the controversial person
TRANSCRIPT
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Contents p.1Introduction p.2
Part1:Whatisthisthingwecallaperson p.4Introduction........................................................................p.5EtymologyandHistoryofthewordperson..................p.5Modernusageofthewordperson.................................p.11Politicalcorrectness,Languageandtheperson............p.14ConclusionofPart1............................................................p.18
Part2:Lawandtheperson p.19Introduction...................................................................... p.20Thelanguageoflaw.......................................................... p.20
Thelegal
definition
of
person.......................................
p.22
Jurisprudenceandtheperson....................................... p.23Rights,Dutiesandtheperson....................................... p.23Naturalpersonsvs.Legalpersons.................................. p.26CorporationsasLegalPersons........................................ p.27TheRightsofaPerson.................................................... p.29Apersoninthehistoryoflaw........................................ p.31IsaPersonaHumanBeinginLaw?................................ p.33
Part3:TheLawsofBritain p.36Introduction...................................................................... p.37
Thetwo
divisions
of
English
law.....................................
p.37
Commonlaw..................................... p.37Statutelaw..................................... p.39
StatutoryDefinitionofthePerson............................... p.40TheInterpretationAct1978............................................. p.41StatutoryConstructionandInterpretation................... p.48StatutoryInterpretationandTheInterpretationAct... p.51
Conclusion:IsaHumanBeingaPerson? P.55BibliographyAppendixesA,B,C
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Introduction
Wearenowlivinginarapidlychangingworld,whichseemstobemovingatanexponentialrate.Anineffableamountofchangesjustwithinthepast150yearshavecreatedadifferentworldnowtoonethatwasknownbefore. Somechangeshavebeenbeneficial,somecatastrophicandsomethingshaventchangedatall. Thisisthewaytheworldworks.Yetitisseenmoreandmorebyaneverincreasingmassofpeoplethatsomethingjustisntquiteright. Someofthesechangesaresoblatantthatnonecouldmissit,eveniftheireyeswereclosed. Ontheotherhandsomechangesaresosubtlethattheypassbeforeoureyesunnoticedliketheairwebreathe. Itisaboutoneofthesesubtlechangesonwhichthispieceofworkisgoingtofocus.
Whatisthatsubtlechangethataffectsourlivessodeeplyyetweareunawareofit?Theanswerliesinaword.
Whatwearepresentedwithbeforeusisbutonesimpleword. Thatsright;oneword.Awordsocommon,soubiquitousthatonewouldbesurprisedatthemischief,confusionanddebateithascaused. Itisawordthathasevolved,overthousandsofyears,corruptedfromitsoriginalform,undergoingatransformationthatwouldbeanalogoustoasingleseedbecomingamightyforest. Unlikemanypartsofourlanguagewhichwitherawayandareforgotteninantiquity,orothersthatenterandleaveourlanguageinbutasingle
generation,this
slippery
little
word
continues
with
us
like
achameleon
adapting
itselftoahostileenvironment.
Sowhatisthisperniciouslittlewordthathascreatedsuchpandemonium?Laughinglyitisbuttheridiculouslycommonplacewordperson. Thatsit!
Onemayevenaskthequestion,whywouldapaperneedtobewrittenonsuchaseeminglybanalandinsipidpartofourlanguage? ItmustbeoneofthemostcommonlyusedwordsintheEnglishlanguageandatthesametimethemostmisunderstood.Yetitisbecauseitisapartofourlanguage,apartwhich
affectseveryone
in
the
English
speaking
world,
that
it
is
our
duty
that
it
must
be
questioned,analysedandunderstood.
Aresurfacingofthenatureofthiswordisnowbeingcontestedinmanyareas,nonemoresothanintheareaoflaw,andifthereisoneareaoflifethattouchesthelivesofeveryonetoagreaterorlesserextent,itisthatoftheLaw.Innocentpeopleareconvictedwronglyontheuseofthisword. Itrestrictsourlivescovertlyinsomanyways,andyetweareignorantofthis. Certainpeoplein
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powerabusethisignoranceofthewordsmeaninganduseittotheiradvantagecausinghardshipanddistresstothecommonmanorwoman.
Sodoesitnotbehoveustolookmorecloselyatthisproblematiclittlepartofoureverydayspeech. Canwenowdaretoputanendtothis
bewilderment
that
affects
all
men
and
women
alike?
Can
clarity
be
achieved?
BecausewhatitcomesdowntoisonesimplequestionIsahumanbeingaperson
Itistheaimofthisworktoprovideclarificationonthisword;toelucidateitsencroachmentintosomeofthemoreimportantspheresofourlivesandwhattheupshotofthisistous,thepeople. Thiswillbeachievedbyfirstlylookingintothecommondefinition,combinedwiththeetymologyandusageofthewordperson. Thenwewilllookathowthiswordisusedintheareaoflaw,delvingintotheworldoflegalpersons,andtheideaofalegalpersonality. Inthefinalpartwewilllookmorecloselyintothelawsofthiscountryandthe
interpretationof
our
contentious
little
friend
or
foe,
for
it
has
yet
to
be
decided
whetheritisanallyortheenemy,orneitherorboth.
Alittledisclaimermustbeaddedhere. ToavoidconfusionIwillbeusingthewordmantoavoidthecommonlyusedwordperson. Therearenosexistconnotationstothis,aswhenIwriteman,Imeanman,woman,child,boy,girlandhumanbeing. Donotbeoffendedbytheusageofthewordmanitissimplyatooltoavoidanymisunderstandingandabsurdityinthiswork. Furthermorenothinginthisworkrepresentslegaladvice,itissolelyapieceofresearchonawordwhichtouchesontopicsinlaw.
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Part1
Whatisthisthingwecallaperson
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Introduction
Thesimplestwaytobeginthisenquiryistostatetheobvious. Whatistheobvious? Simplyput,weusethewordpersontorefertoaHumanBeing. Ifwelook
to
any
Standard
English
dictionary
we
see
the
primary
definition
of
person,
i.e.thefirstinthelistofdefinitions,asahumanbeing;nothingcontentiousinthis. Thisiswhatthecommonmanbelievesandistold,taught,shownandindoctrinatedintobelieving,asachild,whatapersonis.Yetthisisfromwheretheconfusionorobfuscations,whateveryouwanttocallit,arises. Fromthisperturbationalotofmisunderstandingandinjusticeisborn.AquotefromJamesMitchellsumsupthesituationquitesuccinctly:Andwhatisthispersonorpersonaofwhichwehearsomuch?MostpeoplearenowinclinedtoadopttheviewofMaxMller.Nothingcanbemoreabstract:itis
neither
male
nor
female,
neither
young
nor
old.
As
a
noun
it
is
hardly
more
than
whattobeisasaverb. InFrenchitmayevencometomeannobody;forifweaskourconciergeatParisifanyonehascalledonusduringourabsencehewillreply
Personne,monsieur!whichmeansNotasoul,sir!1
EtymologyandHistoryofthewordperson
So,now
Ithink
it
is
incumbent
on
us
to
look
to
the
origins
of
the
word
before
webegintoelaborateontheothervariousdefinitionsofthewordperson. Todothiswewilllookintotheetymologicalhistoryofthewordanditsevolution.Basically,etymologywillgiveusanaccountoftheconceptionofawordanditsoriginaluse,assometimesoldwordswerejustcompoundedtoformanewword.Thiswillbecomemoreapparentaswejourneyfurtherbackintime,andofcoursewithwordtimetravellingwemustalsotaketheepochsintoaccounthowthewordwasused.
Firstwemustrecognisethatthewordspersonandpersonaintodaysusageareintimatelyrelatedofasort,fortheyarisefromthesamemother,andarebrothers
of
akind.
It
is
documented
that
these
words
person/persona
have
their
origininLatin,whichinturnisborrowedfromtheGreekequivalent.
1SignificantEtymologybyJamesMitchell(1908),footnote,WilliamBlackwoodandSons. P.237239
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Ofcourse,allthisbeganwithintheworldoftheatreinGreecewherereligionwasthecradleofDrama.2TheGreektriadoftheirhistory,religionandculturewasrepresentedinthetheatrewiththeactorsrepresentingthevariousroles.Howevertodothisdisguiseswereneededandsobecameanintegralpartoftherelevantdepictionswere,andasHastings(1901)says:
...themostimportantpartofthedisguisewasthemask,bymeansofwhichtheactorscountenancecouldbedistinguishedatadistance,andwhichmadeitpossibleforthesamepersontoplaydifferentpartsbymakingrepeatedchanges.Thisdevicewasparticularlyaptformenwhohadtoplaythepartofwomen.3
Thusthemaskwasavitalfeatureneededfortherepresentationoftheappropriatecharacter. Butwhatimportancedoesthishavetoourinquiry?WellitistheGreekwordformaskthatisimportant. Thewordusedformaskwasprosopon.Thissimplyistranslatedaswhatisbeforetheface,prosmeaningbeforeandoponmeaningface.
NowastimepassedtheRomansslowlyadoptedthetheatreintotheirownculture,translatingmanyGreekworksintoLatin.Yetthereweredifferences,forexample,theRomansdidnotwearmasksatthegenesisoftheirtheatre,but,aftertimethewearingofmaskswasadopted. ThatwhichwasnotadoptedwastheGreekwordformask. InsteadtheRomansnamedtheirmaskpersona,whichisthecombinationoftwowords,thefirstbeingpermeaningthroughorbymeansof;andsono,whichmeanttosound.Thusthewordpersonareliterallymeantthroughsounders4. Thereasonbehindthisdefinitionwasthatbecausethesemasks,bothinGreeceandItaly,usedsomeapparatuswhichlaybehindthemask,whichhelpedchannelandaugmentthevolumeoftheactors
voice,which
was
entirely
necessary
in
an
open
amphitheatre.
Thusthewordpersonawasborn.Lateritwastobecomethemothertovariouschildren.Yet,asanoun,apersonawassimplyaphysicalmaskmadefromthinwoodorclay,madeintovariouscountenances,nothingmore,andnothingless.Ifithadstayedthatwaythenthisworkwouldnotbenecessary,neverthelessithaschangedandevolvedintomorethanwhatitusedtobe.
Sonowwehavetheoriginofthewordandwithalittlehistorytobackitup,yetwemustseewhyitcameintouseinEngland. Foritwastheromanoccupationwhich,beganin55B.C.,thatplantedtheseedforLatintomoveinto
2Thetheatre,itsdevelopmentinFranceandEngland,andahistoryofitsGreekandLatinoriginsbyCharlesHastings(1901)Duckworth&Co.P.13Ibid,.164SignificantEtymologybyJamesMitchell,1908,footnote,WilliamBlackwoodandSons. P.237239
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thelanguageofBritain. HowevertheRomanswerenottostayforeverinthelandofBritain,butasH.M.ScarthhassaidinhisworkRomanBritain.
ThemostenduringrecordofRomantimes,andthechangewroughtbyRomanconquestthroughoutthecivilisedworld,istheadoptionoftheRomanletters
of
the
alphabet,
which
have
been
used
ever
since.
5
ItwaslanguagethatwasthelegacyoftheRomanEmpire,andaswellasafewruinsandroads,butonesignificantpartofthelegacyliesinthissimplewordperson. NaturallywiththeNormanConquestandtheintroductionofFrenchintoEnglandwehaveareinforcementofanotherLatinbasedlanguageaddingtotherichnessandcomplexitiesoftheEnglishlanguageitself,alanguagethatwasintheprocessofevolving. ButasweseeinourquotefromJamesMitchellabovethewordpersonneinFrenchistranslatedasnobodyintoEnglish.
Now
we
have
two
words
in
our
language
today
person
and
persona.
