the destruction of churches and mosques in bosnia-herzegovina: seeking a rights based aprroach to...

8/11/2019 The Destruction of Churches and Mosques in Bosnia-Herzegovina: Seeking a Rights Based Aprroach to the Protection of Religoius Cultural Property

1/18

THE BUFFALO

JOT]RNAL

OF

INTERNATIONAL

LAW

voLUME3 snMMrnl996 Nu[Dml

Sad6

Asseid.'t

ArrRErAcvEDo

,a,csD'ANz

M^mslvll^\rxDrs

XETYBYTD GLG^Rcr

CEusrEMmPfiY

A&iottu

E{dott

MTLDCAIIEPiE

.

Tt cEBol.ttr

cct DEsHnaBoraruE

SucnECorE

KEryflzcERr\t-D

IIEr.c GI"AD (

RrDitx^IyER

JorLJavA BRD.'rKr\Rr

x

K,$NKEsry Eal$,srl,E

RoBERTIaIIAI.G

JuLGMor.nRots JrDrflNoJ

ckrsrDEPorosN^x

sl{ RoNPersE MrRTnrR^rs

JEiFRyREsE

TIIE

BUFFALO JOURNAL

OF

INTERNATIONALLAW

VoLrJItG 3 SUMMER 1996 NIJMBER

I

FAcuLTy

&

PRoFEssroNAL ADvrsoRy BoARD

Guyora

Binder

PrcIessor

oJlavl

Alan

S.

Carrel

Vice Dean,

S.hool

oJ Law

Nina

Cascio

lntcmaliona

I

late

Li brari an

David B.

Filvarofr

Prolessor

oJ Ltttt

Thomas

Headrick

(htivctsity

al htflalo Provosl

Virginia

A.

Leary

Prolcstor Enerilus

of

La$/

Laura S. Mangao

A&tittait Directo\

Baldy CcnlerJor Lav' and

Social

Polic

Managit8 Edilor,

Law

&

Policy

Isabel

Marcus

Ptolcssor

of Lav)

John M. Thomas

Ass@,

Dea,

for

Intemat

ional Pr.Erdns,

School

of

Marsgement


2/18

THE BUF'FALO JOIJRNAL OF'

INTERNATIONALLAW

VoLUME 3

Sr,'t tGR

1996

NTIT,IBER

1

Ihe

Bullalo

Jownat

of

Intemor'orai ,alr

is

F$lishd

tlro

tirn

s

a

l3r

by

tbe

stldnts

ofthe taw

school at thc State Uni rsity ot

Ncw

Yoik aa

Butralo.

Editodd

and

g.Dral

offices

rle

localrd rl

603

Jobn

Lord

O'Briar

Hall,

St NY

ar

Bud:ilq

ArDhcrd

Cs[tps, Blfalo,

Ncw

Yo*

14260.

(716)

645-

6206.

Sut6criFioE:

Domslic aftcriFion

raic:

135.00

per ycar:

$47.50

-

Dewly

bound Forcien sihcc.il*ion

r,l.:

J24.00

per

year,

lE.0O

per

is$e.

Founh

Clars

pogtaSe

is

laid

at Bufralq

Ncw

Yorlq

ard additioral Elailing

ofrcls. Sub6criFions

will be adonatically renewd ur ess notic

of

catcellatiotr

is

rcc.iltd Cha4e ofaddrEss

rotice

shodd

incide old

,rd

nw addr.sses ,nd tp

co.hs.

Back

issues: Ba.k issres

and

bound and uDbomd rolunes

ar.

3vailable

frod Willian S. ILin

& Co.,

Inc.,

U85

Mam

Sr, BuBlq NY

14209-1987.

(716)

EE2-2600

or

Gm)

828-7571. hiblicaEon

nusbel

ISSN 1074-4835.

MalluJallis:

The Btfalo

Joumat

oflnteman@at

L@

rE,k/Jmcs

lnsolicilcd

qunuscriFs

o t@ics of

coDtnFffy

lerl signifcaG.

Tcd

shouldb.

doubl-sFc.d

o[

triple-qccd

Foourot6

should cooform to

thc

srandard

scl

fonh tu llre

no61

r.en

.dition 6

Th.

Alwbook. ManulcriFrs

caruot

be

retuncd

udcrs accomp6nid

by

a

selfd&esse4

po6uge-paid

nvloF-

Copldeht Unl.ss olherwis. [d4 aI

anicles

arE copyrig}l. l9c)6v

The

BulIolo Jounal

oflnrenariodllry.

Copies

nay

bc nad

for

class.roorn

usc.

proyidtdth^

0)

me Bullalo

Jownal

of

l\temanonal

Itu

is

a


3/18

THEBUFFALOJOURNALOF

INTERNATIONALLAW

voLnME

3 sm,Il, f,R

1996

Nul,BER

I

"rhe

Bunob

Jotmat

of

lntemhonal

1

1995-t

E,it id Boadmuld

like

b

thark

thc

fotlowing:

The

Uni\rsity

al

Bufialo

School

of t^aw

Student

Bar

Association

ard

The

Baldy Cder for

hw &

Social

Policr

Spciar

Th3rk to

the

Adminisativc

Advisory

Bord.

ne Bufalo

Joumal of

lntemdnonal

Law

is

a

pu,bli3,,,tum

prod$.d

b

students

of tbe Uniirsity

at Bdalo

S'.hool of

l,aw of

lhe

9.te Uriversily ofNe {

York

The

J@u dl is &dicaLd to tre

legl

alrbsis

of

sFcitrc

issues i.D intenutionrl

law.

Tbc arnual

focus of

the

-/oumrl

is

dsigDed

o

rcllecl

ctrent

issues

dterEincd

b

fie

Editonal

Board of the

Jormal

to

be

of inrponancc

in

the

The

views

cpressd

in

Frbricatioru

ol The Batab

Joumal

oflnt

national

Irv do not

ncc6sarily rflect

lho6e of

lhc Ediorial

Boand, the Universiry

al

Bufrlo

School of

kw

or

their agnt

or

rpresdali\s.

THE

BUT'FALO

JOT]RNAL OF

INTERNATIONALLAW

VOLIIME

3

Sur,s,cR

1996

NDTBER

I

htaori;arior

tfr

Conirtbutod

,

The

Editoial

Board of

rr.

aufato Joumal of Int.mationol

t

e

nelcones

i

erdd aulhols ro submit

original

[latrllscriFs lo:

Th

Butralo Jowal oflnlernadon

l Law

John

Inrd O'Bdan

Hall

Box

60l l0O

Buftlo,

New

York

14260-l

lm

For

additional

idomallor

dease

conta.t

(716)

6456206

c-mail:

[email protected]

TABLf,

oF

CoNTENIS

OBSERVNG AND

ENroRcDtc Il(rMAN

RrcIIrs

UNDR

nE corJNcIL

oF

EuRopE

THECREATTON OF A

hRMANENT

EUROPEAN

COTJRT

OF HUM,CI fuG|.TS

Jonathai L.

Black-Brcnch......................-.-..-..-...........

......

.1

GATS ND

FDraNcr

L

SERvrcEs:

REDETTNNC BoRDERS

Jefrey sNe,..............'.-..................................................tJ

THE

U-N,

CoMMssIoN oN HuM,AN

RIGFTS AND CAMBoDIA 1975.1980

Janie Frcdenc

Mer.l-----------......-......................--

-.............-67

Trs

REASoN

BLD

SusucroN TEST

oF NoRTHERN IREI-AND'S

EMERcENcy

LECIST,ATION: A

VIOI"\ION

OFTHE EUROPEAN CON\NTION

OF

HT, I'AN

RrcFTS

Elizabeth

Kondonuokos......................................................99

FoRUM

NoN

CoNVENTENS rN mE

UNIED

STATES

AND CANADA

Donald

J.

Caney...-.................----.....................................

t 17

ForErGN

IlrwsTMlN"T

IssuEs FoR

IN$RNAT|oNAL NoN-GoVERNMImAL

ORGANT?aTroNs:

IIITERNATToNA IIEALTH

FRoJEcrs

rN

CIINA

AND

Tl{E

FoRrt@R

Sovgr

UMoN

ntu,y

C.

Ewred..--............---.,-..-------------..-......JiJ

THE DESTRUCTION OF CHUTCHTS AXD MO6qUES N BO6NLA.HERZEGOIINA]

SEEXnrc

A

RIGHN-BASED

ArpRolcH

To

THE

PRoTEcTIoN oF RELIcrcus

CfJLTURAL

holERTy

Gt

spty

M Mose.--.............-

-

--

---

-

--------.............

I

80

Col,tr,tENraRy:

RE-Po6mor. ,rc HT MAN RIGIITS

DIs@uRsEs oN

'ASIAN"

ERsPEcnvEs

$arcr

K

[email protected]..

----

-.....

-.........-...----............

209


4/18

TEE DISTRUCIION OF

CEI]RCEES AND

MOSQTIES IN

BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA: SEEKINGA

RGETSBASED

AXPROA(g ro IEE

PROTECIION

OF

RELIGIOUS

C-T'LTT'RAL PROPRTT

GqqrMMd

T .

Pcsils

osq.d

tTat lb.

jil

d,rr .srbd

6.

Ac.rpolis,

rdrkn

k

[d ft.

ArlAdgB

by

rh.

AOai-+

rd

b.sr

6.

itc

dtr.plE . . .

Aisr

atEA{EilE

3.wthn

l+ql

dr

3.rl ni

m

ear

O.rEi.h,.s hcandu ftrn

dE

rlrd,

&d

soFrd 4u,ttilc.dEli.dftrnfrgc10t

ilErpotofilELtr[,le.

