the decade 1989-1998in spanish psyehology: an analysis of ... · the decade 1989-1998in spanish...

The Spanisñ .iournal of Psycñology2001, Vol. 4, No. 2,219-236

Copyriglfl 2001 by TI.e Spanish¡comal of Psychology1138-7416

The Decade1989-1998in SpanishPsyehology:An Analysisof Researehin Psychobiology

Pilar Herreros de TejadaandCarmenMuñoz TedóComplutenseUniversity of Madrid

In Ibis papen Wc presení aB analysisof ¡he researchpublished during Ihe 1989-1998decade by renured Spanish faculíy mnembers from the area of psychobiology.Databasesearch and direcícorrespondencewíth the 110 faculty members rendered a Iist of 904psychobiologicalpapers.Classificationandanalysisof ihesepaperslcd Lo 1 lic definitionof at least70 differentresearchírends.Topics aregroupedinto severalspecificresearcharcas:Learning audMemory; DevelopmentandNeural Plasticity;Emotion andStress;Ethology; Neuropsychology;SensoryProcessing;and Psycbopharmacology.Theinternationaldisseminaíionof Ihis research,publishedin joumalsof high impactindex,and¡he increasingnumberof papersaretwo noteworthyfeatures.

En esteestudiose analizala investigaciónpublicadaen la década1989-1998 por losprofesoresnumerariosespañolesdel áreade la psicobiologia.La búsquedaen lasbases

de datosy correspondencia directa con los 110 profesoresdio comoresultadounalistade 904 artículospublicadosde psicobiología.La clasificacióny análisisde estosartículosllevó a la definición deal menos70 lineasde investigacióndiferentes.Se agrupanlostemasenvariasáreasde investigación:aprendizajey memoria;desarrolloy plasticidadneuronal;emocióny estrés;etología; neuropsicologí&;procesamientosensorial:ypsicofarmacologia.La proyeccióninternacionalde estainvestigación,publicadaenrevistasde alto indice de impacto, y el número creciente de artículos son doscaracterísticasimportantes.

Correspondenceconcerningthis arúcleshouldbeaddressed¡o Dr. Pilar Herrerosde Tejada,Departamentode Psicobiología,Facultadde Psicología.Canipusde Somosaguas.28223- Madrid (Spain).E-mail: [email protected]

219

220 HERREROSDF TEJADA AND MUÑOZ TEDÓ

In [bis paper, we at<empt <o offer an overview of <hereseareh carried out iii the area of psychobiologyby tenured

faculty mernbers (professors)from the Spanishuniversitiesiii whieh ihe Psychology licentiateis taught.Re methodernployed is described in detall elsewherein <his specialissue (seeFernández).Therefore,we shall only comrnentupon the specificaspecrsinvolved in [bis areaof knowledge.

On April 4, 1999, the “Listado del Consejo deUniversidades”(University Council List) of the tenuredPsychobiologypmfessorsreachedthe numberof 110 (distributedin 19 universities,seeFigure lA). This is considerablyIowerthan[he numberof professorsfrom orherareasincludedin thismonographicnumber,becauseexceptfor Methodology,almost

ah of thesearcashavetwice or threetimes this number.Onthe basisof this lisí, we carriedout a bibliographicsearchinthe international databases MEDLINE, PsycLlT,andERIC,aswell as in the nationaldatabasePSICODOC9S,in order[oobtain [he hist of publications by eachprofessor.

Almería

Castellón

Granada ¡

Jaén

La Coruna

La Laguna

Málaga

Oviedo 2

País Vasco

Salamanca

Sant. Campos.

Sevilla

UAG

<3AM

UCB

<3CM

UNEO

Valencia

A

El

7

a

6

5

a12

12

lo

¡ 9

16

Stage One — Making a List qfPublications

As describedby Fernández,iii this monographicissue,we wished Lo make a hisr of available pubhieationsfor

interestedreaders,taking into accountthat the goal is todescribe[he research[rendsof eaehauca.Therefore,popularworks, theoreticalreviewsof topics that cannotbe considered[he researchtrcnd proper, and publications for teaching,weíediscarded.The problemof Iocating Spanishsumarnesin nationaland internationaldatabasesis weIl known. In

addition,the databasesthat include mostof the works bypsychologistsaresocialsciences databases,from which <he

works by psychobiologistsareoften exciuded.For example,thedatabaseMEDLINE includedmostof the works byprofessorsustedas Psychobiologyprofessors,whereasFRIC

did not includepracticallyany.Sornearcas,suchas ethology,were not well representedin anyof thesedatabases.In orderto counteract[besepíoblems,we contactedaH the tenured

Almería

Castellón

Granada

Jaén

La Conjña

La Laguna

Málaga

Murcia

Oviedo

País Vasco

Salamanca

Sant. Campos.

Sevilla

UAS

UAM

UCA

UCM

UNrD

Valencia

Bfl

u

a

a

0 5 10No. of Professors

35 20 O 300 200 500 400 500No. of Professors 1 No. of Seats

Figure 1. Numberof Psychobiologyprofessorsin Spanishuniversitiesin April 1999.A.- Distributionof te numberof tenuredprofessorsby universitiesB.- In eachuniversity, [henurnberof professors(from Figure JA) is comparedwith <he numberof searsoifered<o students,whichcorresponds<o <he valuesof <he axis of abscissasaid is representedby black bars. For theComplutenseUniversity of Madrid aud<he AutonomausUniversi<yof Barcelona,<he valuesareover 600 seats.(Thedataaboutseatsin <he universitiesare<aken from <hearticle by 1. Fernández.)

600

RESEARCHIN PSYCHOBIOLOGY 221

university professors, and sent them our list of [heir

publica[ions. This was well received. Guided by rheirresponses,we were able to completea [o[al list of over900publications (74% in English). This number refersexc!usively to works that meetpublication requirementsandit is an indica[ion of the intense andfruitful researchactivityof Psychobiologyprofessors.Many of [hesearticlesaresignedby more [han one [eacherfrorn [he Psychobiologylist, so that if we add ttp thc publicationsincluded for eachprofessorindividually, the number is over 1,400 articles.

Wc identified 70 researchÉrends. Ihis number isapproxirnate,as ¡u somecases,it would have beenpossibleLo divide a researchtrend lino several rends, because, over[he decade,sorneresearchgroupshavediversified [heirpublications.Nevertheless,if [he objec of study wasin[ernally coherent,wedecidednot [o divide die research[rends,unless[hegroupcornponentssuggestedtheopposí[e.

Therefore,in this ftrst stage,we highlight [hefollowingfea[ures of the areaof Psychobiology:(a) a large numberof publica[ions by [he majorí[y of the professors;(b) amarkedinternationaldisseminationof the research[rends,because most of the works are publishedin Englishand, ingeneral, in journals of high irnpact mdcx; (c) a highconcordancebe[ween [he areasin which professorsteachand thosein which they canyoil their research.

StageTwo — Elaborating he ResearchTrendsandGrouping (bern into Spec~ficArcas

shown, aI[hough sorneprofessorsmay be counted twice,because the sarnepersonmay be working in more [hanonearea.Within eachof thesecategories,the information isorganizedas follows: (1) mi in[roductory paragraphwhichs[ates [he number of research[rendsincludedin [hesection,andsornerepresentativecharacteristiesof the specificarea;(2) a paragraphdescribing each researchtrend; (3) aparagraphwhich men[ions research[rendsdescribedinanotherspecifxcarea, but which could have beenincludedin [hecurrentarea.

A [wofoldcriterion wasemployed[o selectthe referencesfor eachresearchtrend. On [heone hand,we attemptedtopresent[he works of ihe greatestimpact aud, on [he other,in order [o aid readers,thoseworks that presenta morerelevantnotionof [he researchtrend. Given the large quan[i[yof publicationsby professorsin this area, a rnaximumnumber of two works perresearchtrendwerequoted. Thereare on!y [hree exceptions where moreworks were quo[edand [his is dueto the aforeirtentionedcases.Tha[ is, [hoseresearchtrends tha[ could have beensubdivided in[o more[rends, but werenot. On the otherhand,readersmay besurprisedto find referencespublishedaf[er 1998. Whenestablishing[he research<rends,only works publishedbe[ween 1989 and 1998 were considered, bu[ oncea trendwas established,subsequen[ works were consideredaspossiblereferencesproviding they met the goal of presentingand dissemina[ing [he work of <he treud.

The speciftc researchareasaredescribedbelow.

The secondstageof this s[udy consistedof elaboratingthe researchtrendsproper. For [bis purpose,we againcontacted[heprofessorswho workedin a researchtrend [oinvite them,if they so wished,to cooperatein [hedeseriptionof the rnost representativeaspectsof [heir work. In researchtrends with participationby several professors,we contac[edat least [wo of them. In a[ least80% of the research[rends,sorneof [heparticipan[s collaboratedin their descrip[ions.