It
is
clear
thesetwowordsarerelatedandfromwheretherelationshipstems.Yetitisthewordpersonathathasntstrayedfarfromitsoriginalform,butitdoesgiveusaclueastowhypersonhaschangedsomuch. Personaaswedefineittodaysimplymeansaroleorcharacterweassumeincertainsituations. Forexample,abossmustadoptapersonawhenheworks,whichcanbecompletelydifferentfromhispersonalityathome. Insuchsituationspeopleadoptthesepersonastohelpthemaccomplishsomething,orprotectthemselvesfromsomething.Apersonaissomethingweputonandtakeoffwhennecessary,aswasthecasewiththemasksinAncientGreeceandRome.
Sowe
can
see
asimple
shift
in
the
meaning
of
persona,
originally
as
mask,
to
itscurrentmeaningofaroleorcharacter;ashiftissosubtlemostpeopleinsocietyaretotallyoblivioustoit. ThisisalsososhownbythephrasedramatispersonaeandPersonanongrata,whicharestillusedtoday. Isitnoteasytoseehowthiscouldhappen?Yetwhenweturntopersonwehaveamoredifficulttimeoftrackingitschangesthroughtheages. Itisnowthatweturntotheworksoftheetymologiststoprovideclarity. Etymology,asmentionedabove,issimplythestudyofhistoricallinguisticchange,andfromtheirhardworkwecanbegintolookmoreintothehistoryoftheperson.
Firstwemustdivergesomewhatfromourthemeandlookintovariousthemes
ofetymology
that
will
provide
us
with
some
clarification.
Greenough
and
KittridgeintheirworkWordsandtheirwaysinEnglishspeech6giveussome
5RomanBritainbyH.M.Scarth,p.1786WordsandtheirwaysinEnglishspeechbyGreenoughandKittridge,(1902),MacmillanandCo.
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cluesonhowwordschangeinrelationtotheiroriginalmeaning,yetkeeptheirconnectiontotheoriginalsourceofmeaning. Oneoftheconceptstheyuseiscalledradiation,whichmeansatthecoreistheoriginalmeaningofthewordanditssubsequentwordsareoffshoots,likeraysfromthesun. Theyareallconnectedtothesourceyettheyarenotthesource.Agoodexampleofthisthat
Greenoughand
Kittridge
give
of
this
is
the
word
power.
The
word
originally
comesfromtheLatinpotere,whichmeanstobeable,andofcourseinmodernItalianthesamewordisstillused. FromthistheoldFrenchwordpouer(themodernFrenchispouvoir)fromwhichourwordpowercomes,probablyfromwhenOldFrenchbecameanimportantlanguageintheBritishIsles. OnecanlooktootherLatinbasedlanguagesandseethesimilarities,forexampleinSpanishpoderistheequivalentoftheEnglishtobeableorcaninitsverbformbutasanounitmeanspower.SoforexampletheSpanishsentencepodertenerelpoderliterallymeanstobeabletohavethepower. Nowallderivationsofthewordpowerallcomefromthesourcemeaning,whichistobeabletodo
something
or
have
the
capacity
to
do
something.
This
is
how
radiation
of
a
word
works.
ThenextclueGreenoughandKittridgegiveustohowpersonhaschangedis,intheirwords,thus
thenextprocessthatwehavetostudy,inwhichawordmovesgraduallyawayfromitsfirstmeaningbysuccessivestepsofalternatespecializationandgeneralizationuntil,inmanycases,thereisnotashadowofconnectionbetweenthesensethatisfinallydevelopedandthatwhichthetermboreattheoutset.7
Totryandputthisinthesimplestofterms,wehaveawordwithameaningwhichwewillcall(A)whichismodifiedbyaslightlydifferentusage,whichweshallcall(B). Thus,
awordmaygetanewmeaningbytheadditionofamodifyingidea(expressedorimplied)totheoldone.8
Thisiswherecanbegintoseehowpersonhaschanged,withasuccessivesetofdifferentusages. GreenoughandKittridgeshowhowpersonstartedoffbymeaningamaskuntilitcametomeanaparson(amemberoftheclergy),by
usingthis
method
of
successive
steps
of
usage.
They
provide
an
enlightening
methodofshowingthesteps,whicharelaidoutbelow.
7WordsandtheirwaysinEnglishspeechbyGreenoughandKittridge,(1902),MacmillanandCo,p.2598Ibid,p.265
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1. A Amask2. A+B characterindicatedbymask3. B characterorrolein(play)4.
B+C
one
who
represents
a
character
5. C arepresentativeingeneral6. C+D arepresentativeofchurchinParish7. D Parson 9
Fromthisillustrationwecanseethesourceofpersonasamask(A)andbecauseofthisusageintheatre,thecharacterandthemask(A+B)joinedthemselvesinmeaning.WeinmodernEnglishoftenusethewordmasktomeanthatsomeoneisconcealingsomething,whichiswhattheGreekactorsdidbyassumingacharacterwiththemask. Thisthenevolvedintopersonmeaningacharacterorrole(C),in
whichthe
word
persona
we
still
retain
this
definition.
However
person
morphs
once
againintotheonewhorepresentsthecharacter(B+C)untilweareleftwithjustarepresentativeingeneral(C). Ofcoursethismeaning(C)canbeusedinmanydifferentwaysaswewillseelaterinthiswork. ButtofollowonwithGreenoughandKittridgereasoningwenowseepersonbeingusedtomeanarepresentativeofchurchinaparish(C+D)whichnaturallyleadstoapersonbeingcalledaparson.WecanseethisusageifwelookintoJohnCowellsLawdictionaryentitledTheinterpreterofwordsandterms(publishedin1607)whereifwelookupthewordpersonweseethewordsSeeParson. Soitwasnotbutsome400yearsagothatinEnglishpersonmeantparson,notthehumanbeingasweknowandrecognisethewordtoday.
Hopefullyyouaregettingaclearerideaofthechangingnatureofthewordpersonanditsinterestingevolution.YetthemostimportantaspectwecantakefromGreenoughandKittridgesworkisthatpersonatthecorerevolvesaroundrepresentingsomething. Forthemaskrepresentsaspecificcharacter,acharacterrepresentsacertainfigure,beitrealormythical;aparsonrepresentsthechurch.ThiswecanseebyGreenoughandKittridgestheoryoftheradiationofaword.
Ofcoursethestorydoesnotendherewehaveanothersomewhat400yearsofevolutionofthepersontoexplainaway.Wehaveseenthedevelopmentfromitsoriginalmeaningofmasktocometomeanparson,so:
wenolongerthinkofmasksbutoftherealcharactersappearinginaplay.Afterall,anactorwearingamaskofthekingwasforthetimebeingaking,andthuspersonacametomeantheveryoppositeofmaskviz.,amansrealnatureandcharacter.10
9WordsandtheirwaysinEnglishspeechbyGreenoughandKittridge,(1902),MacmillanandCo,p.26510Ibidp.268
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Thereweresubtleshiftsinmeaning,likewesawabove,wherethefictionhasbecomeareality,whatwasonceunrealhasnowbecomereal.Maybethiscanbeexplainedbythewordcharacter. ThiswasoriginallytakenfromtheGreekwordKharaktermeaninganengravedmark,untilthemeaningwasexpandedbymetaphor
tomean
adefining
quality.11
Thus
acharacter
became
to
mean
adefining
quality
whichwaswhyitwasusedintheatretosignifytheroleanactorwasplaying,andofcoursethemaskwasdefinitelyadefiningquality. Thisisanimportantaspectwhenwethinkofsomebodyscharacternowadays. Foritcouldbeatraitbywhichwerecognizesomeone,orthesumoftraitsthatdefineaman,whichwetendtocallapersonalitynow(yetanotherintrusionofthepeskyperson). Nowwecanseethatpersonalityisasetofdefiningqualitiesthatcreatesanidentity.Asweallknow,IdentinLatinmeanssame,andtheifysuffixcomesfromLatinverbtomake,soitliterallymeanstomakethesame. Sowhenweidentifywithsomethingwemakeitthesame!SoundsStrangeIknow,butlookatwhathappenswhenapersonasksforyour
identification,
is
it
not
to
make
sure
you
are
the
same
man
that
you
claim
to
be.
To
makethesame,isthesimplestdefinitionandouridentityiswhatwehavecreated,whatwehavemadetobeus.
Canwenotarguenowthenthatwhenpersonwasinusageasaparsonhischaracterordefiningqualityheldsomeprestige? Forwasnotthechurchatthistimewieldingimmensepower?Thehouseorofficeoftheparsonwascalledaparsonage,whichinturnisrelatedtothewordpersonage,whichmeanssomeonewithhighstatusorrank. Someonewithhighstatusorrankwasusuallyassociatedtosometitleorofficetheyheld,forexample,akingorqueen. Canwenotextend,withsomelibertyonmypart,onGreenoughandKittridgesdiagramtoaidusintracingour
flightyfriend
person?
1. A Amask2. A+B characterindicatedbymask3. B characterorrolein(play)4. B+C onewhorepresentsacharacter5. C arepresentativeingeneral6. C+D arepresentativeofchurchinParish7. D aparson8. D+E aparsonwithhighrankoroffice9.
E
someone
with
high
rank
or
office
10. E+F highrank/officehasstatus11. F someonewithstatus
11http://www.etymonline.com
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Forexample,inBoothsAnalyticaldictionaryoftheEnglishlanguagehestatesthat
...thetermpersonage
is
more
applicable
to
one
who
is
officially
raised
above
the
multitude.Itis,therefore,moreselectandbetterfittedthanperson"todenominateoneofthehigherordersofsociety.Inthesamesortofetiquettetheplural,personsrisesabovethewordPEOPLE:thelatterbeingalwayscollective,whiletheformerareseparatelyconsideredinthemind."Twentypeopleareamultitude;butthephrase"twentypersons'suggeststheideathateachmaypossessadifferentcharacter.12
Themeaningofthepersonissubtlyshiftingandaswearebeginningtoseethechangesoccurringbeforeoureyes,wenoticehowthewordalignswithitshistoricaluse. TheMeaningshowninEandFaretobetakenseriouslynow,not
only
for
their
meaning
but
for
their
historical
use.
For
it
should
be
known
in
EnglishhistorybyeveryonewhoreadsthisworkthatonethingweEnglishareknownforisitsrepressiveclasssystem. Duringsometurbulenthistoricaltimestheclasssystemhasoppressedthemassofthepopulationforthebenefitoftheupperclasses. Thosepeoplewhoboresomeformofstatuswerepersons,gentlemen,officials,andthearistocracy,forexample. This,however,wewilldelvemoreintointhesecondpartofthisessay.AlthoughthewordpersonhasmoreusagesinmodernEnglishwehaveforthe
momenttraceditshistoricalmeaningandevolutionenoughtobeabletoexplainitsmodernusage.
Modernusageofthewordperson
NowwemustlooktotodayandhowpersonisutilizedinmodernEnglish.Asmentionedwhenwebegantolookatthehistoryoftheword,ourmodernandprimaryuseofpersonistomeanahumanbeing. ThatwaswhatIwastaughtthewordmeantandIamsuremostcanconcurwithmyownempiricalobservationregardingthis. Belowaresomeofthedefinitionsofthewordpersontakenfroma
dictionary
easily
accessible
to
everyone.
13
12AnalyticaldictionaryoftheEnglishlanguagebyDavid Booth,1835,CochraneandCo., p.cvi13http://dictionary.reference.com/
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personnoun
1.Ahumanbeing,whetherman,woman,orchild:Thetableseatsfourpersons.
2. Ahumanbeingasdistinguishedfromananimalorathing.
3.Sociology.Anindividualhumanbeing,esp.Withreferencetohisorhersocialrelationshipsandbehaviouralpatternsasconditionedbytheculture.
