1957 syllabus for schools in East Pakistan in describing thecontent of art education provides directions for prospective textbook writersand for the classroom practices of both teachers and students. Art, ordrawing as it was called, was to consist in classes five and six of (a)drawing of objects-simple objects "based on the square, cone, cube, andtriangular prism;" (b) nature study-sprays of leaves and flowers, animals,and insects; (c) fruits; (d) memory drawing-simple objects which shouldbe exhibited and then removed before students begin to draw; (e) copy-simple patterns, easy designs for borders, etc.; and (f) mass andcolor-"light shading in pencil and in water color of objects and naturestudy drawing included in the course." The work for classes seven andeight is similar, except that work with fruits and copy is replaced bydesign-"easy design for book cover, almanac, plate, etc." and geometricaldrawing.5At the matriculation level-classes nine and ten-where art is anelective subject, the syllabus for two years has a practical and a theoreticalsection designated as such. The practical part, worth 40 marks of a total800 for all subjects on the matriculation examination, consisted of black-board drawing, free-hand drawing, drawing from memory, foliage, lettering,and simple still life. Worth 60 marks, the theoretical part included appre-ciation of sculpture-"Analysis of typical examples of Asiatic and EuropeanSculpture based on the study of a limited number of standard works ofSculptural Art with special emphasis on Asiatic Sculpture," and ofarchitecture and painting-"Saracenic, Moghul, and Indian. Painting-Elements of Pictorial forms. Principle of Composition and Design. GeneralPrinciples of Color. Analysis of typical examples of Asiatic and EuropeanPainting . . . with special emphasis of Indian painting. Introduction ofArt in Industry."6 This latter reference to the study of art in industry isthe only trace of practical emphasis (as defined in my terms) noted,although concern for the practical is manifest in the 1952 East Pakistaneducational reform committee's suggestion that weaving and spinning shouldbe introduced in art at class four and that in classes six to eight art shouldbe converted to "art and handicraft," wherein a student would select onesubject from a list including drawing and painting, needlework, wood-work, metalwork, etc.7 A similar reform group recommended in 1957 thatat the primary stage the subject of arts and crafts should be "entirelypractical."8Unlike the syllabus for East Pakistan, the one for the city of Karachi

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15in West Pakistancontainsa statementof purpose,an uncommon ractice nthis countrywheresubjectcontentand examinations re usuallydeterminedfrom ends which remain,at best, implicit. The Karachi syllabus assertsthat "the aim of teaching Art at this stage [classes six to eight] is tocultivate the aesthetic sense of the pupils and to develop their creativeabilities through self-expression.PracticalArts will providea mediumforthe applicationof Art and will give the pupils a generaltrainingin usingtheir hands with skill and will thus preparethe groundfor futurecrafts-manship."9An explanatorystatement follows to the effect that studentartistic ability should be applied to "practicalobjects" and that "in thefinal stages Art may wholly merge into Practical Arts."10We see in theabove a clear blending of the aesthetic and the practical end, with thepracticaltendingto dominate-a precursorof things to comein art educa-tion in the 1960 reforms.In class six, studentactivitiesare listed under two headings,art andpractical arts. Under art is prescribedfree expression,colored sawdustwork, and clay modelling-all three using everyday objects and articlesfrom nature study such as leaves and flowers as models. Practical artincludesstencil cutting,potatocarving,and cardboardwork,with domesticarts such as needlecraft,sewing, and knitting added for girls.In class seven underarts is founddrawingand painting, clay model-ling, and marble paper making. Under practical arts is book binding,clay pottery, paper machine (sic) work, artistic leather work, fretwork,and domestic arts for girls.Interestingly,at class eight art and practicalarts are no longer listedseparately.Under the combinedheading of "Art and Practical Arts" wefinddrawingand painting, posters,cartoons,stencils,bookbinding,artisticleatherwork,workshoppractice ("useof common ools in preparing implearticles of everyday use" in wood and metal), and domestic arts forgirls." From all appearances, the directive that art merge into thepracticalartsin the finalstagesof educationhas affected he headingunderwhich activitieswere subsumed,but not the activities themselves.Art in the matriculation lasses is an elective subject in Karachi asin the rest of Pakistan.Interested studentswere given a choice of eitherfree-armdrawing or painting. Free-armdrawing required student work(a) "in pencil pastel and water color from objects of daily use based onrectangular,cylindrical,conical, and sphericaland elliptical forms . . .;"(b) in perspectivedrawing;and (c) in object drawing, n which studentswere to drawgroupsof objects "showingperspectiveand light and shade,in pencil or color media."l2The syllabus for painting is divided into a practical and theoreticalsection. The theoreticalexpectationsare clearly intellectual in character,emphasizinga knowledge of technical points such as ostwald standard,octol with neutrals,definitionsof art symbols,and the like, althoughevenin this sectionthe influenceof the practical s apparentwherethe syllabusnotes that studentsshouldlearn the practicaluse of art in everyday ife.THE CHANGING FUNCTION OF ART EDUCATION IN PAKISTAN


