the deep relations between speech and reading mark s. seidenberg department of psychology university...
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The deep relations between speech and reading
Mark S. SeidenbergDepartment of Psychology
University of Wisconsin-Madison
November 3, 2011Society for Language DevelopmentBoston
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If the science is so good, why is reading achievement so poor?
[preceding talks by Charles Perfetti and Rebecca Treiman]
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OECD PISA Reading Results 2009
Wall St. Journal, 8/12/2010
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NAEP Reading Results 4th grade
34 25 8
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NAEP Reading Results 8th grade
43 29 3
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National Assessment of Adult Literacy (2003)
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2011
(downloadable from National Academies)(I am one of multiple authors)
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Many reasons.
What are the major ones?Ones about which we could do something.
Here are some possibilities.
Why?
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1. Blame English
English spelling is strange. Hard to learn.
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OECD PISA Reading Results 2009
5. Singapore6. Canada7. New Zealand9. Australia
17. United States
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Still, people think learning to read English IS hard.
English is an outlier even compared to other alphabets.
Which have more predictable spelling-sound mappings.
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English: Deep Welsh: Shallow
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ItalianSpanishGermanFrenchFinnishSerbianTurkishothers
Handbook of Orthography and Literacy, Joshi & Aron (Eds.), Erlbaum 2006
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In these studies,“learning to read” = read words (and nonwords) aloud
Is this true?
But reading aloud ≠ reading (comprehension)
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I proved this some years ago.
My Bar Mitzvah
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Bar Mitzvah Languages
It is also possible to mispronounce words and still know what they mean
Non-oral Deaf individuals who read English;Words one knows but can’t pronounce correctly.
Shallow: can be read without comprehensionHebrew (vowelled)ItalianWelshFinnish many others.
So reading aloud is not a very good index of “reading”
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Deeper simpler morphologyShallower more complex morphology
“Grapholinguistic Equilibrium Hypothesis” (Seidenberg, 2011;downloadable from http://lcnl.wisc.edu)
Languages get the writing systems they deserve
Languages and writing systems: There are tradeoffs
Serbo-Croatian:couldn’t be like EnglishEnglish: couldn’t be like Serbo-Croatian
The “outlier” is actually Italian.
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2. How reading is taught
NRC report on adult literacy:teaching adults to read is hardavailable methods are not effective
Alternative:do a better job in the first place?
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Barriers
1. What teachers are taught about reading
For some children, what happens in classroom doesn’t matter.For most children, it definitely does.
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Barriers
2. Failures to identify, help children with reading/language/learning disabilities
No routine pediatric or educational screening for dyslexia“they’ll catch up”
Some significant percentage of those 90 million low-literacy adults are undiagnosed, untreated dyslexics
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We could do better.
Change is needed, on the education side especially.
Very hard to achieve.
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3. Poverty
Let’s look at the Achievement Gap
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The "achievement gap" refers to disparities in academic performance between groups of students.
Minority groupsAfrican AmericanHispanicNative American
Income groups
Reading, math, other areas
Seen ingrades, standardized-test scores, course selection, dropout rates, and college-completion rates.
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For today, I will mostly focus on white-black gap.
Why? large populationextensive researchsocietal concerndifferent groups have different circumstances
An important issue A complex issue A sensitive issue
30 minutes?
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How to identify causes?
(Does it make sense to even try?)
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Maybe it is all poverty
• Poverty is associated with• Higher infant mortality rate• Atypical brain development• Shorter life span• Worse health and health care• Higher crime rates• Lower educational achievement• Higher dropout rates• Poorer schools with less experienced teachers• Poor Reading!!
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Economists’ Evidence
• Data: Early Childhood Longitudinal Study http://nces.ed.gov/ecls 20,000 children Interview data, 4 times during K and 1st grade Many kinds of data about child, family
• Black-white differences on reading readiness measures
Their finding: a small number of measures account for gap at the start of kindergarten.
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The factors are:
• Socioeconomic status• Number of children’s books in home• Age at kindergarten (months)• Birth weight• Age of mother at time of first birth• WIC (welfare) participant
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Fourth grade
Eighth grade
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But the gap is pretty consistent across groups.
There is an effect of poverty on scores.
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Economists again
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Earlier paper: 6 factors account for gap at start of kindergarten.
Later paper: the gap gets larger over first 3 years of schooling.
The 6 factors do not account for this decline.
Nor do any others they could find in the data set.
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Something else is going on.
It contributes to increasing deficit in K-3
It affects kids from different SES
It doesn’t show up in the econometric analyses
What is it?
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ECLS data set includes information about other languages spoken in home.
But not characteristics of spoken language
Which vary greatly.
For example: vocabulary size (Risley & Hart, and others) lexical quality (Perfetti)
Language
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What about dialect?
Languages have dialects.