TIlc P.rsi{a rustEd to

l}c gd.

sdqcrd lb

\

sn r}bid lb.y

rn

&ss d

&

a+pliets.

rrhar

d

\', rc

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lt

y

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ldeb

ed

fnd 6,Ey

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dt

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- Itarddr3,

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Vn

62-3)

(a80

B.c-)

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ltott

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, vlhr

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&d

old

p..plc,

d fc .d

tErr

rt

gu'poirl

itrto

lh lo.d

D.qt

, h

fc

offi.

c4tivca,

tEy cldkngd thc

bc.l

ccmrdty lad.r,

I'Dsn

l"tanic

$B\

ro

d.s..n

.

lb.

n6$.

....

ft.,

bld ltirD

rod.

th.ifndU..l 6s,

e..lqk

edft"ly

to htlrc sdd ier(lr .

wilh

. L.,rge

girl

.

.

.

SulF

n&s d Cl

th.s.

'Lod

.d ws

b.e d o{

wih

kil, .

Hs k is

ud@'*[.

.

Asic Alim

zluDi*

polic..annrdd

G"D.

l9t2)

r

llnrEd

Collcg.,

/ 8.,

MdsE

C@

Iad., 1992, D*. Utriltrlity

School of

kw,

lD,

19

.

t

RsJ tu\

Lt@

Vd;

grt

T@gd

Cohle

H.;,.gt

of 8&da"

Mdirs,

NEE

y

Nsr

&d

$firkEd'rir),Sc (

2,1992,d3.


5/18

t8t

BItpp,qto

tOUmUL

OF

INIERNAnONAL LAW

lvot.3

I. IN'IRODLCIION

The

savagc

conflicl

takioS

placc

in

Bo$ia-Herzegovina

has

geftrated

an

enormous

volume

ofcofimst ry.

Whilerhe

*tr

can

b

s..n

as an

ur$vonble

inaugurarion

ofposl

Cold War

ra

etlnic strifq

it

ssns more

productive

to

view lhe

conoict as

a

crucible

for

facing

similar

problrns

in th ffrture.

The

west may

ha\

fiiled

dl former

Yugoslavir,

as sornc coruncntalors

have

srgeeste4

bul unlss we

are

prpared

to endu.

tuture failurq

wE

mult

l3m

lhe

lssons

that this

lragedy

can

provide.

Cultural

p.opny

h

Bo$ia-Hrzegovim

hrs

bn

destrq'd

on

a staggsing scale

during dle rcnt

conflid. In

panio.tlar,

&e

to the

ethnic

overtones

of thc

conflict

and

lhe

inscapable Unks between

ethnicity

and

religion

in the Balkans. religious buildings

have

been

consistently targeted

since

the beginning of the war. fu ttle

abov

quorations

demonsrate, rhe pmblern is nehher new nor

unique

Howelr,

the exi$nce

ofintemational

legnl instrumenls

i"tendd

to

addrea

dle deeruction of orltural

proprty

is

quite

recrt. While

a

number of conmcdalots

hlve

poined

out

the hilure of

lhes

irlsturxds

to

protect

orltural

proprty,

none have rlna*d on fi hcr

thal a large

prcaniage

of

fte

churches

and

Fosques

destroyed in

Bo$ia-Herzegovira would rceive no rnore

protecljon

under

tte

releva

intemational law

conceming crltural

propny

than any

other

civilian building Tbeir

special

p.otecled

status as

culhral

property

depends

upon thir

value

to

the

world

comrn'rnity

a

cultural

monuments.

There is no spcial

protcrion

hvisagd under the

law

of

protclion

oforltural

proprty

during

anned connid lor local

religious

buildirgs and lhe

c.ucial

role

dley

play

in contmrity

life

?dt

[(A)

ofths

paper

wil

explair

the hislory

and

derdopment

ofthe

legal

protection

ofdrltura

proprty

during

armed

conflict,

and

Part I(B)

'iI

review

the

noms

wfiich

are

applicable

to

rhe

confict in

Bosnia-Herzegovina.

Pad

m w

xplore

qFent

theoretical

justifications

forthe

proteclion

ofoitural

property.

Part IV will focus

upon

the

situation

on

thc

ground

in

Bosnia-Herzegovina.

Pan

W(A)

will provide

an

oltfviw

of

the dstruction

of

religious property

in

Bosnia-Herzegovin4

and

Pan IV@) wil

r{amine

case

study

in

order

19%]

BOSN]A-HERZEGOWNA

182

to

iluiinate

a

B?icai

patern

ofds&nclion.

Part IV(C)

wi[

diso'lss

rlte

phenonenod

of

ithnic

claisirg.

and irs

r.btion

ro

dre

dstrucrion

of

orltual

pmpriy.

Ftrl.lly,

Fan V

wil

gla8$

a new

thoftrical

approach

ro

dle dGtruction

ofrdigid$

proFty.

Part V(A)

outtins

orrreft

international law thar

Secifcaly

addresss

the right

to

practice

one

s

rd;gioq

ard

Pan

V(B) disorsss

rhis riSlr

as a basis

for

pmrecling

churches ard

mosqus

which

nonnaly

*ould

not

b

provided

spcial

prote.rion

by

orltural

properry

treat

provisiols.

tr. LTT

T{AIoNAL LEGAL PR@cnoN

oF

oJLIURAL

PRoPERTY

DLrRI.rc

ARr,@

Cotllcr

A. Te

Ikwlqt

ptd

of

lhtentiotwl

Law Retated

to le Destltction

of

Cutwal

Prqvtr

h ng Amed

Cottllicl

The

Hague

Conventions

of

1899

and

t907

repres'r

the first

genuine bindins codifcalions

of

inte.nalional

law

rs

wel

as rhe

frst

srb$adial

idernational

protction

ofqrltural

propcrty_

A

oumbr

of

anicts

in

dle

Hague

Colllttnior

addrss

lhe

is.{re

of

d.iruction

of

proprty gttraly

and ofoitural

Foprry

spcifclly.

The Annex

ro

Hague

Convation IV

(1904

prohibirs

/",ecs$o,

dsrruction

of

propfty

in

Anicle

23

G),

and more

speciEc:ly protecls

ontu"I

propeny

("buildings

ddicated

to rdigioq

an, s.iarce

. . . historic

rmnumnts

. .

provided

they are not

bing

usd

a the

tine

for military

purposs")

in Article

27.'

Finalty, Articl

5

ofHague Conir'tion

Ix

provides

thar

'tiln

bombffdmrri

by

naval

forces

all the necessary

rdssurs

nusr

bc ukcn

by dle

cnmrtrander

to

spare as

far

as

possible

sa..ed

edifics, buildings

used

for

artisiq

scienlifc,

prrposs,

hisloric.l

monumerts

. .

.

. r

It

is sipifca

rlEr

rhe language

ofrhse

provisiors

is

compulsory.

Ther rmains,

howeltr,

rhe

qualifierion

of

nitiirry

n cssity,

so that ojtural

propeny

nd only

be spared

insofar

as

mifiiary

:

DF

rcFDEEls. Co|urrcF

TIE PesN

C([r

WAi:IDr^

Rmrro

Corcrus

G9

l'ftina&r

FN& RFoRr]

I

$ sar A

Wulrq

TlE INrsN r]M.tsN^Tlowhmdd6l/tovlM

Cll1tnrh(,afl:

A

Cor@rr^m

Smy

t80978)


6/18

183

BUFFALO

JOURNAL OF

INTERNATIONAL

I-4w

lvol.3

whil this lcv.l

ofprotedior

may

sern scarn

(lhe

ernire $bjci

nEils

only dua

anicl6),

lhsc

ruls ne rlhdss rcmin in

forcc

todry

ad

played

an

irnporl.nt

role in

protding

Iraqi

qrlnl$l

propny

dwing

dE

Gulf

w'r.'

Aftr

th

Scond

wortd

War, howir, it

bcme

cle3r

that

the

standards fomulated in thse conwntions

nded

to

be

reinforced

in a

new convention

that

* uld

address

lhe

reahent

of

cultural

proprty

during

amed connid. The resrhing 1954 Hrguc

Convendon for

the

Proteclion of

CultuIal

Property in the Evfft

of

Antd

Conflici

has bn

ratifed

by levity-five

countriq

irrludirg dre

forner

Yugoslavia' Thc 1954

ll.gue

Convcition opands

upon dtc

norms

of

dle 1907 Hague Convartions,

but

,lso

adds

s ral

llev

fealurs ro

thc

iaw of

qrltural

propery.

Anicl.I ofth CoNrtion

defines

crrltunl

property

rs

'molable

or

irnmo "ble

property

ofgrat

imponanc

to the cultural

heritage of every

people"

ard offers

an

illustrative

but

non-xclusive

list

ofexamples.6

White rh

rferene to

monumerts

"of

gre3l importance'

brings

up a

numbei

of

obvious

dificufties,

this

defnition

is naenhelss

morc

dtailed

than any

prvioldy

otrred.