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16In the practical section we see not so much the influence of theeducator's desire to improve the technical and handicraft skill and knowl-

edge of their students as to instill what may be called a nationalisticdisposition, which adds a more indigenous flavor to painting. For example,students were asked to paint in water color and pastel "portrait sketchesof famous poets, singers, and artists;" "to prepare paintings and posters. . . on national ideas, illustrations connected with stories, famouspoems, and songs;" and to do "lettering and illumination writing in Urdu,English, and other Pakistani languages."13 The matriculation examinationsdeveloped from the courses of study just described clearly reflect thetheoretical character of the content, but not the nationalistic dimensions toany appreciable extent.Art education in the pre-reform 1960 period in Pakistan varied fromplace to place in the country in keeping with the relatively decentralizedcontrol of education. The traditional art programs, because of their formal,intellectual character, appear similar to those of an earlier period in theUnited States. Furthermore, in their provision to use a wide variety ofmaterials for relatively brief time spans, they are inclined to promotebreadth as opposed to depth skills; they stress the inculcation of studentcreativity and free expression,14 essentially in writing only; and they mani-fest a tendency to incorporate activities which relate to the traditions andneeds of the nation. The latter tendency is particularly strong in theKarachi syllabus, while the syllabus of East Pakistan is more representativeof art education in the earlier pre-independence Indian subcontinent.Art Education in Post-1960 Pakistan

After a number of years of painful and persistent political confusion,General Ayub Khan in 1958 accomplished a coup d'etat which placed thecountry under military rulers and martial law. General Khan, currentlyPresident of Pakistan, at least temporarily halted the more glaringnational crimes-corruption, graft, black marketing, profiteering-andcreated a feeling of optimism and well-being throughout the land. Amonghis many ameliorative measures, he appointed a commission to study theentire educational system and make proposals for reform. The outcomeof this commission's labors was an excellent analysis15 of the traditionaleducational system which led in 1960 to the establishment of committeesof educators to frame a course of studies for the entire nation based onthis analysis and the commission's recommendations. Pressed for timeand at work on an unprecedented task, the committees produced the firstnational syllabus for Pakistan, classes one to twelve, for all subjects excepta few exotic electives. Both the elementary16and the secondaryl7 educationsyllabi are open in their intention to fashion the content of education inorder to achieve goals which particularly contribute to national well-being.To illustrate, note these ends among the general ends of primary education:"to equip a child . . . with the basic knowledge and skills he will require