A seriesof categories(see Table 1) corresponding<o[hoseusedin rnost of the joumalsof [his areawas usedas[he organiza[ion criteria for [he varjoesresearch[rends.Thesespecific researchareasand [he numberof research[rendsiden[ified in each areaare shown in Figure 2. Thenurnberof professorswho work in eachspeciftc areais also

Table 1Spec<ficResearchAran ¿¿sediii this Work

Learning and MemoryDevelopmentand Plasticityof <he Nervous SystemEmotion aud StressEthologyNeuropsychologySensoryProcessingPsychopharmacology

Psychopharmacolo9y 2

SensoryProcCEsSing

Neuropsychology

Ethology

Emodon and Stress

Developmenl of CNS

Learning andMemory

0 5 10No. of trende

15 20¡ No. of Professors

25

Figure 2. Numberof <rendsandprofessorsgroupedby specificresearch(1989-1998).flacA Herr: Number of researchtrends. Cray Bars: Numberofprofessorsin eachspecif¡c researcharea(Theprofessorsappear

in more [hanone specific area if they participa<e in <hecorrespondingresearchtrends.)

222 HERREROSDE TEJADA AND MUÑOZ TEDÓ

SpecifacResearchAteas

Learningand Mernory

In this area,we identified a [o[alof 8 researchtrends,2of which — [he ftrst and [he last— couldhavebeensubdivided.In this specific area, researchis being carried ou[ withanirnals.Most of [hetrendsuserats as experimental subjec[s,although sorneusebirds and ftsh. Various types of learningwere ernployed, such as avoidance, aversive and¡nteroceptiveleaming,spatial onentationoc intracranialselfstimula[ion. Within biology of learning and rnemoryprocesses,[he trends rangefrom molecularstudies to thegenerationof modeisof rnemoryretrieval.

Re firsí research[rendcorrespondslo a groupof studiesof [hevisceral-brainsystemvia varioushorneosta[ic behaviorprocessessuchas nutrition (Ramos,Castillo, & Puerto, 1989)andhydro-mineralregulation(Morales,Cubero, & Puerto,1989), or acquisiúonprocessessuch asinteroceptiveleaming(Amedo, Gallo,AgUero, Molina, & Puerto,1993; Mediavilla,Molina, & Puerto, 1998). Within this <rend, two learningmodalities have been anatomically and behaviorallydissociated:On <he one hand,concurren[ aversiveleaming(instrumental),which involvesthe vagal axis, Ihe medialparabrachialnucleus,and cerebeilumcircuits (Agúero,Galio,Arnedo, Molina, & Puer[o, 1996) and, on [he other,sequentialaversivelearning(which is relational),mediatedby [he areapostremaand <he lateral parabrachialnucleus(Agúcro, Arnedo, Gallo, & Puerto, 1993). Re final goalsof [his groupof researchersare [o characterize func[ionally[he behavioral dichotomy belween [hese two types ofaversive learning, and to establishte anatomical circuitsinvolved hoth in learning and in memorymodalities.

The interestin loca[ing <he basic associa[ive brain sitefor taste-aversionIearning has lcd to [he applicationofreversiblebrain inactivation by in[racerebral injections oftetrodotoxin(Gallo, Márquez,Balles[eros, & Maldonado,1999). The data showing tha[ he pos[rial func<ionalinactiva[ion of the parabrachialarea disrup[s mo[ion-sickness-induced [asteaversionreveals an associa[ive role for Ihearea, independen[ of the sensoryfunctions. A rela[edapproach,using [aste-aversionlearning as the learningprocedure,concernsthe s[udy of the neural basisof complexlearningphenomenathat may requirein[eractions arnongindependen[ brain sys[ems. It has been shown [batconditionedblocking, bu[ no[ latent inhibition of [aste-aversionJearning,requiresan mIad hippocampus,and íha<the blocking effect may be reestablishedin hippocampal-lesionedrats by [ransplan[sof fetal brain tissue(Gallo,Valouskova,& Cándido, 1997).

A third researchtrend hass[udied, in day-oldchicks,therole of various cerebralarcasin passiveavoidancelearning,for the firs[ ime implica[ing [he hippocarnpusarnong theregionstitar mediaretitis leaming.It ñasalso heenestablished[hat funetionalla[eraliza[ion, manifes[ed in the medial and

intermedíatehypers[riate, is rela[ed lo asymmetryin titevisualprojection pa[hways. The role of nitric oxide and[hegrow[h factor of fibroblas[s in explora[ory locomotorbehaviorand novel situations,which might interfere withlearningprocesses(Sandi,Patterson,& Rose, 1993), wasalso síudied, in rats.

Neural plasticity in learning is also addressedbycompara[xve studyof the neuralbasisof leamingandmemoiy,in vertebrates,usingbehavioral,lesion,electrophysiological,aud neuroanatomicaltechniques(Salas,Rodríguez,Vargas,Durán, & Torres, 1996). Titese autitors also study [heteetoreticularand telencephalicsystemsthaI participateinthegenera[ion and control of spatial orien[ation movementsin veríebrates(Salas,Herrero,Rodríguez,& Torres, 1997).

Anotherresearchtrendon spatial orien[a[ion behaviorexamines[he slruc[ures involved, suchas Ihe hippocampalforma[ion, anterior thalarnus,and mammillary bodies, inrats, analyzingIhenumberof neurons,glial celís (especiallyIhe astroglial celis), oxidative metabolismand proteinsynthesis. The au[hors havedescribedthe consolida[ion ofspa[ial orientation behavior earlier in male rals than infemales,and [he possibili[y of modifying it by hormonalmanipulation(Cimadevillael al., 1999). This behaviorhasbeenassociatedwith the maturity and neuralstabiliza[ionof severallimbie siruclures.Metabolismwithin Ibis Papezcircuil [hroughout poslna[al developmen[ and aging has alsobeendifferentia[ed (González-González,Díaz, Vallejo, &Arias, 1996).

The last Ibreeresearcbtrends presentediii titis sectionare focusedon [he study of memory consolidationandretrieval processes. Researchersare carryingout experimentaldesignsalmedfundamen[ally al Ihe role of the amygdalaand[hehippocampusin tite memoryof emotionalprocessesandin the processof memoryconsolidationof discreteeven[s,those[ha[ only occur once in time and space(Peinado-Manzado,1994; Peinado-Manzado& Pozo-García,1996).

The study of the role of stressand glucocorticoidsinthe cerebralmechanismsinvolved in leamingand memoryprocesseshas revealedthat the releaseof glucocorticoidsduring learning facilita[es Ihe processesof long-terminformation transferThefacili[ating effectsof glucocorticoidsin memory processeshavealso beenstudied, and [heinvolvemeníof [heneuralcellularadhesionmolecules(Sandi,Loscertales,& Guaza, 1997; Sandi & Rose, 1994) wasobserved.

A group of researchershas establishedexperimentalmodelsof amnesiain rats and deveiopedmnodeisof memoryretrieval and facilitation in complex learning (Guillazo-Blanch, Vale-Martínez,Martí-Nicolovius,Coll-Andreu, &Morgado-Bemal,1999;Torras-García,Portelí-Cortés,Costa-Miserachs,& Morgado~Bernal, 1997). The treatmentsdevelopedare capableof accelera[ing and po[enlia[ing Iheprocessof memory consolida[ion, causingthe subjec[s [hatlearnless to reacit <he samelevel as [hosetitar leam more.Memory facilitation by meansof intracranialelectricalself-


stimula[ion in oid rais was alsoobserved(Aldavert-Veraetal., 1997). Tite resul[s show that lesions or electricalstimulaíion of nuclei related <o cortical aud cognitiveactivationof <he brain (neuralarousalsystems),suchas [heparafascicular,tite thalamic reticular,Ihe tuberomammillary,[hepeduncle-pontineor <he basalmagnocellularnuclei, canfacilitate acquisitionor long-tennre<entionof leaming.Thissugges[s that te subcorticaland brain stem síructuresinvolved in [he differentareusalsystemsmight be eriticalfor <he formation and potentiationof memory(Tenas-Huerga,Coll-Andreu, Guillazo-Blanch, Martí-Nicolovius, &Morgado-Bernal,1998;Vale-Martínez,Guillazo-Blanch,Aldaver[-Vera, Segura-Torres,& Martí-Nicolovius, 1999).On the basisof [he hypothesisthat eachneuralarousalsystem contributes some specific quality (cogni[ive,physiolugical, ur molceular) tu cortical informatiunprucessing,[heauthors of titis research[rendattempt[odiscern<he specific role of [he different neuralarousalsystemsin memoryconsolidation.

In the aboye paragraphs,we have describedeightresearch[rendsin [itis specific areaof LearningandMemory.Although sume more trendscould also be includedhere,they were included in anotiter section. Thus, in IhePsychopharmacolugysec[ion, we includea trendthat s[udies[he effectsof psychoactivedrugson avoidancelearninginrata (Morales,Torres,Megías, Cándido,& Maldonado,1992). In [he sectionun Emotion, we also presen<a trendin which learning measurementsare conductedon hyper-and hypo-emu[ional rats (Fernández-Teruel,Escorihuela,Castellano,González,& Tubeña, 1997).

Developmentraid Plasticity of rite NervousSystem

In this ai-ea, uve researchtrendsstudy tite developmentof [he nervuussystemand of beitaviur in ra[s and hams[ers.Tite f¿rst threetrends,very interrelated,studyaspec[s ofsexualdifferentiationof [he vumeronasalsystem(VNS) inrats,by <he action of tite gonadalsteroidsand tite GABAneurotransmitter.The studiesemployeda morphologicalandendocrinological,as well as a behavioral,outlouk (sexuallydifferen[iated behaviurssuch as sexual and parentingbehavior).The utiter two trendsstudy, amongotheraspects,<he influence uf gestatingmotiteis’ malnutritionun [hedevelopmentof [henervoussystem.