Th Convention .quirs rhd

paltis prpfe

during

time of

pacc

to

siGguard

onnral

propqty

in

dl cvnt

ofan

armd

c.niid.' Signifcantly, tno$

of

tll

Convrnion

applis

to

norFide.narional as weu as interDationsl

coIiicts, and

thus Noids

many

of

the

problems

inherent

in applyirg

the ceneva

CoNntions.t It also

establishB

a

univers.l

sig4

a blue

and

white

shicld,

to

indicate orltural

property.t

Furthermore, the Convention

creales a register

on which

moduhents

ofparticular

importanc

dlat

qualry

for

spcial

protedion

can be

lisled.'o Th. 1977

Protocols

to

the

l9a9

Geava

Corvedions

l9%l

BOSMA-HERZEGOWNA

184

add svf,al importsnt

providoos

reld;ng

ro tlE

protrion

of ojrural

propcrty.lt

Artic.lc

52 of

Protocol

I sas

out.

geisrl

sdrn

of

protedion

for

civilian

objeds. Paragnph

I

fo6i{ls tffge.ing

civitan

objct

ftr

d'e

Frpos.

ofanack

or

repdsal. Par.gnph

2 de6rEs

civilart

versus

military objcctn maling

any

objecr which

rnakes

an

declilr

contribution

to nilitary

obj.lives

a

nilit

ry

object.

paragraph

3

not.s

lh wlEn

doubt

xjsts

as

to

"{Ether

an objeq

is bing usd

for

mitirary

purposes

or

is striclly

civilan in

narure,

it sh [

b

pre$med

to b

a

civilian objer.

Article

53

dirc{y

rddre$s

o

turrl

propeny,

and

providca:

[w]ithout

pre.tudjc

lo tlE

provisions

of

rh

Hrgue

Conva*ion

for

the holdjon ofcultural

Property

in

the

Evrt ofAmed

Conf;c.r

of 14 May 1954,

and ofother

rele\,"nt intemational inslrumentq

ir is

prohjbitd:

(a)

to

crmmit

any acts ofhostility

dircred agaiist

the hisloric

monumals

works

of

art

or

places

of

worship

v,tdch

conrh$e rhc

ott-0'al

or sptibd hriragc

ofpoples; (b)

1o us

glci

obj.ls in $lpport

ofihe

mft.ry

etrorq

(c)

ro nrke

$lch objcc.ts

tfie

objecrs

ofRpdsals-"

These provisions

ar basic, reflecring

the

norms

of the 190?

Hague

Corvenlion and

the

1954

Hague

Cultural Proprty

Convrdo4

and

are

considered

by

somc to

have anaind

rhe

status of clsloftery

international

law.'r

There

is, howe\,r,

one

very

signmcant

addition

t;

the

protction

ofcultural

proprty

which

appcan in

bolh

proto.ols

is

tnirry

absan fton

the

1954 Hague

Conve

ion

and srns

to represnt

t1h@l,AdXi

tl

to

tk GM Ci'iljtuCMion,

dd

R.btin,

to

tk

ptuctio,

4tknB

oJlnlemdonalAnn d

CorJti.4

(L,reto.ot

,,119111t9'1u

N. Jtid.y.B

9s.

Ep,tt

d,,16lL.M l39l

[Rir

*@

Prct@o|4. Pntod

Ad rotul b

th. aE@

Corcdio

oJ 12

Augatt

1949,

ad

R.t6iaq

lo dE

Prckcdon ol

Vicntu

oJ

Non-tntemtiond )|m.zl

Cdr4nB

fror@l//.o''?l

l9??

U.N

Julll

y.B

r35,

rtpnn@d

i,l6lLM

1442l E.a6&q

Ptubcol 14

'

Ptut

LstbDd.ll,it

5l,

16I .Nl

ar t4l/t

D

Metc, rqfu m{c 5,.r 362

I &.lB$tREoRr,

npDrclc

2,

l

09.

'

DNinllll,cta,Tk 1954Eague Cultotul

Ptup.ttcMtuid

on

l

tb

EnerE M

into

Cwtma'y

Id.

diotul

Ltu,

I I

B.

U.

Iln

LLl 349, 352

(l9Sl)

'

CdlmlimIdUEPror..ridof Cdnrdln?qlynr th.Ewt of^med Coii. Msy

14,

1954, dt l,

249 U.NT S. 240,

242

8sinand

1954

ttrg*

Con$timl.


7/18

185 BUFFAI0JOURNALOF

INTERNAnONAL

Uw

lvot

3

some

evolution

in

the

law

regarding

religioirs

cultutd

propent

Paragnph

(a)

ofAnicle

53 fobids

acts ofhostility

diredd at

proprtis

which con*itute

th

"culturri

or

.9,:,?inul

hdt 8' of

poPles

Thc

sigrifcaEe ofrtis

addition

vtil b disorssd

bdow,

but

h

drculd be

notd

llcre

thrt it

aguably

|)dends

pro&crion

to

a

nllnbf ofchurclEs

and

mosqucs

wlich

would not

b

covercd

by

pftt

ious law

on the

protedio;

oforltunl

property

dudng atmed

connica

l'

Protocol

tr to tllc Gneva

CoNq{ions'

cowdng

sinratioDs ol

DoGi 'tdnational

adnd

c.nnict,

also codaits a

drtr

fimhd

provision

on ille

prorccrion

ofoinfal

property.

Aiicle

16 msEly

srat6

that

it is

prohibitcd

to

'comnit

any act

of

hoslility direcled

asaitsl

historic

monuments

work

of an or

placs

of

worship which

constitute the

ontu'dl

or spiritual

lEdtagc of

peoples,

and

to use

thm

in

$ppon

ofthe

rnilitary

etrort."

While

ille

provisions

ofth

t*o Protocols

moslv fal

shon of

rhe

protetrion

otrered

by

d'e

1954 Collvernioq

rney

ate

impon

nt

6s

reassenions

of

the

gelleral principles

involveq

and ss

conffmations

oftheir

status

as

orstomary intemational law.

B. Adicable

LlM

d the Pftiectic

of C,ltltuat PToPrty

Du.i,A

A,f,ed

Conlict

in

tlp Fon Er

vugoslzeia

The

l9o7 HaSue Conventions

have

bcome

pan

of

cudomary

irfernational

'an,

and

as

such tley

aPply to a .ombatarts

in

Bosnia-Herzegovin4

at

last

to tle

extflt

that the

conflict

there

i3

considered an

intsmrional afned

conficr.t6

Ac.ording ro

fie

\rred'a

convention

on

Succession

of

States

in Respect

ofTratieq srccssor

t

Iair6a\ b M@

tLt Bi.N

Cuttodb.la8

ks

CsJlix

Adit

IMiM:

Cdh

Jun

liq .

a

lfrtitotiwl,

iiz

SruDGs

N

Es

s

oN

h'tr'Mraa

Ftl,[email protected](: I6N

HoJlot*

G JN Ecrr 559,564i5

(clrdoplF

Swin 6kicd,

1984).

':

Prot@ol ll,

supmtutr I l.

ul. 16,l61L.M.

tt

1441

"

nll: .{u

MEnoN,

tlt,A Rolns N NrNr

srtur :

TlcR

IMrxNArol'4L

rRqEnc.r4

(198'^

Th.tnlqndeal

crimiMl Tribu,i

fn0EIffi YugGl,vians

ddqni..d

0r'tr c.dile

in

6. fffi YleGlavit h.Ebolb

idqral

d

inldaliod

aspdG.

.9.Dsisid6dED.foele{oIi6

fd

Inldlmloy ApF.l

(2

OctotEr,

1995), Thc E@rtorv

Dr*o

Tadic

alda

*DuL,"

ce No.

f-94.1-AR?2,

ar

43

19961

BOSNIA.HERZEGOWNA

186

stats

$ch as

Bosrja-Hrzegovina

renain

bound

by the inemational

treaty

obligaaions

of

the

prd.essor

siate

until thc

sroocssor stale

dcclares

tbal

it

dos

nol

int.ad to

be boud by a

parriqia

lr.aty.I?

Bostja-HerzoviB

I'as

d&rEd irsdfro

b

boud

by this

trcaty,

and

has

not

daEunccd

tlle

1907

Hrguc

Cotwtnriois,

dle

1954

Hlgue

Convanion

or

the

197? Protocols to

thc c.nelr CoNsnion.rr

Moreorc.,

the Oenela

Conv$tions and dle 1977

Protocols $ipulare

lhat

a

counfy,

ard

thus

a $ccessor

$alg \rhch wisks

to

d'roulrce

thse trearis

cannot do

so

while

iivohd in an

nmed

cordi.r-t'

The Fedral Rp$lic

of

Yusoslavia has

also decln d d'at

ir

considrs

ibeFbound

by the

tr*ty obligrdois ofthe former

Socialist

Federal Republic

ofYugoslavia,

so

that

any

violstions comnjtted

by

Yugoslav Narional

Arhy

(Jusoslovrska

Na'ldia Amija

(JNA))

forces

inBosia

are

covcrd?

Bolh

Yugoslavia

and

CroarA

have

turvokd le

1954

Coflernion

srd

dus i'nplicitly stard fia

try

mnsider lhrnslves

bound by

it.

Thercfore,

ary derlruclion

ofoftur.i

property

comnittd

hy turcs

udr

dle

ontrol ofcroatian

or

Yugoslav

a$hodties

would

be

a violation undr

the Converdion

"

III. THEJT'SIINCANONFOR'IIIEPROIEC'IIONOFCIJLIURATPR@ERTY

The very

phrase

"cultural

p.oprry"

rais.s a

number

of issues,

sJch a dle rDaning and

imponance

ofculture,

the concption ofculture

as

property,

and

the ownershjp

ofsrch

propdy.

Such

is$es

trke on

grcat

sigifcarre

wl|an

afternpdng

to determiic

u/hat

leld

ofprotectioD

monuments

should

b strorded during

armed

confict,

ard

what

measures rnigt'l be

appropriate ro

ensure

thejr

protection.

