the development of children’s national identifications and attitudes martyn barrett

The development of children’s The development of children’s national identifications and attitudesnational identifications and attitudes

Martyn BarrettMartyn Barrett

Department of PsychologyDepartment of PsychologyUniversity of SurreyUniversity of Surrey

Guildford, Surrey GU2 7XH, UKGuildford, Surrey GU2 7XH, UK

[email protected]@surrey.ac.ukhttp://www.psy.surrey.ac.uk/staff/MBarrett.htmhttp://www.psy.surrey.ac.uk/staff/MBarrett.htm

Paper presented to the Centre for Research on Nationalism, Paper presented to the Centre for Research on Nationalism, Ethnicity and Multiculturalism (CRONEM), University of Surrey, Ethnicity and Multiculturalism (CRONEM), University of Surrey,

October 16October 16thth, 2006, 2006

OverviewOverview

Very brief summary of previous research in this areaVery brief summary of previous research in this area

Quick and dirty presentation of some findings from two Quick and dirty presentation of some findings from two cross-national projects on:cross-national projects on: the development of children’s attitudes to national the development of children’s attitudes to national

ingroups and outgroupsingroups and outgroups the factor structures underlying children’s attitudes to the factor structures underlying children’s attitudes to

national ingroups and outgroupsnational ingroups and outgroups

Equally quick and dirty presentation of some findings Equally quick and dirty presentation of some findings from the two cross-national projects, and from a third from the two cross-national projects, and from a third British study, on:British study, on: the development of children’s national the development of children’s national identificationsidentifications

A presentation of the kind of theoretical model which (I A presentation of the kind of theoretical model which (I think) is required to explain the development of think) is required to explain the development of children’s national identifications and attitudeschildren’s national identifications and attitudes

Previous studies in this areaPrevious studies in this area

There are many previous studies in this fieldThere are many previous studies in this field

Piaget (1928), Horowitz (1940), Piaget & Weil (1951), Weinstein (1957), Piaget (1928), Horowitz (1940), Piaget & Weil (1951), Weinstein (1957), Lambert & Klineberg (1959, 1967), Jahoda (1962, 1963a, 1963b, 1964), Lambert & Klineberg (1959, 1967), Jahoda (1962, 1963a, 1963b, 1964), Tajfel & Jahoda (1966), Johnson (1966, 1973), Hess & Torney (1967), Tajfel & Jahoda (1966), Johnson (1966, 1973), Hess & Torney (1967), Johnson et al. (1970), Middleton et al. (1970), Tajfel et al. (1970, 1972), Johnson et al. (1970), Middleton et al. (1970), Tajfel et al. (1970, 1972), Jaspers et al. (1972), Stillwell & Spencer (1973), Gould (1973), Gould & Jaspers et al. (1972), Stillwell & Spencer (1973), Gould (1973), Gould & White (1986), Moodie (1980), Weigand (1991a, 1991b, 1995), Barrett & White (1986), Moodie (1980), Weigand (1991a, 1991b, 1995), Barrett & Short (1992), Nugent (1994), Barrett (1996), Helwig & Prencipe (1999), Short (1992), Nugent (1994), Barrett (1996), Helwig & Prencipe (1999), Howard & Gill (2001)Howard & Gill (2001)

These previous studies have examined four main issuesThese previous studies have examined four main issues

Issues studiedIssues studied

Children’s knowledge of the geographies of different countries, Children’s knowledge of the geographies of different countries, including their knowledge of the geography of their own countryincluding their knowledge of the geography of their own country Names, locations and shapes of countries; names and locations of cities Names, locations and shapes of countries; names and locations of cities

and towns, rivers, lakes, mountains, etc.; climates; typical flora and and towns, rivers, lakes, mountains, etc.; climates; typical flora and fauna; patterns of land use; etc.fauna; patterns of land use; etc.

Children’s knowledge of national emblemsChildren’s knowledge of national emblems flags; national costumes; national monuments and buildings; national flags; national costumes; national monuments and buildings; national

ceremonials and traditions; typical foods and drinks; historical figures ceremonials and traditions; typical foods and drinks; historical figures and historical events; etc.and historical events; etc.

