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The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865- 1877 Chapter 16

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The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877. Chapter 16. Results of the Civil War: . Over 620,000 men died The South’s economy was destroyed What about status of 3.5 million former slaves?. The process of putting the nation back together after the Civil War (1865-1877). Reconstruction:. - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

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Page 1: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877Chapter 16

Page 2: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

Results of the Civil War: 1. Over 620,000 men died 2. The South’s economy was destroyed3. What about status of 3.5 million former

slaves?

Page 3: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

Reconstruction:The process of putting the nation back together after the Civil War (1865-1877)

The re-building of the Union(and the South in particular)

Page 4: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

13th Amendment (1865)• “Neither slavery nor

involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for a crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction.”

• Prohibited slavery.

Page 5: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

Reconstruction (1865-1877)• When the North won the Civil War in 1865, the era

of Reconstruction began

How should the North bring the South back into

the Union?

How should the North rebuild

the South after its destruction during the war?

How should the North integrate

and protect newly-emancipated

black freedmen?

What branchof governmentis in charge of

Reconstruction?

Quickly, to show Americans that they are willing to forgive?

Slowly, to make sure the South doesn’t try to secede again?

“Old South” based on cotton farming with blacks as workers?

“New South” with textile factories & railroads with paid labor?

Should freed blacks be given the right to vote?

How do you protect blacks against racists whites in the South?

Should the president, as commander-in-chief, be in charge?

Should Congress be in charge because the Constitution gives it

power to let territories in as states?

Page 6: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

Lincoln’s Plan (1863)

VERY lenient…1. 10% of Confederate voters in southern states

must:a) Accept emancipationb) Swear loyalty to the Union

2. High ranking Confederate officials could not vote or hold office unless pardoned by the President

Once these conditions were met, a state could return to the Union

Congress rejected Lincoln’s plan:Radical Republicans wanted black male

suffrage added & feared that Confederate leaders would take charge in the South

Page 7: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

Opposition to Lincoln’s PlanWade-Davis Bill:

▫ In 1864, Congress wrote its own plan:

50% of state populations had to swear an oath of loyalty

Confederate leaders were not eligible to vote or participate in state governments

Did not require black suffrage but did enforce emancipation

• Lincoln killed the bill using a pocket veto (it passed in the last 10 days of the legislative session)

By the end of the Civil War, the U.S. government had no plan for

Reconstruction in place

This problem was compounded in 1865 when Lincoln was assassinated

Page 8: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

Lincoln’s Assassinatio

n• April 14, 1865 by

John Wilkes Booth

• Watching the play, “Our American Cousin,” at Ford’s Theater in Washington, DC

Page 9: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

After Lincoln’s Death, 3 Men:•Thaddeus Stevens•Charles Sumner•Andrew Johnson

Radical Republicans

Stevens Sumner

Page 10: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

Radical Republicans:1. Members of the

Republican Party who wanted to:

• Punish the south for causing the Civil War

• Fought to protect the rights of former slaves

Page 11: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

Thaddeus Stevens (Radical Republican)

• Member of the House of Reps

• Goal: economic opportunity for former slaves

Page 12: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

Charles Sumner (Radical Republican)• Member of US Senate

• Goal: citizenship/political rights for former slaves

Page 13: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

Charles Sumner vs. Preston Brooks (1857)

Page 14: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

Andrew Johnson• Former Senator from

TN, became Lincoln’s VP

• A Democrat; Reconstruction plan similar to Lincoln’s

• Issued 13,000 pardons

• Unconcerned with rights of former slaves

• Impeached in 1868

Page 15: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

Johnson’s Reconstruction Plan:1. Appointed provisional state governors to

lead state constitutional conventions

2. States must declare secession illegal & ratify the 13th Amend’t

• Southern conventions reluctantly obeyed Johnson’s Reconstruction policy but passed Black Codes

Page 16: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

The Freedman’s Bureau•The Freedman’s Bureau was established

in 1865 to offer assistance to former slaves & protect their new citizenship:▫Provided emergency food, housing, medical

supplies▫Promised “40 acres & a mule”▫Supervised labor contracts▫Created new schools

Page 17: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

“Plenty to eat & nothing to do”

Freedmen’s Bureau Seen Through Southern Eyes

Page 18: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

Freedmen’s Bureau School

Many former abolitionists moved

South to help freedmen, called “carpetbaggers” by Southern Democrats

Page 19: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

Congressional Reconstruction • Following Johnson’s impeachment,

Congress controlled reconstruction. • Congress passed the Reconstruction

Acts (1867-68):1.The former Confederate States were

militarily occupied by US troops2.States could re-enter the Union

once they ratified the 14th Amendment

Page 20: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

Map 16.1: The Reconstruction of the South

Page 21: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

The 14th Amendment•In 1866, Congress voted to

extend the Freedmen’s Bureau & passed a Civil Rights Bill to protect against Black Codes

•Johnson vetoed both bills, arguing that they violated states’ rights

•Congress overrode both vetoes (for the 1st time in U.S. history!)

