The Civil Rights Movement

Background to the Movement• During Reconstruction (post-Civil War) African-Americans were given more voting

rights. • In the South, white lawmakers attempted to roll back the gains made with a series of

segregation laws known as Jim Crow laws. These separated the races in ways that had not been dreamed of before:

– Entrances/exits to public buildings, public bathrooms, even taxicabs were separated.• One law in GA stated that baseball teams of different races could not play w/in 2 blocks of each

other.

• A law in AL made it illegal for a white & a black to play checkers or dominoes together.

• Jim Crow laws were accompanied by anti-voting laws:– Grandfather clauses– Poll taxes– Literacy tests– In 1896, 130,000 Af-Ams voted in LA. By 1904, it had dropped to 1,300

• Segregation & loss of the vote were accompanied by literature and "scientific studies" in which blacks were stereotyped and depicted as unfit for any rights at all.

– Titles of two popular books of the period make the point clearly: "The Negro: A Menace to American Civilization" and "The Negro: A Beast.”

• By 1913, lynchings were increasing & race riots were occurring all over the country.

• President Wilson even re-segregated the fed govt (a so-called Progressive & Demo)

Emergence of the Civil Rights Movement• School Segregation in South: 1896: S.C. upheld segregated schools in Plessy v.

Ferguson, ruling that as long as facilities were “separate, but equal” the Constitution was not being violated. [The truth was much different. African American children often went to schools where their books were much older than white children’s, their schools did not receive the same monies for bldg. upkeep, their buses (if they had them) were much older]

• Desegregation Fight Heats Up: Thinking about future generations, the NAACP & civil rights leaders looked for cases to bring to trial.

• 1952: NAACP atty Thurgood Marshall brought series of cases known as Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, KS to the S.C.

Argument: True equality cannot exist with forced segregation: • Brought in social scientists & psychologists who claimed• Victims feel inferior, aggressive, and/or end up martyrs (people who constantly suffer)• Privileged end up feeling guilty, hardened, and/or confused by reality & ideals of equality

• Segregation Ruled Unconstitutional:• 1954: Justice Earl Warren delivered the unanimous opinion: schools should be

desegregated- saying it created a sense of inferiority in the hearts & minds of students that may not be undone. Also said deseg. should occur with “all deliberate speed”, but allowed Southerners “to take public interest into account”- thus racial integration did not occur for years

School Desegregation• White Resistance to School Integration: • Even though the SC made it a law, maj. of whites resisted integration- called it “mongrelization”, some

saw it as communist plot!• By end of 1955, 568 local pro-seg orgs had been formed with 208K members!

• Most important groups were the KKK & White Citizens Councils- the latter succeeded in closing some schools for as long as 10 years

• Using loopholes in the SC ruling, the fed gov. stalled deseg efforts for fear of losing white voters & 100 congressmen even signed a manifesto in March, 1956 opposing deseg.

• Central High: • Orval Faubus gained national attention when he refused to integrate Little Rock schools in

1957. Prior to this, libraries, buses, & U of A had been integrated with no publicity. • Ike had to call in 1K paratroopers & put 10K National Guardsmen under fed authority before the

situation calmed- Faubus closed the city’s schools for 3 years.• Despite this, Ernest Green became 1st of the Little Rock 9 to graduate in 1958

• The Struggle Elsewhere: • B/c of the courage Eckford,Green & the LR9, James Meredith went forward with his plans to

integrate U. of Miss. in ‘62. • Despite death threats, riots (where 2 people died), & riding in bullet-ridden patrol cars,

Meredith’s enrollment began the deseg process at Ole Miss

Montgomery Bus Boycott• Rosa Parks: • 12/1/55: seamstress & NAACP secretary Parks refused to give

up her seat for a white man when asked by the bus driver. She was arrested & spent 2.5 hrs in jail while civil rights leaders hurriedly scrambled to make her bail.

• Boycott: • The M.I.A. (Montgomery Improvement Association) started the

campaign the following Monday- ¾ of bus riders were made up of Af- Ams. “Don’t ride on Monday” pamphlets were passed out in churches. – Even black men & women who hadn’t planned on boycotting ended up

doing it- b/c of # of police escorts that were going through city.• Boycott ended up lasting almost a year. Some ended up

walking 34 miles/day (17 mi/both ways).• In the end the bus co. almost went bankrupt before the SC

made them integrate.

