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The Civil responsibility for environmental harm in the Peruvian system
Roger Vidal Ramos
Master in Civil and Commercial Law by the National University of San Marcos
The Thesis Abstract
1.1. Background
The concern to develop this theme goes back to our last four years of study at
the Faculty of Law, motivated by reading several articles and books related to
Environmental Law and Natural Resources.
After making our first research and some trials, we decided to present our
paper entitled Does environmental protection in the Peruvian Civil Code?1,
Which was lectured on student papers contest the International Congress of
Civil Law, the same as was published, and we decided to continue the research
over the years.
One of the main events that caught our interest was the growth and prosperity
of the mining activity in Peru, and with it, the various social conflicts that raged
around mining, the Peruvian government for lack of consultation mechanisms
affected populations, and disagreements as to the economic and social
development unfulfilled expectations.
Nothing is more certain is that these populations (peasant-native) are
therefore suffer most from the negative impact of mining activities,
communities where there is no or almost never feel the presence of the state is
1 Vidal Ramos, Roger (2004, p. 295-309). Is there an environmental protection in the Peruvian Civil Code? In Veritas Vos Law Review Libera Bit. Huanuco: Faculty of Law, National University of Huánuco Valdizán Hermilio, nº1.
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providing appropriate services for education, health or better job
opportunities.
Peru today is a global benchmark for investment in the exploitation of natural
resources, but, however, investment and support offered by the Peruvian state
extractive activities do not necessarily represent good experiences in its
relationship with the diverse environment and local communities.
During the last fifteen years there are numerous negative experiences of
environmental contamination, both to the detriment of the populations, as
environmental heritage, non-analyzed extensively and reference only way, we
will mention some of these activities.
Throughout the history of the installation of pipelines and Camisea project
implementation, there were breaks in many pipelines2 and different forms of
involvement to local populations, facts that were reported in various media,
but without establishing penalties or concrete legal actions.
Undoubtedly, mining and pollution these days are in the eye of the storm,
Yanacocha and "Mercury Contamination in Choropampa" represents the most
emblematic case of environmental damage in Peru, to the detriment of the
populations Choropampa peasant village-Cajamarca, reaching various court
settlements sign held between Yanacocha Mining Company and numerous
comuneros of Choropampa, which were challenged and ended in a long judicial
process that became the First plenary Casatorio of the Supreme Court of the
Republic of Peru.
2 Fuente: http://www.camisea.org/El%20Comercio.pdf. El quinto derrame del
gasoducto de Camisea, que dejó tres personas heridas el sábado, ha generado diversas demandas al Gobierno: Desde la suspensión de las operaciones, hasta una auditoría internacional para determinar las causas del accidente. Mientras tanto, el gobierno peruano inició las investigaciones.
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This brings to mind that all extractive and industrial activity generates
environmental pollution risks without the need for intent or malice to pollute,
and no offense to distract the subject of our investigation; we cannot forget to
mention the serious conflict social and political lapsing comes with Conga
Mining Project.
1.2. Exploratory research
In our exploratory research, was resorted to various literature sources in the
Peruvian Civil Law, where we highlight the Treaty on Extra contractual Civil
Liability Fernando De Trazegnies teacher, who from the theory of socially
tolerable damage, tries to explain the need of society to use the tools of
technology (cars, planes and factories) to have a better way of life and facilitate
the activities of man and, of course, pursue economic growth.
These needs of society always, at some time are opposed to environmental
rights.
Professor De Trazegnies, proposed in the Drafting Committee and Civil Code
Revision of 1984, including the so-called "socially unacceptable damage"
where, somehow, this new course would be included as environmental
damage. This proposal, after twenty-eight years, becomes noticeably absent
and necessary.
The Peruvian legislature and scholars do not work and research carried out on
the role to be played by the system of civil liability to environmental damage,
further damage that were not designed according to environmental principles
of prevention, precaution, or internalization of costs, being these, some of the
topics to be addressed in this research.
You can not fail to mention the judgments of the Constitutional Court of Peru,
which in repeated failures, expressed the need for sustainable use of natural
resources, protection of fundamental environmental rights or need that the
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various business activities are while respecting the environment and its wide
regulation.
Surely Case No. 2003-0002 represents a ruling worldwide exemplary
regarding to punish the high pollution by oil activities of the subsidiary
(Chevron) American Company Texaco in Ecuador, Ecuadorian Judge Nicolas
Zambrano3, compared to environmental and cultural damage condemned
Chevron to pay more 8,646,000,000.00 billion dollars for repair in order to pay
for the recovery of natural soil conditions ($ 5,396,160.00) groundwater ($
600,000,000.00) of native species for at least 20 years ($ 200,000,000.00);
mitigate-to be impossible to repair damage, health damage affected
populations ($ 150,000,000.00); create a health system ($ 1,400,000,000.00),
the provision of a health plan that includes treatment for people with cancer ($
800,000,000.00) and community reconstruction and ethnic reaffirmation to
mitigate the irreparable cultural damage caused ($ 100,000,000.00).
1.3. Statement of the problem
1.3.1. Situational diagnosis
Since the first industrial revolution in England, to the systematic and insatiable
industrialized production, and have passed more than three centuries, and it is
clear the global environmental crisis, why go through all nations, where Peru is
no stranger to this crisis environment. The same we consider good reasons for
international organizations, countries, and NGOs, to address their worries and
various programs that seek to implement measures of prevention, protection,
real and effective restoration of the environment4.