4. Philosophy.Aselfconsciousorrationalbeing.
5.
Theactualselforindividualpersonalityofahumanbeing:Yououghtnot
togeneralize,
but
to
consider
the
person
you
are
dealing
with.
6.Thebodyofalivinghumanbeing,sometimesincludingtheclothesbeingworn:Hehadnomoneyonhisperson.
7. Thebodyinitsexternalaspect:anattractivepersontolookat.
8. Acharacter,part,orrole,asinaplayorstory.
9. Anindividualofdistinctionorimportance.
10.
Aperson
not
entitled
to
social
recognition
or
respect.
11.Law.Ahumanbeing(naturalperson)oragroupofhumanbeings,acorporation,apartnership,anestate,orotherlegalentity(artificialpersonorjuristicperson)recognizedbylawashavingrightsandduties.
12.
Grammar.Acategoryfoundinmanylanguagesthatisusedtodistinguishbetweenthespeakerofanutteranceandthosetooraboutwhomheorsheisspeaking.InEnglishtherearethreepersonsinthepronouns,thefirstrepresentedbyIandwe,thesecondbyyou,andthe
thirdby
he,
she,
it,
and
they.
Most
verbs
have
distinct
third
person
singularformsinthepresenttense,aswrites;theverbbehas,inaddition,afirstpersonsingularformam.
13.Theology.AnyofthethreehypostasesormodesofbeingintheTrinity,namelytheFather,theSon,andtheHolyGhost.
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Wehavethirteendefinitionsofthewordpersonnotoneasgenerallyperceived,becauseifyouaskmostpeoplewhatapersonisyoufindthattheywill
givethe
first
definition
in
our
list.
So
how
do
we
get
from
something
meaning
a
masktomeaningahumanperson,wellthiswillbeexplainedinthesecondpartofthiswork.
Letuslooktooursecondusagewhichisahumanbeingasdistinguishedfromananimalorathing.Wecansuggestherethatthenotionofpersonisusedinthesenseofadefiningquality,simplymeaningnotananimalorthing. Theplacingofthewordshumanbeingisirrelevantinthemeaning,forifyouarenotananimalorathing(includingnatureundertheclassofthings)thenwhatareyou?
Definitions
3
and
4
I
will
not
discuss
as
they
come
under
fields
not
entirely
relevanttothiswork.
ThefifthdefinitiongivenTheactualselforindividualpersonalityofahumanbeing,doesnotrefertothephysicalhumanbeingbuttoasomethingmoretransient,moreephemeral. Ourpersonalityisnotafixedqualityitchangesovertime.Askthisquestiontoyourself,AmIthesameasIwaswhenIwasachild,ateenager,ayoungadult,amiddleagedadult,etc. Whatwouldyourresponsebe?Ithinkmostofusrealizethatweevolveandchangeourpersonality. Thequalitiesthatdefineyoucomeandgo,sometimestheystayandarerepressed,andsometimestheyevolve. Theimportantpointtotakefromthisistheuseofthe
wordpersonality.
Definitions6and7canbelookedattogetherastheyarerelated. ThesixthdefinitionstatesthatpersoncanmeanThebodyofalivinghumanbeing,sometimesincludingtheclothesbeingworn. Thisisastrangewaytodefinepersonbut,ifwelookbacktotheprevioussectiononthehistoryandetymologyofthewordperson,wecanseehowthismayconnecttotheoriginalfewmeanings.Abodyinreligioustermsisoftenseenasamerevesselforthesoul,self,atman,whateveryouwanttocallit.AsShakespearesays:
All
the
worlds
a
stage,
and
all
the
men
and
women
merely
players.
They
have
theirexitsandtheirentrances;andonemaninhistimeplaysmanyparts14
14AsYouLikeItbyWilliamShakespeare,1599,ActII,SceneVII
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Manypeopleinthepast,andstilldotoday,haveviewedthebodyasavessel,athingthatembodiesthesoul,liketheactorembodiesthecharacterheplays,whichagainbringsustothenotionofthepersonbeingamaskorcharacter.Astotheclothes,wellthesecanberecognisedaspartofthemaskorcharacter.AllthisappliestotheseventhdefinitionofThebodyinitsexternalaspect.
TheeighthdefinitionAcharacter,part,orrole,asinaplayorstory,shouldbeselfexplanatorybynowsoIwillnotcommentonthis.
Theninthdefinition,Anindividualofdistinctionorimportance,wecanseebylookingatmyextensionofGreenoughandKittridgesdiagramthatpersondevelopedintosomeoneofstatus,thusanindividualofdistinctionandimportance.Youcannowseehowsomeofthedefinitionsconnectbysubtleshiftsinmeaningorradiatefromtheoriginalmeaning.
Looking
at
the
tenth
definition
we
might
be
puzzled
by
as
to
why
person
can
cometomeanApersonnotentitledtosocialrecognitionorrespect. Itwouldbemysuppositionthatthiscomesfromthephrasepersonanongrata,whereitwasfirstusedbydiplomatswhowerenotwelcomeinthecountriestowhichtheyweresent. Ofcoursethephrasewasthenextendedtoapersonofsomegroupwhowerenotwelcomedbysomeactiontheperformedandthuswerestrippedofanysocialrecognitionorrespect. Butagainthisisjustasuppositiononmtpart
TheeleventhdefinitionwewillbelookingatinpartIIofthisworksoitisnotexpedientforustoreviewthisdefinitionhere.
Asfor
the
last
two
definitions
these
have
no
bearing
on
the
subject
at
hand,
for
thisworkdoesnotseektoclarifygrammarortheology.
Sonowwehavelookedatsomestandarddefinitionsandtosomeextenthavelookedattheminparallelwiththeetymologyofthewordperson. Hopefullywehaveabetterunderstandingofthehowthewordbegananditsevolution.
Theonlyotherthingwemustmentionhereisfromthefamilyoftheperson,whichisanotherubiquitouswordandthatispersonality,whichismentionedabove.Althoughwewillnotbelookingintoitmorethoroughlyaswasdonewith
the
word
person,
it
is
something
that
is
intimately
related
to
the
concept
of
a
person.Wecanseethatthisnouncomesfromtheadjectiveofpersonal,whichsimplyputmeanspertainingtotheperson. Personalitythereforeisanexpansionontheadjectiveform,whichagain,simplyputisthecharacteristicswhichpertaintotheperson. Characteristicisusedinthesenseofdefiningqualitiesaswehavementionedabove.
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15
Thestorydoesnotendtherethoughasanotherinsidiousconceptmustberaisedtoexplainmodernusage;theissueofpoliticalcorrectness.
Politicalcorrectness,Languageandtheperson
Nowitisnotformetojudgethemeritsandpitfallsofpoliticalcorrectness,butsincethephrasecontainsthewordpoliticalonemustbedubiousofitsintent. Ithasbeenatrendinthismovementofpoliticalcorrectnesstoturnthecommonwordsintotermswemustavoidusingsoasnottocauseoffence. Personisoneofthesenewtermsofthepoliticalcorrectnessmovement. Personisusedplaceofwordssuchasmanorwoman,boyorgirlandevenHumanBeing,toavoidusingsuchoffensivelanguage. Thusthewordpersonisperfectfortheadvocatesofpoliticalcorrectness,foraswequotedbefore:
Nothing
can
be
more
abstract:
it
is
neither
male
nor
female,
neither
young
nor
old15
Butwhatistheconceptofpoliticalcorrectnessandwherediditcomefrom?Thereseemstobenosingleconsensusonthedefinitionofpoliticalcorrectness,butsomesayitstemsfromtheFrankfurtschoolandculturalMarxismandhasitsbirtharoundtheeraoftheFirstWorldWar,16whetherthisistrueinisnotformetodebate. ButadefinitionbyAtkinsonisquiteillustrative:
PoliticalCorrectness(PC)wasaspontaneousdeclarationthatparticularideas,expressionsandbehaviour,whichwerethenlegal,shouldbeforbiddenbylaw,
andpeople
who
transgressed
should
be
punishedIt
started
with
afew
voices
but
grewinpopularityuntilitbecameunwrittenandwrittenlawwithinthecommunity.Withthosewhowerepubliclydeclaredasbeingnotpoliticallycorrectbecomingtheobjectofpersecutionbythemob,ifnotprosecutionbythestate.17
ThisinsidiousconceptofpoliticalcorrectnessiswithoutdoubtapoliticaltoolforasOrwellsays:
thedeclineofalanguagemustultimatelyhavepoliticalandeconomiccauses18
ThedeclineoftheEnglishlanguagecaneasilyberecognisedbytheuseofpoliticalcorrectnessasatooltocontrolthewaypeoplethinkandthereforeact.As
15SignificantEtymologybyJamesMitchell, (1908),footnote,WilliamBlackwoodandSons. P.23723916TheOriginsofPoliticalCorrectnessAnAccuracyinAcademiaAddressbyBillLind,2000
17PoliticalCorrectnessbyPhilipAtkinson,http://www.ourcivilisation.com/pc.htm18GeorgeOrwell:PoliticsandtheEnglishLanguageFirstpublished:Horizon.GB,London.,April1946
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statedpreviouslytheuseofthewordsman,women,boy,girl,female,male,etc,arepoliticallyincorrectbecauseofwhattheycallsexism. Sotoavoidthatthiswonderfullittlewordpersonarrivestosolvethisproblem. Howconvenient!Yet,unknownbymany,thewordpersonhassevereimplicationsinlawasyouwillsoonseeinthenexttwopartsofthiswork.
Thisintroduction
of
politically
correct
words
does
not
limit
itself
only
to
the
wordperson.Anotherexampleistheuseofthewordindividual,whichtechnicallyisanadjective,butusedasanounitnowreferstoaperson. Orwelldescribesthisaspretentiousdictionandhestatesthat:
Wordslikephenomenon,element,individual(asnoun),objective,categorical,effective,virtual,basic,primary,promote,constitute,exhibit,exploit,utilize,eliminate,liquidate,areusedtodressupasimplestatementandgiveanairofscientificimpartialitytobiasedjudgments.19
You
will
see
much
of
this
pretentious
diction
in
the
English
language
today,
especiallyinthefieldoflaw. Orwellgivesanotherastonishexampleofhowlanguagecanbesubverted:
HereisawellknownversefromEcclesiastes:
Ireturnedandsawunderthesun,thattheraceisnottotheswift,northebattletothestrong,neitheryetbreadtothewise,noryetrichestomenofunderstanding,noryetfavourtomenofskill;buttimeandchancehappenethtothemall.
Hereit
is
in
modern
English:
Objectiveconsiderationsofcontemporaryphenomenacompeltheconclusionthatsuccessorfailureincompetitiveactivitiesexhibitsnotendencytobecommensuratewithinnatecapacity,butthataconsiderableelementoftheunpredictablemustinvariablybetakenintoaccount.20
Languageisapotentforceinhumancultureandtheabuseofcannotbecondoned,forthesakeofnotoffendingsomeone. Forwhatmightoffendonemanmaypassovertheheadofthenext. Thiscanbehighlightedbytheeminentphilosopheroflanguage,LudwigWittgenstein,whenhesays
themeaningofawordisitsuseinthelanguage.21
19Ibid
20Ibid
21PhilosophicalInvestigationsbyLudwigWittgenstein,1953,BasilBlackwellLtd,p.20
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Thisisanimportantconceptandmustberecognizedinthecontextofthiswork.Asyouhaveseenwhenthemoderndefinitionswereelucidated,therearethirteendefinitions,orbettertosaytherearethirteenwaysinwhichthewordpersonisusedmodernEnglish. Soonecansuggestthatdictionariesdonotdefinewordorspecifywhatawordis,ratheritshowitsuseinlanguage. Nowlanguageis
asubtle
creature
where
confusion
arises
easily,
this
has
been
explained
by
the
thinkerAlfredKorzybskiwithhisfamousstatementofwhichIamparaphrasingthemapisnottheterritoryandwordsarenotthethingstheyrepresent. OrasKorzybskistateshimself:
Ifwordsarenotthings,ormapsarenottheactualterritory,then,obviously,theonlypossiblelinkbetweentheobjectiveworldandthelinguisticworldisfoundinstructure,andstructurealone.Theonlyusefulnessofamaporalanguagedependsonthesimilarityofstructurebetweentheempiricalworldandthemaplanguages.Ifthestructureisnotsimilar,thenthetravellerorspeakerisledastray,which,in
serious
human
life
problems,
must
become
always
eminently
harmful,.