TIle diftqtty

ofdEs

quenions was vividly

demonstntd

by

one

"

Vi.@

Ccffidd

6 Sll6id

of

Sd6

b

R.+.d

ofl,eIir

otd ft. sigling

Aog. 21,

1978,

&ll

34

dd

15, UN

D@ Arc6f 80,31

0

9?8),

Ep,t

td

i,

l7

I LM

r488098)

B

rqd^PdlgAppliebility

of

hktuhotut

C;nitul

ln

to

Etutt

in th. Fodd

lussr2vb, 9 AM

U J

bd'I.

L

&

Por'Y

a9,

501 tr8

(WinG.

l99a)

:r

Met6,rrpro norc5,. 384n.188.


8/18

B7

AWFAID

JOURNAL OF IMERNAnONAL

L4W

lvol

3

critical

evrt

at tl|e

begiDning ofthc

c$flicl

in

the

fonnr

Yugoslavia:

th

si.gp

ofDubrovnik.

N{any ofth

hjstoric.l

snd oitural

monumcnts

ofdis

medievrl

irId city

wt'e de$royd by

artilery

6re

|en dte JNA

tried

to

take

ihe ciE

in

its

bid

to

hold to8ther d crumbling

ftderal

slai.

of

Yugoslavia. An

isarc

of

gr.t

irbponance was

what

should

be

considnEd a orftural .no lmeot in a city

whos cnter

co8isls

mo$ly

of

cennrdes-old buildirgs.

Aiolhr

is$e

was how

heavily

fie $witEl

of

.hesc hildings

slb'nd wich againr tl|c arguabb

olltural

goal

of

kccping

inta.l

a

nalion. h

lhis

respct it can

be

difrcult to

separ|ac

politicsl

attd

cdtural

goals,

since

owicrship

plays

an important role in

protc(riry

oitu"l

proprty.

Thus

arosc

the

questior

of*fiose

proprty

was

beirE deslroye4

a.d

ifit

blonged to

ftd.al

Yugoslavi4 whther

riley hsd

dE delt

to

destroy

it

w+tilc GghtinS for the

slrvi "l olthe state.

Moreo\q,

how

saiousb

could the

armjes

involvd

wony

about

the fate

of

buildings

when

$ch

importait political interest

and so

'rary

lives

hung in the

balance?

The

public

racrion to the siege

pas

ilumitaling.

Th.re

$'"s

a

grd

olltcry around lhe

world

again$ the

denndioa ofthjs

historic tourist atEaclion. The

response of

otherg

howvr, wns

indignatioo

at

thos

wlq

wlile

rsmining silent

ovf

ille

hunan

ca$aftis

ofihe

war,

rvtlE

s;rrcd to ouicry by the

de{truclion ofphysical

property.

Joumalist

Arny Schwaiz

phnsd

bsl

d|e

qu$ion

in

evrronds

mitrd:

'Is

it

r,,rong

to

$/eep

for buildings?""

The

qustion

*as answsd wel by a Cmatianjournai4

Ksnija

Draftulic,

who wrore in

respons

to the destruction

ofMostr Bridgp:

Why do

we

feel more pain lookhg at the imagp ofthe

dedro'd

bridge than the

image

of the

ntassacrd

people?

Pe.tBps b..use

w

s

our

own monality in

the co

apse oflhe

bddge.

We expect

pople

to

die;we

colrnt

on

our own livs to

sd.

The deslruction

ofa

nlonurlrf to civifizalion is somdhing dse

The

bddgg

in

al ils

balty

and

grac.

was

buil

ro

outlive

us.

h

was

2

lntE

*nvsiz

h L l/rc

g

b Weep.lot

BuilAnE

?,\NrsP-Pa$,Ma 10,

1994,

at

l9%l

BoSMA-HERZEAOWNA

188

an attenl io

grasp

c{rnity. It

transcsded

our

individual

dsiny.

In

the elegant

simpliciry oflatiq vt

a ,rvir os

,orr8a, liG

is slrcR an

endures.

Yet

if

oinral

nronumnts

ffe

to

outlast

u

a[

if

rlEy

somchow

lnrlc{d

inonality,

rhcr

h

thar

a

ftd to

e(srninc

rnor.

closdy lhe

ida

ofculture

as

propcny.

Ca'l

one lruly

own

sontrhin8

imnorirl uirh

al

tlE

prcp.'ry

nghs tha. llmbridSd

owffrshjp

t

rin$?

In determiring

wlo

can own olrurdl

propeny,

and by

what

theory

of

ownership,

ir sesns mlural

to

look

fir$ to

rh

obiecl's

crcation.

Ifth Grd


9/18

lae BWFALOJOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL

LAw

lvot.3

monwnent

is to

attack the idntity

of

the

people

whose

oitrre it

represnti

and thus the

country which

represafs

those

people

should

ha

property

dghts

o\r $ch lronurnl'ts.a

This

view

is

partiqiarly

important with rgard to mo\able

qrtnlral

property,

and

is uel

exerplifed

by

Grcecds

rcquest

for

the retum

ofthe

Elgin

Matbles.

As

the 1970

UNESCO

Convention

on

th

Mans of

Prohibiring

and

Prevding

the

icir Irnport, Export

and

Trdlsfer

of

O$ieNhip of

Cultllral

Property

stateg

"cultural

property

constituts

one

ofthe basic

dernrts

ofdviffzarion

and

nationa]

orlture and .

-

. its

true

value

c.n

be

apprciared or

y

in

relarion

to

tbe ftIest

possible

information

rgarding

its

origiq

history

and

tnditional

stting.'z

In contrast, cxltural

intemationalsm

begins

with

the

assenion that

clrlurrai

p'operty,

while

cenainly importart

to the

count

y

in

which

is

it found,

is more

importantly

part

ofthe cultural

heritage

ofnsrkind as

a

whole.t

At

last

one

writer has surirised

thar

the Brussls

Conva*ion

of

1874, an

early

attempt

at codirying the

law

ofwar wlich was never

radfed,

6'st

expressd the

doctrine

ofcultur.l

inte@tionali$n.u

Yt

both

Grotius

and

Vanel

semd

to

ha\

had a

similar

approach

in

mind.

Grotius

nots

in

passing

that the

desrruction

of scred objects,

thoueh

legal,

slbws

"some

contempt

for hurnanjty."

Vattel is

clea.s

on

the

loint.

He

makes

an

argurnst for sparing

wofts ofart

which

"do

honour

to

hurnan

socidy," and mndenns

their

destuclion as

"decbring

onesdf

an

rtemy

to ma*in4

dus

wantonly

to

deprive

than

ofthse wonders

ofan. . ."

19%]

BOSNIA.HEI?ZEGOWNA

I9O

Prsrrnably

"ther"

rcfels

to

nankind,

thrs implying rhat we

are

aI

adversly

atrcted

by

the

dsrrucrion

ofarr,

regrrdless

ofits narional

or

cultural

origin.

He

go3

on

to

give

the

exarnple

ofrhe balbariars

who

sacked

Rome

in

4lO

AD., noting

ihat ercn

roday

w

deEl

them

for

desoying

slch

a Rtonuntenl

to

human

creativity.

Uniike

the

1970

UNESCO

Conventioq

rle 1954 Hasue

Cultural Proprty

Con@aion

einbodies

a

qrltual

inremariooali$

appoadr

The

pranble

ro

th

1954

Convention

'o.es

rhlt

'dsnuge

to

cultural properry

blongine

to

any

pople

wharsover

nel'

damrge

to

the

cultuni

heritage

ofal mankind

,' t

fius

courrries

srve

mretv ss

cuslodians

ofcxltural

property

found

wirhin

fteir

borders and

lhqrare

under

a

duty

not

ollly

to

presn

it

bur

also to

nake it

a\,"itable

ro the

rest

oftlE

wo

d.e The

t972

World

Heritage

Conntior as

is

irnpfid

by its

iidg

also tal(es

rhe

intemationalisr

approac\ foclrssing

on

monuments

of

"exceptional

interest'

and

,'univer$l

\due'a

Even

th

1970

UNESCO Convotion

refecrs

cultural intemarionalisr

ide.s

i, tbat

itjustifes

itlelfon

the

pretexl

ofthe

need

to

apprciate

ontulai

pmperry

in

conlexl, rhu

foorsing

on

the

consmptjon

of

$ch

properry

by

outsiders

Tlur

thes

coNotions

take an

iDtemationalst

approach dos

not

m34

however,

thar

thry adhere

enrirely

to

the orlrurst inrernalionalist

perspeclive.

The

cusrodial ideal

upon which

qrltural

irtmationalism

is

based isjust

dut: an iderl.

State sovereignry

renains paramou4

and

none

offte

discussed

coNentions

sanclion the

irterfdence

in

a sratds

sovereignty.

To

rer.un

ro

the

er(?.mple

of

the

parrheno4

th

crk

govtrnnaf

might dedde

to tear it

do\rn to

inake

room

for

parking

and

uhil

other

countries

wo'rld

certairJy

comptai4

there

woutd

be no

legal

basis

for

another sate

to interfere

j

The &nstuction

oftlp

As*"n tlgh

Daq

with

th

subsquenr

destruclion

or

displacemnt

oflna'ly

arcient

'

l9t{ Hag*cdvqllm

rpDnole6.p{bbt

2 9UNTS r

l, /

'wlll-lM,ypromle3,d52

rr

Co

ir

C(rElio

tr

Proiecrio

oftF

Wond

Cuhral

Dd Nahnal

HEil,Ce,

De.

17, 1975.27 U.S.T.

37, l]

I

LM.

1358.

"

lr0TDJESCOCd

or.r,ptunore20

9ILM

d

tol8.AJM

Il

'

WIrLM,

rlrd D.te

],

d

5{-55

t

Y@rjf,'tryEbntd sjbE:

Th. Destuctid

oJcultotut Ptup.dy k ftg

ttuid,l1

NtD.