3 Sentence Case 2003-00002 Ecuador Vs. Texaco 4 See: Vidal Ramos, Roger. (2004, p. 295-309). Is there an environmental protection in the Peruvian Civil Code? In: Law Review Vos Veritas Libera Bit, Faculty of Law, National University of Huánuco Valdizán Hermilio, No. 1.
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Pollution is very diverse. 5 Some cases that can be mentioned are:
contamination of beach areas or marine waters creating radioactive clouds
(Chernobyl case), adulterated foodstuffs6, acid rain, air pollution, pollution of
the ozone layer, noise pollution, pollution by mining and industrial activity,
pollution of the men to disperse the solid and liquid waste to the environment,
without hesitation or liability.
This same principle of "healthy environment" is incorporated in the 1993
Constitution which states in Article 2, paragraph 22, which considers as a
fundamental right "to peace, tranquility, to leisure and rest, and as to enjoy a
balanced environment suitable for the development of their life. "
These environmental principles are embodied in some rulings of the Supreme
Court and the Constitutional Court through the Environmental Protection,
began offering a first procedural protection of the right to enjoy a healthy
environment, interpreted as the right to protection health, decent life and the
principle of sustainable development
In this regard the principle enjoy a healthy environment and sustainable
development is systematically incorporated into the main Peruvian legal
system laws such as the Civil Procedure Code, the Code of Constitutional Law
Administrative Process and 2005 promulgating the General Environmental
Law n. ° 28611, legislation that established the legal mechanisms for protection
of environmental rights from judicial and administrative procedures.
Unfortunately, for this environmental law, to date, not yet promulgated its
regulations, why cannot require compliance with its principles and
environmental regulations.
5 We are locating new environmental problems such as desertification, the greenhouse effect, the raising sea levels, floods, droughts and storms. The man is building tecnopolis and mega polis; cities with unbreathable air, polluting rivers, lakes, has caused holes in the ozone layer, climate has warmed the earth for accelerated combustion of extraordinary proportions in the last hundred years. 6 ALPA, Guido, (p. 384) “Responsabilidad Civil y Daño: Lineamientos y Cuestiones”, Law Gazette editors, Lima - 2001.
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In our opinion, there is no regulation for this law due to lack of political will of
the Executive and the Legislative, and economic interests of many groups who
do not want to consider the environmental costs of their business activities.
The main motive of our research is manifest from the establishment of a civil
protection stops providing the Civil Code against environmental damage, from
the standpoint of civil liability, which shall be questioned in some points of our
research to be a institution that does not fit with the new environmental
damage from increased economic activity and industrialization.
From the perspective of the protection that should grant the right to the
environment, we cannot remember and rethink the role of the law regarding
the protection of the environment and, in particular, the Civil Law. Within this
discipline we place liability, it must play a fundamental role based on
prevention, so that a section of the doctrine is rethinking the liability system
toward a new tort law, placing emphasis on compensation new damages that
are causing the excessive industrial and technological mechanization, in which
we place the environmental damage that can be individual and collective harm
and property damage and non-material damage.
Environmental damages are externalities that, in most occasions, are costs
transferred (by companies, the state or individuals) to the company or product
victims of environmental pollution.
From exploratory research we have verified that there would be a gap in the
regulation of civil responsibility for environmental damage in the Peruvian
Civil Code and its application in the administrative and judicial mechanisms,
environmental damage is not legislated and understood as a new assumption
of civil responsibility, there is a lack of this legal institution by judges, lawyers
and law students.
1.3.2. Research Questions
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a) What is the role it must fulfilled by the system of civil
responsibility for environmental damage in Peru, compared to
cases like mercury spill in Choropampa Yanachocha, pollution
occurred by Doe Run in La Oroya or damage caused by informal
mining in Madre de Dios?
b) Does the system of environmental civil responsibility must be
based on the precautionary principle to the repeated instances of
pollution and environmental rights breach by various industrial
activities?
c) Is there a proper regulation of environmental damage in the
General Environmental Law?
d) The Peruvian Civil Code provides adequate guardianship against
environmental damage?
e) What would be the new challenges that must meet a system of
environmental civil responsibility?
1.3.3. Research objectives
a) General objectives
Determine Legal nature of environmental damage.
Identify the regulation and treatment of environmental
damage.
Adopt rules designed of civil responsibility for
environmental damage.
Set which are the institutions of the Civil Code those
establish some form of civil guardianship against
environmental damage.
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b) Special objectives
Analyze national regulation for environmental damage.
Set the reaches of the principles of juridical institutions
of environmental law and its relationship to civil
responsibility.
Set whether there are regulatory legal loopholes or
omissions with respect to environmental damage and
the respective penalty for their production.
Identify ways and procedural requirements for bringing
environmental actions.
1.3.4. Accuracy of the Problem
Main Problem
What is environmental harm and what is the regulation of legal
responsibility for environmental damage production in Peru?
Secondary problem 1
Is it enough national regulation of legal responsibility for
environmental damage output to ensure the protection of the
environment?
Secondary problem 2
What are the rules and actions for juridical systematization of
environmental harm?