The wurks of [hefirs[ researchtrend are focusedon [heeffectsof diitydrotestosteroneon <he processof sexualdifferentia[ion of <he nervoussystem(Collado et al., 1992;Valenciaet al., 1992).

The secoridresearchtrend is centeredon maternalbehaviur,examiningtite hypothesisof vumeronasalinhibitionon the neuralcontrol of this behaviur(Ceno, 1998).Titeeffeetsuf prenatalenvironmeuitalstressun <he differentiationof <he central nervoussys[ern (CNS) (in <he VNS) andon<he expressionof maternalbehaviorare alsostudied(Cerroet al., 1995).

Las[ly, [herole of tite VNS in sexualdimorphismin ratswas s[udied and [hemos[ signiftcan[ conclusionswere: (a)Sexualdifferentia[ion in [henervoussystemdoesno[ occurin isoJatedneurals[ructures; rather, it affectscornplexneuralcircui[s (suchas tite SVN); (b) masculinizationof females0V feminizatiunof malesat <he neurallevel is rela[ed causallytu [he inversion of maternalbehavior(ma[ernal care ofoffspring is inhibi[ed in [hefemalesand facilita<edin [hemales);and(e> in additiuntu sieruidhormones,otber faetursalso intervenein <he sexualdifferentiationprocessof thenervoussystemand of behavior; [his could be considereda multisignalingprocess(Segovia& Guillamón, 1993;Segoviae[ al., 1991, 1996, 1999).

Of tite remainingtwo researchtrends,oneexamines[heeffec[s of chronicprotein malnutrition and administra[ionuf curtisul in gestatingrata un tite developmen<of <henervoussys[em and behaviuruf <he pups(Vicen[e, RodríguezPérez,& Gómez-Jarabo,1991;RodríguezPérez,Vicente,& Gómez-Jarabo,1992).

Tite Jast researchtrend studies<he developmentof <hedupaminergic neurons and [heir influence in motorlateralizationin rats(Alfonso, Santana,& Rodríguez, 1993)as well as the asymmetricdisíribution of theseneuronsmn[henervoussystem.The influenceof ma[emal ingestion oftyrosine is assessed,with specialfocus un the role ofmelatonin,its syn[hesis in ral and hams[er pineal gland andlís function in titeir estrouscycle (Santanae[ al., 1994).

In [heLeamingand Memorysection,[wo researcittrendsalso related<o tite developmen[and plasticity of the nervoussystemare presentedin moredetail: une that focusesonneuralplastici[y in learning(Salas,Rodríguez,Vargas,Durán,& Torres,1996), audanu[her that s[udies [hedevelopmentof [he s[ructures involved in spa[ial orientationbehavior(Cimadeviliaet al., 1999).

EmotionandStress

Studiesof the emotionalprucessesare a goudexampleof [ite diversi[y of approachestha[ characterizeresearchinpsychobiology.Of [he 11 researchtrendspresentedin thissection,sornework with animais (rat or mouse),carryinguut neuruendocrine manipulations, pharmacologicaltreatments,or psychogeneticcharacterizaíions.Otiter worksfucus on emotionin humans,involving sensoryprocessingof emotional stimuli, emotional disorders such assehizopitreniaor obsessive-compulsivedisorders,or theinterrelationsuf biological aspectsandsocial context.

Star[ing with themust basic research[rends,in tite flrs[one, a behavioraland neurochemicalcharacterizationwascan-lcdout in Rumanhigh-avuidanee(RHA: hypuemotiunal)and Rornanlow-avoidance(RLA: ityperemotional)rat strains(Fernández-Teruel,Escorihuela,Castellano,González,&Tubeña,1997),which havebeenpsychogeneticallyselec[edbr speedor incapacity(respec[ively) [o acquire two-wayactiveavoidancein tite shuttlebox,since [he late 60s. As a


consequenceof titis selection, [heRLA rats (cumparedwith[he REJA) presen[ moreanxiety aud s[ress responsesinVarious experimentalsitutilions, as well as a lower centralGABAergic function, lower mesolymbicdopaminergicfunction and higherculinergichippucampalfunetion.Theshort- and Jong-tcmieffcctsof infantile/juvenilestimulationproceduresin both s[rains of ra[s was also studied,observingthat, out of <he many variables examined, postnatalstimulaíion at<enuates/elimina<esIhese psychogcneíicdifferences(Escorihuela,Tobeña,& Fernández-Teruel,1995).

Tite following titree researchtrendsare classifledwititinpsychoendocrinology:In two of [hem,<he authorsare workingun experimentalrodent modeis,and in [he third, they ares[udying highcompeti[ion sportspeople.Thefirst irend studies<he biological basesof individual differcnces,especiallyemotion-relaiedaspects,manipulatingIbe thyroidaxis activityin rat (Darbra et al., 1995; Martí-Carbonelí,Sanz,Darbra,Garan,& Halada,1993). Theprincipal resultsare: (a) validationof a nonaggressivemethodof dysthyroidism induction; (b)behaviuralcharacterizationof dys[hyroidism as a funcílon of[heaffectedperiod; and (c) eharacterizationof the effectsofdys[hyroidism, ongina[ing in puberty, un [hemorphologyof[hepyramidalneuronsof [hehippocampus(areaCA3).

A secondresearchtrcnd studies[heeffects of varioustestosteruneby-producísun agonisticbehaviurin mice,and[he modulating role of various s[imulus condi[ions(aggression-inductionmudel,oppunenttype, etc.) (Martínez-Sanchís,Brain,Salvador,& Simón, 1996;Martínez-Sanchís,Salvador,Moya-Albiol, González-Bono,& Simón, 1998).In addition<o testosteroneprupionate,[heseau[hors havealso used decanuateof nandrolone,Stanozolol, and [heircombinations. These hormonal by-produc<s have becorneabuse-subs[ances in variouspupulationgroups,and impor[antpsycitological and behaviural effects havebeendescribed,including increasedaggressiveand viulen[ behavior,bo[hin men and women. On [he basis of <his information, ahypo[hesis of addictiun [o <hese substances,dcc [o [hereinforcingpropertiesof tes[os[crone, hasbeenproposed.

The [hird research[rendwithin [hepsychoendociinologyareaexamines[heeffectsof agonisticencountersun men’sand women’s [estusteroneandcortisol levels. Competitionsportshavebeenusedas a standardizedsi[ua[ion presen[ingsigniticantadvantagestu achieve<his goal.meresultshaveshownthe relevanceof experienceand uf situationalfactorsin tite hormonalresponsetu competitive stress.The rolesof physical effurt during competitionandof spor[smen’sphysical condi[ion in <he hormonal responsehavebeenspecifxed.Theseaspectshad no[ beenanalyzedin depth inpreviuusresearchal[hough [beyhad beenpoin[cd out (Suayet al., 1996).With regarátu Ibis, Ihere itave beensornepublicationsun [he hormonaland psychologicaleffec[s ofphysicaleffort and otherlaboratorystressors(Sanchís,Suay,Valverde, & Salvador, 1997).

Three research trends ínvestíga[e [he field ofpsychoneuroimmunology,usingrudentmodeis,andexamine

tite effec[s of stressun vartousparametersuf immunulogicactivi[y. The first trcnd also s[udies <he neuroendocrinemediatorsinvolved in [his relationship,using two [ypes ufstress:social stressand chronic mild stress (Azpiroz,Arregui, Fano, Garmendia,& Sánchez-Mar[ín, 1994;Azpíroz, cl al., 1999).

A secondtreud examineswhe[her different behavioralcapacities[o copewith stressfulsituatiunsmay be relatedlo tite functionalcapacityof tite irnrnwic systemnin mIs (iiistrainsselectedfor [heirlearningcapacityin activeavoidance[ests)(Sandi,Castanon,Vitiello, Neveu,& Morméde,1991).The au[hors found[hatdifferent functionality indexesof [heT lymphocy[es (proliferation, cytotoxicity of tite naturalkiller [NK] celís) are remarkablydifferentbetweenstrains.This indicatestha[ possibly sorneof <he geneiicfacrorsresponsiblebr cuping behaviorsare eitlier relatedlo facíorsinvolved in <he func[ionality of <he T lymphocytesor thatbutit factorswere gene[ically co-selected.Tite effectof titevarious stresshormonesun [heproliferationcapaci[y of <hespleenlymphocytesis also examinedin vitro.

The third researcl,[rend that addressestite s[ress-immunity relationshipwith experimentalmodelsin labora[oryanimals(ratsand miceof differents[rains) hasused surgicalstressmodeis(laparo[omies), chemicalstressmodels(s[ress-like drugs such as ampitetaminesand cucaine>,andpsychosocialstressmodels(nuisestresspatterns).The worksevaluate [he influence of tite s[ress pat[erns un varxousmeasurementparame[ers uf <he immunologic s[ate, bo[hquantitativeparametersand indicatorsuf <he functionalstate,(quan[if¡cation of T and B lymphucytes,cellularity of spleenand thymusgland,proliferateresponsetu mytugens,in vivoand in vitre phagocyticactivity, cytoíuxic activity —NKactivity and genera[iun of cyto[oxic T lymphocytes[CTL]—,<he retardeditypersensitivyresponse(DTH), and others),aud [hepossibility of reversing<he effec[s of stressun <heimmunesystemby pharmaculogicalmeans.Within <his[rend, tite effects of [he various modelsof stressun <hedevelopmentof different pathulogicalprocesses,such astumors and infectious diseases,havealso beenstudied(Freire-Garabalet al., 1996, ¡998).

