The Cooperative The Cooperative PrinciplePrinciple

The seventh weekThe seventh week

Key pointsKey points

The Cooperative Principle and its maximThe Cooperative Principle and its maximss

Conversational implicaturesConversational implicatures

Difficulties Difficulties

The violations of the cooperation The violations of the cooperation maximsmaxims

6.3.2.1 The Cooperative Principle 6.3.2.1 The Cooperative Principle and its maximsand its maxims

A principle proposed by the A principle proposed by the philosopher Paul Grice whereby philosopher Paul Grice whereby those involved in communication those involved in communication assume that both parties will assume that both parties will normally seek to cooperate with each normally seek to cooperate with each other to establish agreed meaning. It other to establish agreed meaning. It is composed of four maxims: quality, is composed of four maxims: quality, quantity, relation, and manner. quantity, relation, and manner.

The four cooperative maximsThe four cooperative maxims

[1] The Maxim of Quality[1] The Maxim of Quality Try to make your contribution Try to make your contribution

one that is true:one that is true: A. Do not say what you believe A. Do not say what you believe

to be false. to be false. B. Do not say that for which you B. Do not say that for which you

lack adequate evidence (Say lack adequate evidence (Say what you believe to be true)what you believe to be true)

The four cooperative principlesThe four cooperative principles

[2] The Maxim of Quantity[2] The Maxim of Quantity A. make your contribution as A. make your contribution as

informative as is required (for informative as is required (for the current purpose of the the current purpose of the exchange)exchange)

B. Do not make your contribution B. Do not make your contribution more informative than is more informative than is requiredrequired

The four cooperative principlesThe four cooperative principles

[3] The Maxim of [3] The Maxim of RelationRelation

Be relevantBe relevant

The four cooperative principlesThe four cooperative principles

[4] The Maxim of Manner[4] The Maxim of Manner A. Be perspicuous:.A. Be perspicuous:. B. Avoid obscurity of expression. B. Avoid obscurity of expression. C. Avoid ambiguity. C. Avoid ambiguity. D. Be brief (avoid unnecessary D. Be brief (avoid unnecessary

prolixity). prolixity). F. Be orderlyF. Be orderly

6.3.2.2 Conversational implicatur6.3.2.2 Conversational implicatureses

According to Grice, utterance interpretation is not a mAccording to Grice, utterance interpretation is not a matter of decoding messages, but rather involvesatter of decoding messages, but rather involves

(1) taking the meaning of the sentences together with c(1) taking the meaning of the sentences together with contextual information, ontextual information,

(2) using inference rules (2) using inference rules (3) working out what the speaker means on the basis of t(3) working out what the speaker means on the basis of t

he assumption that the utterance conforms to the mahe assumption that the utterance conforms to the maxims. The main advantage of this approach from Gricxims. The main advantage of this approach from Grice’s point of view is that it provides a pragmatic explae’s point of view is that it provides a pragmatic explanation for a wide range of phenomena, especially for nation for a wide range of phenomena, especially for cconversational implicautresonversational implicautres--- a kind of extra meaning --- a kind of extra meaning that is not literally contained in the utterance.that is not literally contained in the utterance.

According to Grice, conversational implicatures can arise from either stAccording to Grice, conversational implicatures can arise from either strictly and directly observing or deliberately and openly flouting the maxirictly and directly observing or deliberately and openly flouting the maxims, that is, speakers can produce implicatures in two ways: observancms, that is, speakers can produce implicatures in two ways: observanc

e and non-observance of the maxims.e and non-observance of the maxims. Ex. (1) Husband: Where are the car keys?Ex. (1) Husband: Where are the car keys? Wife: They’re on the table in the hall.Wife: They’re on the table in the hall. The wife has answered clearly (manner) The wife has answered clearly (manner)

and truthfully (Quality), has given just the and truthfully (Quality), has given just the right amount of information (Quantity) and right amount of information (Quantity) and has directly addressed her husband’s goal has directly addressed her husband’s goal in asking the question (Relation). She ahs in asking the question (Relation). She ahs said precisely what she meant, no more said precisely what she meant, no more and no less.and no less.

(2) He is a tiger.(2) He is a tiger.