1.3.5. Justification
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In the situational diagnosis we refer to in very generally about the various
forms of pollution and of environmental harm production in Peru, due to
increased investment on the exploitation of natural resources.
Activities such as mining, hydrocarbons exploitation and other forms of
industry, by their nature, represent industries that generate pollution, being
administratively regulated by the standards of environmental quality and the
maximum permissible limits, but the problem becomes that this regulation
administrative sanctions administratively illegal, this represents a very limited
administrative environmental justice against the full scope of environmental
harm.
Having no adequate and special regime from civil liability for environmental
harm, consequently generating legal uncertainty for investors, The State and
surrounding populations, the regulation of environmental harm coated with
precise and specific principles, will be useful and generate legal security for
Companies, the state and communities, aimed at preventing any environmental
damage before assuming the cost and consequences of polluting act having
made any contaminating action the courts should have proper criteria to
explain the juridical nature of environmental damage and set adequate and fair
compensation, an environmental policy of prevention, compensation and
punishment of environmental damage that the state support to fulfill its role as
a promoter of private investment and protect the interests of the nation, in the
where populations and extractive companies generate environmental conflicts.
There is a gap in the Peruvian Civil Code regarding the regulation of some
assumption from civil responsibility for environmental damage, and although
there is an environmental regulation in the General Environmental Law, this
would not be the most appropriate to the characteristics of environmental
damage and environmental principles of a system of environmental
responsibility. That's why there is a need to identify the loopholes between the
Civil Code and the General Law of the Environment to establish an adequate
systematization of environmental damage.
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In the presence of environmental damage, our investigation is justified respect
to proposals that are provided to reform systematization of environmental
damage in the General Law of the Environment and the need to implement
judicial reform concerning the guardianship of environmental rights and the
granting precautionary measures, which should be guided by the
precautionary principle to establish precautionary processes at once and
without delay, the establishment of an environmental court of national
jurisdiction and, by the Ministry of Environment, shaping the creation of
environmental Arbitration by the Court Environmental Dispute Resolution,
which shall lie with the administration of the Ministry of Environment.
1.3.6. The Significance
The significance of this thesis lies in providing a contribution doctrine and
jurisprudence, analyzing various cases by environmental damage, which do not
apply the general principles of environmental law and determined that the
institution of civil responsibility, such as regulated in Peru, you can not play
the role it must play a proper environmental justice.
It is essential that prosecutors, judges and lawyers, to assume an
environmental cause, may make the application of the principles of
environmental law: prevention, precaution, polluter pays and access to
environmental justice.
It is also important to note that both the judges and lawyers, for the most part
are unaware of the concepts and juridical notions of environmental law and
environmental damage, which can not lead to an appropriate environmental
judicial process and in the for lawyers, conduct a full sponsorship and ad-hoc
environmental causes.
The civil and procedural guardianship of individual and collective
environmental rights importance is highlighted by the current situation to the
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various environmental problems that are occurring, such as global warming. In
this sense, Peru is one of the most important areas of global biodiversity; we
will become one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change actual that
is occurring. Similarly, we must add the problem of environmental conflicts
between mining companies and rural communities, which are social and
political problems that are compounded even more so when there are
indications polluting activities. However, the state shows no front facing
attitude judicial sanction that would be imposed on polluting companies
widely and economically significant.
1.4. Hypothesis
1.4.1. Main Hypothesis
Environmental harm is a damage sui generis, because violates a set of
fundamental rights (life, health, property, freedom, etc..) Of the person, and this
is a patrimonial and non-patrimonial damage, collective and individual, being
its magnitude very harmful and complicated as to determine the real scope and
impact of all polluting activity, whether mining or industrial.
The regulation of civil responsibility for environmental damage in the Peruvian
Civil Code is almost zero, and which is in the General Environmental Law is
confusing, ambiguous and imprecise, and consequently, there is inadequate
regulation that provides effective protection from damage environment.
1.4.2. Secondary Hypothesis
a) Secondary Hypothesis 1
It is not enough regulation of legal responsibility for environmental
damage, because the Peruvian Civil Code and the General Environmental
Law contain inconsistencies, contradictions and loopholes, which would
be relevant for the formation of a special law to guarantee the protection
the environment for environmental damage.
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b) Secondary Hypothesis 2
The bases and actions of a juridical systematization of environmental
damage, it must be on a set of environmental principles such as: of the
prevention principle, the precautionary principle, the polluter pays
principle and the principle of access to environmental justice.
1.5. Type research
The research is qualitative
1.6. Research Design
The design of this research is descriptive, for this purpose, it was possible to
obtain as research sources: legislation, doctrine, domestic and foreign
jurisprudence, it was possible to make interviews with teachers and
magistrates who have had experience in civil liability and environmental law
jurisdictions both in academic and in professional practice.
Chapter II: The environment as a fundamental right. –
It addresses the relationship of the environment and its components from the
perspective of constitutional environmental law, scope issued by the
Constitutional Court and the National Environmental Policy, in the following
order: 2.1. The Right to a balanced environment and fundamental rights, 2.2.
