the crowing center of knowledge2_cropped

8/18/2019 The Crowing Center of Knowledge2_cropped

1/29

THB

GROWIN {;

~

~ N ' : C I J R

OF

K N O W L 1 9 , D

~ a •

.

,

•

NawLEDGE GROWS

wim

~ u a i t i t l ~ adw•ng

e d ~

ige

.

'

The

e0ütani m ~ ~ J t í t l i ~ ~ t i , 0 1 1

of

tacü,

:)} ~ ) n e ~ g ~ I

l.ig l 6 m s e

m : s

m0ie

e c i d @ t ~ w1ii@ñ leaéil ¡n. t f t ~ tlltA 10 general: um PJ.edsfi

ñf0DRatio11, iS the

speeWar

preces

in

our

Jªmito>B.

l t

~ l m s

p l a ~ .J re &e.

points

of

flewdít

- F ~ - t , ,

· ~

Ws

J#0Wth

~

rélii

s t

t r ~

0í

bewkdgo

i t

- f 1 l ~ s t ~ P@. 'if t1HW IBBR

\J ¡p_r0JifeJátioB

of

G t B s d h @ i e m ~ ~ . ·

~ t

m l J.e ftilleÍ ' ~ s . J l í ~ ,.en as kmnaa

m

9 l t e > l ~ t > ~ S . S

~

{ ( f ~ J l ~ • ~

' 1 l e wáole 1

0iilY41'.6' b' ~ ~ 1 ~

flllr&

se. l f > ~ ~

·

f

l

~

llD

0>ct,.

nii

m

G . W 4 i

a¡

t ke

emJmril

rnenra

·

t

• ~ p c i s e s t h i i 9 ~ -

rt1m ~ h t e i 00:rd, aatl

he:

J J ~ a l o r ~

oj si¡\t

U l . ~ :keaiin . ~

n t i i r ~ l v

0f

. - ~ Y s

4iifs · 1Me

~

•

~ e n t t a l netv 'IU ~ Y : B a A ~

l y B t g its oo11S. f i " r 0 ~ o

-


2/29

• •

f

••• '

.

124

Philosophicai

Sketehes ·

tially the same nerve cells we started

with

at birth. ·

(There

are a few ~ e r v e s , for instance

in

the face,

that

repair their

ti

ssue,

but

in general destroyed nen'e cells

can

never

be replaced.)

The

nervous system has no

''growing

edge."

Yet

obviously

the

nervous system

of

a

man

is bigger

than that

of a baby.

It has

grown somebow.

The

brain

is

bigger, though proportionately not much,

and the

spinal cqrd is longer.

The

nerves that reach the man's

fingers have fartber to go than they used to.

In

the eon

trolling central organ tbere is a different kind

0f

incre.ase

- n o t

by

addition of

new cells

at the n.

erve

.

encls

or

m:a

the

surface

of the

brain,

but

by

grewth.

of

the

(§)ri.

9i1

f

a1

cells themselves. They stretch.

They

sttretch: ~ 0 k e ~ p ,

~

~

e

with

the growing .society of tlte ·eells ~ a t &wcle a e

mllt

l

tiply,

and

that extend

the compass of the

li>o·dy

as

a

&Jj)W

ing

population. exte:nds

the compass of

a

c i ~ , s l i : t 0 • l ~ ' - ~

suburb. The nervous system is a g r < J W , ~ n g eelíllteP,,

~ a t

bolds all

the

. advaneing other parts in mutual a J J l i a m ~

~

as

one organism, living one life.

In the cultural life of our day--one of the vecy s ~ J f i i ..

'ing days in man's

history-the most

breathtakdng

e ~

~ t

arise

from

the

sudden

i n c r e a s ~ of scie:atifie k

º w 1 ~ 1 3 . í

g ~ .

One discovery

Iea ~

t

iiin

whiob. e ~ e r i e n e ~ t e : s "

its

neeali'

0f

t ~ a m ~

•

l

aw

.:

~ 0 w l e c t l g e of, ~ ~ s

~

f efll¡UJjsite Ji0r._e_; ~ y t f

~

~

IVJ.Dg ~ ~ · d 1 v

t

~ e • e . l J l ~ . - - · ·

~

~ , .- ,

• ...

••

• ' ¡ • •

.r" ,· ....

...

. ···*.

•I

' ' j, •i, • ... . ' • .. -

.,

..

I' . ~ .

· · ~ i - 1 · , • . l


3/29

.

''

, .

t h ~

G rowing l f m l l l t

is

a m0•eatuy

f ; J ,

pan

:

.

01

bis

0 ~

ae&w"

,..

~ e l r

< 1 e i 1

hy

.

plfe'W.ous

e ~ r l e n e e .

,

~

t R t m J " .• a1>1111 ~ ~ h - - a ~ k

as

a ' ' p ~ ' ' eac

:.- sfetll fí6>.W • ~ ~

~ t i o J t e e s

i@l lt not p ~

•

' ~ 1 1 ~ 1 1 i l i ' • t) ¡ : ) . h . ~ t i . ~ ~ . w ' ~ •

~ ~ ~

~ ~

¡ 1 1 . ~ ' "

;@

il

I Q . y • p ~ ~

l D s mtl


4/29

26

Philosophica 1 Sketches

things

in

their relations to each other,

have

no

part

in his

perception. The world is something human.

What makes the difference is the peculiar tendency

of the human brain to

use

the

sense impressions

it

re-

.

ceives

not

only as stimuli

or

obstacles

to

physical action,

but

"1S

material

for

its specialized function, imagination.

We not

only see t:hings,

but at the same

time imagine

them

to have

all sorts of properties

that one ~ a n n o t

see.

Ani-

mals

respond

to

outside stimuli

either

overtly

or

,not

at

all;

but

roen respond largely

in

a cerebral, invisible way

producing

images, notions, figments

of

all sorts

that

serve as symbols for ideas.

