the cold war limits of superpower: 1969-1980. a new decade student protests july ’69- we reach...
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The Cold WarLimits of Superpower: 1969-1980
A New Decade Student protests
July ’69- We reach the moon! NASA success
Watergate
Slow economy
Fall of SV to communists
High inflation
Into the 70s Liberation movements of 60s swing back towards
conservatism in early 70s Nixon/Agnew success in ‘68, Wallace rise as political force signal
emergence of SILENT MAJORITY
White, working-class, middle-class want to regain control of PERMISSIVE society.
Continued disagreement on Vietnam War
Nixon and Vietnam
50%+ of US troops in Vietnam
Nixon + Henry Kissinger (Nat’l Security Adv.) = new plan for “peace with honor”
3 areas of focus: Paris peace talks:
US demand NV withdrawal, recognition of US backed SV gov. deadlock secret meetings b/t Kissinger & NV
Defuse domestic unrest
Via “Vietnamization”- turn combat missions over to SV units, reduce US ground forces, $/weapons/training to SV
(‘69- 560k, ‘73- 50k)
Expansion of air war effort
Pressure NV to come to terms
March 18, ‘69- Operation Menu- 14 months of bombing Cambodia
SECRET- not known by Congress until ‘70
Division at Home Slow withdrawal of military low morale, reputation of troops
“No one wants to be the last grunt to die in this lousy war.”
“fragging” = troops vs. officers (fragmentation grenades)
Drug abuse- 4x more hospitalized for overdose than combat wounds (’71)
Leaked reports of atrocities My Lai, Pentagon Papers
Antiwar Opposition By ‘70- Reaction to Nixon’s war effort
My Lai massacre, ‘68 (Army Lt. William Calley, 200 Vietnamese civilians)
College wide protests , violence/shooting (Kent State- 4 dead, Jackson State- 2 dead)
Pressure from activists, escalation in reaction repeal of Gulf of Tonkin Resolution
1971- US learn about slaughter of women/children by US in Vietnam (‘68), antiwar sentiment from NYT, revelation of “Pentagon papers” with history of mistakes/deceptions of gov. in dealing w/ Vietnam (released by Daniel Ellsbert, DOD) ‘64 on- plans for expansion of war effort, US entry (LBJ)
From War to Peace. . . Talks Tactical success in Cambodia
SV troops struggle to replace US forces (defeats ‘71-’72, disorganized, poorly led) reliance on US air power
By ‘72- Kissinger (SOS, ‘73) + NV foreign minister on cease-fire Agreement drops removal of ALL NV troops from SV
Summer ‘72- peace at hand. . . but SV won’t compromise
B-52 bombing of NV for several weeks = “Christmas bombings & jugular diplomacy”
Paris Accords- Jan. 27, ‘73 NV agreement to armistice
NV retain request for: 150k troops in S, idea of unified Vietnam
Fighting between NV/SV continues
By April 30, ‘75- Communist forces take Saigon (Ho Chi Minh City)
Shift from ‘72 was SV acceptance of terms
Why? US promise to respond “with full force” if violation of agreement
US withdraw remaining troops, receive 500+ POWs,
Cease-fire, free elections
Legacy March 29, ‘73 = last US combat troops leave Vietnam
MIA in thousands
$150 b. spent on war, 58k US death
Democracy not easily transferred to third-world nations No history of liberal values, no rep. gov.
Lack of respect for military service
Division among American society
Reaction? noninterventionist foreign policy
Détente w/ China & USSR Nixon + Kissinger play off rivalry b/t China, USSR
Diplomacy = détente call for reduction of Cold War tensions Relax, ease tension
Visit to China BOLD effort to improve relations w/ Mao, PRC
Feb., ‘72- travel to Beijing diplomatic exchanges US recognize PRC ‘79
Arms control w/ Soviets Pressure USSR to limit antiballistic missile testing (ABMs) no renewal or
expansion of arms race
Hold Strategic Arms Limitations Talks (SALT I)- agreement to “freeze” number of ballistic missiles w/ nuclear warheads
No end to arms race, step toward reducing tension, toward détente
Nixon at Home John Mitchell (A-G), H.R. Haldeman, John Ehrlichman
(advisors), Will Rogers (SOS, A-G under Ike), Kissinger (NS Adv.)
Dems = majority in Congress Compromise on legislation
New Federalism Slow growth of LBJ Great Society- $$$$$$, BIG gov.
Family Assistance Plan (welfare reform) – defeated, BUT move much of social welfare from FED to STATE
Revenue sharing (New Fed.)- Fed gov. gives $ to local govs. ($30 b.) in form of 5 year grants for local needs
New Federalism Domestic program under Nixon
To “start resources and power flowing back from Washington to the states and to the people.”