The State and Environmental Policy 2.3. The fundamental right to an adequate
and balanced environment in the Constitution, 2.3.1. Basic right and duty,
2.3.2. Right to life, 2.3.3. Right to health, 2.3.4. Right to property, 2.4. The State
and Natural Resources in the Constitution, 2.5. Environment and economic
development
Chapter III: Civil responsibility and environmental damage. –
This chapter examines the institutions of the Peruvian Civil Code and seeks to
identify the form of protection that could be provided in environmental
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guardianship. It allows to analyze the legal nature of environmental damage
and its unique characteristics compared to other damage, a broad analysis of
the General Environmental Law, exemption from responsibility and functions
of environmental civil responsibility, being the order as follows: 3.1. Abuse of
law 3.1.1. Abuse of property right, 3.2. The environmental civil responsibility
subjective, 3.3. The environmental civil responsibility objective 3.4. Intolerable
damage, 3.5. Elements of environmental responsibility, 3.5.1. The
wrongfulness or unlawfulness, 3.5.2. Environmental damage, 3.5.3. Causation,
3.5.4. Attribution factor, 3.6. Environmental damage, 3.6.1. Definition of
environmental damage, 3.6.2. Damage to the person, 3.6.3. Damage to the
conceived, 3.6.4. Moral damage, 3.6.5. Environmental damage patrimonial 3.7.
The Environmental Damage from the Economic Analysis of Law, 3.8. The
valuation of environmental damage, 3.9. Characteristics of environmental
damage, 3.9.1. Uncertainty, 3.9.2. Relevance and scope of environmental
damage, 3.9.3. Diffuse and expansive, 3.9.4. Concentrate Damage and damage
spread, 3.9.5. Direct and indirect harm, 3.9.6. Joint and several liability
environmental 3.10. Environmental responsibility on the General
Environmental Law, 3.11. Dual Regime environmental civil responsibility in
the General Environmental Law, 3.11.1. The strict environmental liability,
3.11.2. Environmental responsibility subjective, 3.12. Defenses of
environmental responsibility, 3.13. Compensation, 3.14. The Burden of Proof
3.15. The Polluter Pays Principle, 3.16. The precautionary principle, 3.17. The
principle of environmental responsibility, 3.18. The precautionary principle in
environmental responsibility, 3.19. The principle of reparations and 3.20.
Functions of the environmental civil responsibility
Chapter IV: Principles of environmental liability system in the General
Environmental Law. -
The Act incorporates environmental principles into our law, international
environmental law, these principles discussed extensively and thoroughly, the
points of principle study: 4.1. Basic right and duty, 4.2. Right of access to
environmental justice 4.3.The prevention principle 4.4. The precautionary
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principle, 4.4.1. The precautionary principle and its relationship with risk, 4.5.
The principle of cost internalization or polluter pays, 4.6. The repair,
restoration and compensation and 4.7. Considerations for environmental
compensation.
Chapter V: Environmental justice and procedural protection of
environmental rights. -
This chapter performs the analysis of the application of the principle of
environmental justice in Peru, with reference to judgments of the
Constitutional Court, the Supreme Court and the European Courts, deserves a
major analysis Chevron v. Ecuador Case, another important point expresses
the requirements, legitimacy, procedural limitations and implications of
actions in protection of environmental rights protection from environmental
damage.
The environmental and regulatory arbitrage is raised as proposed mechanism
of settlement of environmental disputes, the points of this chapter are: 5.1.
Relevant Judgments of the Constitutional Court on environmental issues, 5.2.
The environmental protection, 5.2.1. Appeal for legal protection of
environment, 5.3. The Compliance Process La Oroya Case - Doerun, 5.3.1. La
Oroya in the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, 5.4. Process
Unconstitutional - Municipality of Miraflores, 5.5. Civil processes and problems
in accessing environmental judicial protection, 5.6. Procedural requirements
of procedural protection of environmental rights, 5.6.1. Legitimacy, 5.6.2.
Prescription of action 5.6.3. The claim for environmental damage, 5.6.4.
Precautionary Measures, 5.6.5. The Public Environmental protection, 5.6.6.
The private environmental protection, 5.6.7. Environmental rights diffuse
5.6.8. Pollution and the First Plenary Choropampa Casatorio, 5.7.
Environmental Arbitration, 5.7.1. Disputes submitted to arbitral tribunal's
jurisdiction, 5.7.2. Limits the award, 5.8. Environmental justice in Peru, 5.9.
International Precedents Guardianship of environmental rights, 5.9.1. The
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Case of López Ostra c / Spain, 5.9.2. Powell and Rayner case vs. UK 5.9.3. The
case Guerra and others vs Italy, 5.9.4. Ecuador vs. Chevron Case
Chapter VI: Rules and Actions for a legal systematization of
environmental damage
6.1. The Legal Nature of environmental harm
It is not possible to outline the concepts of the legal nature around
environmental damage without regard to the generation of pollution and
environmental harm, are a problem in Peru and different countries in the
international context, only by way of reference, the incident was alarming
following the catastrophic earthquake in Japan in 2011, Fujushima nuclear
plant had several radioactive leaks, causing great alarm among Japanese and
people in neighboring countries, by threats of various forms of food
contamination and impact on the people, there is no doubt that the risk of
nuclear activity, it becomes an environmental catastrophe could occur due to
the nuclear contamination, certainly the role that the state can exercise against
the policies and environmental requirements for companies, stocks aimed at
meeting state standards: safety rules, and environmental quality in nuclear
activities.
However, for more standards and mechanisms for preventing, at any time
these nuclear activities can become a nuclear catastrophe, as was the accident
at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant.