There arefour more research[rendswithin theEmulionsection.They ah examineemotiunin humaus.In two oftitem, aggressivenessis síudiedfrom a biopsyeitosocialperspectiveandin tite othertwo, sorneaspectsof expressingand prucessingemutionsare examined.

In <he Communi[y uf Valencia, female vic[ims ufdomes[ic viulence,the consequencesof titis stressfulsi[uationun [heir rnen[al and physical heal[h, aud un <he hormonesystem,are being studied(Martínez & Botella, 1996).

Ja ancíherresearchlitad, <he modulatingrole of coníexíin <he manifestatiunof aggressivebchaviorsis examined.Tite auíhorsstudy tite iníerreiaíjonbetwecnaggresson-related psychulogical variables such as impulsivity,asser[iveness,dominance,and fear, un the une hand,and,un the o[her, biolugical variables suchas hormonallevels,

RESEARCH IN PSYCHOBIOLOGY 225

sexual dimurphism,anddevelopmentalpsychubiologicalcharacteristics.The pussiblepredicting value of specificvariables is addrcssedin [heanalysisof <his mul[idirectiunalin[errelationship, as well as possiblemodulatingvariablesthat might explain [heobservedvariability (Ramírez,1993,1998).

Brain act¡vity associa[edwi[h processingof emotiunalvisual stimuli is s[udied using electrophysiulogicalmeasuremcnts(Carretié, Iglesias,& García, 1997).Theau[hurs describehow ac[ivity pruducedbetween200 and300 rus is mainly assuciatedwith [he valence(pusitive-negative)of stimulation (Carretié, Iglesias,& Bardo, 1998)and how subsequentbrain ac[ivi[y is relatedtu <he activatingor relaxingcunsequencesof thestimulation.They havealsoobservedtitat responsetu negativestimuli activatestite fasrerdorsalvisual pathway,and [hatpositivestímuli activa[e titeventral visual pathway,whicit processesmore slowly butmorepreciscly.Thesedatacoincidewith <he resulís ufbehavioral studiesin which shor[cr reactiuntimes [o negativestimuli havebeenobserved.

In addition tu processingof visual emo[ional s[imuli,facial expressiunand recugnitionof emo[iuns iii ínfan[s hasalso beenstudied.An excitangeuf smilesin the motiter-child rela[iunship, visual discrimina[ion, and recognitionofexpressiunsof fear, anger,and surpriseitave beenobserved(Carretié& Iglesias, 1995; Serrano,Iglesias, & Lueches,1992).

In <he Developmentaud Plasticity of tite nervuussys[emsection,we mentioneda research[rend titat examines[heeffects of prenatal s[ress on [he differentiation uf <hevomerunasalsys[em (Cerro et al., 1995) anéin [heLeamingand Memory section, [he influence of stressun [heseprocesseswas described(Sandi et al., 1997).

Erhology

Among [hepsychubiologistsuf [heSpanishuniversi[ics,[itere is a group of professorswho are specializedinethology. Tite researchconductedby [heseprofessorsitasproducedfive research[rends,four of witich havestudiedbasicallyprima[es, both in cap[ivity andin naturalcunditions,and a fifth researchtrendstudiesbeitavior pa[terns in socialfish.

One rcsearchtrend is studying [he capaci[y uf self-awarenessin nunhumanprimates,murespecifically, incaptivegorillas audorangutaus.Researchersare trying tuverify whether<heseprimatesare capableof recognizing<heir uwn mirror-image, evaluating <heir spontaneuusbehaviorsand administering[heGallup test([he marktest).Titis study is especiallyimportan[ because,[o da[c, self-recugni[ion itas beendemunstratedin chimpanzeesaudbunobus,but [hewurks carrieduu[ by other researchgroupswith gorillas revealcun[roversial resul[s and tite da[a withorangutansproceedfrom very small samples(Coleil, Segana,& SabaterPi, 1995a,1995b).

A secondline focuses un [he way (1mw and why

ques[ions) gruup-living individuals initiate, man[ain, andterminate Meir social relationships,which invulve anintcrplay uf cuoperatiun,competition, ané affiliation.Observatiunaland longitudinal studieswerecarriedoutfocusing un [he fine-grainedanalysisof interactiunandcummunicationpatternsin -well-establishedsocialand socio-demugrapitic cuntexts. The majur aim has been [heuncuveringof behavioral and psychologicalprincipIesunderlying<he organiza[iun uf social systems(Colmenares,1991, 1992).

A [hird gruup of researchershascarried ou[ observa[ionsof repruductiveandparentingbehaviorin Calitricides, bu[hin naturalsituationsand in cap[ive animals.Titey itaveessentiallyaddressed[hestudyof environmentalfacturs thataffect uvulatury suppression;in Saguinusnedipus,cos[s ofcuoper-atiun are analyzed; in free-ranging ¡‘apio Ii.haniadryas,wurk is beingcarriedoutun [heir demugraphicdistribution and sociulugyin Eritrea (Gil-Burmann,Pelaez,& Sánchez,1998;Zinner & Pelaez,1999).

A fuur[h research[rendstudiesbehaviors,suchas nes[-building ur foud-gathering,of citimpanzees(Panpaniscus)in naturalcunditions(SabaterPi, Vea, & Serrallunga,1997;Vea & SabaterPi, 1998).

In tite fif[h research[rend, [hesocial urganiza[ion and<he mechanismsuf duminanceand formarion of hierarchiesin angelfish is being studied.Changesin behaviorin <hesesubjec[s, uccurringas a cunsequenceof <he experimentalmanipulatiunrequired[u submitthem tu individual tcsting,are also being ubserved(Gómez-Laplaza& Murgan. 1993).

Neuropsychology

The field uf neurupsycitology,with 21 researcit[rends,ineludestite largestnumberuf researehersamong titePsychuhiologyprofessursconsideredin [his study. Must uf[he [rendsare fucusedun neurupsychologicalfunctionsinhumansand titeir develupmentaland involutiunal aspects.Titeseprucessesare studiedfrum [heviewpoin[s uf clinicalas well as basicresearch.Wc havemaintainedtite classicaldivision betwcenbasicandclinical neuropsychology,firs[presen[ing tite six trendsthat studynormal populations,and<hen, [hefolluwing 12 [rends,which addresspatholugiesor<heir evaluatiun.Lastly, we includedtitree trends[ha[ufferanimal modelsof neuropsycholugicalpa[hologies, and afinal trend in which a cy[ugenetic s[udy in subjectswithTurner’s syndromeis presen[ed,although,<heseworks couldbe included in [he areaof basic research,becauseof <heirmetitod ur <he subjectsthey study.

Wc shall star[ with the descriptiunof <he six research[rendsusing normal popula[ions. In [hefirst trend, within [hefleld of witat we could calI developmentalneuropsychology,researchcrsare wurking un <he evaluationof neuroma[uradunaldevelopmentin healthy preschuulchilóren, with specialat[ent¡un tu childrenwith cerebraldysfunction.Fruit of titis


trendwas <he developmentuf [he“Cuestionariode MadurezNeuropsicológica Infan[il” (CUMANIN [Children’sNeuropsychulogicalMa[urity Ques[iunnaire]; Purtellano,Mateus,& Mar[ínez Arias, 2000), standardizedwi[h anextensiveSpanishsampleuf buysandgirís between3 and 6years of age. In addition <o <he heal[hy pupulatiun,neuropsycholugicalaltera[ions are studiedin uther infantilepopula[ions, suchas childrenwith diabetes,childrenwititgrowthhormunedeficit, or pretermchildrenwith luw budyweigh[ a[ birth (Portellano,Mateos,Valle, & Aizcun, 1997).

A secondresearch[rend has focusedun changesinphysiolugicalvariablessuchas hear[ ra[e, bluod pressure,and elec[rodermal activi[y in anxiety-pruvokingsituations,a[tention tasks,or in associa[iun wi[h [he mens[rual cycle.Therapeu[ic approacheshavealso beenexaminedtu favormodificatiun of physiolugicalvariablesobservedduringanxiety- ur stress-pruvukingsituations(Gómez Amor,Martínez-Selva,Román,& Zamora,1990; GómezAmor,MartínezSelva,Rumán,Zamora,& Sastre,1990).

Using [he event-relatedputential technique,a [hirdresearch[rendhass[udied sensoryperceptiveprocessesanda[ten[iunal andmemuryprocessesin healthysubjec[s. Thesampleincluded personsagedbetween20 and86 years,maleand female,of comparablesocioeconomicand cul[urallevels.The aim of [besestudieswas tu charac[erize [heage-relatedchangesobservedin titese subjectsira titeseprocesses(Amenedo& Díaz, 1998, 1999).

Otiter electrophysiulugicalstudiesbroachbidimensiunalvisuo-spa[ial informa[ion processingand [he cortical arcasinvolved.Working mcmory and semanticprucessingmay bereflec[ed in [he“recogni[iun po[ential,” acomponentassumed[o be crucial [o evaluatereadingproblems(Martín-Loeches,Gómez-Jarabo,& Rubia, 1994; Martín-Loeches,Valdés,Gómez-Jarabo,& Rubia, 1998).