J. t{r'LL.

&

T@E 41, 50

(1993).

'i

Sre WuuM, epro rbte , al

9.

t rd

Elgin

la.&

nMy

of rhe sratEi6 of

6e

ld{ffi

ioEngi&rdwhnevhoristwCl@w6sdluidOttdEDle

IFc'r.&

soffitb6

si@

Iobbi.d

vigoost

for

llentim

"

UNESCO

C6tio

mlbe

Mm of Prcl

biting

ed Pffitin8 th

Oicn

Lnpor

Er9cl dd

TE

dqoforj6li

of

CdlJdl

ProFry,

Nd.

14,

I

t0, 823 U.N T.S. 23 l.

232,9 LL.N4 1038, 1040,

publ.

[h@in

nd I970 ttr.lESCO Cmlalid}

'

Deding,srnnoE24, al 5l.

z

wDM,

spro

nole

3, t I?.

"

Huc,o Gidnr/s, T L\woF

wN

N?rc 364

(IruieR

l/Mn ed,

walert

El{l 1949)

0625)

r'

EmrcDE V,ffi"

Tif

L{wor

NarroN 36?

(Chi0yed,1844)


10/18

191 BUFFALOJOURNAL

OF INTERNATIONAL

LAW

lvot.3

EgtDtian arc.haological

sits,

ofels a

nal

life exmple

of

such

a

situarion.

As Wliams

nots,

"[t]he

codnon

culnrfal hdta8e musl be

seen in terns of

prsnlion

ard

proterion.

fiis

view,

although

adhering

to the

i&a

ofa

stards

posirion

a custodia4

dos

not in

Act

chalenge its property

rights.6

Thus cultural

internaiionali$q though

lhe

dominant

theory

bhind

the

internationrl

protection

of orltral

prope.ty,

must be sd

as

a fle


11/18

ls3

BUFF4LO

JOURNTL

OF

INTERNAnONAL

I'|W

lvot.3

ha\

lhe

sld.L ofoilur.l

monumenb"

had ben destroyed'r

The

repon

mentions

oltly

the Huscnija

Mosque

Ouift

1827),

but

the June

1994

Coffil

ofEurop

R.port

rsnarks

otly

lhat h

had

btn

"tdt twic

in

dl

minard

(rhc

chrefr

is brokn

in

on

plaae),

probabty

by

tattk emoL'

and

thar

a

smal

lftrary

and building

for

ablutions

had

also

beei

dalnaged.a

RefBy

Gndas.vic

Mosque

(lqh

cntury)

is

ako

rcponed ro

be

drmasd

by two

hiB

on the

nrof.

Svit".

Mosque

sutrged

onc

shdl impad

on

ils

porch

ald

Bukwa

Mosque

wrs

hn

in

the

facade

by

a

la'ge

projeclile-s

The

Council

of Fxrope Rcpon

points to

sewral

mosqus

in

ne3tby

vilages on tlte anem Gndacac

Fom

as

clear

cxamples

of

d.Sttrale

tlrating

ofntosques.

In

Monica

I, a slEl

broke

ihe

minafti

ofihe local mosqlte

above the

cher da. and

anolher

lank

sheu

pierced

dte

ourer

aDd

unmor *"lls

offie

mosque."

In

Monica

2.

anothr

hosque

also ststaind

a

brok6

minard and

lark

inPa(ls

on

fu

wals.

The

ftosqu in KrcviM

was svqely dannged

etn

its minarei

wds

destrcyed

and

fel

duough

rhe

roofofthe

moque

6

This mosque

also

$&rcd anumbrofhils

on

the

faclde and outrwal

Vilage

mosques

on

lh

southwst tont

of

Crrada.ac

have also

$trdd

danage,

in

padiorlar

thc

mosque at Ze$nja Srednja

whicn

uas I'it oD

the

roof

lhe

bas

ofthe minaret,

and

in the

yard."

Th

Catholic Church

of St. Maft

(1888)

suffered

damage by

grsEdes,

and

uas

looted

(tlthough

the tepon

dos

not

make clat

who

was responsibl

for

ttis).{

The

Onhodox

Churci

ofst.

Elijah

08E2)

19961

BOSMA-HEkZEGOWNA

194

was hit by shels,

sriously

danuging

its roofand

steeple. This

ssme

church wls also ltndalize4

apparntly in

rctalialion

for slEling

by

rhe

BSA. Two

6rs *tfe

ser

in lhe c.lturct\

frescos

wer

paidd

ovcr,

icons

$,re vandalizo4

ard

liturSicl

itrns

wtre thrown

abola

Thjs

appa$

to

be

a fairly

tpical

panern

of

dBtruclion

of

religious

propny

in

Bosria-Herzegovine

Much

of tlc

danage is

Fobably

colderal

da,nage

ton

Se$ sltdling

ofitE town. As horh

dr

lrdit,ie

ftpon

snd the Councn ofElropc (June

l99a)

rtport

point

olrt,

the eitire

town of

Gradacac

has been severely

dfina8ed.,

The

historic

castle hrs

ben i.ar8td

o


12/18

lss

BUFFALO

JOURNAL

OF

INTERNAnONAL

LAW

lvol

3

rtfluin

Who looaedde

durd?

Wrs it

spontattous

or

pttformd

udr

odcs?

Was

the

lclion

timed

ar

Catho[cisq

or

was

tlle

looting

canied

out

in

satch

ofmoney

or

\aluable

objct?

Wilho

t

mor'

infonnnioq

it

is imDos$ab

io

answ.r thes

qucsions

The loodns

ofth

Onlrcdox church

ofst

Elijah

seems a

clenr

case of

rtprisal

by the

local

poPulation Th

looting

w"s

purdy

de{ntctiw

in

Erlna

and focused

"Don

relisiou

svnbols

tnd helru

r*d

in O.thodox sflics.

It

is unclelr,

howc r,

whcther

fte

action

was

spontaneous

or

sancdond

by

authority

srbian

anlbrilis

lin

d|e

church

as

d61ro)d.T

C.

"Blnic

Cleastug'

drd

tlc

Destuction

oJc'nltual

PrcFnv

A ihorougb

exltniDtion

of

the

pheiolrlnon

itl

ltre fonnef

Yugoslavia

that

has

corlc

to

be

ls|own

,s

'ethnic

cleansing"

$/ould be

terond

Ot

scopc

ofrhis

paper'

A

general

undsstanding

of$e

meaning

ofdrtciu

in

dati.x

to reliSio4

howver.

is

mpona

in

ord' lo

plae

in contxt

the

praclic

oftsrgeting

fo. d6rruction

retigious

propcrty

in

Bosria-Hrzgovinn

YuSoslavia

$?as the

nlosr herogtEous

coontry

in

Eurooe.

including

six

'narions.'

(Sabr

Musli6

Croars

Macedonians,

Montef,cgrins.

and

sloven6)

rar

diferent

nationalitis

(s"aler

erhnic

sroups,

$ch

as Albd;aDs

aid

BulgsriN)'

and a

wietv

of

o$er

ahnic

groups." Th6c

'nations' ate

nol ncialy

distind.

bul

raths

are

dislinguislled

by

a number of

culturat

faclors,

among

which

retision

is

DredomitBnl.

For

hislorical rcasorLt

that

ned mt dcrain

us

t'eri ttrc

ie'ts a'e

onhodox

Cluisiians

and the

croals

are Roman

Catholic

Tlt

"Muslin\"

r.ognized

as

a

"nadon'

sinc 1971,

wcre

the

indisnous

Bosnjans

who

coo\rtd

to Islan

dudng

ottonan tularj

Th;

were

neither Croals

nor Seds

hjeoriczllv

bul a separate

Slav

people

who

had

ar$nced

a Clristian

hetesv

know)

as aogomilism

unlil

"

sooDA\Mnllrsq

sPlvrurc @D

l0l

(194)

ll@Po'rroN,TlEBaI.Ns,

l','lNoRTG

aD SraTrl

NCoNFLId

s

(I{ildiry

BOSN]A-HERZEGONNA

196

996l

corwerting

to Islam.'

None

of ths

three

groups

constituts

a

majority

in

Bosnir.

I'ldins

nEke up dre la'8e$

8mD,

cor4'rbing

a3.6%

ofdF

poplatioq

dE r$b.ing 19.4%

Setb,17.3%

Croa rnd

?.8%

orhr.'

Wl

e Sdts

c{n

look

to

Se6ia

as

ar

ethnic

hornelaid, and Croats can

look

ro

Croal4

the Bosrian Muslins

h.ve no sdflrd souce of

edmic

idcntifcntion.

Dcclarcd a

c.nstitunt

national

goup

in 1971, Bosnisn

Musfitns c.nnot colr'idr dEmsdves th

olErfovr

ofsorE ottE natiord

group

into Bos{a ftey

arc a

s?aiare

8roup

by virbe ofrdigio4

not

national origin.

Since the

othr two

elhnic

groups

have

distinct

religious

alHiations

ofthcir

owr rcligion in

Bo$ia has

come

ro

b

iffepanble

from dhnic a.d

oihral idernity.

Targeting cultural

propert,

which

the Council

ofEumpe

has

rcferred

o

as "o)lturai cleansing' has

played

a

signifcnnt role

in dre

gcneral practice

of etiric cleansing

in

Bosnia.s

The

de$rucrion

ofthe

old

Mostd Bridge

snd

the Na.ional

Libnry in

Sanjvo has

dnwn

worldwide

mdia

ananion

as examples

of

delibente

deslrucrion

of

sinlml

proprty

whih

was

perceived

as

reprerntin8 the herilage

ofan

opposing

groop.