The result

is that

we

llive in

·a

web

of

ideas, a fabric

of our

own making wherein we

catch the contributions

of

outside reality, sights, sounc¡Js

smells,

and

so on. Actual perceptions

come

and go,

and

are

beyond our control ( except in so far as we may

open

. or

shut our

eyes, touch things or not, ane

cause

a f-ew

changes

to

happen),

but

symbols ma.y

be found or

pne

duced

at

will,

and manipulated

with

great freedom;

by

means

of

them

we

supplement our fragmentary sensa

tions

and

build

up around each p e r c e p t u a

~ ce:re

a

stne

ture

of. ideas. That is i le

sense

of s

we

h&ve

icle,as

about what we

actually

see.

The symbolic rendering of experience

is

a v-ast ft0t Jic

that

we

cannot

possibly

enter

on.

kere. A

goocd

éeal

has

oeen

and is

still being writtea a@eu,t

it, fer die

i m ¡ p o r t a 1 ~ « i . i e

of symbolization is a recent discovery. Suffioe

it, t h ~

· to

touch the

high

points

of ·

that

all-ilnportant

proce_ss. fts

most spectacular product is

the great systematic sym.

bolism known as

'language,

w h i ~ h

engem.cders

& e wh01e

1

mental

a e v ~ l e p m e a t

~ : h a r t

s

mea

apalJit

ú0m

éek

m

logical bretluea. The line between ooima1s and men ts

I

think,

precisely the language

line.

(Animals p r o 1 b a ~ 1 y

comm11nicate only intentions and direot emotionall

citements,

not ideas aboue

tbings.) Lattgl Jage sewes

~ a r

gxreater

pmposes than eveB

tlllle

most

e1ahe>l(ate s¡s

,tem

0f

sigaals

whereby

we

might

make

ow

wish.es

bi0wn

ud.

•control each other's behavior. Its first and most astound-

ing ñmction

is

to shape the human wotld.

Sense

perceptions are otdy part

of

the

wor1d.

lhey.

are

indispensable elem:eats:, llat by no aeans

ita

·•1101e·


5/29

The Gr.oWi1}8

e n t ~

of

Knowledge

substance.

~ e

world .for

human bein¡s is

made

up of

facts and

facts

are as

much

a

product

of

CODCeption

88

.

of

perception. Facts are

about tbings, aa our immediate

; knewledge

is about our sensory

experiences. Our

world

·: is

not

a

random

collection

of

things,

but

a

great

nexvs

of

physical facts, hist9rlcal

lacts,,

legal

and

political facts,

and

especially,

f0r

e.a& person,

tibe ever

.approaching

phalanx

of practica f.acts that

he

has

to meet from hom

.

to hour.

What

we

call

the w0rld is a conceptual struc-

.

~ u r e o ~ s p ~ c e and

t i m e ~

whic'.h events

oecur,

and

develop

i.nto sttuaüens i:rr0m wmelll mew,, more

01

h:ss ~ _

events airise; this d e ~

e l o p x n e l l l . t

is

tlh.e order

of cause ami.

effect as

we

conceive

it,

and

wb.at

deve1ops

is

reality

tho

web

of facts. '

Reality

contains

all

the

cdelivermces of

euc

senses

but

its

kamework

is not soxuthmg

visible,, tangible,

~

in

any sensuous way perceptible. Its framework

is some

•f,

hing

intellectual, perceptible

only through

symbols. To

say

it

is

intelleetual

is

not to

say

it

is

reserved fer

an

in-

teligeatsia,

0r

even.

for

ci\'IÍ.Üed

races;

a

common

intel

leotuality

belolJ, gs to all

human beings

that

are

not

men

talfJ.y

defective, rand

~ r e s s e s

itself on

their e ~ r i e n c e at

tihe

e1ementaiey

revei

\ ) ~ undersltandlmg

w e ~ d s

' lft

is

sometimes

s ~ d

that wmds staud frOXJ. for

th;np

aná

a©ts, an.d

1hat

consequently

a dog

.

o

wh.om a

word

means

an

ebjeet, a

person,

or

an

act

to

be

pedonned

understands

language. But tlhat

is a sUpshod argument

and false

oonclusie:n. The woird'S dlaiti

a ill

use

ol

Jm.

guarge, b ~ oo:nítma.6ti

is esseatdalJ ~ e

e-ress ideas

ahut

6.e t bágs mentielle'&-to call attention

t0 their rela·

tioas, parits,

piroperties, aspects,

and functions, and to

the

:

mtricate relations · of those constituents

and'

fnnctiou to

r e ~ h o ~ ~ .

. ·

R.elations

are

fmown

to

us

primarll) l

tb.roup

ow.-

most ready 8110 pGwerful

Sym.bols.

Thous\ n •

.plicitly ta1e aGCOunt of xelations

in

acíi911 c m p ~

..capnot be

out d p q i n t e ~

to

1ib phyefoal

•

.

.


6/29

128 1

Philosophical

S k e t c h ~ $

Set up a large fiowerpot and · a small one,

and

try

to

point out the

relation

of

"larger

tbann: a· person looking

where:·you point-from one pot

to

the other-may

see

"different," "same shape," "side by s i d ~ , " "brick-col-

ored," or

even

two, a

pair,"

as readily as "larger than,."

Relations are abstráct,

and

abstract entities

are

em-

bod.ied only in -symbols. The profound difference be-

tween speech-gifted beings

and

s p e e c h l ~ s s

o n e ~ is due t0

the power

of words to set forth relations, which cannot

be seen and touched, yet are the bonds

among

our. sensa...

tions that crea te "facts." Our world of fácts 1s sh0t

·

through

and through with concépts comprehen.ded sy,;_m..

bolically;

"nature"

is

far

more

a

languaige-ina eiaes

1

ideation.fails.