Page 22: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

The 14th Amendment•Congress feared Johnson would allow

violations of civil rights so it passed the 14th Amendment:▫Federal gov’t must protect the civil rights of

all Americans▫Defined the meaning of “citizenship” for

Americans ▫Clearly defined punishments for Southern

states who violated the civil rights of African-Americans

Page 23: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

14th Amendment (1868)1. All persons born the

US are citizens of the US

2. All citizens are guaranteed equal treatment under the law

3. Punished states that denied adult males the right to vote

Page 24: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

Johnson’s “Swing Around the Circle”

In the 1866 mid-term elections, Johnson toured the South trying to convince

voters to elect Congressmen who would reject the 14th Amendment

The plan back-fired & Republicans won a 3-1 majority in both houses of Congress &

gained control of every northern state

Page 25: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

Radical Reconstruction•Congress, led by Thaddeus

Stevens, trumped Johnson by passing it its own Radical Reconstruction plan in 1867:▫Congress could confiscate &

redistribute Southern plantations

▫Allowed quick re-entry for states that supported black suffrage

▫Ex-Confederates couldn’t vote

Thaddeus Stevens the most influential of the

“radical” Republicans; He opposed the Crittenden Compromise, led the impeachment charges

against Johnson, & drafted the Radical

Reconstruction plan used from 1867 to 1877

Page 26: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

Created 5 military districts to enforce acts But, Radical Reconstruction was so dependent on massive & sustained federal aid that it was

not adequate to enforce equality in the South…

…and Johnson obstructed Republicans’ plans by removing sympathetic cabinet

members & generals

Page 27: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

The Impeachment Crisis•In Feb 1868, the House voted 126-47 to

impeach Johnson, but the Senate fell 1 vote short of conviction & removal from office

Johnson argued that removal could only occur due to “high crimes & misdemeanors”

but no “crime” had been committedSome Republicans refused to establish the precedent of removing a president

But…Johnson did promise to enforce Reconstruction for the

remainder of his term…& he did!For violating the Tenure of Office Act when he tried to fire Sec of War Edwin Stanton

Page 28: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

Impeachment and Removal of a President1. Impeachment: to bring formal charges

against the President (Majority vote in the House of Reps)

2. Trial/Removal: The President stands trial (the Senate acts as jury; 2/3 majority vote is needed for removal)

Page 29: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

Johnson and Impeachment•Johnson was impeached, but not removed

from office; he was ineffective following impeachment

Page 30: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

The Johnson Impeachment & Senate Trial

Page 31: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

Reconstructing Southern Society•How did Reconstruction impact the South?

▫Southern whites wanted to keep newly-freed blacks inferior

▫ Freed blacks sought equality, property, education, & the vote

▫ Many Northerners moved South to make money or to "civilize" the region after the Civil War

Page 32: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

Sharecropping: A New Slavery?•The Civil War destroyed Southern land,

economy, & transportation •Recovering meant finding a new labor

system to replace slavery:▫The South tried a contract-labor system but

it was ineffective ▫Sharecropping “solved” the problem; black

farmers worked on white planters’ land, but had to pay ¼ or ½ of their crops

Page 33: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

SharecroppingProblem: families accumulated debt to the landowner before their crop was sold; This cyclical process led to mortgages on

future crops (crop lien system)

By the end of 1865, most freedmen had returned to work on the same plantations on

which they were previously enslaved

Page 34: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877
Page 35: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

Black Codes: A New Slavery?•Violence & discrimination against

freedmen by whites was common:▫Southerners used black codes to keep

former slaves from voting, getting jobs, buying land

▫1,000s of blacks were murdered▫U.S. army did not have enough troops to

keep order in the South

Page 36: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877
Page 37: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