The rapid growth of industrial activities and the technology used by humans,
represent the potential to generate several environmental damage through the
use of objects or risky activities not carried out with due diligence application
or simply for a fortuitous event or force larger acts could generate pollutants
by Corporations or Individuals interchangeably, our current society and its
constant technological and industrial progress always represent latent
possibilities of generating acts of pollution that cause environmental damage.
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Environmental harm is a damage sui generis, because violates a set of
fundamental rights (life, morals, health, property, freedom, etc..) Of the person,
and this is a patrimonial and non-patrimonial damage, collective and
individual, meeting their magnitude very harmful and complicated as to
determine the real scope and impact of all polluting activity, whether mining
or industrial.
The doctrine, jurisprudence and Peruvian law have failed in all this time to
provide an accurate and relevant definition true extent of environmental
damage, being generated by economic growth and lack of appropriate
environmental management mechanisms where the state has little presence
lack of expertise and political will to carry out its functions to inspection and
penalty.
Renowned civilists teachers as Fernando de Trazegnies, Alfredo Bullard and
Leysser Leon in interviews conducted in gathering information about our
thesis, agree that the legislature of the Civil Code of 1984not designed a civil
protection legal context regarding the protection of environmental damage
because only provides a set of rules and general principles concerning the
contractual responsibility
Thus environmental damage represents a different damage from traditional
civil harm which is part of civil liability system, being, therefore, that
environmental damage is covered with unique and distinct to patrimonial
damage, non-material damage, moral damage, damage to the person.
The environmental damage has its own characteristics and unique, being the
following:
a) Numerous victims. – The occurrence of a polluting activity and
consequently the generation of environmental damage, is a large-
scale pollution brings countless victims, pollution from a factory
against a neighborhood produce pollution to neighbors,
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pedestrians and in general as long as the polluting activity could
not count the number of victims.
This difficulty could be advantageous to the subject pollutant when
the difficulty exist to identify and group the number of victims, the
defendant may invoke the strategy of prescription and limitation of
actions process, however in the opinion of some litigators could
represent a risk against Presumed polluting agent, because any
«new victim» could apply to join the proceedings as civil or third
co-parties, in short the difficulty of identifying victims is generated
difficulty for plaintiffs, defendants and the State.
b) Cross-border damage incalculable geographically. –
Environmental damage crosses geographical boundaries and
borders, often do not matter jurisdiction or state that was
generated first and more alarming, the extension that
environmental damage occurs to other countries and its extension
to many populations and ecosystems.
Being an international environmental damage and which extend
throughout the territory of a determined country.
A clear example that environmental damage can cross borders,
located on the Danube River pollution, which has a length of 2,870
km, from Germany to the black sea, through 19 countries
welcoming almost 83 million inhabitants.
The Danube river has a different pollution because it became
turbid the drainage sewage, pesticides and chemicals without
treatment.
But, besides pollution, the Danube is also being affected by the
rapid growth of river transport and European Union authorities
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consider that the flow of boats on the river to double in the next
10 years.
Among other polluted rivers, we have the River Plate between
Argentina and Uruguay and the Indus River, between Afghanistan
and Pakistan.
c) Difficulty of economic quantification. – The polluter - payer is
designed so that the Judge can impose a fair and just financial
compensation for the victim (s) of environmental damage, but this
function to grant an amount of compensation becomes no doubt
in a complicated and scientific, because the magistrate with the
current justice system lacks of legal instruments (law, doctrine)
and technical (jurisdictional and specialized experts servers) that
allow the judicial grant a fair compensation amount equitable.
The current system of judicial compensation, it is disappointing,
because the amounts awarded as compensation for damage to life
and health are negligible amounts and do not represent a fair
economic compensation, in damages against the victim does not
take into account the real economic status of the agent that caused
the damage against his victim.
Quantifying the economic value of pollution a river or extinction
of species of fauna and flora could represent the quantification of
incalculable sums.
Perhaps it is more convenient to perform a mathematical exercise
to quantify the damage to life, health, property or patrimonial
rights result of a polluting activity that generated environmental
damage while considering certain criteria such as pressure media
social, political, economic and cultural, the Judge would have
when setting in a judgment a sum for damages.
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If you accomplish make an economic quantification of
environmental damage this figure would be unfair for the victims,
because consider that the damage is greater than the amount set
by the Judge and by the defendant because the amount fixed by
the court is excessive and unrelated to the damage caused, and
that the sum would become the economic and business
bankruptcy of an economic agent.
The environmental compensation amount awarded by the "Ad
Quo will always be challenged via appeal judgment, incurring a
greater difficulty for the Court which entrusted a reassessment of
the criteria for fixing the amount of environmental compensation
established by the Ad quo, an Arbitral Tribunal could not be left
out of this difficulty facing the economic quantification of
environmental damage.
d) Violation of patrimonial and non-patrimonial rights. - One
difference of environmental damage compared to traditional civil
damage is framed regarding the environmental damage violates
patrimonial rights: the right of ownership and economic
opportunities frustration polluting activities, for example: the
termination or non-renewal of leases, sale of property at
extremely low due to the contamination zone is located, the lower
production of crops to be irrigated with contaminated water or
fishing impediment making pollution of river and sea waters, and
these assumptions under which victims identify the
environmental damage as the cause of the loss or diminution of its
assets or the frustration of economic gain, it is necessary to the
proper and basic damages theory and loss of earnings, up forms
invoke relevant for fair and just compensation for the generation
of economic environmental damage.