At

the

center ef h·umain

eX perie:n.ee, them., tae'Je

is a[\..

ways the activity of ima:gining reality,

c©l leeivin::g

ti:e

structure

of

thr-0ugh word·s,

images,

or 0ther s}'ftl hei&-)]

and assimilating .actual

perceptioms

to

it

as they

C © J l l l l ~

that

is, interpreting them

in t h ~

light ·of general, usually

tacit ideas. This process 'of interpretation is so aatmllall

and

constant

that

most

oi

it goes on unconseiausly-.

h •

stead of having .sensati©ns and judgin.g them to

' m . e ~ H

·the existence of things or the

occu«emce

ei

ev.ents,,

•e

really

perceive th,ings

an

.d

hap¡penings and ee:eeme it•

rectly

aware

of

"faGt'S."

lb.e w l t © ~ e m t e H e ~ t U i d

'kfflt U-

work of space a·nd tiim-e, ~ g s ama

f>1101

etáes,,

~ A ~

cause amd

eftee:t,

· 3 9'

d

sG> .

©B,

is imfDctt

ií.till li1 ~ e l i ' ~ J

-

we

use 0111" sepes. . f l l l ~ , t M e ~ p t

i @ B

1 9 > ~

· r ~ l ~ t i i r © l t l J S

0 D M e ' • ~ e l f '

am< i. esp€cia1llr ©f· m'lf'á1it n.rc, taikes pJtce tlmt


7/29

The Grow Jig Cent'81' of. l n11Wla.dat1 129

.of cetuJ"Se,·do hµrnm tetlan;g aaf ••mtoa Slti.eo ou ea.

vironment

is

a

;WQ:tla, we illW'e

hh 'mt

t&Wb'd

the

wot'kt

- n o t transient exoi'temeDts" '.fl)l1t a p ~ & J D . e m t

omot oaali

attitude toward a permanat

''larlven&."

1lüa

att1tude

is

the

deepest level ef leelisg i:n ll:S, by v1rtue of wb:fd)

we

have

a

continuous

emetiG>llti

llite;

an.d,

like

all

h111man

feelings, it is closeliy relatei

to

im«igiuati.en.

l t is fed, ID

each pe'FSon,

by

bis e n w i a & ~ i t

Gf the woda,

ad of

human

1ife,

aad

of h i m ~ ~ a

1 hat

~ a m e : :1ñ'9lt is :to aay

by hiis

orieni.tation lm

i__e:a1 ty.

Hi.s

~ · t t • e e s may be

m a n ~ 0r t ~ w ;

sa long as &.11 • e

ea,able of

i n t e r p ~ t a

..

tion. • ienlilS ef e 0 1 1 r u 1 1 1 ~ l 1 l : . aCJJ l$l, hii-s

bewted¡e el realty

e •

1

g¡0w

illlst

1t>J

~ .

laQ._,

~ 0 1 1 1 1

~ h • l f a s

filia

w&tld

•aige 01 ' 1 . S t t ~ g

'8

ae1l>.Be $f

Gldemtatioa,. whiol 1

is

a i l ~ a r . 1 &

e ~ ~ ~ l > 1 l ~

m

a

~ - I M

Be te

l e ~ .

tD0lbm09 se'J l'>Se is

lle neenseioas Ee

wE:tat

we

ree0gmd&e

as tensible,

10gical thiinild m.g teday. llt'8 giraa'lla1 development is

ie

ftected m

hé evoll:ltioñ.

@f l&t >.tguages,

a fascmating

deld of

s ~ u d y tkat has only

receDbly eeea opemea

amd

promiaes

to be riela

m

new histeliliea[

,

ooi psy;oliu)logicalL material&.

P ~ 0 s o p h . e r s , ito0, have h . a R e s ~ e c ltiheim shue f ideas

fii0m

die

J.inguiists'

llO\W

19'.eKekes,

Wlüeh

e@iaoide

with

tite

gx¡eait

work

0f

l f ' l ~ g e ,

t f l e i ~

ae:El ltussel

e•

ltori1

s ~ ~ 0 l s 1 0 0 l , ,

effi

C•smer

ea ~ 1 D l l i c

~ m u as

ftia 9J"e

f"Qe•ia:J

· ~ · lis seaUJi\lc

·

f te

U ~ é

0f

W ~ d S ~ ' S •s 8 •ate:1 ~ f e • t s Jm). .

1 ~ e ; ' 1 1 . d

f0Rl&f:

&e i \ f a f • " m . . • s ~ tW f edsieD

:&.

&e

tt.m..

t io1 díe'

dmw

I t a ~ •

~ n e

d\íaa

Mttt

aa&tltit

lllA)t

&e seen im ~ e i i i r

e i ] l e i e ~

0f

~

:we1Gls

'hr

theae

6111g

01

itikei.r temde-n;c'

te

tei

••

wcaull &ewe m&J P'U90n;

anclt ~ l m t iA s

•eamQs

Wltd re\d takng aoooWl>.ít of rolewat

d i i i ~ e i l e e s .

D e

.

eentem

ed aUellAia ame

muked

bf

tb.t

~ ' a r & y

woP'4s'., m

drMt 4tsmuae--aous in

._

SU ltepeao.

la1/lfguiages, l:el:Et ~ e l l t e s

bJ

vein

tlba

_

ífoc01me

Qrlill" ~ W U a e s s

d

11QIJJton1, ad

elabor8'14

.m.0C IW:e1s 4le

. Xipiress Mttter

diS)laoti.DU.

ntere

m

\ tlMl.g\tiaige:& mwhiida

ae:tns

• • aamecl ' dte ''l

:

un l

Bliop ·

u , ~ l \ t t e l ¡

RtlUBeif. ;q

°


8/29

J . ~ .

130 , P h i l o s o p h z c ~ l ~ k ~ ; c h ; ; f

the

actions, that is, by modifiers. Societies . that differ :

.

radically in the Iogical structure of their languages liavé

really

·ª

different inheritance

of

'common sense, .and their

mutual understanding presents a deeper problem than

they themselves reaJire wheii. they establish a rough ·

vocabulary

to

serve

both

parties

in

commerce with

eaeB

otber.

The

words of that vocabulary have a

core of

practica meaning

for

both, but the connotations that

accrue to a word

in

the ·cour:se

of

its career probably tend

to

grow

apart

as long as each group contiDues to

li:ve

with

its own language.