Republican Rule in the South•In 1867, a Southern Republican Party was

formed by: ▫Northern “carpetbaggers” ▫Southern “scalawags” interested in making

money in the South ▫ Small, white farmers who wanted

protection from creditors▫ Blacks who wanted civil rights

• Many Southern blacks were elected to state & national gov’t

Southern Republicans were only in power for 1-9 years but improved public

education, welfare, & transportation

Page 38: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877
Page 39: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

Black & White Political Participation

Black House & Senate Delegates

“Colored Rule in a Reconstructed

South”

Black Republicans

were accused of corruption &

lack of civility

Page 40: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

Civil War & Reconstruction Review•Examine the major political & military

events listed on the “Key Events of the Civil War” timeline; Complete the missing sections

•Examine “Reconstruction Plans…” & identify the major components of each section of the chart; Be prepared to discuss your answers to the discussion questions.

Page 41: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

Gaining Rights for Blacks •In 1870, the 15th

Amendment gave all men the right to vote regardless of “race, color, or previous condition of servitude”

•Freedmen fought for civil rights:▫Legalized marriage ▫Used courts to assert

claims against whites & other blacks

▫Saw education as their 1st opportunity to become literate

Women’s rights groups were furious that they were not granted the vote!

Page 42: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

Reconstruction in the Grant Administration (1869-1877)

Page 43: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

The Election of 1868•In 1867, Thaddeus Stevens’ Radical

Reconstruction plan was in place & a southern Republican party hoped to build a New South

•By 1868, 8 of the 11 former Confederate states were accepted back into the Union after creating state constitutions & ratifying the 14th Amendment

TennesseeAlabama

Arkansas Louisiana South Carolina

North CarolinaFloridaGeorgia

Page 44: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

Re-Admission of the South

Page 45: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

The Election of 1868•But, the U.S. had lots of problems:

▫Excessive printing of greenbacks during the Civil War led to high inflation which hurt both the Northern & Southern economies

▫Southern “Redeemers” & secret societies tried to undermine Congressional attempts to reconstruct the South

Page 46: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

The 1868 Presidential Election

Republicans nominated Civil War hero Ulysses S. Grant who had the support of

Republicans in the North & South as well as Southern freedmen who voted for the 1st time

Democrats refused to re-nominate Johnson & chose NY governor Horatio Seymour

Page 47: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

In the election of 1868, both parties “waved the bloody shirt” to remind voters why the Civil War was fought

Southern Republican Strategy

Southern Democratic Strategy

Keeping freed blacks inferior was the most

important goal of Southern Democrats

Republican goal: Keep ex-Confederate leaders from restoring

the “Old South”

Page 48: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

Grant’s National Reconstruction Plan

•When Grant was elected, he supported:▫Shifting back to gold (“sound” or “hard” money) to deflate American currency

▫Using a limited number of U.S. soldiers in the South to enforce Reconstruction efforts

▫Civil rights for freed blacks

Deflations hurt indebted farmers the mostIn 1876, the Greenback Party was

formed to support keeping “soft” money

Enough troops should be sent to work with state militias to protect blacks’ rights, reduce violence, & support Republican leaders in Southern state governments…

…but not enough to encourage widespread resentment among the Southern population

Page 49: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

Grant’s National Reconstruction Plan

•Republicans sought equal protection for blacks; ratified the 15th Amendment in 1870:▫Prohibited any state from denying men the

right to vote due to race▫But…the amendment said nothing about

literacy tests, poll taxes, & property qualifications

Page 50: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

A Reign of Terror Against Blacks•From 1868 to 1872, southern Republicans

were threatened by secret societies like Ku Klux Klan▫Hoped to restore the “Old South”▫Sought to restrict black voting▫Oppose Republican state gov’ts

•The KKK was successful in its terror campaigns, helping turn GA, NC, & TN to the Democratic Party

Page 51: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

The “Invisible Empire of the South”

“Of course he wants to vote for the Democratic ticket”

Page 52: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

The Failure of Federal Enforcement

Page 53: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

A Reign of Terror Against Blacks•In 1870, Congress passed the Force Acts

(the “KKK Acts”):▫Made interference in elections a federal

crime ▫Gave the president the military power to

protect polling places

▫Allowed for high black turnout & Republicans victories in 1872

▫“Redeemer” Democrats openly appealed to white supremacy & laissez-faire government