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The damages to life and health, although are fundamental rights
protected by the Constitution and the Civil Code, these damages at
the same time generate economic prejudice against the estate of
the victim (s), a person who contracts fumes result of cancer or
lung disease, that peasant or native using contaminated water for
their daily activities (feeding and grooming), necessarily solve
shall incur into payments for doctor visits, medicines and various
health services, generating an expenditure of funds that were not
necessary to assume, otherwise are harmed by a polluting activity,
but for survival and quality of life the victim (s) or the state shall
bear these expenses, without question the rights of life and health
are the cornerstones to avoid any environmental damage human
cost.
Environmental rights non-property are comprised of moral
damage caused to the victim because living in contaminated areas
or having a disease (caused by contamination) bring suffering or
feeling of distress before activity contaminant not suffered, the
moral damage has two dimensions individual moral damage and
collective moral damage.
Cultural Environmental damage7 could be expressed as the feeling
of suffering from a rural or urban community because the
enjoyment of a public environmental good (air quality, river,
landscape, park, forest) ceased to exist or are eyewitnesses to the
daily deterioration of collective environmental good which
generates a collective cultural and environmental damage, this
damage was expressed in the judgment of the Chevron case,
7 The Sentence highlights the environmental damage culture, derived from the impact suffered by indigenous peoples can be considered as environmental damage, is the cultural damage caused by forced displacement due primarily to the impact suffered by us and by land and declining species served for traditional hunting and fishing, which has forced them to change their habits.
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regarding the cultural damage suffered by indigenous peoples of
the Amazon of Ecuador in the various camps and facilities
Industry Chevron Oil Company.
e) Contamination of public and private property. – The public
and private property are regulated by special laws and requires
no for sake of completeness, it is noteworthy that the act
contaminant environmental damage does not discriminate
between a public good (river, forest) or private property, a
polluting activity causes damage to private property a legal or
natural person and at the same time causes damage to the
property of the state.
It is necessary to emphasize that it should fulfill the
environmental administrative law through the implementation of
various environmental management systems and permanent
control, these actions frame the possibility of environmental
damage is not generated by mining and industrial activities that
run authorizations, permits, licenses, concessions from relevant
ministries, if the Environment Ministry fulfills this role to monitor
and punish cases could reduce pollution by companies duly
authorized to perform mining and industrial activities and
reducing them of pollution on public and private property would
be essential to avoid creating environmental damage public and
private property.
f) The burden of proof. – The Burden of proof of environmental
damage is a major legal and scientific difficulty regarding the
measurement of the degree of contamination.
The burden of proof is complex and difficult because of the
number of victims, subject pollutants, experts and its diffuse
22
nature; an excellent testimony of proof of environmental damage
is in our analysis of the decision in Chevron vs. Ecuador.
The activities that generate pollutants environmental damage are
predominantly of collective and private interest, not only in the
present, but rather in the future and involves natural people
unborn, unlike the civil damage usually affects individuals or their
property and rarely extend across generations.
Even though following the principles outlined in these
international legal instruments, several countries have tried to
establish responsibility systems for environmental damage in the
strict sense, there are few laws that distinguish between damage
repair, property and individual damage to the environment (pure
environmental damage)8.
The proof of the act of environmental damage represents a
difficulty when identifying the impairment or violation of
environmental rights with respect to property rights, non
patrimonial, individual and collective, against a polluting activity,
become in reducing the vital fitness man from the inner sphere
(penalties, suffering, anguish) or health and life expectancy.
The proof of the causal relationship between the activity
performed by one person and the injury to another is as already
indicated, one of the biggest difficulties presented in the practice
of responsibility issues. In theory the concept is very simple: it is
to determine the existence of a link between two realities, so that
it can be said that (damage) is a consequence of the other
(activity).
8 Gonzales Márquez, José Juan (2002, pp. 118-120). La responsabilidad por el daño ambiental en México. México D.F.: Autónoma Metropolitana University.
23
The difficulty in obtaining financial and professional resources
that can route to carry out checks, represent limits when
identifying the sources and pollutants subject, these experts' fees
are almost always out of reach of the victims of environmental
damage and the involvement of various skills can turn into
countless errands expert debates and oppositions.
We share the view arrived by the European Union regarding the
burden of proof "In environmental cases can be very difficult for a
plaintiff and easier for a defendant to establish facts concerning
the existence (or absence) of a relationship cause and effect of an
act of the defendant and the damage. For this reason various
national environmental liability regimes have provisions designed
to reduce the burden of proof in favor of the plaintiff with regard
to the demonstration of fault or causation. The Community regime
could also contain one of these forms of reduction of the burden of
the traditional proof, whose specific definition would at a later
stage. "9
It is essential to note that the presence of a clear environmental
damage the burden of proof may be reversed and be the pollutant
who should certify that they did not made the polluting activity or
that its activity is regulated within the administrative
environmental limits, notwithstanding that all polluting activity
causes harm and therefore environmental responsibility.
It is essential to note that the presence of a clear environmental
damage the burden of proof may be invested and be the pollutant
agent who would have to certify that they made the polluting
activity or that its activity is regulated within the "limits
administrative environment, without prejudice to any damages
9 European Commission (2000, p. 19) White Paper on Environmental Liability. Luxembourg.
24
polluting activity and thus generates environmental
responsibility.