In the US, main distinction between
“Standard” or “Mainstream” American English
African American Vernacular English/AAE
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African American English
• Spoken by most African Americans, regardless of SES
• 1970s: Research by Labov and then many others documenting properties of AAE
• Placed it in a broader linguistic context Dialect variation is not specific to English or to African
Americans.
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AAE and SAE overlap but also differ
• Phonology• Morphology• Syntax• Discourse conventions
Among others
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• The depth of immersion in AAE varies Washington-Craig: “dialect density”
• proportion of utterances that exhibit AAE features
• Familiarity with standard dialect varies As does degree of code switching
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Could dialect differences have an impact on learning to read?
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Extent of impact under-recognized
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Early empirical studies reported non effects
Socio-cultural controversiesabout intrinsic value, status
Emphasis on validity of dialect overshadowed investigation of impact in the educational context
Attention diverted elsewhere
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Our thinking
Need to establish more direct links between dialect and specific aspects of learning to read
Drawing on reading research, theory
And relevant research on language learning, plasticity, age-related changes
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Learning spelling-sound relations
• Child learns to relate spellings to words in spoken vocabulary What “phonics” is for
• Strongly related to early reading achievement Difficult for many children Impaired in dyslexia
• Downstream effects on comprehension
Reviews: NRP, Snow “Preventing reading difficulties”
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Pronunciations in AAE and SAE
• Many words pronounced the same (at phonemic level)
• Many words pronounced differently
Percentage varies with dialect density. Estimates: 30% and higher
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Major Differences in Pronunciation
GOLD, FLOOR, and LOW rhyme in AAE
1. Postvocalic consonant reduction MORE /mo/2. Substitutions for /th/WITH /wif/3. Devoicing final consonantsHIS /hiss/ 4. Consonant cluster reductionWORLD / werl /5. Consonant transpositionASK /aks /
Many others.Craig & Washington, 2004
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• SAE learner’s task Learn to map spellings onto existing pronunciations
• AAE learner’s task Learn correspondences between SAE-AAE
pronunciations Learn to map spellings onto SAE pronunciations
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Teacher: G-O-L-D, that’s “gold”[child searches spoken language vocabulary for “gold”]
Child: Ohhh, “gole”
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The main point
AAE learner’s task is more complex
But children are assessed against same achievement milestones
Not a problem with the dialect
Not a problem with dialect users
A problem with the situation
Other factors aside
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Our research
• Behavioral experiments Pronouncing words aloud Children and adults
• Computational models Effects experiential differences Entrenchment effects Ways to overcome them
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Behavioral experiments
African American children, adults
Read words aloud
Contrastive: different pronunciationsboundoldtoast
Non-contrastive: same pronunciationbrushairstage
Latencies do not differ in ELP data base.
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Children (N =22, M age =11.4 years old)
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Adults: N = 32, M age = 35.5 y.o.
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Summary
Both children and adults mainly produce SAE pronunciations
Contrastive words longer latencies (also more errors)
For Ss with greater dialect density (more AAE)
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Computational Model
Similar to Harm & Seidenberg (1999) dyslexia model
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Details
• Corpus: 1700 words from second grade norms
• AAE pronunciations created using 5 most common features of AAE
• About half the words are the same in AAE-SAE, and half differ
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Training
• Pre-reading: Model learns phonological forms, to 90% correct
• Then introduce reading task:Given spelling, generate pronunciation
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Why are these findings potentially controversial?
Language Arts, journal of the National Council of Teachers of English
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What could be done?
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A. Nothing
• One group cannot legislate how another group should speak
• But AAE is not the dialect of instruction, business, science etc.
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B. Accommodation
• Level the playing field!• Recognize dialect differences• Modify school practices to take it into
account• Provide pre-school activities to mitigate
effects
Do what they do in other countries that have major dialects?
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An Indian comparison
Sonali Nag (York)Chamarajanagar, Karnataka
Mainstream language is Kannada
Many tribal dialectsLow statusLow SESMainly oral
“Bridge year” pre-KEmphasis onexposure to Kannada
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What Form Could This Take in US?
• Preschool activities To promote knowledge of major features of SAE,
awareness of differences between SAE and AAE To promote ability to code switch
• School activities Continue activities focused on improving code-
switching ability Increase awareness of problem: teachers and
students Provide additional time for initial reading instruction,
which takes into account language the child brings to school.
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Would This Activity Eliminate Effects of Poverty?
• No.
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Would This Increase the Probability of School Success?
• It could.• Have to do more research!
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Would This Approach Be Acceptable?
I don’t know. That is a different kind of question.
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Summary
• Dialect differences matter• They affect early learning, later
performance• There are ways that impact could be
mitigated
“AAE itself is not the cause of reading difficulties so much as lack ofknowledge of SAE, given educational and society expectations”
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Reading is deeply dependent on spoken language
Writing systems vs. languages they represent
Basic Skills -- decoding
Comprehension
Language background
Of course, literacy also changes spoken languageBut that is a different talk.
Conclusions
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Thanks for listening.