In [he5Ch and Gb researcit trends, <he study of

asymme[ries in cogni[ive functions is addresscd.The 5Lbtrendfocusesun changesin neuropsychologicalperformanceand neurophysiolugicalactiviry (computerizedEEG)inducedby au[ogenous relaxatiunin lef[- and righ[-handed adul[s.ThephysiolugicaJand cogni[ive effec[s uf stradiol un brainasymme[ry in healthy women were also studied(León &Portellano,1999; Pur[ellano & Robles,1998).

The 61h researchtrend addressesbrain asymmetryinJinguisticand visual processing,iii order <o expJore literelativedegreeof brain asymmetry.Specifically, [heau[horsfocusedun [heparame[ers[batmodulateparticipationof [heright hemispherein languageand [he lateralizatiunof objectvisual recognition(Nieto, Hernández,González-Feria,&Barroso, 1990;Nieto, Santacruz,Hernández,Camacho-Rosales,& Barroso, 1999).

Within <he ficíd uf clinical neurupsychology,we haveidentified 12 researclxtrends [bat study human popula[ionswi[h variuusdisorders.The last une also s[udies prima[es. Of[hese12 [rends,[he tirsr <bree examinevariousconsequencesof brain lesions; [he following threc trends compare

paitologicalagingin with normal aging.Trends7, 8, and 9provide clinical evaluationins[ruments. Las[ly, trends 10, 11,ané12 are within <he areaof cronobiolugyand are<herefurepresentedtogether,although sumeof them are not strictlyclinical neurupsychulugy.

Within <he [rcndsstudying subjectswith brain lesions,in the firs[ une, researchersare examining [he long-termconsequencesuf brain lesionsin infancy. Their interes[ is tudeterminetite cerebralplasticity of [he imma[ure brain,consideringintra- and interhemisphericcerebralreorganiza[iunaf[er a brain lesion. The relationshipwas analyzedbe[weenmaturing factors (ageat trauma),brain lesionsdetectedbymagne[ic resonance(MR), and chronieneuropyschologicaldeficit. The autitors’ conclusiunsclearly differentia[e betwcencortical and subcorticalmacru-lesiuns.Ibis researchitas legaland clinical repercussionsand raisesdoubts abuu[ <hewidespreadconceptof genuinerecoveryfrom lesionsininfancy (Junqué& Vendrelí, 1997; Mataró& Junqué,1998).

A sccondresearch[rendstudiesfunetionalreorganizatiunafrer focal brain injuries. After sucb an injury, variousneurophysiolugicalphenumenaoccur [ha[ explain whyfunctiunal damageis more pronounced[han struc[uraldamage and why, in [he following months, partialspontaneousrecoveryof [hecugnitivefunctions is ubserved.Thesephenumenaare ischemicpenumbra,diascitisis,andtrarasneuraldegeneratiun,and raeuroimagingtechmiquesarecurrently bcing used [o investigatethem. Longitudinalstudies,employing SPECT,MR, andneuropsychulogicalmeasurements,are usedtu investigatehuw [heinjured brainreurganizesitsclf, af[er a first episodeof focal ínjury due[u ischemicinfarct or hemorrhage,with specialfucus unintraitemisphericcurtical-subeorticalreorganizationand alsointerhemisphericreorganization(Jurado,Bartumeus,&Junqué,1993;Pringatanoet al., 1998).

Anu[her gruup of researchershas analyzed,quan[itativelyand qualitatively, fumetiunal altera[ions related[u focalneurologicalpa[hology (in general,cerebral infarcts and[umurs)and <o diffuse neurulogicalpathology(dementia).This trend uffers a mc[hod <o exploreapraxiastaking intoaccoun[ he differencesor similari[ies of various volun[arymovemcnts(with and wi[hou[ meaning;tite useuf objects,traditional symbols),and also [hemudali[y in which gesturesareniade (verbal cummand,irnitation, real useuf ubjects).It also offers a qualitativesíudyof tite diflerení Éypesofresponsesmadeby subjects,which facilira[es analyzing<hemechanismsunderlyingapraxias(Mozaz, Martí, Carrera,&De La Puente,1990; Muzaz, Peña,Barraquer,Martí, &Goldstein,1993).

Comparisonuf normal aging and demen[ia is anutiterfucus point amungour universi[y neuropsychologis[s.Junquéandcolleaguesare wurkirag un a modal <hat combinesgeneticfactorsand s<ructuraland func[ional degeneration.Theyhypothesizcthat [hereare[hreeways uf normal brain agingthat apparentlysharepart of <he cerebralarad furactiunaldegenerationof Parkinson’sdisease,subcor<icalvascular

RESEARCEIN PSYCHOBIOLOGY 227

demen[ia, andAlzheimer’s disease.An attemp[ is made[orela[e gene[ic fac[ors wi[h [he way people age. Titedeterminationof Apo E andACE alleles in a extensivesampleof normal elderly individuals rnay be an indicationuf geneticcontribution tu <he subtypesof “normal” aging.Titus, [hepresenceof Apo E alleles4 may be related [omarkeddegeneratiunuf [hehippocampus(a form of memoryloss similar [uAlzheimer’s disease)andACE may be relatedtu vascularfactors [batproducesilent infarc[s in [hewhitematter (similar tu vascularsubcur[ical demeratia)(Pujol,Junqué,Vendrelí,Grau,& Capdevila,1992;Vendrelí,Pujol,Junqué,& Martí-Vilalta, 1995).

A secondresearch[rendfucusesun neuropsychologicaland differential diagrausisof [hevarioussub[ypes of dementia(Perea& Ladera, 1997a,1997b),evalua[ing [hedeteriorationof cognitiveprocesses.Ibeseau[hors areespeciallyinterestedIn [heexecurive frncrion and severalof its aspects(attentionaldirection, hierarchyrecugnition,expressingin[entions, e[c.).

And a [hird trend examines[heneurupsychologicaleffectsof neurodegenerativeprocesses.Speciflcally, it exploreshuwcugnitive processesare affec[ed in demyelinationpathulogy(multiple sclerosis),degenerativecerebellarpathology(hereditarycerebellarataxias),arad in normal aging (Barroso,Nieto, Olivares, Wullmann, & Hernández,2000; Nieto,Barroso,Olivares,Wullman, & Hernández,1996).

In <he ficíd of ncurupsychulugicalevaluation, a gruupof authurs has designedgeneralevaluation scalesandspecific syndromcscales(aphasia.amnesia,pusttraumaticsyndrome, etc.) fur prognosis in everyday clinicalpsychologyand in cugnitive rehabilitation(Perea,Ladera,Blanco,& Morales, 1999).

The misnzarchnegativity(MMN) cumponenthasbeenproposedas a clinical instrumeratfur physiulogicalevaluatiunof the auditory cugnitive functions, becauseit is obtainedindependentlyuf [hesubject’sattention.This compunentmaybe an elec[rophysiological indicatorof functiunal integri[yof [he brain mechanismsof at[entiun and sensurymernoryin Alzheimer’s disease, coma, ur neurodevelopmen[aldisorders(Grau,Escera,Yago, & Polo, 1998;Polo, Escera,Gual, & Grau, 1999).

Another trend is inves[igating, using event-relatedpotentials,[heneurofunctiuraalal[erations associatedwithsensoryand cognitivedeficits observedin mentally retardedchildrenuf variuus urganicandcultural-familial etiologies(Díaz & Zurrón, 1995;Zurrón & Díaz, 1995).

The following titree research[rendsbelong tu [hef¡eldof cronubiulogy.The f¡rs[ rend studiessleepdisurdersthatpresentexeessivedaytimesomnulenee(EDS).The authorsattempt [o determine[he pa[tern of neuropsychologicalaltera[ions- cognitive deficits and psychopathulogicaldisorders— specif¿callyassucia[ed with each of [hemainUDS disurders:sleepapneasyndrome(SAS), narculepsy-cataplexysyndrome,and psychiatrichypersumraia.Evaluatiunof long-[erm effectsuf con[inuous pusitiveairway pressure(CPAP)treatmentun vanoustypesof cognitive def¿citsand

[he level uf psychosocialadaptatiunuf SAS patientsisaddressed.The relative con[rabutiun uf etiolugical factors(apneaíndex,degreeof nocturnalitypoxemia,and anomaliesin [he architectureof sleep)tu the patitogenesisof [besecognitive deticits in SAS patients is alsoexamined(RamosPlatón& EspinarSierra, 1992).

Otherbiological rhythmsin additiun tu sleephavealsobeens[udied. The secondresearchtrend describesultradianrhythms in spuntaneousactivity uf awakehuman adults,usingan interval similar tu [he intcrREM sleep intervals(1 t/

2 huurs) (Grau e[ al., 1995).

In a [bird trend, researchershaves[udied circadianorganization,[emperature,anésleepin primates,in anat[empt tu establishanimal modelsof neurupsycitulogicalpa[hologies. The rela[ionship be[ween body [emperatureandactivi[y, bo[h in normal and in pathologicalsitua[ions, hasbeenexamined.The relatiunsitipbe[ween circadianrhythmsand ultradianand seasonalrhy[hms hasalso beenstudied.The fulluwing results are noted: (a) descriptionof [heevolution uf ternpera[ure during sleep; (b) verification ofsex differencesin thermolytic mechanisms;(e) studyufcircadian organization in an experimental model ofParkinson’sdisease(Almiralí et al., 1993; Almiralí, Nicolau,Garnundi,Ruselló, & Rial, 1997).