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17as ... a citizen,""to awaken in a child a sense of citizenshipand civicresponsibility."'8Note these as the general ends of secondaryeducation:"(a) Productionof trainedmanpower,educatedcitizenry,and competentleadership for the country. (b) Training of students to lead productivepublic lives .... (c) Maintenanceof freedom,integrity, and strengthof Pakistan.(d) Preservation f the moraland spiritualvaluesof Islam."19The questionof the extent to which these new goals can be realized by"old"teachers is indeed meaningful,but it is not appropriate or discus-sion at this time.At the primary evel the particularobjectivesfor art educationpoint-edly emphasize he developmentof creativityand self-expression,but thefinal two objectivesin this list of six state that "a respect for all formsof useful productivework and manual labor" should be inculcated andstudentsmustunderstand"how art and craft contribute o everyday ife."20Again we see the blending of the aesthetic and the practical, as in theearlierKarachisyllabus,with the difference hat these ends now relate tothe entirenation.Predictably, his blend is reflected n the actual syllabuspreparedfor each class.The first activitylisted in the syllabus for each primaryclass, one tofive, is "expressionalpainting;"and some of the other activities,such asfinger painting and clay modelling,are also supposedto stress free ex-pressionbased on the children'sexperience.Otheractivitiesinclude pastemarbling,writing patterns,cutting pictures and pasting in albums, stickprinting, and potato and onion printing. There is no practical activitylisted as such in class one, but in class two and three there is weaving;at class fourthere is weaving,basketry,and needle work; and at class fiveleatherwork and fretwork have been added to the aforementioned list.21The truly curiouscharacterof art education at the primarystage is notapparent n the actualdescriptionof the curriculum or each class, but inthe introduction o the section on art. Table 1 below is taken from thisintroduction.TABLE1.-CONTENTANDNUMBEROF PERIODS ERWEEKDEVOTEDTO ART AND PRACTICALARTS EDUCATIONN THE PRIMARYCLASSES'Content Class 1 2 3 4 5

Numberof periodsper weekManualwork 1 1 1 1 1Music 1 1 1 1 1Arts and crafts 8b 8 5 4 4Totalnumber f periodsperweek 10 10 7 6 6aTaken from Curriculum for Primary Schools . . . p. 145.bFifteen minutes of each arts and crafts period is to be devoted to free or directed activities suchas (a) games with blocks, paper, beads; (b) looking after pets; (c) make-believe playing police-man or bus driver; (d) field trips to museums and zoos; and (e) making wall bulletins and thelike.

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19ordinationof hand and mind in relation to the constructionand designof a wide varietyof practicalarticles;" should "attemptto beautify andadorn his surroundingseven in the least favorablecircumstances;"andshould "developan appreciationof the traditionalcraft skills of Pak-istan."23Art, in whatever class at the secondary evel, places particularstress on encouragingstudent creativityand free expression.Thus, thereis in the new 1960syllabus,as in those of an earlierperiod,a considerablemixing of aestheticand practicalmotivesin both art as an elective sub-ject and in art as merely an aspect of a compulsorycourse in crafts andpractical arts, with the practical dominatingwhereverart, in any form,is a compulsory ubject.

ConclusionThere is no doubt that art education n some form will persist as asubject in the schools in Pakistan. But we can see that what was par-tially true in the past is now true for all of Pakistan: art, along with theother subjects in the curriculum,has been placed in the service of na-tion-buildingefforts.At the primary evel, art is characterizedby an in-creasinginfusionof practicalactivities.At the secondary evel, art has be-come a minor element of craft and practicalor technical subjects, underthe rationalizationhat in fact the qualitiesof art can be manifestin suchsubjects.Even when "art" is the designationof the subject to be studied,a practicalflavoris added.Art in Pakistandoes not speak with a powerfulvoice. The numberofartists with professionalambitions,while growing, s still extremelysmall.Althoughthe governmenthas given officialsponsorship o artistic effortsin the supportof artists,attendanceat exhibitions,circulationof Pakistaniart workabroad,and, perhapsmost strikingly, n the establishmentof anattractiveart school in Dacca, East Pakistan,the voice of art for its ownends is barelyaudible.Not only are art teachers not universityor collegegraduates (this at once precludestheir parity with their colleagues), butart is merely an elective subject in the powerfulmatriculationexamina-tion, and any subject which does not hold a central place on this ex-amination s considereda minor subject. Thus, both art and art teachersare peripheralto the educationalenterprise. Furthermore,given the ex-press intention of Pakistan to marshal its total national resources inplannedaction (five year plans havebeen in effect since 1950), and givenvery limitedfinances,art educationpursuingits own ends, as opposedtonationalends, appearsas a luxury. Consequently,f art is to be a schoolsubject, and tradition as well as reasondictates that it should be, it willbow in the directionof the aesthetic and free expression,but truly payhomageto the practical.