At

rihst

Ue confutuds hAl

bctl extrernely

ndid

about

thir

policy

of.argding cuhural p.opcrty.

L t992, for

example,

BBcjomslist Ikte

Adie asked a

Serbian ofrcr wlty Srb

gunneN

hd

bo sheling dle

Holiday

llll\ which hot)s.d

most

forisr

joornalies

in

Sanje\o.

Tlre

otrcer

repfid

apologeticdly

that they wre not

iargeting

the hot4 but

mdl.r

were siming

at

the

Nadonal

Muselm

just

bhind

the

hotel.'

Silnilady, a

soldi.r

srving under

Bosian

Croar

militia

lada

Mate

Boban

e),?lained

their

reasons for

laeting the

Mosrar Bridge,

whjcn they evntudly

brought down

in

Novembr

1993:

'[i]t

is

nor

enough

to

clers Mostar

of

the

Mudims, lhe reUcs nust

also

be

g

FFDNTID

So$ar,

A tireoRy c

r

BdlN Fioi{ E E$LF

T[,Gs ro

ns

PRFSDAY 16354

(l99l)

t'

S&dris

tm

6.

O6cirl

r99t

Ytrg6lsv Poptn.rid C6B ofB@ir-tkusdirt

rp,red t Wn BdM 216

Erbia

Ali & Lr\rfu

lifsndE

eds

,

193)

t3

IBntok

R.pd. suptu

tr,r

4r,

^

t6.

"

Ar&6

R.idlD,yq,

Cftsr

Fon

dotiu

$dp.M,

OJlzy

2,1994),


13/18

197 BWFAII

JOURNAL

OF

INTERNATONAL

LAV

lvol.3

desroyed.'e

Armies are,

in

lhe

words

of

one

journali$,

"ensing

'Cultuml

cleansing'

was

iniiated ty the

BSA an4

since

thc

failure

of

the Vaftce-Own

pale

plan

in the

spring

of 1993,

Bosrian

sov..nm"t

forcs

@[4

ad

Bosnian

Croat

forcs

(HvO)

I'ave

lakr

up the

praciic

as wdl.@

l-ocatiz.d

reprisals

ha

rtso

bcomc

a

slandard faturc

of

cultunl

clernsing;

th typicnl s.rnario

being

ihe

lddali$n ofa Stbian

Onlrcdox

clurch

in

respons

to

ddling

by BSA

forces.

Srbian

o

tural clallsing

h

ofrar accomplishcd by sldling;

although

a

grcat

dd ofmining

is

reponed to

have

ocornd

in

arc.s

under Se6 c.ntrol.

Thc

HVO and

Bfi

forcs

typiclly

must resort

to

tnining

a

buming,

ho$rErrr, due

io dlir tdadve

lac* of

anjJery.

Damage by

e-'.1 melns terds to

be

more dlorough lhan

that

acromplished by shening.d

Migious

proprty

has been

paniorlarly

atrecred

for

a mEb.r of

reisons

Firs

rdigio$

proFty

mu$ inevitably srtrer

fi'otn any

gara-alzed

ath.k

on

oftrEl

propny,

as

religjon

is

gpnemly

an

i

gral

part

ofqiture.

Second, religion

in

the

furmer

Yugoslavia

tetds

to b

&rermined

along .hniclirles.

The

Se't';an

&hodox

Church

is

a

major

componenr

of

the aitural heritage

and

idntity of Seds,

ju*

as thc

Catholic

Church

is integraly

a

pan

ofcroatian

orlture ard

Islam

r

part

ofBosian

Muslim

crrltur..

Religion

is

th

frst

and

esist

identificr

of

thse

ditrrent orltues,

and

rdigous monuments

bnce

arc

the

Ino$

easily

identifable

targets

ofetlnc altacks

and

reprisals.

Churches

and

mosques are

large,

cntral,

unmi$lkable irrgels,

and thir ry vidbility

aid

presnce

render ihm not only

e3sy targei , but ertuandy dsir.ble

ones

as well.

A

minarct

is

a constart

reminder

of thc

PIesdlce

of

Muslims, hence

a natural taet

for

those

with

a

hatred

oftlus

reliSious

goup.

As

Ardds

Rieddmeyer explained during

a

tmposium

hosted

by

th

Carngie

Foundarior\

'a

poples

identiry

is

in'(t'icably linkd

with

dE visble slrnbols ofits culture.

Once thos

anchors

are

gone,

the

pas

at

E6ing Bqnia\

Medoty.

\N^et-Po6r,

Ocr 16, 1 992,

at

A.24

(.dirori,r)

z1

lBtituleRepon,tupniot

4l,at

16

l9%l

BOSMA-HERZEGOMNA

I98

lik

the f&rq can

be

rccreated

by tl'e victors.d

Dnroying

the ftigby

visible

dsn

ds

ofcultrrc

has an idolo8ic.i

a$d as

wdl:

"Th vrry

facl ofthes

moruments

sdsting

in

close

proxinity

is

an aFont

to

dr

historical

myth that

underlies fascist

ideolos/. Th

ideologt

procl.iBrs

that

poplg in

fid,

c.nDot live

togdhr.

Iflou

havc rlEse

prsarcs

n 'd

to ach

olher,

it

is a

daily rt'roa.i to $at

ideolos/.d

Finally,

churchs and rnosques

are e'drInly intimate and

thus

efecliw targeB.

Bosdan

Prsidnt

Alija

lzelbegoric has

accuscd

dle

Serb

forces

of

seeking

'the

dcsudioo

of

rdigion

as

a

basis

of tlE

idfltity

ard

as

spintual

$pport

for

the

Bosnian

pople

'd

Since

the war

bqr4 relgious irsibtio$ ha

playd

a cenhl rol

in the U s

ofmany

,s

both sotlr6 ofspiriNel comfon

ard

cotnpanioNlip

ad

as clla itable

h*itutions.d

Targling srch

sources

ofcomfon

to

the locsl

populalion

is a loeical ekension

ofthe tnor

bombing

states/

which

has

bn

e.nploFd fl'ainly

by Bo$ian Se6s

ftouShout the war.

Moreover, it is

a logical

exrcnsion

ofthe

policy

ofdllllic

c-:earsirg Since

dlhicity

in

Bosnia

is

dirc.lv

linkd

with

reljgioq ahnic

clearuing

is

neces$rily

related

to

rligious

cle?nsine

or,

as Slobodan l/filelsnic h,s

calcd it,

'spiritual

gnocide'd

By dstuoying

d|e

rdigious hrirage ofa

Acific

goup

ir a

rgioq

one

not only

scve$ their historil

link

to the

reSior

but one makes religious life in that region

next

to

inposribl.

That

religious

praclice

itsaf is bing targetd in

Bosnia

is

evidr'cd

by

a number ofpraqics

shich

are r.poned

to

b occ .ring.

SheUing

clMches

and mosques rnay

or may

not larget the religion

pff

se,

.s there

is alwals

th

possibility

that the building

ha only rceivd

colda.al d.nEge.

Moreolt.,

it

is likdy

that

rnany rdigious

buildings

are

iargded

simply

due

to

their vi$al

presefte

as a

rymbol

of

"tle

nemy.

"

Vandalisr4

however,

sefts

more clerrly

aimed

at

inhibiting re[gious

g

Ridln

yq,&r'rumr

59.

a

R.enCdFr

A6,u D.6dr.:,{ nttr 6

&I.net olhl@

or

Mulddltutdts ?,Nl.

dP

l\slltietM\ttMan: btMtS.nB.

the

l^tsacnlte:"

trtBtihgs

Baettu

Beltto

Church.t

Lik

anAp@orp.

N^r'Lcarfl R }.,Je29, 1993,a17.


14/18

199 BWFALO JOURNAL

OF

INIERNATIONAL LAW

lVo[3

worship, as desoying

the

inside

ofa

hilding

can be

neilhr accidenlal

nor irtended to liminatc dE

vi$rl

prorcation

ofdt

building

itsn

Th

vandrlism

ofth Chlmfi of St. E;jah in Gnda.sc

oftrs a

good

o


15/18

201

BUFn4In

JOURNAL

OF

INIERNAftONAL

I-4v

wot.3

dd

rnairtain places

for

rlEse

purpos6..t

tt is

rrguabl dta tlte

rigln

to

"mrinlain'

erci

pla.s

rulst

includc

tlte

riClr

nor

to hrw

srch

placca

denro)d.

Aniclc

Vt(C)

is

intcrded

to

cor,r

tlle

cor&nts

ofrdigious

buildings,

asscrting rhc

dgltt

'lo

ruke, to

rcquire

and

to

us

to

an

adquale

e'ded

fu

rEcBsary articles

and

trurrials related

to

the rites

or

o$toins

to

a retgion

or

blif'n

Finaly,

tll Dclamtion provides

for a

riglrt

to

tea.rr rdjeion

"in

pLces

$it:bie for

ths

puQoss ,'

\trjh

refers

lo

and

bolners

rhe

dglr

to

rflai

ain

$ch

Dlacs

and

not

b

harc

rhem

dertmycd.D

Human

rights

law,

ho*l\,lr,

even

whn binding

is to a

crtain

nent

drogsble

durirg

periods

of

public

emergmcy.

inctuding

armed

connid.-

Anicle

4(2)

ofihe ICCPR

includes

a lisr

ofnghs

which

a'e

non-derogable

even

durirg

rned conflic

ard

tlis

inctuds

the Anjcte

18

righl to

tedom

ofrhoughr,

conscince

and

reliAion.