Wc will now describe<breercsearchtrends,[he inclusionof which in [hespecific Neuropsychologysectionmight bearguable,but which havebeenincludedhere tu avoidmuredivisions.The fxrst [rendpresentsan experimentalmodel ofhepatieencephalupa[hycausedby portacavalshuntthatpruvokescirrhosisand gives risc [u encephalopathyin [heCNS.This mudel hasalluwed[herescarchgruup tu de[ectsimilaraltera<ionstu <hosefuund in humans,in circulatingmegacariocytes,ira Alzheimer [ype-IIcelís,and in behavioralchanges,mainly biorhythms(Arias,Alsasua,Aller, Lorente,& Arias, 1993;Lópeze[ al., 1997).

A secondtrend includedin [hepsychugeneticfleid focusesun the rcsearchof new waystu s[udy Dowra’s syndrumefroma neurubiologicalapproach.The ftrs[ completebehavioralassessrnentof Ts65Dnmice (with partialtrisomy of [he 16-chromosune)hasbeencarriedout. This is currently tite bestmudel of human Duwn’s syndrorne.Sensury,motorandexploratorybeitaviur, anxie[y, spatial learning,and o[hercognitive abilities (sitort- and long-[erm rnemory, ‘workingmemuiy ) havebeen[ested,aswell as [heirafluenceuf certainexperiencesun subsequentperformaraceof specific tasks(Escorihuela,Fernández-Teruel,et al., 1995; Escorihuela,Valluna et al., 1998). In additiuntu [hedataubtainedaboutneuromorpholugicalaud neurochemicalaspectsof Ts65Dnmice, this characterizationhasrevealednew perspectivesinneurubiologicalresearchun Down’s syndrurnc.

In [he<bird researchtrend, a cytogeneticand behavioralstudy of individuals witit Turner’ssyndrumewas undertaken.The characteristicsof [he X-citrumosomeassociatedwi[h<his syndrumewere studied(FernándezMéndez,& Pásaro,1996;Pásaro,Fernández,& Méndez,1993).


Ira additiun <o tite 21 researchtrcnds describedin titeNeuropsychulogysection,anotiter interesting[rend,whichhasestablishedexperimentalmudelsof amnesiaandmemuryretrieval and facilitation in rats,is describedin <he Lcarningand Memory section.

SensoryProcessing

A small numberuf Psychubiologyprofessursinvestigateserasoryprocessing,focusing un <he auditory andvisualmodalities.Of [hefive researcittrendsdescribeditere, threeuf them study attention-relatcdsensuryprucessingusingelectrophysiologicalrecordings,and <he remainingtwu trendsexaminethe evaluatiun of sensoryprocessingwititin aspecies,usingcomparisunuf electruphysiolugicalrecordingsarad otherphysiologicaland behaviuraltechniques.

The first trend addressesbrain mechanisrnsin auditorycognitiun.The researchgruup hassiudiedcurasciousaudituryperception,auditory sensurymemury, and involuntaryauditory attention usingevent-relatedpotential recordingsin combinationwith uther techniques.By mearasuf <hemismatch negativity (MMN) that is generatedin <hesupratempuralcortexwhen a repetitiousstimulationcitanges(Escera,Alhu, Winkler, & N~atiinen, 1998), tite authorshaveestablished[he existence uf two differentiated brainmechanismstu captureinvoluntary attentiun.Rey itave alsoestablishedthat <he HI-histamine-receptormaybe invulvedin mismatch racgativity (Serra, Escera,Sánchez-Turet,SánchezSastre,& Grau, 1996).

The prucessingof task-irrelevantstimulation cen[ers [heiraterestof a secoradrescarchtrcnd. More specifically,<heSimun effect (i.e., spatial cumpatibility effectswhenstimuluslucation is irrclevant) (Valle-Inclán,1996) and the accessuryeffect (i.e., faster reactiuns when visual stimuli areaccompaniedby ara irrelevan[ auditury stimulatiun)(Hackley& Valle-Inclán, 1998) itave beeninvestigated.The researchun tite Simun effect cuncludestitat interfereraceduringresponseselectionis critical fur <he Simon effect tu appear,but it is dubiouswitether titis processshuuld becunsideredautumatic.Tite resultswith tite accessuryeffec[ iradicatethatit is pruducedbeforeresponseselectiunis over, which endsa long cuntruversyabuut <he locus of <he accessuryeffect.

In a <bird researchtrend, event-relatedpotentialsincombinalion wiíh localizaíion techniquesand frequencyanalysishavebeenrecordedtu study spatial visual attention.It hasbeenpointeduut [bat tite CI cumponeratis lucalizedin [hestriatecor[ex, ané[bat a[<en[iunal modulationbeginsin extrastriateareas;alpharitythm attenuatiunandbetarhythm incremen[ havealso beenobservedduring <hesetasks(Gómez,Clark, Fan, Luck, & Hillyard, 1994).Applying[he gap paradigmtu study motor attention,[he followingresultsarereported:(a) thc gap effect is rubustand it appearsira visualand auditory mudalities,both in manual andocularresponses;(b) unfocusedatientiun and preparatiuraformovementmay cuntribute<o <he gapeffect; (c) event-related

potentialssuggestprocessesboth uf sensurygap recurdingand uf preparatiunfor muvement(Gómez,Atienza,López-Mendoza,& Vázquez, <995). Theseautitors havealsodeterminedsume components of electruphysiulogicalrecurdingsassuciatedwitit sensuiy memory in differcnt statesuf arousal,and witit faceprocessirag,ambiguousfigures,etc. (Atienza, Cantero,& Gómez,1997).

Tite next two research[rendsfocus un the visual func[iunof a specics.Tite citaracterizatiunof tite visual func[ion ufa speciesis irrapurtantbecause,un <he une hand,it providesknuwledgeabuut itow visual prucessingis achievedandhow tite visual systcmbecameestablishedat a certairapointuf [he pitylugenetic scale.On the utiter harad, it offers amudel <u evaluatetite cffec<s of experimentalmanipulatiunsun a species,and <he disorders<bat affec< titat species.Twugruupsuf Sparaishpsychobiologistswork in titis area.

Ira invertebrates,une gruup studiesguided visual behaviorin <he artitrupudLycosa larentula (Araneae,Lycosidae),auditave establishedtite continuity betwcenmorpitological,pitysiolugical, arad behavioralaspectsof tite orieratatiuracapacityof titis spiderusirag pularizedligití (Kuvuur, Muñoz-Cuevas,& Ortega-Escuhar1993; Ortega-Escobar& Muñoz-Cuevas,1999).

In <he fif<it and last researchtrendof <lis section,<heauthursdevelopeda model tu evaluate<he visual function inrats arad mice, tite two mus< frequently used speciesInresearch.Ira <he study un visualacui<y, measuremeratsof [heuptical quality uf tite re<iraal image were cumparedwitit [hethreshuldsestimatedfrom cortical EPs, arad with beitaviuralmeasurements.In tite study on luminance,electrophysiolugicalthresholds(with recurdiragsuf electrure[inogram,event-rcla<edcortical po<entials(EP) and EPs ira tite superiorculliculus)and behaviuralandpupillary threshuldswereobtaincd.Thismudel may be very useful for early detectioraarad diagnosisuf visual funetiura alterations,as has beenrevealedira tites[udy uf albiraosubjects(HerrerosdeTejada,Green,& MuñozTedó, 1992; 1-len-erosdeTejada,Muñoz Tedó, & Costi, 1997).

In titis section,five researchtreradswere described.In<he Emotiun sectiun,a muredetaileddescriptioncan befuund uf araothertrend titat also addressessorneaspectsufsensory prucessing, specifically emutional stimulusproccssing,implying tite dorsaland ventralvisual pathwayswitb tite negativeor pusitivevalenceof tite sensorystimulus(Can-crié,Iglesias, & Bardo, 1998).

Psychophannacology

Tite greatestamuuntuf researchappearsira [his ficíd,along with Neurupsychulugy.Wc haveidentified 15 rescarcittrends,uf which many (cigití) fucus un [hestudyof abuse-drugs and addictivebeitaviur, which are topicsuf greatsocialimpact.Of <beseeight trends,uve study alcoholism.Theremairaing severa trerads study [he effects uf certainpsychuactivedrugs,buth in <he clinical ficid arad in <hedcvelupmen[ of animal mudeis.


Abuse-drugsform part uf a small numberof substances[batare chemicallyquite distinct from eachotiter, but titatare capableof aJtcringan individuals emutional andmutivational statedrastically.In [hef¡rst trend,<he controlof the neurubiologicalsubstratesinvulved in [beseprucessesis studiedin experimentalrudcnt mudels. Ira addition,pussiblepsycitopitarmaceuticals[rategics capableuf reversing<he action of drugsare being developed(Navarro, Rubio,& Rodríguezde Fonseca,1995; Rodríguezde Fonseca,Carrera,Navarro,Kuub, & Weiss,1997).

Tite secondtrend addressesthe role uf the dopaminergicsystemin tite generadorauf the rcinforcingeffectsuf abusesubstancesand of excitatoryamino acidsthat are possiblymvolvedira tite addictivemechanismof opiates.Locadora-prefereraceconditioning is usedtu study tite reinforcingproperdes(dependence)uf titesesystems,whereastu studytite aversiveproperties(abstinencesyndrome),aversivelocadoraconditiorairagis used.Theauthorsalso analyzetherole of tite nucícusaccumbensand [he prefrontal cortex,buth iii tite developmentuf dependenceand in titecunditiunedeffectsuf <he abstinencesyradromeof morpitine(Aguilar, Mari-Sanmillán,Morarat-Deusa,& Miñarro, 2000;Rodríguez-Arias,Miñarro, Aguilar, Pinaxo, & Simón, 1998).