REFERENCES1. See especially he Governmentf Parkistan.Proceedings f the AdvisoryBoard of Educationfor Pakistan. Karachi: Manager of Publications. Theboardmeteighttimesbetween1948and 1958.

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202. Unless shown otherwiseby the context, I use the word "practical" o desig-nate those activities included in the curriculumwhich reflect the desire toachieve some economic, political, or other societal end. The Pakistani art

educator uses "practical"to contrast with "theoretical."In this instance,practicalrefers to doing or making something,with no visual product,otherthan a written exam or a homeworkassignment,resulting. "Practical,"inmy usage, is used at times to describe both the Pakistani theoretical andpractical sections in an art syllabus.3. Government f East Bengal. Syllabuses of Studies for SecondarySchools forBoys and Girls in East Bengal. Dacca: East Pakistan GovernmentPress,1957. p. 35.4. Ibid., pp. 31-32.5. Ibid., p. 32.6. This informationappears on a single page distributedby the East BengalSecondaryEducationBoard,Dacca, and was to take effect from 1953. Thereis no furtherpublicationinformationon the page.7. Governmentof East Bengal. Report of the East Bengal Education SystemReconstructionCommittee.Dacca: East Bengal GovernmentPress, 1952. pp.42 and 267.8. Governmentof East Pakistan. Report of the EducationalReforms Commis-sion East Pakistan, 1957. Dacca: East Pakistan GovernmentPress, 1957.p. 10.9. ProspectusCurriculumand Syllabi for SecondarySchools Karachi (ClassesVI-X). Karachi: Board of SecondaryEducation,1956. p. 166.10. Ibid. The advanceof Karachi, if "advance" s an appropriateword to use,over East Pakistan in directing its art education to practical ends may beexplainedby the Karachieducator'sproximityto the flow of ideas from thefederal governmentwhich, in essence, expected of the schools an increas-ing contribution o the attainmentof economicgrowth.11. Ibid., pp. 166-168.The syllabusoffersno descriptionof "cartoons"and "sten-cils" and simply indicates that book binding and artistic leather work inclass eight will be more advancedthan in class seven.12. Ibid., p. 106.13. Ibid., p. 107.14. This emphasis on free expression is curious because it conflicts with thegenerally authoritariancharacterof the schools. Student reflection, discus-sion, choice, or creativitywere given verbal approval,but were honoredbytheir absence in classroompractice.15. See the Governmentof Pakistan, Report of the Commissionon NationalEducation.Karachi: Managerof Publications,1960.16. Governmentof Pakistan. Curriculum or PrimarySchools in Pakistan WithDetailed Syllabuses.Karachi: Ministryof Education,1960.17. Government f Pakistan.Reportof the CurriculumCommittee or SecondaryEducation (Classes VI to XII). Rawalpindi: Ministry of Education, 1960.18. Curriculum or PrimarySchools . . ., p. 1.19. Report of the CurriculumCommittee or Secondary Education,p. 16.20. Curriculum or PrimarySchools . . ., p. 144.21. Ibid., pp. 146-154.22. Report of the CurriculumCommittee or Secondary Education, pp. 146-147.23. Ibid., p. 322.


the changing function of art education in pakistan author

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