The

power

of

language

to

keep

step

with

the

expan-

sion

of

human

experience through

the

long course

of

history lies

in

the tendency

of

words to·mean. ~ o J . i e tha11

they designate, oí symbolize directly;

for

they tend t0

symbolize indirectly anything

f

or which their direct mean-

ing itself m y be a symbol. The word

"light" designates

·a physical phenomenon

we

perceive ~ b _ 0ur

&y;es,

~ u l

light itself

is

a world-old symbol

for

lcnowledge, intelli-

gence, reason, logical intuition

(John Locke

called sucll

intuition natural light'') , ·and a lsG fer a ~ a r g e class

0f

feelings-joy, relief, l o ~ e , aafd reirgi.0us exa11.ítrmtiien:. M

things

that

light itself

commonly

symfuolizes _

me

t€l

the

word

''light,"

as

its

metaphoric


9/29

The

Grbwini

.Center o Knowlidge

131

and

this ~ a ~ e

may

mean

a feeling,

an

aot,

an

object, ev:en

~

p e ~ s o ~ a 1 i t y

or a placy.

An

:sorts o .

tkin,gs

ma.y appear

e'

in

thz-s image a t

is, they

may

be

itllitgineá in tms

fetm.

ts The essence of human mentality is

the

use of · images

· not as sh.eer ~ e m o r y traees, but

as

symbols vtbich may

~

~

put

together

mee1y,

e l a m ~ a t e < l . , ,

anti tfeated

as meatal

~

p t c t a ~ ~ s

~

tibe

mest v a ~ u _ s

e x p ~ e J 1 l e e s ,

i . e . ~ the power

Qf

seemg

one

thing

in

anothu.

< • The

processes

-0f

nature, especially,

may

be

seen one

•· m a n . o t h ~ r ;

and

th0se whi:eh

aii:e

brid

to observe are

í '

generally underst00d 0nly

W0ughi a

mooel.

Deatb is seen

as

~ e t e m ~ sleep, youth

and

age

as

spring

and auhimo

e

~ t e r

life as

a

fiame

~ n s 1 1 m i n ; g ;

the

canQle

that pro-

vises it. The

w:ef}I

f i ] j a m e w e ~ k ef e_Qerience is

enly think-

ali>le

by

~ e a n s

ef

modelS: time is

m ~ ~ t

of as a

auge

vessel

~ ' : l t

eomtams

all

tlnmgs

hut

eeulell

also

be

empty;

~ e . ~ ~ ~ t h ' a ~

ª.

Véssel

is

neGessatllJ sometbing in space,

tlividmg

ain

msiae

k0m

at11 0 u t s ~ g aoes pot disturb the

¡. ~ a ¡ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ t t e n . 9;l la:ee ~ a l i ~ t e l e i

aa_ ill

d m,a_tt@¡

tstm m

1t.

Because we

see

0ae

thing

in

an0t h1er-life

in the

candle

~ a m e , de-aith ~

sleep,

·titni

m

the lowing st.team, space

'

m a

b e w ~

01

m tire

siy

rtbll

we

500'

as

a:a

inrvetted

bowl

:-the

vast multiplicity of 8 x p > e F i e n ~ eompose one world

for us. Our

symemlic

seeiug is what gives that

world

its

Ñbdame-a[ unity,

mQ'.b A e e ~

'tlall

the

'lnity of its

ausd

c 0 , . 1 m e e t e ~ e s s

die

~ e a 0 m ~

''tiken.ess

in düfer-

enee" th..at uniñes

a

nest af tables,

rather

dlan

the simple

,.

cencateMtl0n

qf

linlr-s

~

unifim;

a

ohain. Most

of

tho

Rings ~ e enG0oteJ.:

l J : a ~ e a0

lil>w0us

causal connec-

tieBS: tl li

r©ar e1 a passmg plaa0j and the voice

f:rom

the paei0

a


10/29

·-

P h i f o s o p h i o d z

K k

ñ

c h d i

~

i l

stops

for

a

moment and then

uses

the

·

other

leg.

That is.-

a causal

chain;

but

so far as our

direct observation

is .

concemed,

most

things

just

happen''

at


11/29

en

.

sense and

which ·tire

deriv'stiv-e.

Witbout tbe concepts

tbey convey we would have ne moral wortd. The same

tbing holds·

for

our eoncre-ptioo ol intelleetual functioJls

and qualities: bright

and

"dull,,.,

' 'keen,''

"'obscur•,"

hard,

even

words like ''wit, "

of

wbieh the root meta

phor

is

white,

are

obviously physical

terms;

but

with-

out them we could

not

hav-e developed the · •

.cally

human

sense

of

intellectnal

and moral

existence.

Metaphorical images

peJll:etrate

deeply

int.o

our

com

mon-sense

ways

of tbinking,. Nebéldy

que,stions

the good

sense

of

saying that a ttee s p r ~ d s its branehes in order

to

catch as muc)l light as

~ s : S i h l e ;

tñ:e model of a person

voluntarily,

lifting

bis

amis

m

- t o

receive .

benefi.cen.t commng fl'em amove i fetgotten when we talk

about the

'1ree

as dfew8Ji i t StJPttd &e hranehes for its

rpuripuae. h.

fact, th1s gutclag image

is so foreiole tbat

most

people who

dG nttt

ilfdiev,e ;ike tree has insigbt and

mtention.s

and v o l ~ mmtfus

stitt

cmmot

surrender

the

metaphor

o

purp


12/29

•

34

Language registers this

Jogical

a ~

s

t r a c ~ o n

in the groW h . ;:

of

its

vocabulary.

The

concepts.

w1th

whlch we ~ p e i : a t e .

m

our

daily

lives-concepts of things and propert1es,

m1nd

and matter, necessity, money value, moral v a l ~ e , good and

evil- aJI may be traced back, through the h1stocy

of

the

words that cxpress

them,

to

their origins in vaguer

but

usuaUy richer "root metaphors." The abstraot s e ~ s ~ ef

our

words today has been derive.d

by

a

p r o c ~ s s of

distmc

tion and separatioo that results m the establishment of

at

Ieast one literal meaning, and often a number c:>f recog

nized metaphorical uses: So. we may fl?d, for m s ~ Q . ~ e :

"Bright: giving

or

refiecting light; figuratively,

of

qu1ck m-

telligence." But here the figurative use is so

common that

most dictionaries today ( e.g., Webster's, or Funk

&

Wagnall's) list it as a secon9 .lit.eral ~ ~ a n i n g .