If
the
structuresaresimilar,thentheempiricalworldbecomes'rational'toapotentiallyrationalbeing,whichmeansnomorethanthatverbal,ormappredictedcharacteristics,whichfollowupthelinguisticormapstructure,areapplicabletotheempiricalworld.22
WhatKorzybskiisbasicallysayinghereisifsomewordsdonotconformtohowwenaturallyusethemthenconfusionwillarisewhichinturncanaffectthemindsofpeople. IuseasimplemaximtakenfromtheworksofWittgensteinandKorzybskiandapplyitwhennecessary,whichis:
Thewordisnotthethingitrepresentsbutgetsitsmeaningfromitsuse
Inregardstopoliticalcorrectness,itisobviouslanguageisbeingusedforapoliticalagenda. Itsuseofthewordpersonisobviouslyforsomepoliticalgain,butthiswillbeseeninthenextsectionsofthiswork. ButfromthepointofviewofmodernusagethewordpersonisbeingusedtooutlawsuchtermsasHumanbeing,man,woman,girl,boy,etc. Byreplacingthesewordswithpersonitistryingtomakeisintoabstractentities;onehomogenousgroup.
Orwellpredictedthiscontroloflanguageinhisfamousnovel1984,anditnow
can
be
seen
in
the
form
of
political
correctness.
For
we
must
not
forget
that
languageframesourthoughtswhichinturninfluenceouractionsasOrwellclearlypointedoutinhisnovel,whichIrecommendhighlytoanyonewhohasnotalreadyreadit.
22ScienceandSanitybyAlfredKorzybski,5thEdition,InstituteofGeneralsemantics,1994,p.61
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Language,whenabusedandmanipulated,infectsthewholeofsocietyandtoisolatetocertainfields,asthatoflaw,andchangetheuseofwordscanonlybeofdetrimentaleffectonpeopleandthesocietytheylivein.
ConclusionofPart1
Sotosumupthisfirstpartofourworkthewordpersonisanabstractword,aswehaveseenbyitschameleonlikechangesofthecenturies. Wehaveseenthatwehavethisfamilyofwords;person,persona,personal,personality,etc.Wehaveseenthebirthoftheconceptofapersonanditsevolutionthroughoutquiteafew
centuries.
We
have
also
seen
the
modern
usages
of
the
words
as
well
as
hwo
politicalcorrectnesshascementedthisabstractioninthemindsofmany,byusingtheexcuseoffeminism,ageismoranyismthatapplies.Wenowusethewordpersonasaneutralterm.
Yetitstillhasntansweredouroriginalquestion.Whydowecallahumanbeingaperson? Dontworryasthiswillsoonbeaddressed.Thiscannotbeanswerednowbecausewhathasbeenwrittensofarisjustapieceofthepuzzle. Thefollowingcenturiesleadinguptonowwillbegintogiveusaclearerunderstanding.Howeverwemustveerawayfromtheworldofetymologyandgenerallanguage,
andto
do
this
we
must
undertake
an
examination
of
the
word
person
as
used
in
Englishlaw.
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Part2
Lawandtheperson
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Introduction
Ithinktobeginthissection,whichisreallythemeatandbonesoftheconfusionoftheuseofthewordperson. IwillleaveittoSalmondwhosaysitbest
in
his
work
on
jurisprudence.
Itisnotpermissibletoadoptthesimpledeviceofsayingthatapersonmeansahumanbeing,foreveninthepopularornonlegaluseofthetermtherearepersonswhoarenotmen23
Thisiswhereourconfusionbegins.Whyisitnotpermissibletosaythatapersonisahumanbeing? ForinthefirstsectiontheprimaryusageofpersonisaHumanBeingyetnowwearebeingtoldthatitistoosimpleuseitlikethisinlaw
Todiscoverthisconundrumwemustdelveintocertainaspectsoflaw. The
lawis
acomplicated
area
for
any
layperson
to
understand
which
is
why
an
industryhasarisenaroundit,andanyonenotprivytotheinformationthisindustryhaswillbelostinalabyrinthoflanguagethatwilltieyourmindupinknots.ManyrefertothislanguageasLegalese,andseeitascompletelyforeign.PersonallyIdonotholdthisviewsincelanguageisacomplexentityandcannotbepigeonholedsoeasily. Soletuslookfirsttothelanguageoflawtounraveltheballofknotsitappearstobebeforewemoveontothetopicofthepersonandthelaw.
TheLanguageofLaw
Firstwemustlookatthelanguageofthelawasitislanguagethatbreatheslifeintothe law. Language isusedtowritethe law;todiscussthe law;toarbitratethe lawand finallytodefinethe law. Onecannotescapethe factthat inthesedayslawandlanguageareinseparable.
Asmentionedpreviouslyitissaidthatlegaleseresemblesaforeignlanguage.
Whydo
people
say
this?
Well
because
ifone
does
not
understand
alanguage
it
isforeigntothem,orabetterwayofsayingitisthatitisunfamiliarorstrangetothem. Legaleseisbetterreferredtoasatechnicallanguage. Othertechnicallanguagescanbefoundinsuchfieldsasmedicine,science,mathematics,engineering,etc. Howeverwedonotrefertotheselanguagesinthesespecific
23JurisprudenceandthelawbyJohnSalmond,secondedition,StevenandHayes,1907,p.275
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fieldsasforeign,justunfamiliartothelayman. Itisthisunfamiliaritythatcausesalltheproblemswhenapproachingtheareaoflaw.WeexpectwhatwereadtomeanthesamethingasweassumeitmeanstoeverybodyfamiliarwiththeEnglishLanguage,yetthisisnotthecase. Everydayusageofonewordcanmeansomethingentirelydifferentintheeyesofthelaw,andthusourproblembegins.
Itis
through
this
problem
that
we
have
these
people
we
call
lawyers,
the
ones
trainedinlaw,unfortunatelyalotofthesepeopleareunawareofthistechnicallanguageaswell;somoreproblemsarise.
Whydowetalkofsuchthingsaslegalese?Wellsimplybecausethepersoninlawisatechnicaltermandahighlycontroversialoneatthat. OfcourseithasbeenarguedthatbecausetherearelawdictionariesthenLegalesemustbeaforeignlanguage.Butthatisjustnotthecase. Ithinkmanypeoplethinkthatbecausethereisadictionarythenaseparatelanguagemustbeassociatedwithit.Adictionary,aswecommonlythinkofit,ismerelyachronicleofalanguage,ittellsuswhatawordmeansanditsvarioususages,ifithasthem.Without
languageadictionary
would
have
no
meaning.
Yet
this
is
just
one
type
of
dictionary,anotherisatranslationdictionarywherethewordinonelanguageistranslatedintoadifferentlanguage. Finallytherearetechnicaldictionaries,whichdefinewordsusedinthespecificfielditisusedfor;alawdictionaryisoneofthesetypes.
Wemustnotbefooledintobelievingthatbecauseweareignorantofsomepartsofourlanguage,(andbyignorantImeannotknowsomething)wecannotsaythatitisaseparatelanguagealtogether,thiswouldbejusttoofaciletoassume.Wemustrememberourmaxim:
Theword
is
not
the
thing
it
represents
but
gets
its
meaning
from
its
use
Ifoneisnotinvolvedinthefieldoflawthenthelanguageandexpressionswillconfusethemostintelligentmanorwoman. Theuseofspecificallydefinedusagecanbeexplainedbytheabovemaxim. Ifyoudonotusethetechnicallanguageoflaw,itwillappearforeigntoyou.
InthisworkwewillviewLegaleseasatechnicallanguage,andwillusetheappropriateresourcesforreferencetolegaltermsandnotordinaryusage. For,aswehaveseen,theuseofwordsinlawcanbefardifferentfromcommonusage.
Whetherthis
is
done
deliberately
or
by
necessity,
we
do
not
know.
However
comparisonswillbemadebetweenthetechnicaltermsandordinaryusagetoindicatethedisparitybetweenthesamewords.Aseparateworkisindeedneededonlanguageandthelaw,butthatisforthefuture.
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Thelegaldefinitionofperson
Asyou
saw
from
Salmonds
quote24
not
all
persons
are
human
beings
and
it
is
thisdivisionwhichcausesmanyproblemsasyouwillseefurtheroninthiswork.Itisthisenigmaofthewordpersoninlawthatinitiatedresearchintothispartofourlanguage. Thelegaldefinitionisslightlydifferentthanwouldbethenormalassumption.Astheordinarymeaningofperson,explainedinthefirstpart,hasmany
usages,inlawwearemetwithtwousagesoftheword. Thelegaldefinitionisdualinnature,changedbyadjectives. Thefirstdefinitionorusageiswhatiscalledanaturalpersonandthesecondalegalperson,soyouseeitisnotassimpleasmightthink. Afterallyoucantdefinesomethingbyusingthesame
wordyoure
trying
to
define.
Thenaturalpersonsimplyreferstoahumanbeing. Byaddingtheadjectivenaturalitmeansapersonwhoisofnature,andupuntilnowthathasonlybeenhumanbeings.Althoughthereisacurrentdebategoingonindifferentplacestogiveanimalsalegalpersonality;sowouldanimalsbecomeanaturalperson? Theadjectivenaturalismoreofanarrowingdownofthedefinitionofpersontospecifymankind. Thisdefinitionisplainandisprobablywhywerefertoourselvesaspersons,butwearealongwayofffromexplainingwhythisisthecase.
Thelegal
person,
sometimes
called
an
artificial
person,
is
adifferent
matter
altogetheranditwillbethemajoraimofthisworktoshowwhy. Simplyputalegalpersonisacorporationinmodernparlance,orastheEnglishcallsit,abodycorporate. Nowasyoucanseethisisabigleapfromcallingahumanbeingapersontocallingacorporationaperson.
Anotherwordwhichmustbeintroducedisthatofindividual,onceanadjectivenowanoun,usedtorefertoasinglehumanbeing,butalsoinlawitcanmeanaindividuallegalperson.Itentirelydependsonthecontext.
Nowyoucanseehowthelawdividestheconceptofthepersonintotwo
distinctentities.
However
to
adopt
these
definitions
is
too
easy
to
explain
what
a
personinlawreallyis.25 Whatwemustdoinsteadisforgetthedefinitionsthedictionariesgiveusanddelvedeeperintothemoregeneralscienceoflaw,whichiscalledJurisprudence.
24JurisprudenceandthelawbyJohnSalmond,secondedition,StevenandHayes,1907,p.27525AlistofDefintionswillbegiveninAppendixA
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Jurisprudenceandtheperson
AsexplainedaboveJurisprudenceisthescienceofthelaw,orsometimescalledthetheoryorphilosophyoflaw. Itsaimistohelpexplainwhatlawisandits
varied
constituents.
So
in
this
section
we
will
see,
from
the
view
of
Jurisprudence,whatapersonreallyisundertheeyesofthelaw.