Funhmore,

Aiicle 4(

l)

stipulares thar

a

dcrogarion

Inult

not invoh

disciimination

basd solely

on

religion.

Human righrs

csn stso

be

limjted by

'tiEitation

daxc"

uiich pmit pmaffnt

limita.ions

on huna.

rights which

are

necssary

to

Foict

national

sollity,

public

safiy,

healr\

ordr, 6nd

rnorals.r

While

idom

ofthouSht,

collscience,

ard

rdigion

dos

not

frI into rhis

catgory

oflimirabb

nehs,

the

dgl't

to rnanifd

rtigion

cjn

be

limired

so as

not

to

inrerfer.

v?ilh

tl|e lurtan right

ofothrs.r

It

could

hardly

b

,rgued,

ho*vs,

thar rhe

de*rucrion

of chMhes

and

mosques

in Bosnia-HeEegovina

was

rccssary for

the

protecrion

of

rarion

l

scurity

or

the

human

nghs

ofothers

Humanitarian

law

sewes

an imponant

role h

the

protecrion

of

11

Unkd

Ndi^

D..hmtion on

the

Elinihahd

ofall Fom ofrtutew

.roJ

Diwtnivnon

Bd.d

q

R.ligioh

o/Blirl

an

\4

G),

C.A.

R6.

55,

U.N CAOR

l6tl)

Ss,Supp.No

51, at

l7l.UN

Da

41615r

(

l93r

'

r

//..

al

alr

\4 (c)

'

,9r,

.A.,

ICCPR

r,?tu

nolc ?4, at

4.

'r

RcsF,rB.lrlc1j.

beN^roNrHrr,,r^NRrcm:

pRdLE\,s

qtrw,

pdlcy,N

n

Dma J. sulliv&\.,tdra,a

nU

Ffte.bd

of Rexsto,

q

Betj.f rtush

tE

w

Dadatun

d

tk

EIi ttudonofR.liga6

nb\.@

and

Dxdi itu,a2A[t.

G L\Tt

L

48?, 493 (19B8)

1n-an

"rl^

^Tr.,'tnq

conticr.

Elm

wgc

$e rcc?R

rishrs

or

r.eedom

orDoFhip

derogabtc

in

d,c

cono(l

of0,e wa

in

Boe,ja

dle

prolisbns

ofthCrocva

Convedion

and

$e

I

qr/ p.otocots

address

l;

1ry

*1.q

9s*"

rishts

wridr

u|c

dd.u6.tion

of rdisbus

prop'ty

wouh

notare.

Th.

Foudh Ccncya

CoNeition

ofj949

prouds

rn Articl.

27-rhrt

.protcrcd

pcrsons

arc

ntirld,

in

aJ

cruEn$ances\

to

rcA.d

for

. .

rlEir

rEligiou

convjctions

ahd

pracricg

ano

tntr

marners

ard

olstonls.{

Moreo}tf.

Anicle

58

of'fie

sarle

uoJlqlton

rEquircs

ftar

rhe

,,Occupying

poww

shall

permlt

ninjsrers

oi

rsrgon

ro

grve

sF

rtusl

assisance

ro

the

mrnbers

of their

religjous

com'nuniries,'

Erd

rhar

ficy

'acccpt consigrunens

ofb@ts

ana

a.iaes

requred.tor

rctigto.us

needs

ard

shdl

frcilitare

their

disdiburion

in

occlprd

lerritory."-

protocol

I

o

the

C$eva

Convrlions

addrs s

rn

ngn

ot

worship

ofrhos

in

fie

power

ofa

party

ro

tlle

conflici

who

oo

nol quaxry

lor

speciat

trearneot

undcr

arorher

sction

of rhe

ceneva

r-oNsrrons

or

the

prolocot

psrrglrph

I

ofAaic.le

75,

rqunes

rhar

as

]-ifllm

reuuancnr

.I

prson'

b

accorded

rcsp;

tor

o,n

conucfotrs

and retiaious

pnctjcs

Th

word

'prad,cs,

is

agin

hporl4

a

n

spccifcaly

addrsrs

rhe

act

of

worship

nd,r

;an

:'*1q

.

tT.:

bref.

rr

wourd

be

dificulr

ro

arsue

rhar

ihe

oesni(lon

orchurchs

ard

mosques

oulside

ft zone

ofconbal

wo,jd

De arc*td

wdq

rhne

[rovision

To

$e

edit

thal

rhe confl;c_t

in

Bosia

may

te

conddercd

a

non-inremadoMl

connid.

identical

lrnguage

in

Anicle4

ofPmrocotI

ro

$e

Gaevz

Comentions

wornd

apply

-

^

*

Aaicle

53

of

prorocot

I ard

the

identicnt

tanguage

in

Anict

16

:1,1.::11,1, -'TTr

.urrurar

objeos

and praces

ofworship.

we,e

unL

ft.en

y

the

only

irstincs

in

which

rhe ngh

to sorship

ard

the

prooprrrcn

on

largamg

oltural

propeny

$ere

Unked

as do;y

retated

fl1:..1P f

*l"d

in Pan

tr

rbove

Ardcle

s]

fodids

'a..ts

of

no^srury

drected

agatns

historic

monumenrs.

wo*s

ofafl

or

ptaces

of

worsrup

wruch

conslituie

the

cultural

or

spiritual

heriuge

ofpeoples

19961

BO'NlA-HEMEGOWN/

202

;,*.

ff

ffi

f+';l.;S,?frTorcjvilie3pdqs

in

rim

orwe.

A.g


16/18

m3 BUFFAIO JOURNAL

OF

INTERNAnONAL

LAW

Nol3

.

5

As$mnB thal

"historic'is

mernt to

modi& only

the word

'monumentsr"

it

folows

dlat artworks

and

plac.s

ofworship

which

are

pan

ofdrc

pintu

l

h.iilagp

ofpopls

ar.

prot

dcd

regadless

ofthen

cultural or

historic.l "lue.6

This

provd

to

bc

a divisi\

icare

in

the

dmftina

ofthe

Protocols,

as

did

inilialy

the

inclus'on

ofihe

anicls

at

dl."

Sone

del.EFrions argucd that

ro includ. a[

placls

ofwonhiP

rgardlss ofcxltural

value

would

deprivc

orlturaly

sigriffcant

property

oftu

sp.cial $atus,

spcialy si"ce local

religiotis buildings

ir so

often

usd for military

purposs.

The draft ariicle

refgred

qccitrcatly

to

placs

ofworship, but only to

ctrltural

and

not

s?iritual

hritage.

As

tll6e

wrs

dil disagrffsf as

to

*heiher

dy plac

ofworship

was

part

of

the cultural

heritage

of

popls"

dl

cornrnittee delid

refqnce

to

pla.es

ofwoFhip

fiom

Anjcle

53 and

placd

it in Anicle

3

rs

an

exsnple

of

property

normaly

comrnitted

to

civilian

use.

Ircal

churchs would

thddo receive

drc

nornal

prolclion

ofotlE

civilian

proFty,

and

an

undersianding

wrs

rca(nd

that

orhr.ly

irnportant

places

ofwoEhjp

would not

be deprived

prordion

under the language covering

clllnlral

rprumnts

ard

buildings.

At the insistenc ofa large

numb6

of$a.eg

however,

'placs

ofworship'

w?s

renrnrd ard

erpplerEted

vrith

the

oFst language

on

'cl

tural

or

spirituai

heritagp.

"s

It has

ben

&gucd,

however, that this larguag

gos

no fanher than the

comp.omis

aiBngenen

and thus

that

locrl churchs

receive

no

more

protec;tion

thar

other

civilan

propeny.e

The

Idemational

Comrnitte ofthe Red

Cross

(ICRC)

took

this

vieq

noting

that

"spiritual

heritage

ofpoples"

was

neant

orly to cover objecls

'wh6c

wlue

tnnscrds

gcogrrphical

bounduies,

and

$,iidr

.re

unique in chrracler and are intinatly

a

Ml,sprdfr.ll,st16

'

T@,A&p/arct 14,.1564-65

"\,lro

EBo[Ea^L,llewRtrrsFcRvcmrsoFAnIf,CoNFLrcrs

Colo Nrary

oN

E Trc l9?7

tisrrs

ADmdrro@

C6v^ Collrnj]@N s 1949, t

33r

0982)

'

1a

at

312. Ii

pdlidle,

a n@bd

ofM6Un ndes, aldgwiLh lhe

Holy

Se ad llaly,

iEi .dd

[\is sbdifioliod,Id

r9961

BOSN]A-EERZEGOWNA

2U

associated

with

lhe history

and

siture ofr

people.''t

The

ICRC

nored

tlur

spiritual

importanc

rrl.y odsa cvtfr in th

abscnce of

oitu"l

imponsncc, srd

f'at

'spintual'

was *rit o

irto $ Irrotocol

to covr.

such

situatjons,

but

not

to

cxtend

protection

to local

churches

or

Th.

Blgjan

ddegarc ddcribd

ttri

'?icw

wdl saying

that rhe

anicle refftd

to

'places

of

worfip

so

intimardy

asrociated

with dlose

fajths t'at,

mor

than al

dte odEr rdigioos

bondings alrady

protcctd

undef

Anicle

47

lAnicle

52

ofthe

final veBion

ofProtocot

I],

they

semed

to be

th.ir

true

embodinnt on eaih.'q

The Saudi

Arabian

dclegaae, howevr, sind

to fe.l

that

the

phras

'or

spiritual'

extended

Aecial

proteciion

to aI

placs

ofwonlip,

presumably

under

the theory

that

any

place

ofworsbp

mu$

b

pan

ofthc spiritud

hritage ofthat

partiqrlar

hith.r

8.