.

In

discourse and even more m wnting we .continue

to give words new figurative meanings; and as

there

are

many

ways

of

"seeing" a

new

o ~ j e c t or

e Y ~ I ú ,

. t h e r ~ is

often

a

wide choice

of

older

thmgs

to

which.

1t

t r u g } ~

be

assimilated. Who decided

that

the covering of an autg.,. . :

mobile engine was to be

called

the hood in A.metica, a m . ~

'

in

England,

France, and Getm

1

a lllf,

dte h > o n

0 ; 1 ' " ~

W l t ~

called a cover f

or

certain smaller units a

"e&wl,,,

then

made "cowl" a

verb

and derived the

verbal

neun cow

ling"

f

qr

the

same object?

Who

called

the

c0ver

for

We

·

hub

of

the wheel a cap''? No

on.e

ltn0ws. M1

tllese

w0li$

denote headgear, the most familiar loose covering for a

special

part, and

the analogy is

obvious enough so

that

we accept ·

the

extended

mean

1

ing witheut

difticulty.

A

cover

fitti.Qg closely

all around

something is usually

d e s i ~

na.ted as a shoe ; again, we

find

the figure o1

speech ·

natural,

and soon f orget it is a figure. By ~ t a p h e r i c a l

enension, shoeº becom..es tke üterall

nane

0f die fi*i

casings OD tires

as

well as

the

fitted casiiags OB

0lM' feet.

In this way language

grows with conception, and

us11ally

onception

keeps

pace

with new

e ~ r i e a c e s .

The

:reposi

ory of all our

coacep11s, olel

ánd n.ew, q u i ~ a e s ~ a : e t

nes and inveterately

poetic

ones,

is

common sense,

tlie

enerally

accepted

basis of reasonable disoourse, knowl

dge,

and go0d jlldgn leal

. .


13/29

The

e tow ng .centef ;

vf nowledge gs

self-


14/29


15/29


16/29

38

•

•

PhUosophical Sketches·

trons '" assumed

to

compose the submicroscopic material

, . th

f' t

,,

elements

whleh

today

bear e

name

o . a

~ m s . .

. ·

When

the

conceptual frame of

our

th1nk1ng IS made-

quate for understanding our world, the models that have

served it in-the past

w:i11

not d·o any m·

ore.

The

first theory

of

atoros was

propo'Q.D.ded

more

than

~ o

t h ~ u ~ a n ~

years

ago, by the Greek philosopher Dem0CI1tus;

bis

illustra

tions of

the way

atoros composed

matter were ta.ken

from the sands of the

sea, hard bits of

stone settling

by

their weigbt into

large

masses., and

fr?m dust

motes

seen

in snnbeams,

e.xhibiting

constant motion

that he ~ u g h t

was

of

their

nature.

His

conception

of

atoms

~ -

volved shape and motion, but not any inside stt ucture

or parts. In fact, the name he gave his

material

elements,

atoms, means indivisible, ' Le:, without parts. Atomie

structure, as we know it, could

not

be thought of with

out

a

new

concept,

or rather

a

whole set of

n ~ w

concepts

·

-electromagnetic force, positive and

neg_ative efiarge,

units

of

energy,

and

s e ~ e r a l

other

terms.

of

~ a l ~

that

were

not current

and, mdeed, not

poss1ble

m bis &y.

Philosophical thinking had

not

reaelled

t1w

level

of ~

straction

to which they belong.

Because

we

do operate with sucli

notions, tñe old

Greek

models ·

of ·physical substance

are n@

good to

ns

any more.

Our

philosophy

of nature has

011tgrown

them,

and

scientific

o b ~ r v a t i o n shows us conclitio)lS

th

ey can

ot represent. The

cBíef r e a s í > ~

however,

wby pbysicists

ere never ccmtent with the ancient concept of

M

atom

as that this concept

harbo__red

a lcgical inconsiSteJlcy

simple substance, such as Democritus a s s u m ~ has

eally

no

properties except

tho,ge

of

spatial

e - x t e J ? S ~ l l .

Nt?'

atter

h-0w

small

such extension

may be, i t is

neveJ in

ivisible. Oné éan imagine a particle ol soJid

m ~

being .

ndivisible

in practice, that is, because w have J O in

trument that will

further divide

it; but in theory tbe en4

i its divisiblity cannat be establisliM

at

·

ainy

m ~ i t l l ®

This

is

a typical instance

of

the

sort

of

coneeptnal

roblem that anses in science, religión,

1 1 ~ t i c s

or

any

ther ~ d

oi

~ s t e f n a t i e mJexest, é pieseJ1lts a ~

-

l Or, probably,

Jíís

teacher Leúcippus;

but the

~ t i ñ léet ~


17/29


18/29

•

••

J

40 .Phtiosophtcal ·sketches

seem insecure: providence

an? ·.

ts plan, the c r e d e i : t i ~

of human

authorities the valid1ty

of

morals and mstt

tutions,

the

value

or

~ a n i t y of work and of life itself .

'

Few

men

can

think through such problems to a pomt

.of decision, any more than they could thi_nk out for them..:

selves the reasons for expecting an eclipse

on

the

fifth

of

next month at ten o'clock. But their mental security is

not

necessarily disturbed by this fact, so long as they be

lieve implicitly that the

major

i s s u ~ s of. life can be under-

stood

by those who really

put

their mmds wholly to

the

task-that is, that there are answers, and human reasen

can sbape them.