Children’s feelings towards national groups, including their feelings Children’s feelings towards national groups, including their feelings towards their own national grouptowards their own national group levels of liking and dislikinglevels of liking and disliking

The contents of children’s national stereotypes, including their The contents of children’s national stereotypes, including their stereotype of their own national groupstereotype of their own national group

Principal findings of these previous studiesPrincipal findings of these previous studies Children’s knowledge, attitudes, feelings and stereotypes about Children’s knowledge, attitudes, feelings and stereotypes about

nations and national groups begin to develop from about 5 years of nations and national groups begin to develop from about 5 years of ageage

By mid-adolescence, children hold very detailed stereotypes of the By mid-adolescence, children hold very detailed stereotypes of the people who live in many different countries, including their ownpeople who live in many different countries, including their own

However, geographical knowledge (particularly of other countries) is However, geographical knowledge (particularly of other countries) is often very poor, even in mid-adolescence often very poor, even in mid-adolescence

Children typically show a preference for their own national ingroup Children typically show a preference for their own national ingroup right from the outset, at the age of 5right from the outset, at the age of 5

However, many national outgroups are still positively liked by most However, many national outgroups are still positively liked by most children, just to a lesser extent than the ingroupchildren, just to a lesser extent than the ingroup

But national groups which are the traditional enemies of the child’s But national groups which are the traditional enemies of the child’s own nation are often strongly dislikedown nation are often strongly disliked

Limitations of these previous studiesLimitations of these previous studies

Most of these previous studies have collected their data in just a Most of these previous studies have collected their data in just a single country (Lambert & Klineberg, 1967, is a notable exception)single country (Lambert & Klineberg, 1967, is a notable exception)

Most of these studies have also only collected data from a single Most of these studies have also only collected data from a single ethnic group within that country (usually the dominant majority ethnic group within that country (usually the dominant majority group)group)

As a result, these studies commonly find just a single pattern of As a result, these studies commonly find just a single pattern of development, which is then often either implicitly or explicitly development, which is then often either implicitly or explicitly generalised to all children by the researchergeneralised to all children by the researcher

This emphasis upon universal patterns in children’s development fits This emphasis upon universal patterns in children’s development fits well with the currently dominant mode of theorising in well with the currently dominant mode of theorising in developmental psychology (especially cognitive-developmental developmental psychology (especially cognitive-developmental theory)theory)

In addition, none of these previous studies have examined how In addition, none of these previous studies have examined how children’s own national identifications, and their subjective sense of children’s own national identifications, and their subjective sense of belonging to their own national group, developbelonging to their own national group, develop

Our studiesOur studies

In our studies, we have collected data in many different countries, and In our studies, we have collected data in many different countries, and from different groups of children living within those countries, in from different groups of children living within those countries, in order to find out:order to find out:

What remains constant in children’s development irrespective of the What remains constant in children’s development irrespective of the specific country in which they live? specific country in which they live? In other words: are there universals in children’s development?In other words: are there universals in children’s development?

What varies in children’s development depending on the specific What varies in children’s development depending on the specific national and cultural context in which they live?national and cultural context in which they live?

In addition, and unlike all previous studies, we have also examined In addition, and unlike all previous studies, we have also examined how children’s national identifications, and their subjective sense of how children’s national identifications, and their subjective sense of belonging to their own national group, developbelonging to their own national group, develop

Project 1: The CHOONGE projectProject 1: The CHOONGE project

This project used a cross-sectional design to collect data This project used a cross-sectional design to collect data from children aged 6, 9, 12 and 15 years old living in:from children aged 6, 9, 12 and 15 years old living in: London (England, UK) London (England, UK) Dundee (Scotland, UK) Dundee (Scotland, UK) Girona (Catalonia, Spain) Girona (Catalonia, Spain) San Sebastian (Basque Country, Spain) San Sebastian (Basque Country, Spain) Malaga (southern Spain) Malaga (southern Spain) Vicenza (northern Italy) Vicenza (northern Italy) Rome (central Italy)Rome (central Italy)