FirstofallSalmondtalksofthenatureoflegalpersonality26beforehespeaksofpersons. Nowifwerememberfromaboveonthesubjectofpersonalityitwassaidthatpersonalitywasthecharacteristicswhichpertaintotheperson. Sowhenwetalkoflegalpersonalitywecanassumethistomeanthelegalcharacteristicsthatpertaintotheperson. Itisthennaturaltofindoutwhattheselegalcharacteristicsareinordertoelaborateonwhyapersonhasthesecharacteristicsattachedtothem.
Pollockstates
that,
Lawnecessarilydealswithdutiesandrightsofpersons27
orasSalmondsays:
Sofaraslegaltheoryisconcerned,apersonisanybeingwhomthelawregardsascapableofrightsandduties28
AstwooftheleadingauthorsonJurisprudencehavesaiditseemsthatdutiesandrightsmaybesomeofthesedefiningqualitiesthatmightleadustofindout
the
nature
of
what
a
legal
personality
is.
Sowehavefirsttouncoverwhatarerightsandwhatareduties beforewecanproceedtoattachthesetoourcontroversialperson.
Rights,Dutiesandtheperson
Itmustbesaidfirstthatinlawrightsanddutiesgohandinhand,theyare
not
two
separate
things
that
can
be
divided
and
investigated
without
referring
to
eachother. Sowhenwespeakofarightthereisadutyinvolved. Butitmustbe
26JurisprudenceandthelawbyJohnSalmond,secondedition,StevenandHayes,1907,p.27527AfirstbookofJurisprudence,bySirFrederickPollock,secondedition,1904,MacmillianandCo.p.10828JurisprudenceandthelawbyJohnSalmond,secondedition,StevenandHayes,1907,p.275
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alsonotedthatrightsalwayshavedutiesascribedtothem,dutiesontheotherhanddonotalwayshaverightsattachedtothem.29
Beforegoingmoreindepthintheareaofrightsanddutiesthereisanotherconceptthatmustbeconsideredfirst,andthatisofwrongs.Awrongisasit
suggests,
a
wrong
act;
it
is
the
same
in
law
as
in
ordinary
life;
its
just
the
details
thatdiffer,orasSalmondputsit:
Awrongissimplyawrongact anactcontrarytotheruleofrightandjustice.Asynonymofitisinjury,initstrueandprimarysenseofinjuria(thatwhichiscontrarytojus),thoughbyamodernperversionofmeaningthistermhasacquiredthesecondarysenseofharmordamage(damnum)whetherrightfulorwrongful,andwhetherinflictedbyhumanagencyornot.30
Thesewrongsastheyareknownareoftwotypes,moralandlegal.Amoralwrongwouldbe,forexample,murderbecauseitisimmoraltokillanotherhumanbeingby
naturallaw
theory.
This
is
shown
in
our
own
system
of
common
law.
A
Legal
wrong
ontheotherhanddoesnotconformtonaturallawandcomessolelyfromthemindsofmen.AsSalmondsays:
Alegalwrongisanactwhichislegallywrong,beingcontrarytotheruleoflegaljusticeandaviolationofthelaw.Itisanactwhichisauthoritativelydeterminedtobewrongbyaruleoflaw,andisthereforetreatedasawronginandforthepurposesoftheadministrationofjusticebythestate31
MaybeagoodexampleofalegalwrongwouldbespeedingticketsasitisacontroversialtopicinEnglandnowadays. Thereisnothingmorallywrongwithspeeding,unlessitendangerslives;fortherearesomeanimalsonearthwhichcanbreakthespeedlimitsbutIdoubttheywillbefined. Therearemanylegalwrongswhicharenotmorallywrong,butthemorelawsacountryhasthemorewrongsitcreates.Awrongissuchthatifanyoneshouldcommitawrong apunishmentwillbemetedoutbythestate.Soherewehavedefinedwhatawrongis,butwhatconnectiondoesthishaveto
rightsandduties?Well,awrongwaselucidatedbecauseadutyissimplyanotherwayofsayingdontdowrong,sowhenyoudosomethingwrong,whethermorallyorlegally,youhavefailedtofulfilladuty.Aswrongsaredividedintomoralandlegal,sotooareduties.Youhaveamoralduty,whichisnottodoamoralwrong,
andalegal
duty,
which
is
not
to
do
alegal
wrong.
Of
course
this
is
asimplified
explanationforthelaymantounderstandbutessentiallythatiswhatismeantwhenwetalkofduties.
29ElementsofLawbyWilliamMarkby,sixthedition,Oxfordpress,1905.p.9230JurisprudenceandthelawbyJohnSalmond,secondedition,StevenandHayes,1907,p.18031Ibid,p.180
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Nowwemustturntorightswhichareslightlymorecomplicatedinnature. ButPollockgivesaglimpseofwhatarightis:
Rightisthecorrelativeofduty.Asdutyisaburdenimposedbylaw,sorightisfreedomallowedorpowerconferredbylaw.32
OrasThomasinhisbook,AtreatiseonUniversalJurisprudencestates:
Arightisthatqualityinapersonwhichrendersitjustforhimtopossesscertainthings,ortodocertainthings,consistentlywiththelaws33
Rightsfollowingalongwithdutiesandwrongsarealsodividedintomoralrightsandlegalrights.Abreachofamoralrightwouldresultinamoralwrong,andabreachofalegalrightwouldbealegalwrong. Thisshowsushowrightsanddutiesareconnected,andthefactthatarightinvolvessomeformoffreedom,yetwith
conditions
attached
(the
duty).
Alltheserights,wrongsanddutiesaredividedupintomoralandlegalcategorieswhichmakeitevenmoreconfusingfortheordinarymanwhoknowsnothingoflaw.Understandingwhathasjustbeenwrittenisnotaneasytask,andwhathasbeenpresentedtoyouisinahighlycondensedformtomakeitintelligibletothelayman.Sowhyarerightsanddutiesthedefiningqualitiesthatmakeupthelegal
personalitythatSalmondattributestoaperson?WellIthinkSalmondsaysitbestofall:
Allthatisrightorwrong,justorunjust,issobyreasonofitseffectsupontheinterestsofmankind,thatistosayuponthevariouselementsofhumanwellbeing,
suchas
life,
liberty,
health,
reputation,
and
the
uses
of
material
objects.
If
any
act
is
rightorjust,itissobecauseandinsofarasitpromotessomeformofhumaninterest.Ifanyactiswrongorunjust,itisbecausetheinterestsofmenareprejudiciallyaffectedbyit.Conductwhichhasnoinfluenceupontheinterestsofanyonehasnosignificanceeitherinlawormorals.34
Therewehaveit!AsPollockstatedthelawonlydealswiththerightsanddutiesofpersons,andasSalmondsaidonlyabeingthatiscapableofrightsanddutiesisaperson.
ItisnowimportanttoanalysethisdefinitionthatthescholarsofJurisprudence
have
given
us.
We
will
use
Salmonds
definition
as
astarting
point
forouranalysis. Thefirsttermhegivesusisabeing,andofcoursewhenwehearthatwethinkofsomethingthatexists,whichdoesnotnecessarilymeanahumanbeing,asahumanbeingisbutonetypeofbeing.Anotherwayto
32AfirstbookofJurisprudence,bySirFrederickPollock,secondedition,1904,MacmillianandCo.p.6133ATreatisseofUniversalJurisprudencebyJohnPenfordThomas,secondedition,1829,p.21
34JurisprudenceandthelawbyJohnSalmond,secondedition,StevenandHayes,1907,p.72
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describeabeingisbythewordentity,whichismoreofaneutralterm,foritcanapplytocorporealandincorporealthingsatthesametime. Thuswecanseehowthereisadivisionbetweennaturalpersonsandlegalpersonsasbothcanbecalledentitiesbutnotbeings.
The
next
part
of
the
definition
is
capable
of,
which
if
we
look
in
any
dictionarymeanshavingtheabilityorcapacityfor.35 Nowhavingtheabilityorcapacityforsomethingimpliesthechoicetousetheaforementioned. Forhavingsomethingandusingitaretwodifferentthings. Forexample,everyonehastheabilityorcapacityforviolencebutitistheirchoicetouseitornot.
Sototryandgiveamoreaccuratedefinitiontowhatalegalpersonalityisanditsdefiningqualities,inregardstotheinlaw,wouldbetosaythatitisanentitywiththeabilityorcapacitytohaverightsandduties.36 Soaccordingtothetheoryofjurisprudencesomethingorsomebodymusthavethesedefiningqualitiestobedefinedasapersoninlaw.
Sonowwemustturntowhatthelawdefinesaspersons,namelythenaturalpersonandthelegalpersonandseeifwecanmatchthemuptoourdefinitionoflegalpersonality.Wewillalsolookintotheseconceptswithmoredepthtogainabetterunderstandingofwhattheyare. Fortotrulyunderstandtheseconceptsandhowtheyapplytothecommonmanwillbenefitgreatlytofindingoutifapersonreallyisahumanbeing.
Naturalpersonsvs.Legalpersons
Letsbeginwithnaturalpersonsasthisistheleastcomplexofthetwotoanalyse.Asmentionedaboveanaturalpersonissaidtobeahumanbeing,butcanwereallysaythis?Whenweusetheadjectivenaturalweareaddingmoreinformationtotheprecedingnoun;thenounbeingperson.Ifwelooktoanydictionary(Iusetheoneprovidedbytheinternetbecausemostpeoplewillhaveaccesstothis)thenweseethatnaturalasanadjectivemeansexistinginorformedbynature.37Soifweuseourdefinitionoflegalpersonalityandcombineitwiththemeaningofnaturalwehave:
Anentity
existing
in
or
formed
by
nature
with
the
ability
or
capacity
to
have
rightsandduties
35http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/capable36Thisisthedefintionthatwillbeusedtodescribealegalpersonalityinlawfromnowon37http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/natural primarydefinitionusedoutofthe30orsodefinitions
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Thiscanbesaidtobethetruemeaningofnaturalperson. Nowasyoucanseeahumanbeingisnotmentionedinthedefinition,butcanbeimpliedfromitasweexistinorhavebeenformedbynature.Yetarewetheonlythingsformedbynatureontheplanet?No,ofcoursenot,butifyourememberourlastquotebySalmond,rightsanddutiesarecreatedbyhumaninterestsanditisonlythelaw
thatrecognises
human
interests.
Under
the
definition
above
everything
in
natureshouldbeanaturalperson,butthisisnotthecase.Yettherearesomeinterestingcaseswhenweturntotheissueofanimals,petsorworkanimals,forexample.Whenwehaveapet,forillustrationadog,dotheynothaverightsanddutiesascribedtothem? Forwegivethedogarighttosecurityi.e.weprotectitswellbeingbyhousingandfeedingitanditsdutyisnottoharmusinreturnandtogiveuscompany. Inthisscenariowearethesovereignandthedogistheperson,soweascriberightsanddutiestotheperson.AndinanutshellthisishowthingsworkinBritainnow.
Sowhatwecansayaboutthenaturalpersonisthatitmayincludehuman
beingsis
but
not
limited
to
them
by
definition.
For
ifwe
are
to
take
our
meaning
ofnaturalpersontobeconsistentwithwhatthelawsays,itwouldindicatethatwe,humanbeings,arebutonegroupunderavastclassofthings.
Nowweturntothelegalperson,amorethornyissueatbest.Asmentionedearlier,themodernconceptionofalegalpersonisacorporation.Againthisisjusttoosimpleofadevicetoadoptwhentalkingoflegalpersons. Letusfirstadoptourdefinitionoflegalpersonalityandapplyittothelegalperson.Firstofallwemustfindadefinitionoflegalusedasanadjective,turningtothedictionaryusedthroughoutthisworkweseethatlegalmeanspermittedbylaw.38 Thereforewecanassumealegalpersontobe;
Anentitypermittedbylawwiththeabilityorcapacitytohaverightsandduties
Thiswouldseemtobeamoreaccuratedefinitionofwhatalegalpersonis.Yetbyitsdefinitionitsvaguenessisapparent.Whatisanentitypermittedbylaw?Thisusuallymeansacorporation,whichistoovagueofadevicetocontemplate,soyetagainitisincumbentonustolookintothenatureofwhatacorporationis.