That

is the chief importance of the pro

fessional philosopher for

the

layman-the

reasom.

w1 J.y

Plato's

doctrine of ideas and Aristotle's teleology matte11ea

to

the merchants and soldiers

of

Greece,

who

had h e a F ~

of

them only vaguely if

at ali;

why the

Summa lhe l)l@giea

of

St. Tbomas was

of

vast importance to all Ohristen< le__m,

though probably only the higher clergy read it,

and

áJiil.y

...

in the Western church at

that;

and why, .m he h e ~ c l . a y ©i

an

expanding

secular

culture

f

ollowing

the

Renaissan&ll, - ·

in

a new world

of

science and modero commerce, 0 c k ~ ' s · ·

Essay on Hz1man Understanding

was

an

intellectual

l i e m ~

shell, and Newton's Principia mathematic.a, written in.:Latm

and consisting largely

of

mathematical statements,. Ul - .

tellectually affected people

who

were

neither

scientists B@I

athematicians

and

had

never

studied

a

page

of

it.

Trained

and

spe.ciaHzed thin.Eng is always

in

t h ~

~ a l l

uard

of

our coaceptu

·al


19/29

- 7 ~ 1 f

. , , ~

# ..., · ·.. t

~ - ~ · :

:

' •

_Xhe .Gtd

1:g

' C ~ ' i { f e n o 1€iibw1'edge 'l41

_

t h ~ y

are

~ a g i n a b l e . And

usually ,the advance

of

knowt

.

.. edge

is slow

en0ugh.

ta

mt suoh popular

versions of new

concepts take

sP,ape.

It

is,

after all, imaginatien

tñat

frames ·

and

supports

and

guides

our

thinking, not

0nly ab0ut

·

he

practicallties

of

the

day,

but

also

about

ml:leh

greater

tbingc;

good and

evil, love, life

ap.d

death,

past and

future,

and human des

tiny. The

average

persan

pJobat>ly does not contemplate

·

such

matters very often,

eut

he

has

ideas about

t h e ~

as we

say,

at the back 0f

bis head -gatlhered

since

c h i l d h e o ~ t ,

~ r o m chunch, &0m impressive moments, and

in

sleepless m.ights. When he

dees

have 0ccasion to faee

. rundamenta1

issues

ef

~ F a l

q o > r i n o ~ p l e ,

hope

Or

renun

eiation, seH

er sC>elety, ~ r m s m

which

b.e tibinks must

na1ie

s0m:e crear

semse t:0 lliiiDi; it

is helie

that he aeeds

a

.

sefi.mte an< l a c d e q u a t e l ~

~ j g

W0Dl


20/29

42

,

1

• P h i l ~ s o p h i

~

1 1 1

S k

e ~ c h e s ~ ·

What few people realize is

that the

changed

and

still-

changing

conditions of life are only one

thing-the

most

tangible thing-that

keeps us

in a s ~ a t e of nervous

ten-

sion verging on hysteria. There is a deeper

source

of' anx-

· ety, below the level

of

practica expectations

and

_

ven

of explicit thought:

that

is

tbe

growing inadeqtiacy

of

words,

and

especially certain key words which

have

alwa.ys functioned

in our

moral a·nd political discolilrse,

to express exactly what we

mean

iB such discourse toi-

day.

Perhaps the

present

popular excitement about

"semantics" springs

from

a

half-baked, but

essentially

sound,

awareness

of

thls

piofoundest

trouble.

l t

is a

curious fact

that

really im.portant

philosophical

issues

usually evoke some echo

from the

publ1

c m

1

ind; mdeeCil,

the

public

at

large

has an uncanny way

of feeling the

im-

portance

of things about which

it

knows nothing

-ex-

plicitly.

But

cults

and their

campaigns-such

as teach-

ing

huge audiences

the

first, · s u p e r f i c i ~ l ,

often

speciel l.S

findings of semantic r e s e a F c h - a ~ e quack

m : . e ~ © . H l e

~ e p

grave

phiJosophical ills. '

The inadequacy of w0rds

pómts

·

to a more

serious

difficulty than

the

emotive use of Ian..

guage, and t? get away

from

· Aristotelian categories 0

~

thought

reqwres more than a new

formula wlll0h

ean

be

l e ~ r n e d .

The

d i a g n e s i ~

may

be

e.&sé11

1

tial

f

riyt_'t,

blit

d ; r ~

cure 1s

an

attack

on sytPptoms. · ·

What

those

s y m p t o m ~

revea

is

a

general fnistration of

our

conceptual

powers ~ t h ~ .face

of the new wmld, ang,

~ a t

means, of course, mability

..te reason ~ 8 l í l l f a1

>

0nt

t,

c o n s e q u e n t l ~

we laek t h e e r ~ ü o o l f 0 u n e ' . a ü

~

& l0 s

l l ~

·

ort

any

assertion 1bont

the

th1ngs

that

cem:eem

us

M0S.f

~ e n t l y - - : h u m ~ nghts, l o ~ t y freedom., d e ~ r a c y

rGe

n:' national1ty'

. c ~ t u r e .

The.

cause of

tltls ~ p t ~

y

.es ID

two

COllditions: the

spe_ed wi& Wli$B f > C r a

Calan g e s have c w ~ n (ike ~ d ,

llllild

lQ ~

~

Jd s1onh

of tho11ght.

Doth actual ~ e

~ e l . f e 9

0

e ~

m_ng ave o u ~ our

powers

of

unagmatto11;

se tb

.

yerage

p e r s o i _ i ~ p l e

or

s o p . h l & t i c a ~ e < l

is nnable m

1cture.

uruverse,

Gr even to ~ e w : e whll;t

&¡;

n.oot

llilre IS ~ Y . to be. Ule w0rld

UQ:ll\

ge

lw ~ s O O .

Our

chief disconce1mtent stems ll9 t

fr0m

r11ew e ~ ~


21/29

T h e f l r o w i r l g ~

~ -

e J /

& Í ' - K ~ w ~ / f / í

g e J ~ J

tua]Jy

u n f

~

l d s faster t h ~ ·

1t

ha;s e v ~ r OOJle in,. ttie

pare.