Example (2) is literally false, openly Example (2) is literally false, openly against the maxim of quality, for no against the maxim of quality, for no human is a tiger. But the hearer still human is a tiger. But the hearer still assumes that the speaker is being assumes that the speaker is being cooperative and then infers that he is cooperative and then infers that he is trying to say something distinct from trying to say something distinct from the literal meaning. He can then work the literal meaning. He can then work out that probably the speaker meant to out that probably the speaker meant to say that “he has some characteristics of say that “he has some characteristics of a tiger”. a tiger”.

(3) Tom has wooden ears. (3) Tom has wooden ears.

Sentence (3) is obviously false most Sentence (3) is obviously false most natural contexts and the speaker in natural contexts and the speaker in uttering it flouts the first maxim of uttering it flouts the first maxim of quality. quality.

Conversational implicaturesConversational implicatures

Meaning: semantic meaningMeaning: semantic meaning intended meaning conventional meaningintended meaning conventional meaning unconventional meaningunconventional meaning

(conversational (conversational implicatures)implicatures)

Conversational implicaturesConversational implicatures

Unconventional meaning Unconventional meaning generalizedgeneralized

scalarscalar

particularizedparticularized

The flouting of cooperative The flouting of cooperative principlesprinciples

It is important to note that it is speakers who cIt is important to note that it is speakers who communicate meaning via implicatures and it iommunicate meaning via implicatures and it is listeners who recognize those communicates listeners who recognize those communicated meanings via inference. The inferences selecd meanings via inference. The inferences selected are those which will preserve the assumptited are those which will preserve the assumption of cooperation. But in fact, the speakers ofton of cooperation. But in fact, the speakers often flout the cooperative principles and are still en flout the cooperative principles and are still thought to be cooperative. What they convey ithought to be cooperative. What they convey is the conversational implicatures.s the conversational implicatures.

The flouting of the maxim of The flouting of the maxim of qualityquality

Ex. (4) Tom does not appreciate Ex. (4) Tom does not appreciate classical music so we should not classical music so we should not invite him to the concert. invite him to the concert.

Ex. When we moved here, the room Ex. When we moved here, the room is 5x4, now it is 3x4.is 5x4, now it is 3x4.

The flouting of maxim of quantityThe flouting of maxim of quantity

Ex. (5) A: Where does C live?Ex. (5) A: Where does C live? B: Somewhere in the South of B: Somewhere in the South of

France.France. Ex. Dear Sir,Ex. Dear Sir, Mr. X’s command of English is Mr. X’s command of English is

excellent and his attendance at excellent and his attendance at tutorials has been regular, yours, etc.tutorials has been regular, yours, etc.

The flouting of the maxim of The flouting of the maxim of relation:relation:

Ex. (6) A: I’m out of petrol.Ex. (6) A: I’m out of petrol. B: There is a garage round the corner.B: There is a garage round the corner. Ex. A. Where’s Bill?Ex. A. Where’s Bill? B. There’s a yellow VW outside Sue’s B. There’s a yellow VW outside Sue’s

house.house. Ex. A. What time is it?Ex. A. What time is it? B. The mail has already come.B. The mail has already come. Ex. A. The hostess is an awful bore, don’t Ex. A. The hostess is an awful bore, don’t

you think?you think? B. The roses are lovely, aren’t they?B. The roses are lovely, aren’t they?

The flouting of the maxim of The flouting of the maxim of mannermanner

Ex. (7) A: Shall we get something for Ex. (7) A: Shall we get something for the kids?the kids?

B: But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.B: But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M. Ex. Miss X produced a series of Ex. Miss X produced a series of

sounds that corresponded closely sounds that corresponded closely with the score of “Home, Sweet with the score of “Home, Sweet Home”.Home”.

Tautology: it is uninformative by Tautology: it is uninformative by virtue of its semantic contentvirtue of its semantic content

Ex. (8) If he comes, he comes.Ex. (8) If he comes, he comes. (9) Girls are girls.(9) Girls are girls. (10) War is war.(10) War is war.

assignmentsassignments

I. Define the following terms briefly:I. Define the following terms briefly: (1) the Cooperative Principle (1) the Cooperative Principle (2) conversational implicature(2) conversational implicature II. What are the four maxims of the CoopII. What are the four maxims of the Coop

erative Principle?erative Principle? III. Which maxim does this speaker seem III. Which maxim does this speaker seem

to be particularly careful about: to be particularly careful about: Well, to be quite honest, I don’t think sWell, to be quite honest, I don’t think s

he is ill today. he is ill today.