CorporationsasLegalPersonsCorporationsareknownaseitherlegalpersonsorartificialpersons.Herewe
mustturntoBlackstonescommentariesonthelawsofEnglandtohaveabetterideaofwhatacorporationis. Butfirstitisprudenttopointthatalthough
38http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/legal
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companiescanbecorporations,notallcorporationsarecompanies,sopleasekeepthisinmindasweelucidatetheconceptofacorporation.FirstlyasBlackstonesays:
Thefirstdivisionofcorporationsisintoaggregateandsole.Corporationsaggregate
consist
of
many
persons
united
together
into
one
society,
and
are
kept
up
by
a
perpetualsuccessionofmembers,soastocontinueforeverCorporationssoleconsistofonepersononlyandhissuccessors,insomeparticularstation,whoareincorporatedbylaw,inordertogivethemsomelegalcapacitiesandadvantages,particularlythatofperpetuity,whichintheirnaturalpersonstheycouldnothavehad.39
Sowehavetwodivisionsofwhatacorporationis;aggregateandsole.Corporationsaggregatearewhatwearemorefamiliarwithandisprobablywhywecallacompanyorbusinessacorporation,butasweshallseethisismoreofamodernphenomenon. Theconceptofabodycorporate,asthisishowacorporationaggregateismorecommonlyknowninBritain,isamucholderphenomenon.As
withour
contentious
word
person
we
can
attribute
the
idea
of
abody
corporate
to
theRomans. ItsfirstusescameintheformofuniversitiesandcollegesasBlackstoneexpounds.
Theywerecalleduniversitates,asformingonewholeoutofmanyindividuals;orcollegia,frombeinggatheredtogether40
Afterthisthechurchalsoadoptedthisformoforganization,whichstillgoesontoday. Forexample,publiccorporationsarewhatwerefertoasmunicipalgovernment,whichtendtobetowns,citiesandboroughs,orasArnoldsays
Amunicipalcorporation,therefore,isacivilcorporationaggregate,establishedforthepurposeofinvestingtheinhabitantsofaparticularboroughorplacewiththepowerofselfgovernmentandwithcertainotherprivilegesandfranchises.41
Acorporationsoleontheotherhand,
.consistofonepersononlyandhissuccessors,insomeparticularstation,whoareincorporatedbylaw,inordertogivethemsomelegalcapacitiesandadvantages,
particularlythat
of
perpetuity,
which
in
their
natural
persons
they
could
not
have
had.42
39CommentariesontheLawsofEnglandinFourBooksbyWilliamBlackstone,Philadelphia:J.B.LippincottCo.,1893,p.46740Ibid,p.46841ATreatiseonthelawrelatingtoMunicipalCorporationsinEnglandandWalesbyThomasArnold,Thirdedition1863,p.342CommentariesontheLawsofEnglandinFourBooksbyWilliamBlackstone,Philadelphia:J.B.LippincottCo.,1893,p.469
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ThebestexampleofthiswouldbeourveryownQueen,ortheCrownasthecorporationisknownas. Infactthequeencomprisesofseveralcorporationssole.Someofficialsalsohavesamestatusofcorporationsole,suchassecretariesofstateandothergovernmentofficials. Iwouldgoasfarastosaytheprimeministercouldhavesimilarstatusbutthatcannotbeprovenatthistime.
ThisideaofcorporationsoleisnotwidelyknownandasSalmondsays:
Thechiefdifficultyinapprehendingthetruenatureofacorporationofthisdescriptionisthatitbearsthesamenameasthenaturalpersonwhoisitssolememberforthetimebeing,andwhorepresentsitandactsforitNeverthelessundereachofthesenamestwopersonslive.Oneisahumanbeing,administeringforthetimebeingthedutiesandaffairsoftheoffice.Healoneisvisibletotheeyesoflaymen.Theotherisamythicalbeingwhomonlylawyersknowof,andwhomonlytheeyeofthelawcanperceive.43
SoherewehavetwovariationsofcorporationsbothendowedwithlegalstatusandarethuscalledLegalPersons,howevertheydohavesomedissimilaritiestothenaturalperson. Oneoftheseisimmortality,fornaturalpersonsdie,butlegalpersonsdonot. Thiswasinstigatedtofacilitatelongevityofthecorporateentity,otherwisethedeathoftheindividualmembersofagroup,wouldmeanthedeathofthecorporation.
Unfortunatelythefieldofcorporationsistoowidetogointoanydepthherebutwhathasbeensaidshouldclarifytheissuesomewhat.Whatitdoesshowisthatalegalpersonis,asourpreviousdefinitionsays,anentitypermittedbylawwiththe
abilityor
capacity
to
have
rights
and
duties.
Now
these
legal
persons
generally
have
thesamerightsasnaturalpersonswithafewaddedperks.
Sofarwehavedefinedwhatapersonisundertheeyesofthelawandthedualityofitsnatureintonaturalandlegal.Wenowknowthatrightsanddutiesarefundamentalpartofwhatmakesupalegalpersonalityandsubsequentlyaperson. Sowoulditnotbepursuantofustofindoutwhatourrightsare.
TheRightsofaPersonThissubjectistoodeepforaperfectanalysisoftherightsofaperson. Butwewill
lookatwhatsomecommentatorsonlawhavetosayaboutthesubject.AlsoyouwillfindthehumanrightsactslaiddownbylawinappendixB.Blackstoneinhiscommentariesdividestheabsoluterightsofanindividuali.e.In
thiscaseanaturalpersonintothreeprincipalcategorieswhichare
43JurisprudenceandthelawbyJohnSalmond,secondedition,StevenandHayes,1907,p.288
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1. Therightofpersonalsecurity2. Therightofpersonalliberty3. Therightofprivateproperty
Thefirst
right
as
Blackstone
says
is:
Therightofpersonalsecurityconsistsinapersonslegalanduninterruptedenjoymentofhislife,hislimbs,hisbody,hishealth,andhisreputation.44
Astothesecondrightof:
Personalsecurity,thelawofEnglandregards,asserts,andpreservesthepersonallibertyofindividuals.Thispersonallibertyconsistsinthepoweroflocomotion,ofchangingsituation,ormovingonespersontowhatsoeverplaceonesowninclination
may
direct,
without
imprisonment
or
restraint,
unless
by
due
course
of
law.
45
ThefinalrightaccordingtoBlackstoneis
Thethirdabsoluteright,inherentineveryEnglishman,isthatofproperty:whichconsistsinthefreeuse,enjoyment,anddisposalofallhisacquisitions,withoutanycontrolordiminution,saveonlybythelawsoftheland.46
Nowofcoursethiswaswrittenin1753,buttheydocoverwhatourbasicrightsareandmostotherrightselucidatedinappendixBwillfallunderthesethreecategories.OfcoursethisisjustacursoryglanceatwhatBlackstonewritestobemorethorough
Isuggest
the
reader
to
read
his
commentaries
which
can
be
easily
found
in
the
public
domain.Anotherauthorwehaveusedextensivelyherealsohassomedefinitionsofwhat
ourrightsare. Salmondslistisasfollows.47
1. Rightsovermaterialthings2. Rightsinrespectofonesownperson3. Therightofreputation4. Rightsinrespectofdomesticrelations5.
Rights
in
the
respect
of
others
rights
6. Rightsoverimmaterialproperty7. Rightstoservices.
44CommentariesontheLawsofEnglandinFourBooksbyWilliamBlackstone,Philadelphia:J.B.LippincottCo.,1893,p.12845Ibidp.13446Ibid,p.13947JurisprudenceandthelawbyJohnSalmond,secondedition,StevenandHayes,1907,p.188190
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ThesearewhatSalmondsuggestsourrightsare,whetherthisistrueornotitisnotmyplacetoarguethat. Onlytoelucidatewhatsomeauthorshavetostateonthesubject.AswithBlackstone,Salmondsbookcanbefoundinthepublic
domainifyou
want
to
have
adeeper
understanding.
Sotheseareourrights,andourdutiesarenottocommitwrongsinaccordancewiththeserights. Allthisiswhatwesayapersonhasintheeyesofthelaw. Nowwemustmoveontohowthepersonhasevolvedintheeyesofthelawsowecanconnectwiththefirstpartofthisworkandtheoriginalquestion;isahumanbeingaperson?
Aperson
in
the
history
of
law
RememberthefirstquoteinthispartoftheworkbySalmond48wherewecannotsaythatapersonmeansahumanbeing,hopefullytheworkupuntilnowhasshownpartofwhythisistrue. Thissectionwilldealmorewithhowthisspecificallyappliestoman. ButletsbeginbyacuriousquotefromSalmond:
inthelawthiswantofcoincidencebetweentheclassofpersonsandthatofhumanbeingsisstillmoremarked.Inthelawtheremaybemenwhoarenotpersons;slaves,forexample,aredestituteoflegalpersonality,inanysystemwhich
regardsthem
as
incapable
of
either
rights
or
liabilities.49
Sointhepastithasbeenafactthatcertainhumanbeingswerenotconsideredpersonsundertheeyesofthelaw. Sobylogicaldeductionanyoneseennotpossessingrightsorliabilitieswasnotaperson.Aliabilityherejustmeanssomeonewhomisresponsibleforcommittingawrongi.e.heisliable(legallyresponsible)forthatactofwrong.
Slavesasbeingtheprimeexampleofhumanbeingsnotconsideredpersons.Slaveryhasalonghistoryandistoocomplicatedtogointohere. Butconsidering
when
slavery
was
legally
abolished
it
is
not
so
long
ago
compared
to
the
length
of
humanhistory. Isaylegallyabolishedbecausealthoughslaveryisagainstthelawofallnationsthatdoesnotmeanthatthepracticehasstopped,especiallyin
48Itisnotpermissibletoadoptthesimpledeviceofsayingthatapersonmeansahumanbeing,foreveninthepopularornonlegaluseofthetermtherearepersonswhoarenotmen.JurisprudenceandthelawbyJohnSalmond,secondedition,StevenandHayes,1907,p.27549JurisprudenceandthelawbyJohnSalmond,secondedition,StevenandHayes,1907,p.275
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developingcountries. InEnglandtherehasbeenalonghistoryofslaverydressedupinavarietyofnames. Forexample:
EnglishpeoplewasdividedaftertheConquest50intotwoclasses,thefreeandtheserf.51
Theserfwasownedbyhislordandwasbasicallyaslave,ofcoursethispracticeofserfdomeventuallyfadedbytheaidofthechurchandthecommonlawoftheland(bycustom). ItalsohelpedthattheseserfswerecountrymenandthereforewereaffordedtherightsthatanEnglishmanheld. Howeverthenextformofslaverywasoneofrace.AftertheBritishEmpireconqueredalotoftheworldmanyofthosewhowereconqueredbecamelegalslaves. ThiswasthentakenovertoAmericauntilthetimeofAbrahamLincolnandtheemancipationoftheslaves.YeteventhoughtheywereemancipatedalotoftheirrightswerewithheldwhichledtothecivilrightsmovementinAmerica.