6.2. Environmental regulations because of the production of
environmental damage
The Peruvian Civil Code does not regulate under any legal institution,
production and protection from environmental damage. This creates a
problem for the law enforcement agents, lacking a civil standard that
provides an adequate guardianship of environmental damage. While
the General Environmental Law incorporates environmental
responsibility, but confusingly regulated, flawed and wrong, based on
subjective and objective system of the general theory of responsibility.
In this sense Ferrando, says "Although it is regrettable to admit, before
the year 2005, the liability for environmental damage was not
legislated special rules and there was uncertainty when performing a
civil guardianship, with the exception of some isolated legal rules
concerning the civil responsibility under some environmental court
very specific activity, there was in Peru a legal framework that
integrates in a systematic and orderly principles that form, nor the
mechanisms and systems to address it. "10
The regulation of civil responsibility for environmental damage in the
Peruvian Civil Code is almost nonexistent, and that is in the General
Environmental Law is confusing, ambiguous and imprecise, and
consequently, there is inadequate regulation that provides effective
protection from damage environment. The General Environmental Law,
in providing a unified regime subjective and objective regime of
environmental civil responsibility, presents some contradictions and
10 Ferrando, Enrique (agosto 2000, pp. 10 y ss.). La responsabilidad ambiental por daño ambiental en el Perú, reflexión y debate. Lima: Peruvian Society for Environmental Law.
25
inaccuracies, and these points that arrive our analysis, critique and
proposal.
Our civil liability system today, you have to respond to new needs. Civil
liability is a mechanism to compensate for the damage caused, i.e.
serves a remedial purpose or damages, but must also be designed to
prevent the production of further damage and eradicate completely.
This is consistent with the juridical nature of environmental damage, in
essence, is preventive in nature rather than compensable. Annotate,
then, that environmental damage is always irreparable damage and
there is necessity for the precautionary principle should be
incorporated into the legal system as a form of immediate halt against
the threat of environmental damage or paralysis.
6.3. The proper systematization of environmental damage
We believe that the regulation of production for environmental damage
in the Peruvian legal system is not enough, because one of the functions
of environmental responsibility should be based on prevention,
application of the precautionary principle and appropriate criteria for
fixing compensation under the polluter-pays principle.
If, in the presence of special laws that regulate environmental damage
are presented serious problems of systematization, is much more
concerned about the uncertainty that the courts have from legal
process which seeks to compensate for environmental damage, either
through lack of knowledge of nature legal environmental damage or
almost no case law established by the courts of Peru, without
mentioning the procedural issues regarding standing to work, surveys,
burden of proof and the pressing need to incorporate new
environmental principles environmental process actors requires
environmental specialists and other support professionals.
26
No less important is specified that without regulation, the chapter on
environmental responsibility of the General Law of the Environment,
provides an overview of legal paralysis, which creates legal uncertainty
environment.
The bases and actions of a legal systematization of environmental
damage, it must be on a set of environmental principles such as: the
precautionary principle, the precautionary principle, the polluter pays
principle and the principle of access to environmental justice.
The precautionary principle becomes evident importance for its
application in administrative and judicial proceedings, at times that can
punish or stop time the polluting activities.
For these reasons we affirm that adequate systematization of
environmental damage should be structured based on four principles:
i. Prevention;
ii. Precautionary;
iii. Polluter-pays;
iv. Access to environmental justice.
These environmental principles, which aim to provide adequate legal
systematization of environmental damage, are not regulated in the Civil
Code.
More remarkable is the lack of procedural rules aimed at immediate
stoppage of environmental damage, in reference to the precautionary
measures regarding standing and wide to bring actions, which, you
understand many judges, is just individual, restricting to this criterion
extensive procedural legitimacy wrong, that environmental is
27
established by reference to the principle of access to environmental
justice.
Among the procedural actions must implement efficient and economic
mechanisms that respond to the specialty of environmental damage,
such as:
a) Precautionary measures ex officio. – Considering that
environmental damage has characteristics different from
traditional environmental damage is necessary to be able to
shield the process of enforcing environmental rights through
trade Precautionary Measures which must be filed with the
presence of environmental damage diffuse and has the features
only urgent regarding that inevitably effected an act excessively
harmful pollutant or contaminant activity impair environmental
havoc diffuse rights, this prerogative could have the judge
should be used in extreme cases of inevitable contamination or
the urgency of stopping the polluting activity.
b) National Environmental Court. – With the establishment of the
Special Prosecutor for Environmental Matters, and in order to
provide more procedural tools to Environmental Justice, it is
essential to form a national competition Environmental Court to
exercise jurisdiction of environmental processes civil, criminal
and administrative litigation, it is essential that specialized
judges and judicial officers to pay court work designed to
provide effective judicial protection of environmental rights and
all forms of environmental pollution that causes damage,
whether caused by a natural or legal person as of private and
public law.
c) Exemption from court fees. - It is necessary to exempt from
court fees to plaintiffs or victims of pollution, this need will be
28
much notary in those rural and native communities, where
economic resources to afford to pay legal fees simply are
impossible to assume, there should be an exemption procedure
legal fees those natural or legal persons (NGOs and / or
association) that have the financial resources and verify the
actual state of poverty, which would be granting access to justice
environment.
d) Environmental Surveys. – According to our statement the
burden of proof on the occurrence of environmental damage is
undoubtedly the fundamental problem for the system of
environmental responsibility, because the pollution event is
complexity with respect to the location of the generating sources
of pollution and professionals, technicians and experts who
would be involved to cast their expert opinion regarding the
nuances and complexities of environmental damage, which has
different nuances.