In other words, we studied children living in:In other words, we studied children living in: two capital cities (London, Rome)two capital cities (London, Rome) two provincial cities (Vicenza, Malaga)two provincial cities (Vicenza, Malaga) three locations where there are prominent nationalist-three locations where there are prominent nationalist-

separatist political movements (Scotland, Catalonia, Basque separatist political movements (Scotland, Catalonia, Basque Country)Country)

The total sample size in this study was 1,926 childrenThe total sample size in this study was 1,926 children

Project 2: The NERID projectProject 2: The NERID project

This project also used a cross-sectional design to collect This project also used a cross-sectional design to collect data from children aged 6, 9, 12 and 15 years old living in:data from children aged 6, 9, 12 and 15 years old living in: Moscow (Russia)Moscow (Russia) Smolensk (Russia)Smolensk (Russia) Kharkov (Ukraine)Kharkov (Ukraine) Tbilisi (Georgia)Tbilisi (Georgia) Baku (Azerbaijan)Baku (Azerbaijan)

Russia, Ukraine, Georgia and Azerbaijan are all New Russia, Ukraine, Georgia and Azerbaijan are all New Independent States (NIS) of the former Soviet Union, Independent States (NIS) of the former Soviet Union, which became independent countries when the Soviet which became independent countries when the Soviet Union disintegrated in 1991 Union disintegrated in 1991

Because of their historical, political and economic Because of their historical, political and economic circumstances, these countries provide a very different circumstances, these countries provide a very different type of context from western European countries for type of context from western European countries for children’s development in this domainchildren’s development in this domain


Principal collaboratorsPrincipal collaborators Surrey: Evanthia Lyons, Eithne Buchanan-Barrow, Xenia Surrey: Evanthia Lyons, Eithne Buchanan-Barrow, Xenia

ChryssochoouChryssochoou

Dundee: Mark Bennett, Fabio SaniDundee: Mark Bennett, Fabio Sani

Girona: Ignasi Vila, Santi Perera, Arantza del ValleGirona: Ignasi Vila, Santi Perera, Arantza del Valle

San Sebastian: Jose Valencia, Luixa ReizSan Sebastian: Jose Valencia, Luixa Reizáábalbal

Malaga: Almudena Giménez de la Peña, Pablo FernMalaga: Almudena Giménez de la Peña, Pablo Fernáández, ndez, Jesus CantoJesus Canto

Padua: Luciano Arcuri, Anna Emilia Berti, Luigi CastelliPadua: Luciano Arcuri, Anna Emilia Berti, Luigi Castelli

Rome: Annamaria de Rosa, Anna Silvia BombiRome: Annamaria de Rosa, Anna Silvia Bombi

Moscow: Tatiana Riazanova, Margarita VolovikovaMoscow: Tatiana Riazanova, Margarita Volovikova

Smolensk: Smolensk: Ludmila Grenkova-DikevichLudmila Grenkova-Dikevich

Kharkov: Valentyna PavlenkoKharkov: Valentyna Pavlenko

Tbilisi: Giorgi Kipiani, Thea KacharavaTbilisi: Giorgi Kipiani, Thea Kacharava

Baku:Baku: Rauf Garagozov Rauf Garagozov

Project 3: The British studyProject 3: The British studyBPS Developmental Psychology Section Centenary ProjectBPS Developmental Psychology Section Centenary Project

This study used a cross-sectional design to examine children aged This study used a cross-sectional design to examine children aged between 5 and 16 years old living in different parts of Great Britainbetween 5 and 16 years old living in different parts of Great Britain

These children were all born in Britain but were of varying ethnicity, These children were all born in Britain but were of varying ethnicity, including:including: White English heritageWhite English heritage Black African heritageBlack African heritage Indian heritageIndian heritage Pakistani heritagePakistani heritage


Principal collaborators in this project were:Principal collaborators in this project were: Mark Bennett, Rupert Brown, Charles Crook, Paul Ghuman, Karen Trew, Mark Bennett, Rupert Brown, Charles Crook, Paul Ghuman, Karen Trew,