AnothergroupofhumanbeingshavealsohadtheirrightsrestrictedatvarioustimesinHistoryandtheycompriseofhalfthepopulationatanygiventime;namelywomen. Foralongtimewomenweredeniedmanyoftherightsofmen.Aswasthecasewiththeearlycatholicchurchundercanonlaw,asHeckerstates:
Thecanonlawreaffirmswoman'ssubjectiontomaninnouncertainterms.Thewifemustbesubmissiveandobedienttoherhusband.Shemustnever,underpenalty,ofexcommunication,cutoffherhair,because"Godhasgivenittoherasaveilandasasignofhersubjection."Awomanwhoassumedmen'sgarmentswasaccursed;itwillberememberedthatthebreakingofthislawwasoneofthechargeswhich
brought
Joan
of
Arctothestake.52
AndasHeckerstatesin1914
TheattitudeoftheRomanCatholicChurchtowardswomen'srightsatthepresentdayispracticallythesameasithasbeenforeighteencenturies.Itstillinsistsonthesubjectionofthewomantotheman,anditisbitterlyhostiletowomansuffrage53
Ofcourse,timeshavechangedandtherightsofwomenhaveimproved
dramatically.
For
example
it
was
less
than
100
years
ago
that
women
fought
for
andwontherightofsuffrage(therighttovote). Thesubjugationofwomenhasalwaysandstillisacontentiousissue. Likesomanytopics,wehavetouchedon
50BeingtheNormanconquestof106651TheBritishcitizen:Hisrightsandpriviliges,ashorthistory,1885,E.&J.B.Young,p.6952Ashorthistoryofwomensrights,ByEugeneHecker,Secondedition,1914,G.P.Putmanssons,p.10653Ibidp.117
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onlythesurfaceofsuchimmenseissues,buttheyareusedtoillustratethatapersonisnotwhatitpurportstobe.
Todaywomenareconsideredtobenaturalpersonsundertheeyesoflawwiththeequivalentrightsthatmenhold. Butthishasbeenthroughaprocessof
evolutionlike
the
word
person
itself.
Throughouthistorytherehasbeenthroughsomeformofsuppressionofamanorwomansrights,andthisisnolesstruetoday.Yetitisunclearifthesuppressionofsomerightsstripsthemanofhislegalpersonalityaltogether,ifsothenhewouldnolongerbeapersonintheeyesofthelaw;butthisismerelyasuppositiononmypart.
IsaPersonaHumanBeinginLaw?
Itisnowwemustbegintoanswerthequestionthatwastheimpetuousforthiswork.Wehaveseenthehistoryandetymologyofthewordperson,sowenowknowwhereitcomesfromandwhatitwasusedtouptoacertainpoint.Thepointthatleftuswasthatapersonwasmeantassomeonewithstatuslikeanofficialorpersonage.Wethenlookedatthemodernusagesoftheword,ofwhichtherearemany.Alotofthemeaningscouldbeexplainedbythereferringtotheetymologyoftheword,othershadnorelevancetothepresentinquiry.Butnothingexplainedwhyapersonisahumanbeing.
Afterthis
we
had
to
look
into
law
to
find
the
next
piece
of
the
puzzle.
What
wasdiscoveredwasnotsosimple. Fortherearepersonswhoarenothumanbeings,andtherehavebeenhumanbeingswhowerenotregardedaspersons.
AmorespecificmeaningofthewordpersonwasgivenbylookingintotheareaofJurisprudence,whichwewillrestatehere.
PersonAnentitywiththeabilityorcapacitytohaverightsandduties
Lawhoweverhasseenitnecessarytodividethisdefinitionbyeithersayingthe
entity
is
formed
by
nature
or
permitted
by
law,
so
we
are
left
with
the
division
of
naturalpersonandlegalpersons.Yethumanbeingisstillnotapparentbythisdefinition,andaswasshownforthousandsofyearstherehavebeenanineffableamountpeoplewhohadnorights,thereforetheseslavesintheeyesoflaw,werenotconsideredpersons. Itwasonlypeopleofstatusthatwereconsideredpersons.Thuswehavetheconnectionbetweenwhereweleftouretymologicalstudyhowithasbeenrelevanttolookintothelaw. Nowsinceonlypeopleofstatuswerepersonswiththeaccordingrightsandduties,those,bydeduction,whohadno
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rights,werenotconsideredpersons. Itisonlyinthelast150yearsorsothat,atleastinthewesternworld,thatallpeoplehaveslowlygainedalltherightsahumanbeingshouldhave. Thisnaturallymakesthempersonsintheeyesofthelaw,whichiswhywecansupposethatperson(naturalatleast)meansahumanbeing.Yetthisistechnicallynottrueifwefollowthelogicoflanguageratherthan
thetwisted
logic
of
the
law.
Letmetryandexplain.Thefirstthingthatshouldstrikethereaderisthatnounpersonisusedinaspecificway. Ifwecancompareittoanotherwordthismightclarifythings,forexamplethewordmammal. Nowahumanbeingisamammal,butnotallmammalsarehumanbeings. Doyouseethedifference?Amammaldescribesaclassofthingsandnotthethingsthemselves;itisatypeofcategorylikefurniture,liquids,plants,etc.Apersonisaclassofthings,oracategory,nothingmore. Nowifwedescribeourselvesasaperson,youonlydescribeyourselfasamemberofaclassofthings.Youcouldjustaswellsayyou
are
a
mammal;
a
biped;
an
organism.
If
we
take
the
example
of
the
class
of
furniturethenwecanpointtoachairandsayitsachairwhichisthemostspecificnountodescribeit,butitisalsofurniture.
Theproblemisthatweusethewordpersonlikeweusethewordchair;youseeamanandwomenbeforeyouandyoucallhimorheraperson,agenderneutralterm,andthewordsticks.Anotherexampletoillustratethepointisthatofwater. Nowwaterisaliquid,butwhenfrozenitisasolid,whenitboilsitbecomesgaseous. Indifferentstatesitfallsunderdifferentcategories. Thisissimilartotheperson,whenitisnatural,somethingformedbynature;whenlegal,somethingpermittedbylaw.
Sobasicallycomesdowntothis.Ahumanbeinghasthecapacitytobeapersonifitfulfilsthecriteriai.e.havingtheabilityorcapacityforrightsandduties,butitisnotahumanbeingperse.Justasananimalcanbeamammalifitfulfilsthecriteriaofbeing,
anyvertebrateoftheclassMammalia,havingthebodymoreorlesscoveredwithhair,nourishingtheyoungwithmilkfromthemammaryglands,and,withtheexceptionoftheegglayingmonotremes,givingbirthtoliveyoung.54
But
not
all
animals
are
mammals.
Again
we
must
refer
to
our
maxim,
The
wordisnotthethingitrepresentsbutgetsitsmeaningfromitsuse,thusweseethatthewordpersonisuseddifferentlyinlawthaninordinarymodernusage. Itsjustthatitseemsnotmanyinvolvedinthefieldeitherknowthisorarewillingtotelleveryonethis.
54http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/mammal
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Sointheeyesofthelawapersonisnotahumanbeing,itneverhasbeenanddoubtfullywilleverbe. Itissimplyaclassofthings;nothingmorenothingless. Ifwereallywanttobepedantic,personreallyholdsitsoriginaluse,amask. Forrightsandduties,supposedlyaregiventousbyoursovereignpower,beitGod,Allah,thestateoryourself. Youputontheserights,likeamask,whichshows
otherpeople
what
you
are,
to
be
able
to
move
around
in
aworld
full
of
other
peoplewearingsimilarmasks. TohighlightthisdevelopmentwecanuseGreenoughandKittredgessdiagramandextenditmore.
1. A Amask2. A+B characterindicatedbymask3. B characterorrolein(play)4. B+C onewhorepresentsacharacter5. C arepresentativeingeneral6. C+D arepresentativeofchurchinParish7.
D
a
parson
8. D+E aparsonwithhighrankoroffice9. E someonewithhighrankoroffice10. E+F highrank/officehasstatus11. F someonewithstatus12. F+G s/onewithstatushasrights13. G anyonewithrights14. G+H anyentitywithrights
Tosumupthissection,wehavefoundamainpartofthepuzzle,debatableor
not,that
gives
at
least
some
clarity
to
the
matter.
In
the
third
and
final
part
of
this
workwewillseehowthisappliestothecommonmanbylookingintosomelawsofEngland,seeinghowtheyareinterpretedandhowthisallappliestotheperson.
Thenextsectionwillbethemoredemandingbecausewemustdelvemoreintothelanguageofthelaw,whichalwaysproducesaheadache. This,nevertheless,isnecessarytoseehowthisonelittlewordaffectsyourlifesoprofoundly.
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Part3TheLawsofBritain
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Introduction
ToputthissectionintocontextwewillfirstbeginbygivingasmallintroductiontowhattheactuallawofEnglandis. Fromthisbasicunderstandingof
how
the
law
works
will
be
of
great
utility,
for
the
following
sections
is
where
wewillgodeeperintoactuallaws,howtheyareinterpretedandwhatrelevancethishastotheperson. Thispartwillbethemosttechnicalofthethreebecausewehavetobegintointroducelegaltermsandexplaintheirusage,sopatienceisrequiredfromthereader.
ThetwodivisionsofEnglishlaw
ItissaidtherearetwodivisionsoflawinEngland. ThefirstbeingthemoreancientsystemweknowasCommonLawandthesecondbeingthemoremodernStatuteLaw. Soitistothesetwodivisionsacursoryoverviewmustbegiven,whichwewillstartwiththeolderofthetwodivisions:CommonLaw.
CommonLaw
Commonlaw
is
generally
known
as
the
unwritten
law
of
England
(Lex
non
scripta)forasRueggsays:
Itoriginallyconsistedofacollectionofunwrittenmaximsandcustoms,whichweresupposedtohaveexistedimmemoriallyinthiscountry.55
SoCommonlawisgenerallyknownascustomarylawasitderivesitsauthorityfromthecustomsofthenationovertime,whichwasneverformallywrittendown,likeanactofparliament.Agoodexampleofthiswouldbemurder,forthereisnowrittenrulethatmurderisforbidden,butasacustom,andthisbeing
partof
common
law,
it
is
forbidden
to
murder
anyone.
Blackstone
divides
these
customsintothreetypes
55AnElementaryCommentaryonEnglishLawbyAlfredRuegg,1920,GeorgeAllen&UnwinLtd,p.12
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Thisunwritten,orcommon,lawisproperlydistinguishableintothreekinds:1.Generalcustoms;whicharetheuniversalruleofthewholekingdom,andformthecommonlaw,initsstricterandmoreusualsignification.2.Particularcustoms;which,forthemostpart,affectonlytheinhabitantsofparticulardistricts.3.Certainparticularlaws;which,bycustom,areadoptedandusedbysomeparticularcourts,ofpretty
generaland
extensive
jurisdiction.56
Thesecustomsorlawsweredeterminedbyjudges,whichwhythecommonlawisoftenreferredtoasJudgemadelaw,orcaselawwhereprecedentsaresetdownasaguideforfuturegenerationstofollow,asRueggsays.
Whetheracustom,generalorparticular,isapartoftheCommonlawofEngland,canonlybefinallydeclaredbythejudges,whosedecisionswhenpronouncedareafterwardsbindinguponthemselvesandallinferiorcourts.57
Of
course
this
is
not
to
say
that
everything
is
not
written,
but
they
do
not
include
actsofparliament,forasHalesays:
whenIcallthosepartsofourlawslegesnonscripta,Idonotmeanasifthoselawswereonlyoral,orcommunicatedfromtheformeragestothelater,merelybyword;forallthoselawshavetheirseveralmonumentsinwriting,wherebytheyaretransferredfromoneagetoanother,andwithoutwhichtheywouldsoonloseallkindofcertaintyButIthereforestilethosepartsofthelawlegesnonscripta,becausetheirauthoritativeandoriginalinstitutionsarenotsetdowninwritinginthatmannerorwiththatauthoritythatactsofparliamentare.58
SoCommon
Law
is
the
oldest
system
of
law
of
England
and
continues
today.