An expert (s) in an environmental process necessarily count on
the participation of engineers (environmental, metallurgical, oil
and civilian) medical (specialized in various areas such as
Oncology), accountants, psychologists and economists, which
according to its expert reports should determine whether there
was environmental damage patrimonial nature, not wealth,
health damage, moral damage and being the most important role
of causality search on the subject to determine whether
contaminant was in the possibility of avoiding the polluting
activity or whether it made contaminant action within the limits
permitted by environmental regulations.
Expert reports could be used to determine the approximation of
the defense of environmental responsibility in the event that the
pollutant can assume its defense at application of theory
29
fortuitous event or force majeure, these expertises could give an
approximation of the Judicial if you really could have been
prevented or taken urgent measures to prevent environmental
damage because damage generator is who has the ability to
prevent and mitigate damage their polluting activities in haste
and anticipation as their environmental policies.
As described, the broad activity expert in the course of this
process see the proof stage will be most important,
controversial, and complicated to access the site locations, such
as industrial facilities (mining, hydrocarbons and factories),
mountaintops, many victims (medical evaluations, interviews
and testimony) in all geographic locations adestré access, due to
climatic conditions and transport pathways.
Is fundamental that a Cross Environmental Expert institution
that is formed by various specialists in different sciences and
professions that allow for a real and true extent of
environmental damage and the state to assume the payment of
these expertises in those environmental damage against diffuse
rights or in the course where the victim in a state of absolute
poverty does not have the financial resources to take on the high
costs of expertise in a process environment.
e) Participation of the Attorney of the Ministry of
Environment. – Is required to provide the Ministry of
Environment of attorneys who can bring the defense of
environmental rights diffuse in different regions of the country,
it is critical that the Environment Ministry not only to exercise
the functions of control and sanction but procedural defense of
the occurrence of environmental damage, considering that the
Procurators of Local and Regional Governments, lack of
expertise and a system of coordination with the Executive
30
branch entities that could assist with procedural defense system
to the violation of environmental damage.
f) The environmental arbitration administered. - The need to
establish mechanisms for settling environmental disputes is an
urgent need, given the constant generation of various
environmental conflicts that poses serious problems between
the main actors: the state, communities (rural, native and civil
society) and extractive companies and different industries.
A Court of Environmental Dispute Resolution could be an
administrative procedure that contributes to environmental
conflicts may have at first a rapprochement between the direct
actors of the conflict and second, that the knowledge of this
environmental conflict has the presence and participation of a
set of professionals (lawyers, engineers, doctors, psychologists
and sociologists, etc..) that would grant rules, guidelines and
directives in the negotiations regarding the implementation of
the Conciliation and Arbitration Court have the presence of
specialized arbitrators and full environmental regulations
knowledge of other sciences and professions that will allow the
issuance of the arbitration award has the rigor and expertise
through the knowledge of environmental conflict.
In a previous subchapter we refer to the limits and have the
arbitral award arbitral matters, certainly the implementation of
Environmental Administrative Arbitration necessarily have to
file a special regulation and procedural nature a very important
budget item.
6.4. Conclusions
31
a) The Peruvian Civil Code of 1984, does not present an explicit
provision for a legal institution designed to provide civil protection
from environmental damage.
b) Environmental damage is a new liability assumption, which has
features exclusively applicable legal and procedural environmental
rights.
c) The General Environmental Law presents an inadequate
systematization of environmental liability therefore becomes to be
ambiguous, imprecise and successful, generating uncertainty when
invoking and managing environmental justice.
d) The current tort system regulated by the Civil Code, the General
Environmental Law and Civil Procedure Code, have difficulties with the
presentation of evidence for environmental damage.
e) The systematization of environmental damage should be structured
in the unification of environmental principles: Prevention,
Precautionary, Repair and Sanctioning.
f) Environmental responsibility is essentially a tort.
g) The periods of limitation of actions for environmental damage must
be plus two years for personal injury - equity and diffuse damage for
ten years.
h) The current judicial system presents difficulties of access to
environmental justice to the affected people in their environmental
rights, from aspects of economic and procedural nature.
32
i) Environmental damage presents difficulties regarding the
identification of victims and economic quantification of the damage
caused to their detriment.
6.5. Proposals
a) Preparation of a Draft Law for systematizing and properly regulate
the Environmental Damage as the institutions of the Peruvian Civil
Code and environmental law institutions regulated by the General Law
of the Environment.
b) Creation of a Specialized Court on Environmental Supranational
allowing competition subjecting judges and courts specialized servers
for damage processes and environmental rights, taking into
consideration that the Special Prosecutor for Environmental Matters,
has been performing judicial work in different districts court of the
country.
b) The Formation of Environmental Dispute Tribunal and the promotion
of Environmental Administrative Arbitration as a means of resolving
environmental conflicts, which must be circumscribed within the
competence of the Ministry of Environment.
33
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