5-year revenue-sharing $30 b. of federal $ to states for use as see fit
No specific uses- gave DC too much control over how $ was spent
Want responsibility to go to states (prior to New Deal)
“New American revolution”- promotion of traditional values
Why didn’t it catch on? “hodgepodge of reactionary and progressive initiatives”
He was “liberal and conservative, generous and begrudging, cynical and idealistic. . .”
Nixon’s Courting of the South ‘68- Nixon only held 43% of popular vote = minority
president
How can a Republican majority be established? Appeal to voters who are tired of antiwar protests, black militants,
busing, excesses of youth culture
Who are these voters? The SILENT MAJORITY = Dems (southern whites, Catholic ethnics, blue-collars, suburbanites) that disagree w/ liberal swing in party
Nixon ask Fed. Courts in south to delay integration, busing; nominate 2 southerners to SC, block renewal of VRA 65 VP Spiro Agnew- verbal assaults vs. war protesters, liberal press
Success? Senate won’t confirm SC candidates, courts reject request for delay
BUT- southern white voters encouraged by efforts
The Burger Court Nixon to fill 4 open seats on SC liberal, activist Warren
Court at an end in 1969
Warren Burger (MN) = Chief Justice
2 conservatives rejected by Congress (Clement Haynsworth, G. Harold Carswell), so turn to moderates Harry Blackmun (Roe v. Wade, ‘73), Lewis Powell, William Rehnquist
Irony? The court that denies his claims to exec. Privilege- order to turn over Watergate tapes (U.S. v. Nixon, ’74)
Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Ed. (‘69)- mandated integration of MS public school
Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Ed (‘71)- school systems MUST bus students out of neighborhoods to achieve integration spread of protest into north, midwest
Etc. Milliken v. Bradley (‘74)- deseg. in Detroit by transfer of
students from inner-center to suburbs UNCONSTITUTIONAL
Regents of the University of California v. Bakke (‘78)- RESTRICTED use of college-admission quotas to achieve racial balance
Desegregation not just about justice- about group & individual rights
Legislation from a Dem. Congress 26th Amendment = vote at 18, 1971
Increase in SSA benefits (tied to inflation rate)
Increase food-stamp funding
Federal Election Campaign Act, 1971
Clean Air Act, 1970
Occupational Safety and Health Act, 1970
Economy ‘67 on = inflation, fall of stocks, unemployment up
70 brings recession- in decade, swings of inflation, economic slowdowns = STAGFLATION
Why? LBJ expenses- Great Society & Vietnam without tax increases federal
deficit, expansion of money supply, inflation
By late 60s- US goods have competition in int’l markets (from W. Germany, Japan)
Heavily dependent on cheap sources of energy (cars), much from OPEC
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (oil = leverage)
How to slow inflation? Decrease fed. Spending. . . BUT recession, unemployment
So? Keynesian style of deficit spending to protect middle-class, blue-collars
‘71- 90-day wage/price freeze to stop inflation, dollar off gold standard
By ‘72- recession over, approval of increases in SS benefits (based on COL) Good and bad? Aid to needy, budget problems
1972 Election Nixon vs. Dem. George McGovern (Senator- SD)
McGovern- very liberal, antiwar
Repub. Win majority in EVERY southern state Carried all but Mass., 60.8% pop vote
Why Nixon? FP success
George Wallace shot, paralyzed
Poor campaigning by McGovern- VP Thomas Eagleton dropped (depression), limited support (Sargent Shriver)
First time 18-20 can vote! 26 Amend. Passed in ‘71
Watergate Nixon admin. Attitude? Any means can be used to promote
nat’l security Is protecting the president from critics nat’l security?
June ‘72- men hired by Nixon’s reelection committee caught breaking into Watergate complex- offices of Dem. NHQ Attempted bugging, break-in organized by CREEP + “dirty tricks”
Wiretaps on gov. employees, reporters to stop news leaks (bombing of Cambodia) by “The Plumbers”
Broke in to office of Daniel Ellsberg (Pent. Papers leak) to get info. to discredit Ellsberg
Creation of “enemies list” = prominent Americans who oppose Nixon, Viet. War
investigations by IRS, other gov. agencies
Investigation No SOLID proof of Nixon’s involvement, orders, BUT clear involved in
COVER-UP to avoid scandal Washington Post- Bob Woodward & Carl Bernstein
Jan. ‘73- Watergate burglars sentencing info. about $, pardons by White House staff to keep quiet Ordering of CIA to call off FBI investigation into burglary = obstruction of justice
May ‘73- Senate investigation by Sam Ervin (D- SC) in TV hearings John Dean, White house lawyer, linked president to cover-up
H.R. Haldeman, John Erlichman (aids) resigned, later indicted for obstructing justice
Discovery of taping system in Oval Office struggle b/t Nixon & investigators Nixon says exec. Privilege, investigators want for proof
June ‘74- ordered to turn over by SC (18 min.?)