Yet
howdoesthisconnecttotheotherdivisionoflawwehavetoday?WelltoseethisthenwemustlookintothebirthoftheParliamentastheyarethebrachwhichwrite,enactandenforcestatutes. Blackstonewritesaboutthebeginningofparliament,
Iholditsufficientthatitisgenerallyagreed,thatinthemaintheconstitutionofparliament,asitnowstands,wasmarkedoutsolongagoastheseventeenthyearofkingJohn,ad1215,inthegreatchartergrantedbythatprince59
Thatisnttosaythatbeforethistimenothingofthelikeexisted,butwiththe
writing
of
the
Magna
Charta
a
general
summons
was
issued
to
various
personages
by
theking. Thusparliamentwasbornandoveritlonghistory,whichisofsuchagreatvolumetogodeeplyintohere,wearriveatthestatewherewearetoday. Common
56CommentariesontheLawsofEnglandinFourBooksbyWilliamBlackstone,Philadelphia:J.B.LippincottCo.,1893,p.6757AnElementaryCommentaryonEnglishLawbyAlfredRuegg,1920,GeorgeAllen&UnwinLtd,p.1558ThehistoryofthecommonlawofenglandbyMatthewHale,1820,sixthedition,Butterworths,p.2159CommentariesontheLawsofEnglandinFourBooksbyWilliamBlackstone,Philadelphia:J.B.LippincottCo.,1893,p.149
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Lawisacomplexentityandcannotbesummeduplightly,itadvisabletoreaduponthesubject,wherethereareplentyofauthoritativeworksinthepublicdomain.
Whatwecansayisthatitisfromcommonlaw thatournextdivisionoflawderivesitsauthority,namelyStatutelaw.
StatuteLaw
Statutelawisreferredtoasthewrittenlaw(LexScripta).SinceRueggputsitbestwewilllethimgiveaconciseexplanation.
Statutelaw SinceParliamentarygovernmentwasfullyestablishedStatutelawmeanstheActsofParliamentpassedbytheHouseofLordsandHouseofCommons,
and
assented
to
by
the
King.
These
Statutes
have
always
necessarily
been
in
writing
or
print,andthuscollectivelyarecalledtheLexScripta.60
SobasicallyStatutesareactsofparliaments,ofwhichtherehavebeenthousandsofinitslonghistory,althoughmanyhavebeenrepealed,orrevised. Howeverastatuteisnotsimplyanactofparliament. Itisknownthatuniversitiesusestatutesastherulesoftheirorganisation,soitisnotthesoledomainofParliamenttohavestatutes.
ThefirstwrittendocumenttopasslawswastheMagnaChartaof1215,thisisdebatablewhetheritisastatute,butitwasthefirstformofwrittenlaw. Subsequently
adifferent
version
of
the
Magna
Charta
was
put
on
the
statute
rolls,
but
not
the
original,whichisoneofthefoundingdocumentsoftheunwrittenEnglishConstitution.
NowadaysitwouldseemtothecommonmanthatStatuteLawisthelawofthelandbutonemustmakeadistinctionherebetweenthelawandalaw. Thelawiswhatwethinkofascommonlaw,whilstanactofparliamentisalaw,usuallygiventheforceoflaw. StatuteLawwasintroducedtoprovidearemedyforamischiefthatcommonlawdidnotprovide.
To
make
this
is
easier
to
understand
an
analogy
might
clarify
things.
Imagine
a
mightyoaktree. NowtherootsarethecustomsandtraditionsofEnglandthathavedevelopedovertime. Thetrunkofthetreeisthecommonlaw,whichhasgrownbiggerandbiggerastheroots(customs)growstronger. NowthebranchesandleavescanbecomparedtoStatuteLaw. Simpleenough,Ihope! Nowstatutescomeandgoasnoparliamentcanbeboundbythepreviousone,likethebranchesandleaves
60Ibid,p.11
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whichwitherawayanddiewhennewshootstakeover. Theproblemtodayisthatpeopletakethebranchesandleavestobethewholeofthetree,ignoringthetrunkandtheroots.
Statutesaretherulesofsociety,whichcanbechanged,anditisthelawwhich
enforces,or
not,
these
rules.
Never
mistake
the
rules
for
the
entity
which
enforces
them.Anexampleofthisisthatthereisnostatuteformurder,forithasbeenanimmemorialcustomthatmurderiswrong,thereforeitisunderCommonlaw.However,thecrimeofspeedingisastatutelaw,enforcedbycommonlaw,fordrivingfastisanewphenomenon,whichcommonlawhadnoremedyfor.
Theproblemwithstatutelawisthatitisopentoabusebycorruptpeopleforpower,forifonecanpushthroughalawthatisunjust,commonlawhastoenforceit.Thisiswhatweareseeinghappeningtodayasthousandsofnewoffenceshavebeencreatedsincetheseventies,tothepointthateveryboyorchildborninBritainwillbe
a
criminal
at
some
point
in
their
lives,
unwillingly
or
not.
Itwasinitiallythisimbalanceofstatutelawthatpromptedthisenquiryintotheperson.
ThisisaverysimplisticoverviewofthetwodivisionsoftheEnglishsystemofLawanditwouldbenefitthereadertodelvedeeperintothesubjectforabetterunderstanding,unfortunatelythisisbeyondthescopeofthiswork.Whatyoudohaveisasimpleunderstandingofhowthesystemworks,whichwasnecessaryfortheproceedingpart. Fornowwedelvemoreintotheworldofstatutesandseewhyitisrelevanttothepersonandtothereader.
StatutoryDefinitionofthePerson
Ifonehaseverreadastatute,thenyouwillknowthatwhenyoudosoyouenteralabyrinthoflanguage,consistingoftwists,turnsanddeadends. Thelanguageusedbythedraftsmenofsuchdocumentsisascienceinitself,asisthereadingofthemanart
form.
For
this
we
have
solicitors,
barristers,
lawyers,
judges
all
to
help
us
(please
note
theironyinthis). Butwhycannotthecommonmansimplyreadthelawandbeabletounderstandit? Simplybecauseanindustrywouldcollapse,anindustrythatmakesalotofmoneyeveryyear.
Sowhatdoesthewordpersonhavetodowithstatutes? Theansweriseverything.Forstatutesonlydealwithpersons,thetypewementionedinthesecondpartofthiswork;eitherthenaturalpersonorthelegalperson. Allthethingsthelawdealswith
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liesunderthesetwoentities,sowhenonereadsastatuteapersonwill inevitablybementionedor implied. This is thereasonthatunderstandingwhat thewordpersonmeansisessentialtothereader,becauseaswillbeshownalotofvaguenessarisesintheseactsofparliamentwhichcontrolourlives.
Howthen
does
astatute
define
what
aperson
is?
To
do
this
the
government
has
givenusahandintheformoftheInterpretationactof1978,thisasthepreamble(orsynopsis)oftheact:
AnActtoconsolidatetheInterpretationAct1889andcertainotherenactmentsrelatingtotheconstructionandoperationofActsofParliamentandotherinstruments,withamendmentstogiveeffecttorecommendationsoftheLawCommissionandtheScottishLawCommission.61
Basicallyithelpsoutbygivingsomeinstructionstohowactsofparliamentareconstructed. Thisisrelevanttousbecauseitalsoprovidesdefinitionsofwordsusedoften,personbeingoneofthem. Soletusdelvefurtherintothisactandtheconstructionandinterpretationofstatutes.
TheInterpretationAct1978
This1978actwasarevisionofthe1889Interpretationact. Itlayssomeclear
guidelineson
the
construction
of
statutes,
and
consolidates
certain
ubiquitous
terms.
Thiswastoaidthelegislatureinthedraftingoffutureacts.Anexampleofthisisthisprovision.
AnyActmaybeamendedorrepealedintheSessionofParliamentinwhichitispassed.62
Or,
InanyAct,unlessthecontraryintentionappears,
(a)Wordsimportingthemasculinegenderincludethefeminine;(b)Wordsimportingthefemininegenderincludethemasculine;(c)Wordsinthesingularincludethepluralandwordsinthepluralincludethesingular.63
61InterpretationAct1978(c.30),preamble62Ibid,Section2
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Themostimportantsectiontousisthefollowing:
InanyAct,unlessthecontraryintentionappears,wordsandexpressionslistedinSchedule1tothisActaretobeconstruedaccordingtothatSchedule.64
ToseetheentiretyoftheactofthisactlooktoAppendixC,buttherelevantdefinitionforusishiddenawayinthatschedule1. Therelevancyisthatitdefinesthewordpersonandhowitshouldbeinterpreted,itisasfollows:
Person"includesabodyofpersonscorporateorunincorporate.65
Asmalldefinitionandconcisedefinition,ifwecanevencallitadefinition,foritdefinesitselfusingthewordpersoninthedefinition. Socanweevencallthisisadefinition? Itlooksmorelikeguidanceonhowtousetheword,notwhatitmeans.
We
will
compare
this
with
the
original
definition
of
the
1889
act,
which
is
as
follows:
InthisActandineveryActpassedafterthecommencementofthisActtheexpression"personshall,unlessthecontraryintentionappears,includeanybodyofpersonscorporateorunincorporate66
Soweseethattheoriginal1889definitionwasdividedandputindifferentsections.
Firstweshouldalreadybecognizantofthewordpersonsonoexplanationis
neededhere,
but
the
second
word
to
appear
in
the
phrase
is
of
definite
importance
andthatisthewordinclude.
Thisisanothercontentiouswordinlawandtherehasbeengreatconfusioninitsuse. Soitisnecessarytoclarifythiswordbeforewecangoonwithourdeconstruction. Ithinkmostpeoplebelieveincludemeanstobecomeapartofsomething,asIdidatonepoint,butthisisjustthecommonusage. Togiveanexampleofadictionarydefinitionincludemeans
Toconfinewithin;tohold;tocontain;toshutup;toenclose;.67
Whatweseehereistherealmeaning,whichiswhywesaythatitmeanstobecomeapartofsomething,becausethetruemeaningistoconfinewithin. So
63Ibid,Section664Ibid,Section565Ibid,Schedule166 InterpretationAct1889takenfromStroudsJudicialDictionary67"include."Webster'sRevisedUnabridgedDictionary.MICRA,Inc.01Jul.2009.
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whensomeoneincludesyouinanactivityyoubecomeconfinedwithinthatactivity,whichisanotherwayofsayingtobecomeapartofsomething.
Inlawthewordincludeusesitsoriginalmeaning,asintoconfinewithin,thuswhenusedinastatuteitisnotthesameasordinaryusage. Thisisoneofthe
fundamentalguides
to
statutory
construction
and
interpretation,
which
are
expressedinafamousmaxim;
Expressio unius est exclusio alterius (The express mention of one thing excludes all
others)
Itmustbeunderstoodthatthisisaguidetoconstructionandnotaruletofollowobediently. Sayingthatitdoesprovidelightontothewordinclude. Ifweweretofollowthewisdomofthemaximandseetheconnectiontothestandardmeaningofthewordinclude,wecangainabetterunderstanding.OrasBennionstates:
Theexpressiouniusprincipleisalsoappliedwhereaformulawhichinitselfmayormaynotincludeacertainclassisaccompaniedbywordsofextensionnamingonlysomemembersofthatclass.Theremainingmembersoftheclassarethentakentobeexcluded68
ForexamplebyapplyingtheabovemaximtothephrasePersonincludesabodyofpersonscorporateorunincorporatewecouldsaythatbyexpressingthatapersonisabodyofpersonscorporateorunincorporate,whichwouldonlyimply