The third treudexamiraestite reinfurcementmechanisms(cellular mechanismsarad systemsmecharaisms)uf upiatesarad cucaine.Sclf-administratiunuf abuse-drugs(morpitinearad cucaine)and titeir relation witit spuntaneuusmotoractivity and cardiovasculareffectswere investigatedin rats.Tite interaction mcchanismsuf opiate receptors,[iteirreinforcingeffect, and <he modificatiurasdue <o tite actiorauf corticutrupinwcre examined(Ambrosio, Sharpe,&Pilotte, 1997;Persico,Scitindler,Davis, Ambrosio, & Uhí,1998).

Studiesare undcrtakenun tite possiblerole of upiatepeptidesasmediatursof tite reinforcing actionof alcohol andtite consequentdevelupmentof preferencefur alcoholcorasumptiun(Sandi, Burrelí, & Guaza, 1990). Por [itispurpose,in titis fourth trerad,an experimentalparadigmof“preference’ witit mts was used,following a mudel uf “doublccituice” betweenwater andetitanol.The sessiunof forcedingestionof etitanul (cundi[ioning sessiora)was revealedtube crucial for tite dcvelopmentof ethanulpreference.Bynieans uf psychopitarmaculogicalappruximatiuns,<heinvolvement of tite opioidergicsystemsin <he develupmentof preferencefor alcohol consumptionwasdemonstrated.

The next four researchtrends also studyalcuholism. Ontite basisuf titeir uwn theory uf tite processuf dmg addiction,a group of researchershas developed standardizedexperimentalmudeisof alcohulism(~hich alluxv verifacatioraof levels of consumplion,tolerance,abstinencesyndromc,etc.) using unselectedalbino rats, witit whicit [he>’itave studiedvariuusaddiction-relatedassuciativelearningparadigms.Thisgruup has reporteda speciflc relationbetweenconsumptionof toxic dosesuf alcohol and the simple learning of aninstrumentalresponse.Titis hasallowed<bern tu contrast

various itypothcscsabout [heneuroanatomicalsubs[rate ufaddictiunsarad tite cholinergichypothcsisuf physiulogicaland molecularchanges.The first dose/respunsestudieswerecarriedout abuut tite effectsof nicutine and mecamilaminein septal areaandhippucampusun learningandtite inhibitionuf appctitiveresponses,ira chronic alcoitul-drirakingsubjects(Nadal, Prat, Pallarés,Hernández-Torres,& Ferré 1996;Pallarés,Nadal,Hernández-Turres,& Ferré,1997).

The enzymaticneuralmechanismsinducedby etitanuland tite beitavioral importanceuf <hesemecitanismsarebeing examinedby manipulatingcatalasewith inhibitorsarad inductursuf titis enzyme(Rotzir¿ger,Aragón,Rugan,Amir, & Amit, 1995; Sanchís-Segura,Miquel, Currea,&Aragón, 1999).Ibis hasallowedresearcherstu show thatsume effects of etitanul seemtu require tite uxidation ofetitanol tu acetaldehyde:catataseInhibitors block titeseeffectsdeperadingun the dose,whercasinductors enhancethcm.The lucalizationof titis metabulismin theCNS is beingstudied,becausecatalasedoesnot seem<o be homugcneuuslydistributed in tite brain. Tite behavioralconsequcracesofmanipulating<he levelsuf acctaldehydein <he braira are alsounderstudy, with pitarmacologicaltuols,usingsulphuratcdaminoacidsthat havebeenubservedtu bind acetaldehyde¡u vivo, arad iraitibiturs of tite brainenzymethat metabolizesacetaldehyde(ALDH).

Thc delimitatiora uf a neurocognitiveprofile of familyvulraerabilityis anotiteraspectof alcoholismunderstudyiraa researchtrend. Basedun studiesof geneticepidemiologyaudmodelsuf risk fur dcvelupingalcuholism,an extensivepsychophysiological(EPrecurdings)arad neuropsycitologicalbatterywas usedto identify possiblevulnerability markersin citildren from families with a high densityof alcuholisro,but who hadraot yct comniencedalcohol ingestion. Titereis evidenceof putentially useful cues that could be testedby mearasof follow-up studies(RodríguezHolguín, Corral,& Cadaveira,1998a,1998b).

Ira chronicalcoholicabstineratpatients,ncurofunctiunal

deteriorationhasbeenevaluatedwith the EP tcchnique.InIbis research,shurt-, medium-,and lorag-latencyvisual andauditory EPswere used,as well as endugenouscumpuraentssuch as N2, P3, andnegativeconuingentvariaban (NCV).Exceptfur NCV, tite testshaveprovedtu be highly sensitivefor assessing[he neurotoxiceffects uf alcohol (Cadaveira,Grau, Roso, & Sánchez-Turet,1991). Large individualdiffereraces were revealed in <he effects of chronicconsumptiuraof alcohol,evenamoragpersunsof similaragesaraddrinking histur>’. Five-monthand 1-yearfollow-ups ofabstineraceshowed unly partial reversibility of theabnurmalities(Cadaveira,Curomiraas,RodríguezHolguín,Sárachez-Turet,& Grau, 1994).

Wewill nuw describetite sevenremainingresearchtrends,alí of them focusingun variuus psychoactivedrugs.Ira <hefirst trend, studiesof scitizopitremicand obsessive-cumpulsivepatients, and of patients affected with attention-deficithyperactivity disorder (ADEJO) are being conducted,

230 HERREROSDETEJADA AND MUÑOZ TEDÓ

addressing[heeffectsuf psychoactivedrugs ira regionalbrainmecabolismarad ira cognitiun. Ibesewurks shuw structuralarad functiunal deficits [bat indicate an alteration of [heanatomie-furactionalraeurodevelupmentuf tite fronto-s[riatumsys[em. Ira schizuphreraia,frontal basalneurodevelopmen[alhypofunctíonwas detected;in ADIAD, a decreasedvolumeof [hefruratal bbc was identified,in additiun tu a larger-than-normal sizeof [heright caudatenucleus.Psychuactivedrugsthat affect <he dopaminergeticsystemproducechangesira [hebasal gangliaarad in the medial prefrontalcor[ex that aredetectableby meansof magraeticresunance.Neuruchemicalaraalysisira vivo, along wi[h tite araalysisof [herapeuticresponsearad cugnitive changes,ma>’ impruve clinicalpsychiatricpractice (Mataixet al., 1997; Verger, Junqué,García, Pardo,& Martí-Vilalta, 1996).

Ira <he secondtrcnd, ira additiun tu ara epidemiolugicalstudy in a mental itealth center,researchun psychopatholugicaldisurdcrs, such as panic arad aggressiun,and possiblepsycho[herapeuticaradpsychupharmaculugicaltreatmeratswascarrieduu[ (LópezAlonso & Gómez-Jarabo,2000).

Ira tite <bird trerad,animai modeisare used tu study<hedoparniracrgicsystcm(Navarro,Miñarro & Simón, 1993),CABA, and utherneurutransrnitterssuchas upiuids, nitruusoxide, arad ademosine(Fspert,Navarro,Salvador,& Simón,1993) ira aggressivebehavior.The role of tite CABA systemira Che reguladoraof utiter itehaviorsis also examined.

The effec[s of variouspsychoactivedrugs ura agunisticbehaviorin mice were studied,usirag a behaviorassessmeratprogram [u examine<he variatioras in several beitaviorcategoriesaradpatterns.Ira this fourth [rerad,<his techraiqucwas appliedtu <he studyuf represeratativesubstancesof [hemain groups of psychuactivedrugs: antidepressants,psychustirnulants,anxiolytics, arad upioids.The effect unagonistiebehavioruf sumestimuluscunditioras,such as [hetype uf oppunera<,repeatedfighting experierace,arad <hemodel uf inducedaggressiunwerealso araalyzcd(Martíraez,Salvador,& Simón, 1994;Moro, Salvador,& Simón, 1997).

Arauther group of researchers is carrying uutpharmaeulugicalstudiesabuut tite effect uf diazepam,buspirone,and chlurpromazirae,and utherpsychoactivedrugsun active avoidancelearraing (Morales,Torres,Megías,Cándido, & Maldonado,1992; Torres,Morales, Cándido,& Malduraado,1996).

Ira [lic sixth <rerad, sex differences ira <he effects ofraeurulepticdrugs un escape-avoidancebehaviorin mice arestudied.Tite acuteadministradoraof italoperidol, raclopride,cluzapine,arad SCtA 23390, impaired escape-avoidancebehavior,more ira malestharaira females,and tite subchrunicadministratiunof haloperidul had a similar effcct. Titisappearedtu be a reliable pitenomenon,becauseit wasobservedin buth kirads of administratiora,ira two muuses[rains, andwith severaldrugs arad doses.The observedresul[s were dosedependent.The sex differenccsira escape-avuidancedid not seemrelated <o sex differencesira <hewell-knuwn detcriuratingcffeetsuf <besedrugs un motor

activi[y. In addition, an analysisuf [besestudiesshowedthat diere were no sex differcncesin tite variability ofresponses,reirafurcing [he ideatha[ femalesubjectssitouldbe included ira [hese types uf studies (Parra, Arenas,Muralcón, Vinader-Caeruls,& Simón, 1999).