Eithne Buchanan-Barrow, Claire Byrne, Eithne Buchanan-Barrow, Claire Byrne, Adam Rutland, Paul WebleyAdam Rutland, Paul Webley

Methods used for testing the childrenMethods used for testing the children

In all three studies, the children were either interviewed individually In all three studies, the children were either interviewed individually or completed individual questionnairesor completed individual questionnaires

Analogous questions and measures were used in all three projectsAnalogous questions and measures were used in all three projects

The interviews and questionnaires used:The interviews and questionnaires used: open-ended questionsopen-ended questions multiple-choice questionsmultiple-choice questions rating scalesrating scales adjective selection tasksadjective selection tasks adjective rank ordering tasksadjective rank ordering tasks trait attribution taskstrait attribution tasks map interpretation tasksmap interpretation tasks picture identification taskspicture identification tasks

The variables which were measuredThe variables which were measured

The children’s strength of national identificationThe children’s strength of national identification The children’s sense of national prideThe children’s sense of national pride The children’s geographical knowledge of countriesThe children’s geographical knowledge of countries The children’s knowledge of national emblems (including flags, The children’s knowledge of national emblems (including flags,

currencies, traditions, foods, etc.)currencies, traditions, foods, etc.) The children’s beliefs about the typical characteristics of specific The children’s beliefs about the typical characteristics of specific

national groupsnational groups The children’s feelings about specific national groupsThe children’s feelings about specific national groups Demographic information about the children and the children’s Demographic information about the children and the children’s

parentsparents

In this talk, I am only going to talk about the children’s attitudes to In this talk, I am only going to talk about the children’s attitudes to national ingroups and outgroups, and the children’s national national ingroups and outgroups, and the children’s national identificationsidentifications

Measuring national attitudes: the trait attribution Measuring national attitudes: the trait attribution tasktask

In the interview, the children were given a set of 12 cards In the interview, the children were given a set of 12 cards containing 6 positive and 6 negative adjectives: containing 6 positive and 6 negative adjectives: cleanclean, , dirtydirty, , friendlyfriendly, , unfriendlyunfriendly, , cleverclever, , stupidstupid, , hardworkinghardworking, , lazylazy, , happyhappy, , sadsad, , honesthonest and and dishonestdishonest

The instructions were: The instructions were: “Here are some cards with words on “Here are some cards with words on them that describe people. What I want you to do is to go them that describe people. What I want you to do is to go through all these words one by one, and I want you to sort through all these words one by one, and I want you to sort out those words which you think can be used to describe X out those words which you think can be used to describe X peoplepeople [X = name of the target group]. [X = name of the target group]. Can you do that for Can you do that for me? Sort out the words which you think describe X people.” me? Sort out the words which you think describe X people.”

If there was any doubt about the child’s reading ability, the If there was any doubt about the child’s reading ability, the cards were read out to the child by the interviewercards were read out to the child by the interviewer

From this task, two scores were derived: From this task, two scores were derived: the total number of positive traits assigned to the target groupthe total number of positive traits assigned to the target group the total number of negative traits assigned to the target the total number of negative traits assigned to the target

groupgroup

The task was administered separately in relationship to the The task was administered separately in relationship to the child’s own ingroup(s) and in relationship to a number of child’s own ingroup(s) and in relationship to a number of specified outgroups administered in a random orderspecified outgroups administered in a random order

Example 1: The attribution of Example 1: The attribution of positivepositive traits to an traits to an ingroupingroup: : Northern Italian children’s attributions to Italian peopleNorthern Italian children’s attributions to Italian people

Significant differences: 6 vs. 9, 9 vs. 12Significant differences: 6 vs. 9, 9 vs. 12

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

6 years 9 years 12 years 15 years

Example 2: The attribution of Example 2: The attribution of positivepositive traits to an traits to an ingroupingroup: : Scottish children’s attributions to Scottish people Scottish children’s attributions to Scottish people

Significant differences: 6 vs. 9Significant differences: 6 vs. 9

0

1

2

3

4

5

6


Example 3: The attribution of Example 3: The attribution of positivepositive traits to an traits to an ingroupingroup: : Russian (Smolensk) children’s attributions to Russian peopleRussian (Smolensk) children’s attributions to Russian people