Page 54: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

A Reign of Terror Against Blacks•The KKK responded by becoming more

open with its terror tactics:▫Northerners grew impatient with federal

Reconstruction efforts & “corrupt” Southern state gov’ts

▫Grant began to refuse to use military force against KKK terrorist attacks

•By 1876, only SC, FL, & LA were controlled by Republicans

Page 55: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

The 1875 Civil Rights Act•Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of

1875 to protect freedmen:▫Outlawed racial discrimination in public

places & in jury selection•But the Supreme Court ruled it

unconstitutional & weakened the 14th & 15th Amendments, leaving southern blacks defenseless against discrimination

In the Slaughterhouse Cases (1873), the court ruled that the 14th Amendment protects only national citizenship rights & does not protect

citizens from discrimination by the states

In U.S. v Reese (1876) & U.S. v Cruikshank (1876), the court weakened the KKK Act by

stating that the 14th Amendment does not protect against actions by individuals

Page 56: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

Corruption in Grant’s Administration

Page 57: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

Corruption in Grant’s Administration•The Republicans experienced rampant

corruption during Grant’s 1st term as president:▫Grant’s Secretary of War was impeached &

Attorney General resigned due to corruption

▫Grant’s VP & others were ruined by the Crédit Mobilier scandal involving railroad stock in exchange for political favorsThese scandals distracted Americans

from Reconstruction efforts

Page 58: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

The Election of 1872•Corruption scandals & the failure of

Reconstruction in the South led to a split among Republicans:▫Liberal Republicans were tired of the Grant

scandals & believed in reconciling with the South, not military intervention

▫In 1872, Liberal Republicans ran Horace Greeley against Grant

Page 59: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

1872 Presidential ElectionRepublicans suppressed the KKK in time for the election; Southern blacks enjoyed a voting freedom they would not see again for a century

Grant was the only consecutive, 2-term president from Jackson to Teddy Roosevelt,

but is commonly regarded as a failure

Page 60: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

Grant’s Second Term•Grant s 2nd term was plagued by economic

depression & corruption ▫Panic of 1873 was the longest depression

(until 1929); many blamed large corporations & begged Grant to create jobs

▫Whiskey Ring—Grant’s personal secretary was caught embezzling whiskey taxes

½ the nation’s RRs defaulted Over 100 banks collapsed18,000 businesses closed

Unemployment reached 15%

The Grant administration did not see job creation or relief for the poor as its duties

Page 61: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

•Essential Question:▫What events from 1868 to 1876 led to the

abandonment of federal reconstruction attempts in the South by 1877?

•Reading Quiz 17B (p 585-598)

Page 62: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

The New South & the Rise of Jim Crow Rutherford B. Hayes Video

Page 63: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

1876 Election•The winner is…?•Two candidates:

▫Samuel Tilden: Democrat; political reformer from NY

▫Rutherford B. Hayes: Republican; former OH Governor

Page 64: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

The Compromise of 1877•In 1876, Republicans ran Rutherford B.

Hayes against Democrat reformer Samuel Tilden

▫Election results were disputed in three Southern states

▫A special commission gave the disputed votes to Hayes, but Democrats in Congress blocked this decision by filibuster

A filibuster is an attempt to extend debate

upon a proposal in

order to delay or prevent a vote on its passage

Page 65: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877
Page 66: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

1876 Presidential Election

Page 67: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

1876 Election

• A commission was established to determine winner:

Compromise of 1877:1. Hayes became President2. Military occupation of the South ended

1. The rights of former slaves were not protected

Page 68: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

A Political Crisis: The Compromise of 1877

President Rutherfraud B. Hayes

The “Second Corrupt Bargain”

Page 69: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

The Rise of Jim Crow•From 1877 to 1910, “Redeemer”

Democrats imposed restrictions called Jim Crow Laws to limit the civil rights of African Americans ▫187 blacks were lynched yearly▫A convict-lease system & prison farms

resembled slavery▫Segregation laws led to separate railroads,

streetcars, & public facilities“Jim Crow laws” were passed after

Reconstruction ended to obstruct rights given to black Americans in the 14th & 15th Amendments

“Black codes” were laws passed from 1865 to 1877 to keep freed slaves

from gaining rights & voting

Page 70: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877
Page 71: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

Conclusion: The “Unfinished Revolution”

Page 72: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

The “Unfinished Revolution”•Reconstruction lasted only 12 years from

1865 to 1877:▫Reconciliation between the North & South

occurred only after Reconstruction ended▫By the late 1880s, “reunion” was becoming

a reality but at the expense of the blacks’ rights

•Reconstruction remained an “unfinished revolution”

Page 73: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

1. How did the federal gov’t

bring the South back into the

Union?