The .developm&

l

t of p e l l ~

r

events

rs

ñ"irectly m.fittimeeit

~ y

t k ~

sp>eed·. ~ ~ 0 m m

n 1 ~ 0 n

anél

tt-.avel.

Considd, fór

·

~

t a n . e . e ,

1

th€>

e i r e a

~

tlfetwee..n ~ W"an

witli

1lhe.

Getñs

~ d

~ ~

lile.

~ t 1

m s , : r e s p e d i . v ~ ~

G © t h ~

mtgrated with the

.w

fam111es, sloWly pusJt1 b1*

~ e s t w a r d f r ~ n t i

e

r , always ~

e a t e n m g

me estallllisb• em_.¡.

pire

of

iaeli1íl§. Wh'en • ~ ~ a e s M m w ~ é @gaiest

~ ~


22/29

. . . .

.

. ..•


23/29

f l t l l . ~

..

.


24/29

146

call t h e m s e l v ~ s " e x i s t e n t i a l i s t s ' ~ - n o t a b l y Heidegger :and

Jaspers in Germany,

2

Sartre

and.

Marce in F r ~ c e - : - : - a r e

programmatic rather than

d o c r ~ a l .

.In doctt;1ne

t h ~ ~ e

writers are often far apart. It 1s m a1m, startlng pomt,

and method

that

they belong to one. ~ p i r i t u a l ~ o v e m e n t .

Tbeir

starting

point

is the recogn1t1on

of exzstence.

as

an

ultimate inward

experience--not

only

one's

own exist

ence, but that of the world, which has the

s ~ ~

charac

ter. Their problem is not

to

understand existence, be

ca

use it is · essentially irrational and therefore eludes

understanding,

but

to accept

and

appreciate.it.

The

deeper

motivation

of theír

quest is

to

put

values

mto

the

world

where they do not find them.

This is

not an uncommon

motive

at any

time,

and in an

age of cultural transition, full of t.ension, parácdox, aBd

uncertainty, it is a powerful one; 1t

~ u i ; n s

t h o u s ~ n d s of

people from

their own

vain eff

orts to cope

w1th

t l ~

world into the folds of religious faiths. But

most

peo-

ple bave

little

to

sacrifice .

in.

~ i s

exdlange

,;

t d o c e s ~

mea;

quite otherwise, cannot .easily nd

~ e m s e l v ~ s

of ~ e i r t>wn

reason

that

revolts

agawst

absuitid1ty.

Thelr

wrisgs

M:e

fulI of rational

ideas and able arguments.

Sucñ:

~ e r s

find the aéceptance of o o a t r a d i c ~ i o s s

a

heavy

~ a s k . They

have the temptation of .ration.ality tu contendl wit&;

aJird

their

philosophic

method, therefore,

demands

a

rcD-

.

stant

humiliation of reason.

This

hiWiillliartiiw

i:s

taire

iliee

moral act,

·the

constant choice,

which

·

the

.

emtentialist has __

to practice as · h.e

simpile

Fel igie:us ~ a l o t

pt;a&ttees Bll>B

stant

prayer.

The

pll'omise

0f

e:ñstentiaüsn

is

in


25/29

The GrtJwi lig·Center


26/29

· · ·: :· . . - ·

P / 1 1 o ~ p . ) h ~

' G ~

s

f i e }

~ h ~ i

. _ ~

· ·

urrent

academic p h i l o s o p h y Great roen of s9íeJilce·_have

een

their oWil p h i l o s o p h ~ r s h

~ Y

.

~ e n e v e ~ ~ r a i d

of ·

deas. Newton, Faraday, Bi:istem, Pian:k, and therr peers ·

generation

a f t ~ r

gez:ieration-have ~ v e n t e d the new.

oncepts

of

physica

s ~ 1 e n c e a ~ tJ:tey needed them. Bu.t

of

.

ourse

t h e ~

have

hm1ted

11e1r

lltellectual construct1ons

o the reqwtements of therr .sub)ect. ' Y b e ~ e r these.

I d

bstractions can ever

be

squared Wlth t h ~ ~ G _ o n o m i c ,

gal ~ o r a l , a e s t h e t i ~ , ~ n d other forms - 0 ~ ~ d ~ a t 1 o n t h a ~

t?-10 m the

· e ~ t o ~

life

1s none f the phys1c1st

s

c o n e , e ~ ,

e 1s too

busy m bis

own domam

to

play

the

m e ~ a l ? h y s 1 -

an beyond it,

and. indeed,

w h ~ n . e v e r

he does so hts llililar-

-

ation

is

as ungw?ed

by

~ t ? c t

problems

as

anybody s,

d is apt to lapse m t ~ traditional chan.nels as .

soon

as. he

ntur.es

on

f o r e i ~ ground: P ~ o s o p h y

has

its ~ u t -

sts 1n. every spec1al field,_

but

1ts frontal advace iS a ·

k

for

1ts

own scholars.. . . . ·

i

Establishing

the . rational f o u n d a t i o ~ of s e t e n ~ e

opositions is the work that engages ítlhe

s ~ e ~ r g e

s

t

~ M ~ -

phic

minds

today.

It has

taken

them far mto

~ e m a n ~

.

1

blems: the effect of syntb0:1ie,; forms en

- ~ ~ • m g ~ , ,

tke

its of logical systems, and the grounds for ~ m o 1 e e of

t e m s ~ It

hars startee a

p e t r ~ t r a

t i l l

g a&állJ,sis

·

&f su01il

mm:-

ts as space-time;

measurem

@

nt,.

simultaneity, l©Cá-

r

, e q t t i v a l e n . ~ , s t m ~ . d ~

• ~ r t ; ¡,

o and function; but

this

anajytic

~ º ~

IS

m t e r w

~

e m

~

h the processes 0f new c e m s t w i 1 ~ n ~ t

9 ~ a 1

gination, which are naturally e a l l ~ fo'F

where

sltrer

lfSis can 0nly

rev:ea l

p 1 1 0 ~ l e s am


27/29

..