0

1

2

3

4

5

6


Example 4: The attribution of Example 4: The attribution of positivepositive traits to an traits to an ingroupingroup: : Ukrainian (ULS) children’s attributions to Ukrainian peopleUkrainian (ULS) children’s attributions to Ukrainian people

Significant differences: noneSignificant differences: none

0

1

2

3

4

5

6


Example 5: The attribution of Example 5: The attribution of negativenegative traits to an traits to an ingroupingroup: : Russian (Moscow) children’s attributions to Russian peopleRussian (Moscow) children’s attributions to Russian people


0

0.5

1

1.5

2


Example 6: The attribution of Example 6: The attribution of negativenegative traits to an traits to an ingroupingroup: : Scottish children’s attributions to Scottish peopleScottish children’s attributions to Scottish people


0

0.5

1

1.5

2


Example 7: The attribution of Example 7: The attribution of negativenegative traits to an traits to an ingroupingroup: : Basque children’s attributions to Basque peopleBasque children’s attributions to Basque people


0

0.5

1

1.5

2


Example 8: The attribution of Example 8: The attribution of positivepositive traits to an traits to an outgroupoutgroup: : Scottish children’s attributions to Italian peopleScottish children’s attributions to Italian people


0

1

2

3

4

5

6


Example 9: The attribution of Example 9: The attribution of positivepositive traits to an traits to an outgroupoutgroup: : Northern Italian children’s attributions to German peopleNorthern Italian children’s attributions to German people


0

1

2

3

4

5

6


Example 10: The attribution of Example 10: The attribution of positivepositive traits to an traits to an outgroupoutgroup: : Southern Spanish children’s attributions to British peopleSouthern Spanish children’s attributions to British people


0

1

2

3

4

5

6


Example 11: The attribution of Example 11: The attribution of positivepositive traits to an traits to an outgroupoutgroup: : Georgian (GLS) children’s attributions to Azeri peopleGeorgian (GLS) children’s attributions to Azeri people


0

1

2

3

4

5

6


Example 12: The attribution of Example 12: The attribution of negativenegative traits to traits to outgroupsoutgroups: : Russian (Moscow) children’s attributions to English peopleRussian (Moscow) children’s attributions to English people


0

0.5

1

1.5

2


Example 13: The attribution of Example 13: The attribution of negativenegative traits to traits to outgroupsoutgroups: : Georgian (RLS) children’s attributions to Russian peopleGeorgian (RLS) children’s attributions to Russian people


0

0.5

1

1.5

2


Example 14: The attribution of Example 14: The attribution of negativenegative traits to traits to outgroupsoutgroups: : Azeri (ALS) children’s attributions to German peopleAzeri (ALS) children’s attributions to German people


0

0.5

1

1.5

2


Example 15: The attribution of Example 15: The attribution of negativenegative traits to traits to outgroupsoutgroups: : Basque children’s attributions to French peopleBasque children’s attributions to French people


0

0.5

1

1.5

2


Conclusions from the trait attribution Conclusions from the trait attribution tasktask

There is no standard pattern in the development of There is no standard pattern in the development of children’s trait attributions to national ingroups and children’s trait attributions to national ingroups and outgroupsoutgroups

Instead, we found all of the following patterns in the Instead, we found all of the following patterns in the development of children’s attributions of positive and development of children’s attributions of positive and negative traits to national groups:negative traits to national groups: increases with ageincreases with age decreases with agedecreases with age U-shaped changes with ageU-shaped changes with age inverted U-shaped changes with ageinverted U-shaped changes with age no changes with ageno changes with age

The affect measureThe affect measure

This consisted of a pair of linked questions which assessed This consisted of a pair of linked questions which assessed how much the child liked or disliked people from their own how much the child liked or disliked people from their own ingroups and from the various outgroupsingroups and from the various outgroups

Scores ranged from 1 to 5 where:Scores ranged from 1 to 5 where: 1 = dislike a lot1 = dislike a lot 2 = dislike a little2 = dislike a little 3 = neutral3 = neutral 4 = like a little4 = like a little 5 = like a lot5 = like a lot