2. Was the South

transformed into a

“New South”?

3. How werenewly-

emancipatedblack freedmen

protected?

4. What branchof gov’t took

control ofReconstruction?

How effective was the U.S. in addressing these Reconstruction questions?

Page 74: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

How effective was the U.S. in addressing these Reconstruction questions?

How should the North bring the South back into

the Union?

How should the North rebuild

the South after its destruction during the war?

How should the North integrate

and protect newly-emancipated

black freedmen?

What branchof governmentis in charge of

Reconstruction?

Quickly, to show Americans that they are willing to forgive?

Slowly, to make sure the South doesn’t try to secede again?

“Old South” based on cotton farming with blacks as workers?

“New South” with textile factories & railroads with paid labor?

Should freed blacks be given the right to vote?

How do you protect blacks against racists whites in the South?

Should the president, as commander-in-chief, be in charge?

Should Congress be in charge because the Constitution gives it

power to let territories in as states?

Page 75: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

Limits to Reconstruction • The Civil War Amendments were a success

• H/e, there was no redistribution of land and most African Americans lived as sharecroppers and faced little economic opportunity

Page 76: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

Reconstruction: EVALUATION•Some argue it was a success because

slavery was abolished and African Americans were guaranteed equal treatment

•Others say it was a failure because after 1877 those rights were only in place on paper; not in reality.

•Your opinion: Was it a success or failure…?

Page 77: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

Up From SlaveryThe African-American Struggle

for Equality in the Post-Civil War Era

Page 78: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

The Hard Reality of Emancipation• After the Civil War ended and the 13th Amendment

abolished slavery (1865), freedmen found themselves without significant resources to start a new life

• The Freedmen’s Bureau (est. 1865) provided direct relief, education, jobs, and medical care in an effort to give freed slaves an opportunity to adjust to their new lives

• Despite such efforts, many blacks ended up as tenant farmers who engaged in sharecropping – which involved pledging a share of their harvest as repayment to landowners who leased the land; debt peonage often resulted as black farmers went into debt as a result of not being able to cover costs and debt owed to creditors

Page 79: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

The Failure of Radical ReconstructionThe Radical Republican attempt to re-engineer Southern

society and politics (1865-77) failed due to:

1. terrorism - as practiced by the Ku Klux Klan and other white supremacist groups; violence and intimidation kept reformers from carrying out Radical policies

2. redemption – Southern Democrats regained control of their state governments as a result of the Compromise of 1877, which (after the disputed election of 1876) gave Republican candidate Hayes the White House in exchange for a Republican pledge to withdraw the last federal troops from the South and end Reconstruction

3. “Jim Crow” laws created institutionalized segregation through such measures as poll taxes, literacy tests, and grandfather clauses – effectively disenfranchised blacks despite rights provided in the 14th and 15th Amendments

Page 80: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

Thomas Nast’s View of the Post-War South

Page 81: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

The Supreme Court Limits Rights• Ex parte Milligan (1866) – the Court ruled that military

courts could not try civilians where civil courts were functioning – limited ability of the federal government to prosecute Southern whites who violated the law

• Slaughterhouse cases (1873) – the Court created the concept of “dual citizenship” – the idea that the 14th Amendment only guaranteed national civil rights, not state civil rights; effectively limited the scope of 14th Amendment due process protections

• Civil Rights cases (1883) – the Court further weakened the 14th Amendment by declaring that it protected only against government infringement of rights, not private infringement (i.e., private businesses could still discriminate against blacks)

• Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) – ruled segregation legal as long as facilities were “separate but equal” – not overturned until Brown v. Board of Education in 1954

Page 82: The Crisis of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

Two Views of Progress

• Booker T. Washington, a former slave and the founder of Tuskegee Institute, argued that blacks would only gain acceptance by white society through education and hard work; patterned after his own life experience

• Equality must first come on socio-economic terms and political equality would follow; a popular approach with white Americans

• W.E.B. DuBois, a northern intellectual, argued that blacks must achieve political equality first before socio-economic equality would be fully achieved

• His approach was widely adopted by civil rights leaders in the 1950s/1960s

• DuBois helped to lead the Niagara movement and founded the NAACP