Martin Luther King, Jr.• African American Churches Support Movement: • Boycott supported by local black churches. Since slavery, Af-Am churches were a social

& political hub for black Ams.• Af-Ams identified with many aspects of Christianity- hope for a better world than this, Jesus’

emphasis on equality, God’s grief @ hypocrisy• During the CR Movement, churches were centers for protest mtgs- 1000s occurred at

houses of black worship• Freedom songs were sung and black ministers became civil rights leaders- one of the most

prominent became 26 yr old Montgomery resident MLK

• King Rises to Prominence: With a doctorate in religious studies from B.U., King was an eloquent speaker- (defending the boycott, “If we are wrong, the Constitution… is wrong. If we are wrong, God Almighty is wrong. If we are wrong, Jesus of Nazareth was a utopian dreamer and never came down to earth. If we are wrong, justice is a lie.”)

• Elected leader of the MIA & newly formed SCLC (Southern Christian Leadership Conference)

• King’s Philosophy: King’s approach combined 2 ideologies:• Christian belief that man should respond to injustice & hatred with love (& to avoid false

optimism b/c man is inherently sinful)

• Practices of Hindu Mahatma Gandhi, nonviolent revolutionary who led millions in civil disobedience in India in 30s & 40s.

• Jesus’ teachings & Gandhi’s practices were in symmetry with each other and MLK rose to the forefront of the CR movement

The Sit-In Movement• The 1st Sit-In: • Besides MLK, numerous individuals especially students, led the struggle for civil rights.• Black youth were especially frustrated by the slow pace of the movement• Taking action into their own hands, 4 freshmen of NC’s Ag & Tech College walked into downtown

Greensboro on 2/1/60 and sat down at a Woolworth’s “whites’ only” lunch counter. They sat there all afternoon without being served and left when the store closed.

• The next morning they were joined by 19 others (black & white). By the following weekend, 400 other students were conducting sit-ins or sit-downs in stores throughout Greensboro.

• The sit-in movement took off- and campaigns sprung up in Memphis, Salem, & Raleigh.

• SNCC: • April of ’60, leaders of sit-in movement were called together to form a new group- Student

Non-violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)– Goal: demonstrate “justice permeated by love”- in other words: nonviolent disobedience

– Demonstrators trained to ignore racial slurs, having food & drink dumped on their heads, & even having flesh burned by cigarettes.

• During one sit-in in Nashville, TN, 80 demonstrators were arrested after white crowds threw lit cigarettes at them.

• Student leader Diane Nash encouraged SNCC members to stay in jail rather than support the city by paying unjust fines- 61 students chose to stay in jail

• Eventually, lunch counter operators sought deseg laws so would not lose anymore $$

The Freedom Rides• 1947: interstate buses ordered to integrate by the S.C.- many simply refuse to

comply & the exec. branch does not enforce law.

• Bus terminals, ticket counters, waiting rooms & drinking fountains were all segregated as late as 1960 in some places in the South.

• 1961: Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) tests new laws passed in the 1950s. Organized by James Farmer (CORE) & Dianne Nash (of SNCC), a group of “freedom riders” of both races are sent from Wash, DC to New Orleans, LA.

– Death threats, beatings and jail followed- riders made out wills and wrote letters to their families beforehand in case they did not come home.

– By time they made it to AL. welcomes had turned worse- a firebomb was thrown in the bus and angry mob barred the doors- until undercover FBI agent on board fired his gun in the air and the crowd dispersed.

– In MS, beatings were so bad and subsequent imprisonment of riders, caused the Kennedy admin to intervene for their safety- in effect, finally stepping in and enforcing a law that should have been enforced 14 years earlier

• Freedom rides continued throughout the early 1960s as riders braved jail sentences & violence for the cause of racial integration

Demonstrations In Birmingham1963 Demonstrations:• MLK & Rev. Fred Shuttlesworth planned massive demonstrations in Birmingham, known

for its segregationist “Commissioner of Public Safety” Eugene “Bull” Connor. • MLK hoped to provoke serious attacks from Connor so fed govt would have to intervene-

& thus support c.r. workers.• Demonstrations began on 4/3/63 w/ sit-ins @ lunch counters & later w/ a march on City Hall-in the 1 st 8 days, 150 CR workers

arrested. The govt ignored the situation. King called for more marchers. On Good Friday, King was arrested, JFK called MLK’s wife to offer his moral (if not actual) support for situation