The identificatiura uf the endocannabinoidsystemas anew systcmuf sinap[ic communicatioraarad neuralsignalingwas a ver>’ impurtantneurobiulogicalevent ira <he niraeties.This systemis invulved in <he control of motor behaviorarad in variuusneuropsychiatricdisorders.Oneof <he teamsof psychubiolugistshas cerateredits wurk ura identifying thefunctional natureof <he principal endugeraouslipid of <heendocannabinoidsystemarad i[s behaviuralrelationship(Giuffrida et al., 1999),arad <he ftrst internationalmonographun <his systemhasbeenpublished(Rodríguezde Fonseca,del Arco, Martín-Calderón,Gurriti, & Navarro, 1998).

In [he Emotiora section,we describedan iraterestingpsychopharmaculugy-relatedtrerad, in which researchersareusirag testusteroneby-pruducts,hyputhesiziragaddiction<o[besesubstancesbecauseuf <he reinforcing propertiesoftestosterune(Martínez-Sanchíscf aJ., 1998).

Conclusions

Titis wurk is tite result of tite studyof researcitpublisitedby Psychubiolugyprofessursfrom 1989 tu 1998. Oralyterauredprofessorswerecorasidered,totalirag 110 professorsfrom 19 uraiversities.Tite total list of publicatiorasiracludes904 differerat articles. 1429 Psychobiolugyprufessorsco-sign <bese904 articles. The resultsof <beseiravestigatiurasare describedira whatWc havecalledresearchtrenás,wbich,ira <ura are groupedirato specificresearchareastu facilitatefollow-up arad preseratationof a panoramaof <he curatentof<he Psychobiobogypublicatioras.

Scientijic Productio¡z

Fur eachprufessur,the rate of scientificpruductioratakenirato accountis ara averageuf 13 quutatiuns.Perhaps<hisaverageis not ver>’ represeratativedue tu <he large iradividualvariation in tite numberof publications—from J <o 92quo[ations—among[he researchers.Similarly, it could becuncluded<bat <he witole tateof qautadorasfrom <he decadeis contaminated,because,taking irato account[he list ofprufessors(tite liniversity Coraracil List of April 7, 1999)who achieved tenure betweera 1979 (when <he firstpsycitubiologyprufessorachievedtenure)and 1999, sumeresearchers’publicatiorasdo nut correspuradtu 10 ycars ufwork with tenure, but ratiter tu sitorter iratervais.Wc alsopuiratuut that, in <bis decade,only 15% uf <he professurshavepublishedless <han 5 articles,arad <he prufessurswhomwe could not cun<actafter <he first le<terbelungtu [his 15%.Titerefure,<beselatterprofessorsma>’ havepublicatiunsnutreflectedira <bis article.

RESEARCHIN PSYCI-IOBIOLOGY 231

Essentially,whcn a prufessorjuiras [he University,bisor her researchingtrajector>’ is evaluated.Professurswhohaveworkedbeforetheir accesstu tenurein researcitcentershavehad moreopportunitiestu publish [hanhaveuntenuredteachers(teachershiredby <he IJniversity), who must teacitarad investigatesimultaneously.In Figure IB can be seen<he mismatchbetweera[hequantityuf students,whoseclassesare oftera taught by untenuredteachers,arad [he numberuftenuredprufessors.Wc must [herefureemphasizethat [heproportion uf publicatiorasper researcheris ver>’ high,especiallytakirag into accuunt tha[, ira most Sparaishuniversities,researchcrscan unJy spendpart uf their timeinvestigatingbecausethey must dedicateup tu 240 hoursper year tu preseratialclasses,obviuusly ira addi[ion tu <hetimespent ira personalizedattentiontu students.This prevents<bern frum working ira [helaburatoriesdurirag the instructionperiod; [beyalso usualí>’ haveuní>’ orac sabbaticalperiod ira[heir lives.

Lastí>’, wc must take into accuurat[bat PsychulogyFaculties (PsycholugyCenters)are oftera quite recen[ arad,[berefore,in [hetenyearscunsidered,new Study Piarashavebeendeveloped,with <he correspundingurganizationof <hecurricularcontentuf Psychubiulugy(compulsor>’ ira alíUniversities) arad, especialí>’, mounting [he researehlaburaturiesin [he facultiesand obtainirag<he necessaryfunds. Psychubiulogy laburaturies require high-techinstrumentatiura,which, in general,mearaslargeinves[mentsfor PsychulogyFaculties.

As a generaloverview uf <hesecommerats,ira Figure3can be seen<he total numberuf quotationsira [he 89-98decade,corresponding<o tite professorsfrom <he Jistempluyed(<he University Cuuncil Lis[ uf April 7, 1999),

separatedinto 3 gruups accordingtu <he dateswhen <he>’achievedtenure.The ftrst bar represcn[s [he 110 prufessursfrom tite list, who achieved[enurebetwecn1979 arad 1999;<he blackcircie corresponds<o [he 1429 quotatiorasduringthe 10 years.The secoradbar currespondstu <he group uf85 professurswho had teraureira 1994 (mid-point of thedecadeunderstudy); arad [he circie represents<he totalraumberof quutations(1015) by this gruup during titedecade.Tite [bird barrepresen[s [heprofessorswho airead>’had tenure(42) at <he bcginninguf theperiodunderstudy(1989) arad tite circle represen[s <he total number ofcorrespundingquuta[ions (578).As can be seenin <he dataof <his chan,out of <he professorsfrum the list, 38% alreadyhad teraurein 1989, another39% were tenuredduring <hefirst 5-year periud, arad [he remairairag 23% durirag [hesecorad5-yearperiod.

Spec~ficResearchArcas

With regardtu grouping [heresearch[rcndsirato specificresearcharcas,no doubt [here could havebecra moresectioras,or [hesec[iuns includedcuuld have beendividedinto subsections.Forexample,<he researchtrerads includedira Emotiora could be divided into specific subareas,suchas Psychucndocrinology,Psychoimmunulogy,etc. On [heo[her hand,[he bruadrangeuf publicatiurasof the samercsearchtrend wuuld alluw classifying them into more[hanune specific area. Becauseof [bis,we decided[batgrouping<he works into large arcas would help readerstu get apanuramicuverview of <he works. Ira Figure 2 canbe seen<he speciticaieasdescribed,tite numberof researchtrendsincluded ira eachuf them, arad the raumberof UniversityCouncii List prufessurswho participatedira <he studiesiraeacharea.

No. of quotations

Figure 3. Numberof Psychobiulugyprufessors,frum ¡he list

siudiedin <his work, accordingtu <hedateuf titeir access<u <enurebetween<he years 1989-1999.Rars 1 Left YAxis: Number uf professursaccurdingtu ¡he dateof<heiraccess¡o tenure.BlocA circies /Right YAxis: Total numberuf quota<ionsduring (he 89-98 decadeof <he groupuf correspondingprufessurs. Y Axis: Deadlinefur acetaslo tenure(set1cM).

1500InternationalDissemination

The languagesusedprefereratiallyin [he904 publicatiorastakeninto accoun[ are Englisit (74.7%)and Spanish(24.8%);

1000 ira <he remainiragarticles,less <han 1%, uther laraguageswithless dissemina[iun in uur scientitic se[tirag (Japaraese,German,Catalan,etc.) were used.The percentageof almost75%iradicates a high rate uf commuraicatiuraof resul[s, sinceEnglisb is currently <he languageuf [hescicntifaccommunity.Regardirag[hejournals ira which tite articleswere published,ira tite bibliugraphyselectedas referencesof [he research<rends,une can find a high percentageof internationaljournals,sumewith maximumpublicatiorarequirements.Irasume cases,<besepublicatiorascorrespondtu cuoperatiunwitit foreigra researcitgroups,arad ira others,tu works cardedout by oraly-Spanishgruups.Readersarereminded[bat[heneedtu deferadarad publish worksira internationaljournalsis an additional <oíl for researcitin our uraiversities,and <heuní>’ way tu avuid sciera[ific isulatiun arad tu acitieveinternationaldisseminaíiunuf <he resalísobtained.

No. of professors

120

100

1999 1994 1989


Lastí>’, it is nuteworthy [bat in [itis decade, <he

achicvemcn[s uf rcsearchin Psychobiology ira Sparaisituniversitieshaveimprovedgreatí>’, partially becauseof theincreaseira thepropurtion uf researchersarad, especially,

tite itigh impact uf thejournals ira which [he articlesarepublished.Although <he irnpactof <hesejournals is anothcriradicatiun uf tite pussible quality of the conten[ of <he

publications, ira [he evaluatiorauf <he researchcontributedby Psychobioiugyprofessursira <bis decade,without a duubt,tite conten[ is more importantthan tite amount,arad we have

tried tu emphasize<his aspectira <bis s[udy.Luoking at [he futureof researchira Psychubiulogy,wc

wish tu poin[ uut titat [he numberuf publicatiorasarad [henumberof high-impactpublicatiorashavebuth increasedira[he last yearsuf [his decade.In addition, almost ah <he

professurshavementioraed[bat [heir 1999publicatiorasand<heir prujec[s for [he year 2000 wereuf betterquality <hanthoseuf 1998, and <his can be consideredan iradicatioraofgrowth andimprovementira tite worksof tite raendecade.

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