By ‘74- HOR hearings on impeachment began w/ three articles listed Obstruction of justice, abuse of power, contempt of Congress
Nixon feared impeachment, trial in Senate decision to RESIGN
Aug. 9, 1974- Nixon OUT, VP Gerald Ford IN
Other Issues in ‘73 War Powers Act- authorization of 3,500 secret bombings in
Cambodia (neutral) leaked public outrage Congress begins attempt to limit Pres. Powers over military
Nov. ‘73- passage of WPA- presidents must report to Congress w/in 48 hours of taking military action, Congress must approve military action that lasts more than 60 days
October War Oct. 6 starts Yom Kippur War
Syria, Egypt launch surprise attack on Israel to recover lost land from ’67
Nixon airlift $2 b. in arms to Israel, end of conflict
Price for supporting Israel? Oil embargo by OPEC (Org. of Petroleum Exporting Countries) in Oct. ‘73 Embargo to anyone supporting Israel
Through March ‘74
shortage of oil, runaway inflation on gas prices, loss of jobs in manufacturing, lower standard of living for blue-collars
Effect? Switch to more economic vehicles (smaller, fuel-efficient Japanese cars),
55 mph speed limit (save gas), approval of oil pipeline in AK
Gerald Ford
Why Ford? VP Spiro Agnew resigned in ‘73
Bribes when gov. of MD
Ford = 1st UNELECTED president
Ford’s Administration: 74-77 In first month- Ford lost much support when granted Nixon full
pardon for any crime occurred before any charges or indictment had been made
Dem. Congress look for abuses of power in exec. Branch & CIA Assassination of foreign leaders?
Economy- inflation! Recession!
No more $ approved for SV (‘74- facing attacks from NV) April, ‘75- US supported gov. in Saigon fell, Vietnam = one united nation under
NV
Genocide in Cambodia ‘75- US supported gov. in Cambodia fell to radical Comm. Group
Domino theory?
Election of 1976 Watergate looming still for Repubs.
Ford nominated for reelection over Ronald Reagan
Vs. Jimmy Carter (D- former gov. of GA) Carter carried South, 97% of black vote
Carter VICTORIOUS!
Carter’s Presidency Informal style = end of “imperial” presidency
Carried own bags, didn’t ride in limo on inaug. Day – easy for average Americans to connect to
Many in Congress saw him as outsider who depended on inexperienced advisers from GA
Foreign Policy HUMAN RIGHTS
Andrew Young = US ambassador to UN
Denounced oppression of blacks in South Africa, Zimbabwe
In LA- human rights violations end of US aid to Argentina, Chile
Panama Canal- attempt to correct inequitites New treaty negotiated in ‘78- transfer of operation and control from US to
Panama (by 2000)
A “give away” by opponents
Camp David Accords, 1978 Peace settlement b/t Egypt and Israel
Invite to Egyptian President Anwar Sadat & Israeli PM Menachem Begin
framework for peace, Egyptian recognition of Israel, Israel removal of troops
Iran Hostage Crisis ‘79- Islamic fundamentalists (Ayatollah Kohmeini) take over
shah’s dictatorship in Iran Shah- oil to West in 70s, autocratic rule, “westernization”
New regime stop oil production 2nd worldwide oil crisis
Nov. – militants seize US embassy in Teheran (50+ hostages)
Hostage crisis through 1980 April, ‘80 = failed attempt @ rescue mission (helicopters down in Iranian
desert)
Cold War Carter attempt to continue Nixon-Ford policy of détente
‘79- US ended recognition of Nat’list Chinese gov. of Taiwan Ambassadors to PRC
Signing of SALT II treaty- limit size of nuclear delivery system Treaty not ratified by Senate due to tension in Afghanistan
Dec. ‘79- Soviets invade Afghanistan = end to 10 yrs of improving relationship b/t US and Soviets US react by embargo on grain to USSR, sale of tech and boycotting 1980
Olympics in Moscow
Inflation 79-80- inflation seemingly out-of-control, slowed econ.
Growth (high interest rates, high prices)
“Taxpayers revolt” Chairman of Fed push int. rates higher (20%) in 1980
Fail- hurt auto, constr. Industry lay-offs
Middle-class hurt when pushed to higher tax bracket
Social programs indexed to inflation rate pushed to limit (deficit increases)
By ‘79, Carter prestige down “national malaise” speech- blame issues on “moral and spiritual crisis” of
Americans
Americans blame president- weak, indecisive