A

Ne\9 Aryuch to Religiols

Proryrty

The

connid

in Bosnia-Herzegovina

has

draftaticntly

demonstratd

lhe wlnembility of religjous properry

in

waninte.

Moreoltr,

it has

offctrd

an ide3l cise

study daDonstraring

the

ydlue

of

lhe

qtribal

lEritage

provision

ofthe 1977

Protocols,

and srpporring

the

position

ofthose

dlegations

who

wished

to rdend

protertion

to all

rdigioos

proprty.

Hoptuly, ifth world

corununity hds

the

lessons

ofthis

connicr,

it wil

slimulale

furthei rcwlMtion

ofhow

w

lhhk

about the

protectjon

ofcultural

property

during

arned

conflicr.

Cultural

property,

whther religious

in mture

or

no

dri s

its

i

I 'rN

ndrcomoFrrER[DcRoss.Co

NrARyoNmAlomoNe

PR@cots

oF

8

JLl

197? ro

n

GE

v

CoNaEMNs 12AL@sr

t9.19,.t6.46

0940.

'r

HowArD S.

LEVE, 3 PRoEcDoN oF WR

VrrM:

PRorocoL

I ro m

1949

GEMV^CoNaTmoNs221

(1980).


17/18

2o5

BWFALO

JOURNAL OF

INIERNAflONAL IIW

lvol3

need

for

protcrion

fiom

a

csiain bundle

of rights irnplicared

in

its

conridxd odsrcr.

fic

qrhral

irtqDrdonali$s ar. concd

$lterl they

$gg$

dd

al ofhmankird has .n irnsEs in the

contimed

exigence of

the Mosar

Bridg, in

prscrving

that

"atternpt

to

grasp

elernity." Sucfi

w .ks

ofan

belp

give

mcaning

to

humaniry,

snd

it

ssns appropriare

to

rlfEr

to

our

colleclive

irtrest

in

c'eating

maning

through

art as a

nght.

Similarlt

rhe orlturrl

nationlli$s

lre

aho

correcl in

obsNing that

the

Mosrar

Bridge may b a

strongr vficle

for

giving

rhcaning

to the

lives

ofBosiars dlan

to dE

rsr ofus.

Thir

intsests

in

the

Bridge's

srvi "I

n8ybeslrlgerrhan

otirs,

sinc. it

isin

some senle

their bridge

Ilis

not

only a

monlme't

to

hun'anity, hn

also

a

parr

of $e

hiltory

of a

paniorlar pople,

and

threforc

rnaintains

additionai

ihponece

to

dE

popl.

The

war

in Bosnia

h 3

demofftratd

that this very imponance

renders such

property

vduable as a

mililary

targt

to thos

who wish to

dri

popleiom

theirhomer.

The attack

on the Mostar

B.id8e

E?s

an

afront lo

lnlliar)lin4 but

it

was

also

an Essault on

the

orlture

wfiich

built

L

Ir was

a

spiritual

attlck

on

a

pople,

ard

a

delibent

anmpt

to

drive

d|m ofby tunililating

that

i/hich

helps

give

manirg

to

thet livs.

Cultural dd rdiSious

property,lheq

dsftcs

spcial

protclion

not

only

kuse

hs

ddrudion

huts ltrlI.ankind

as

a

wlFle,

hft

additioialy

because $ch dstruction con$r'nnes

an

attack

on the

objcis

through vhich

a

people

dcfin

s

irsr

Culbrral

property

law,

is

i' this

way

a sralemnr

to

th

efct that anacks

dir.led

at

the

human

spirir

will

not be

tolerated.

In

this light,

one crn

se that a

strict adherence

to

the

cultural intemational;st

approach

is

clearly inadequate

with re5?cr to

bolh

rdjgious

and sanlar

o.rhunl

property.

By

foclsirg on the herirage

of

all mankin4 it becoms too ary to disreCard

the

needs

of tlle

cor

nunitjs

\I'hich d}e

proprty

in

que$ion

*"s

originaly

designed to

serve

The Arc de Triomphe \r"s o$viously not

built

a a service ro

fi

$rrotindjng

neiglbodDods

ofParis.

The

Husnjja Mosque in Gradacac,

howevr,

*Es

built

with

a spe.ifc

place

and

conmunity

in

mind.

Wile

the architcts crtainly

attempted

to

make

the

nosque beeutiftL

and

while

the

residents

ofthe

towrl

may

feel

a certain

pride

in showing

the

mosque

to

outsidri

its

value

to the oituml

hritage

of mankird is

minimal at

besl.

It is

simpty

one of

hudreds

of

sl'Itrlar

mosques

scanred

thmughour

the Balkans Evat

to

the

Islamjc

worl4

$ch

a

19961

BOSMA.HERZEGONNA

206

moGque

is uninponad

Eom 0E

poi

ofview

ofirnfrational

orttu"t

or

spntiat

lEitag.

At

talr

t*D

books

devotd

ro

mosque

editectrrE

of

the

worid

have

dccrncd

yugostavian

m


18/18

207

BWFAIA

JOURNAL

OF

INTERNAnONAL

LIW

IVol3

Tlrus,

dE

sy*rnati:dsudionofrdiSious

propertywhich

has occ

fred

h

Bo$ria-Hcrzgovina

nust

be sen as

more than

the

de$ruclion of

property.

It

is

dle synma.ic

denial

ofthe

dght ofrligioos

fedon

through

dr dsirirdion ofthe

pb'sical

necssitiB

ofworsdp

and

the

physical reprsdarions

offrilh

so

importrnt

to

a

conrnunjty

snse

of

identity.

In

thjs

wax

the

ne.d

to

prote.l

elg|

locrl religious

propefty

Bos

hand

in

hind

with

lhe

nd lo

prot.i

cultural

proprty

grlraly.

fie

world community

is

afre.ted

in

lhe

srs

thrl

srch desudion

coostinnes

a hurnan righs

viohrioq

,nd

play

an impo@nt

role in

th

procss

ofethric cl$rsing

wbich

\l aI

have

an

interest

in

pre ndD8

Moreovet,

on the

local

le1,1,

the dstruclion

ofreliSious

propeny

plays

the

same

role

as

the destruclion

ofoiturai

property generaly.

Whethr

or

nol

tne Husnija Mosque

is

oforltu..l

inponance,

its

deslruclion

corsdns a

delfte'de

dack on

the

spiriluality

ofa

people

in

rn attempt

to lake rncaDing

from

their lives

ard

dnw them

fiom

their

homes.

It

is

an attack

on spiritualty

its8

just

as was

the dstruction

of

the Mostar

Bridge.

Why,

theq

cxclude

retgious

property

fiom

the spcial

protedjon

otrred

lrlturrl

propdty

sirnply b.ruse it is

not of"cultural"

\alue?

Suct

property

slla s

wift

onturai

propqty

$e mo$ siliett

attntutes

which rBke

i

padulady

\olnerablq

and

its

dcstruction

panjotuly painfll.

\4hether

a

people

atmpt to bring spiritual

meani.g

to

their

lives tkough

an or tluough

relgioq then

nglt

to do

so needs

intrnaional

p@tedion

Odrwise, oitural and

religious

propeny

offers

too tempting a

larget

for

anlone undenaki.g a carnpaign of ethnic

cleansing.

Thjs is th ca regardless

of

the

abstncr

questions

of

ownership

posired

by th

fals

opposhion

ofcultural

narionalism and

oitural intemationslis.

Cultural

pmprty

law has

ad "nced

well

beyond

lhe

geltqal

F@crbrls

of'ed

civilian

propsty

by

the tlague Convntiors

of

l9O7

It llas rEcognizd

tlu cnain objects desFf,v odra

protecrion

baDs of

their

irnpori.nce to dE

qrltur.l

he.itage ofma*ind.

In the Proro.ols

of

the Gseva

Convrtions, we se

the international @mrnunity

tunblins

toward the nxt s1p in srch

protctionihe

recognjtion

ftar

placs

of

worship nd

similar spcial

protcrioN

for

similar

reasons.

The

refrence

ao

rhe

"s?fitua|

heritage"

of

peoples

in

the Protocols

is an

l9e6l BOSMA-HEMECOMNA

2OE

important

stp

towards

lhe redization

that

specirl

protciion

ofcertain

proprty

is

mcritcd

not

for rer$ns

relating

to

property,

but

rather

bcruse

imptc{td

in

lhe

conrinud exfurdEe

of

crrtlin

obi..is

is

hrrl,nity's qu6r

for bauty

and

neaning. By

addr.sling

ilEse rightr

it

sms

cle3r tha

any plac

ofwo$lrip

is

nec.ssarily

pan

ofihe

spiribat

hriuge ofpeopls,

and tlEt

dE reslrictive

viw

ofrhis

pbras

as adoptd

by

inaiy nations

is

profoundly

wrong-hesded.

RetiSious

properry

.nd

orhrdl

proprty

s.nc sirnilar

purpos6.

Thy

are

both

rianiesrations

of

hrrsnity's

righ io anrnpt

to

grasp

drnity.

Onc

w

hd

tttc

lcssons

ofBosnia and

bcgin to fools

on

this

righl

rartEr

than on the rheoretical

pmpedy

intersts

ofthe

intemarioral

cornnunjty,

rhe tegal

prote.tion

of

both cultur.i

and

religious

property

durjng

anned

codii $,i

attain

a

logical

consistency

which

heretofore ir

has

lackd.

the destruction of churches and mosques in bosnia-herzegovina: seeking a rights based aprroach to...

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