Letter from a Birmingham Jail:• In jail, MLK wrote supporters encouraging them to keep up fight, @ same time criticizing

Christians who said he should be patient saying: Worse to say wait than to be member of the KKK

The Children’s Marches: • As 100s of protestors filled streets of B-ham, a new group took to the streets-children. • On 5/2/63, 50 teens marched 2x2 singing “We Shall Overcome” & did not leave even when police herded them into paddy

wagons. Over 600 young people went to jail 1st day, including rows of elementary kids. • The kids filled the jail cells (which was the strategy) • 2nd day Bull Connor ordered firefighters to hit students with high pressure fire hoses. When they cont/d to sing while being

sprayed despite the force, Connor ordered officers to hit them w/ “monitor guns” (water guns that could strip bark off trees from 100 ft away). Then police dogs were set loose on the children. All caught on television.

• Ultimately, city officials & businesses agreed to integrate public restrooms, lunch counters & a biracial committee was formed to examine Af-Am affairs in the city.

16th St. Baptist Church Bombing-

• Tragically, violence cont’d to plague B-ham. Months after deseg, KKK member planted a bomb in the basement of a church and it exploded at the end of a Sunday school service killing 4 girls who were in the basement restroom. Many others were injured & hospitalized.

• The bombing sparked violent protests throughout the city- in response, another black man was shot and killed by a white Eagle scout & another was shot in the back by a white police officer.

The ’63 March on WashingtonPreparing for the March• Besides organizing protests, SCLC, SNCC, NAACP, & CORE

pressured the Kennedy admin to support civil rights more. JFK went on television after Birmingham to pronounce racism as a moral evil.

• June, ’63: he submitted a civil rights bill to Congress

March on D.C.• Despite rivalry, march was a great success, over 250,000 attended.• SNCC bussed in rural blacks MS & GA.• John Lewis gave an impassioned speech outlining black hardships

MLK’s Dream• Most positive & memorable speech came from King.

– Outlined his goals & issued a warning to those who sought to keep civil rights from Af-Ams.

The C R Act of ’64- • Few months after the march movement workers dreams were shattered

when JFK was assassinated, but LBJ carried on the dream when he quickly secured bill in Congress and signed it into law.

Voter Registration DrivesThe Fight To Gain the Vote: • Although the CR Act had been passed, many blacks still faced obstacles.

– In many Southern cities, Af-Am citizens weren’t allowed to register to vote. • In one city, a black man was arrested for disturbing the peace after being beaten by whites for

attempting to vote– Even if black citizens gained a registration card, they still faced poll tests & taxes.

• In some cases, they failed for not dotting “i” s or crossing “t” s

Freedom Summer• To increase success of voter drives, SNCC recruited almost 1K volunteers to spend

summer of ’64 in Southern cities & towns. • “Freedom Summer” (as it became known) volunteers went door-to-door & held classes on

how to fill out registration forms and answer questions.– Freedom Summer was highly dangerous- 3 men: James Chaney, Andrew Goodman, & Michael

Schwerner were murdered and buried in an earthen dam (by police & KKK members)– Many others beaten, jailed or harassed, but results spoke for themselves- Fannie Lou Hamer, a F.S.

leader registered 63K new voters in the new Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP), despite being repeatedly beaten in prison.

– The MFDP was created to give black voters an effective political voice and refused to compromise w/ Democratic leaders & their empty political promises.

Selma 2 Montgomery• Early ‘65, c.r. workers focused on Selma, AL, 1 of hardest places to register voters- sheriff (Jim Clark) was

openly hostile to civil rights workers- of 15K eligible voters, only 300 had.• After a failed march from Selma to Montgomery (capital of AL) on 3/7/65 resulted in troopers

beating & gassing the marchers (all on t.v.), 1000s came to Selma to support the movement.• “Bloody Sunday” was followed by “Turnaround Tuesday” when MLK was forced to abandon the march due to a

fed court order.• Finally, with fed protection from the FBI & Nat. Guard, the marchers made the 5 day trek on 3/21• Results: 5 months after the march- LBJ signed the Voting Rights Act of ’65.

Malcolm X & the NOI• Throughout the 50’s & early 60s, most c.r. leaders advocated non-violent protest &

cooperation w/ white supporters in seeking legis. ensuring c.r. for Af-Ams.

• By mid-60s, many blacks frustrated w/ lack of progress & self-interest of pols., church leaders, & other c.r. leaders.