·

e

~ ~ ó 0 ~

g

C é n t ~ t

o f

R

n

w f e

i J g e ·

· Q f > P l ~ ~ t of i i a

e t i c a J í l ~

• i í t l ~

· ~

1 > ~ w e t r kds •lr


28/29

. . ,

.

.

.

..

.

; p f i 1 d s o / , h i

~

~ i e

l ~ h

e ~

~ . ~

_

.

.

s

space

and tiine have changed ·

tli

.

eir

.appéarance ·and

ken

our most elementary ~ o o t h o l d s .

in

t h ~ physical

ld, language has changed

ts

mean1ngs witbout

our

wing. it,

and

tbrown our literal, theoretical discourse

confusion. Our moral and political thinking lacks·

sort of

conceptual framework

of

its

own.

Even

in

spe-

fields

that

we dignify with scientific-sounding

es

sociology, social psychology, social

dynamics-

e is no

conceptual basis

of

powerful abstrae-

to implement deeper

and

deeper analysis, definitions

can

be ~ u i l t

up

óne on a n o ~ e r , .like

the

d e ~ i t i o n s

a ~ e m a t 1 c a l _terms o_r phys1cal elements, _and . t h ~ 1

mg

up

of a highly art1culated

s y s t e ~

of

relationships.

terminology used

at

present in so-called "social

ce"

is

consciously

a r t ~ c i a l ,

but the concepts

rure

s ~ J

of common

sense,

generalired but not abstract:

s

to say, they

are

still prescientific.

long

as political affairs,

morals apart

fnam ohunck

nes,

and

social issues

have

no

.

background

of

co-

,

t, formal

thought

to

which

we can take recourse

problems

become ·complicated, "social scien€e',. ..

e no

guide

to

feason:able

a e t i @ a Wh,el)\e ih

ene

is ne

there

·is no science, pol itical 0r social 0r Ml Y

Qthel

· ·

-

usual

explanation ojfered in

excuse

fM this intel- .

l

f:Wure

- ~

tllat precise

concepts

aFe imp0ssie.te

and '

.

m political thought, because

people are moved

· '

.:

f-interest

or by

_

emotion in

politics,

and. do not act

,

unds of

rea8on.

That

is llice

s a ~ g

that

engioeenmg

build

a p ~ w e r

dam,

because ~ a m s aire i

>uilt.

by ·

~

and

.

obb1es,

not

by

mathematics. Ji>eople

are Just

.

tiorial

in

religion ás

in

politi.es;

this

dés

oot mean

'eo}t}gy

·

ral Jst be U D S \ : Y S ~ e 1 l i l 3 l ~ i e atnf I eem fiu:'See.

Bsgtr

"

.

does not

raise

tñe

money

or

pass ~ e neetfe(¡j

,.

-

get

a

power dam

built, but

it does determine,

y and clearJ.y,

~ h a t

is IDYOlVee

m euiding·

whenever

we may

decide

to d0 so. ·

eed

powerful

concepts

to

cope

with

the

welter

of

ditions

that ?eset us

A ~

just point,, 00ncepti0n

1

ha.Ve S ~ t e d . t00 m:ae,

~ l a

WOJ\QS te n ~ W ar. ~ . ~ .·

s., wbich their striot literal .

e a n i n g s

dom.'t q u i t ~

·


29/29

,.

._

.

1 ' w e ~ l t e á a e

- . .

g o n ~

pút ~ oµr ha(_a practica thinkiítg. That eauses fh&

P : U U ~ o ~ d i ~ t r u s t

in

t ~ e n ,

0tt

not

u 1 1 e 0 m m < m l f ~ a

nestal.w

gie:

< l l e s ~ e tei

13eW.m

rte l l e ~ t m m e s Jiaitlé0aaliy and

. suita.My

built up

in

tie s m a l l ~ r frame @f a mole stable world

fore reason became eonfused. Then

ope

hears tite

watcho,

wo ds:

"Back

te

Kmt "

nBaGk

to

St.

'1110masl''

''Back

te

Atistotle, P1}at0,

~ - a g e i : a s "

:But

we

eannet ~ backwat:d, e ~ e e p t

in

dream. Bit-

tory 1 1oves

forward,

n.:ot backward.

Phil.ose¡iliy must ~ i o t W a m a - - - . : t > o ~ l f i ,

e ~ e r

aJl ~ b s t a c l e s

7 f

~ a l . B ~ a g ~

~ « e ' 1 1 ~ 8 J b : e •• &8tratl

drirptdng pe>

s1b>akle and e l i i e © t u ~ agam:. h $10s:e 1 1 . e ~ a l m s wkeíe lñeory is

we

est,

ancl

w ~ e r i e

~ e

terms

ef

c d i ~ l ) ~ e

am

fuzziest,

~ e r e is

the g i r e a t c ; s

~ m.est Uligen.t

w01tk te &e done.

We

mustt

eo.ustftet

~ ~ a l i ~ e,j

a new e;ge, a uew world,

and ~ a t

means

a inew moral ity. This

,eannot

be done by

adopting sorne simple new

idea

an.d making an ''ism"

o_i 1 . t - - - J l i u m a

A i s ~

ei»istentialism., F r e u d i a m i s m ~ d

set-

ting upa ~ w geHe-mf principies üy wltieh a l f.amiliar etlú-

cal

rules

8.11e

hene@{,nh to

he

measwed.

It

can

oilly

be

cl«Jm.e b ~ a a a r l y ~ i m g ana. pei;haps nedeini1111g ll\Gt GD[y obvi-

e.us

~ 1 f l l

1 e : d a i s 1 t ~ I S l lf mie, ' '

doce

fi lue

cgJi

iUe

ikell&

asd. me¡wswaiJ ~ ~ ª B i m e m d ~ , seeíeilJ, asd seay t l ~

S U ~ J e c t s .

e>llly m

SB4

l0ng

attd

Üee Jei.ectiOB may

tho

abstract

oouepts

elñerge tbat will make sooiM f b ~

as

t ~

~ &

~ ~ } f s i e ~

s ~ é n e e ,

adll_

wiJl, or. a reblt. 1 ta some ancient orde of life¡,

wo

¡:oee4

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