• Some found an alternative form of leadership in Malcolm X & the NOI.– Born M Little, his father killed by KKK in Omaha, NE. His mother was institutionalized as a result. – Malcolm turned to life of crime- later converted to Nation of Islam in prison- b/c of moral codes & message of self-worth.

– He dropped “Little” and took X as his new last name. (Why?)

• According to Elijah Muhammad, NOI’s goals: freedom, justice, & equal opp for black people; while ending police brutality, & legal discrimination.

– Encouraged black ownership of business, & control of ed, prop, & marriage.– Malcolm X became the NOI’s chief spokesman- promoting the goal of “Black

Nationalism”- a movement of racial pride & separatism.• He ridiculed MLK’s optimism- he said that instead of a “dream”, he saw “an American nightmare”

– Besides ownership of black business & creation of black pol parties, NOI & other black nats supported the use of violence as self-defense against white attacks.

– Malcolm X’s speeches drew b/t 100K & 200K supporters to the NOI.

• Eventually, he & Muhammad clashed & X split from the NOI. He went on a pilgrimage to Mecca- came back a changed man: now willing to work w/ whites.

– Started his own Org. for Afro-American Unity (OAAU)

• However, his break with the NOI & subsequent criticism, resulted in his assassination on 2/21/65 by 3 NOI members.

Urban Race Riots• By mid-60s, many northern-city residents felt that sit-ins & marches in the

South had resulted in little change for themselves- especially economically• 64-67: a series of violent protests (58 different cities) occurred b/t Af-Ams &

police as frustrations reached a breaking point for many.– 1st large-scale riot broke out in Watts, a ghetto neighborhood of LA- when a minor

traffic violation resulted in 6 days of looting, burning, & violence

– It was followed by riots in Detroit, San Fran, Harlem, & Cleveland- w/i 2 yrs 143 people had been killed & over 4500 injured- vast majority being Af-Ams at the hands of police, NG, & army soldiers

– The worse occurred in Detroit where a riot resulted in the city burning 7 days & 43 people dying.

• LBJ created a commission to investigate causes- Kerner Commission found white racism (esp. on part of police) that was to blame for riots. – It found no evidence that black nationalists were organizing the riots.

– It also recommended financial relief for urban blacks- but offered no solutions to the cause of the problem- white racism.

• Many lost confidence in the govt’s ability to improve race relations.• When MLK was assassinated in 1968 as he organized a massive Poor

People’s Campaign on Wash, DC, violence erupted in 125 cities

A Shift to Radicalism• Late 60s: growing frustration w/ the lack of progress that was occurring w/

the use of non-violent protest, many urban blacks turned to more militant approaches to obtaining their goals

– Focus: Separation, rather than integration- message of Malcolm X (& Garvey before him).• In a July speech in 1966, Stokely Carmichael (a SNCC leader) turned from

his org’s non-violent protest policy when he said: “We been saying freedom for years and we ain’t got nothin’. What we gonna start sayin now is “black power!”

– Overnight, “Black Power” became a rallying cry for militant blacks who agreed with Carmichael’s ideas.

• Rather than seeking integration- new groups sought justice, econ. power, & Af-Am representation in pol. parties, govt, & law enforcement

• Perhaps most prominent of the new militant groups were the Black Panthers- – Founded by Bobby Seale & Huey Newton, this Oakland, CA group’s goals also

included “policing the police.”- they armed themselves for self-defense and followed police in groups to insure they did not harass other black citizens.

• Their 10 Point program outlined ways for gaining justice & better education for Af-Ams.

• The govt found them threatening & the FBI instituted COINTELPRO to secretly investigate & ultimately discredit them- they published cartoons & editorials that, combined with the BPs militant tactics, turned public opinion against them and they fell apart as an effective pol. party

The End!

LEGACY OF THE MOVEMENT

• Although incidents of white/black violence cont’s in prisons, public arenas, & college campuses- they declined significantly in the 1970s.

• CR activists focused on integrating black students into upper-class white schools.

• By ’74, 75% of all black students in the South were in integrated schools• Black students achievemtns grew• College campuses began offering black studies courses & majors• However, prison, poverty, and fractured families continue to plague the Af-

Am community even today as a wide discrepancy exists b/t whites & blacks when it comes to death row inmates & prison sentences.

• Similarly, economic segregation has often replaced legal seg- as whites pulled out of cities and retreated to the suburbs where house prices & taxes kept many inner-city families from moving.