Example 16: Affect towards the Example 16: Affect towards the ingroupingroup: : North Italian children’s affect towards Italian peopleNorth Italian children’s affect towards Italian people


1

2

3

4

5


Example 17: Affect towards the Example 17: Affect towards the ingroupingroup: : English children’s affect towards British peopleEnglish children’s affect towards British people


1

2

3

4

5


Example 18: Affect towards the Example 18: Affect towards the ingroupingroup: : Ukrainian (ULS) children’s affect towards Ukrainian peopleUkrainian (ULS) children’s affect towards Ukrainian people


1

2

3

4

5


Example 19: Affect towards Example 19: Affect towards outgroupsoutgroups: : Central Italian children’s affect towards Spanish peopleCentral Italian children’s affect towards Spanish people


1

2

3

4

5


Example 20: Affect towards Example 20: Affect towards outgroupsoutgroups: : Georgian (RLS) children’s affect towards Russian peopleGeorgian (RLS) children’s affect towards Russian people


1

2

3

4

5


Example 21: Affect towards Example 21: Affect towards outgroupsoutgroups: : Ukrainian (ULS) children’s affect towards German peopleUkrainian (ULS) children’s affect towards German people

Significant differences: 6 vs. 9, 9 vs. 12, 12 vs. 15Significant differences: 6 vs. 9, 9 vs. 12, 12 vs. 15

1

2

3

4

5


Example 22: Affect towards Example 22: Affect towards outgroupsoutgroups: : Russian (Moscow) children’s affect towards American peopleRussian (Moscow) children’s affect towards American people


1

2

3

4

5


Example 23: Affect towards Example 23: Affect towards outgroupsoutgroups: : Northern Italian children’s affect towards Spanish peopleNorthern Italian children’s affect towards Spanish people


1

2

3

4

5


Conclusions from the affect taskConclusions from the affect task

There is no standard pattern in the development of There is no standard pattern in the development of children’s affect towards national ingroups and outgroupschildren’s affect towards national ingroups and outgroups

Instead, there are all of the following patterns in the Instead, there are all of the following patterns in the development of children’s affect towards national groups: development of children’s affect towards national groups: increases with ageincreases with age decreases with agedecreases with age U-shaped changes with ageU-shaped changes with age inverted U-shaped changes with ageinverted U-shaped changes with age no changes with ageno changes with age

Why so many different developmental Why so many different developmental patterns?patterns?

Could it be that the target groups were not sufficiently salient for Could it be that the target groups were not sufficiently salient for the children?the children? I would argue no, because they were chosen on the basis of pilot work I would argue no, because they were chosen on the basis of pilot work

which had shown that they were all salient groups for these childrenwhich had shown that they were all salient groups for these children

Could it be that the traits used in the trait attribution task were not Could it be that the traits used in the trait attribution task were not suitable for assessing children’s judgements of these national suitable for assessing children’s judgements of these national groups?groups? I would argue no, because they were chosen on the basis of pilot work I would argue no, because they were chosen on the basis of pilot work

which had shown that these were the appropriate traits for these which had shown that these were the appropriate traits for these childrenchildren

Could it be that the measures had poor psychometric properties?Could it be that the measures had poor psychometric properties? I would argue no for the trait attribution task because internal I would argue no for the trait attribution task because internal

reliabilities on the attribution task were reasonable: for most groups of reliabilities on the attribution task were reasonable: for most groups of children on most target groups, reliabilities were above 0.60, with children on most target groups, reliabilities were above 0.60, with many being above 0.70many being above 0.70

I would I would alsoalso say no to all of these questions because of the say no to all of these questions because of the outcomes of factor analysesoutcomes of factor analyses

Factor analysis of the trait attribution Factor analysis of the trait attribution datadata

We began by subtracting the total number of negative We began by subtracting the total number of negative traits which each child attributed to a particular target traits which each child attributed to a particular target group from the total number of positive traits which that group from the total number of positive traits which that child attributed to that group child attributed to that group

The resulting score is a measure of the child’s overall level The resulting score is a measure of the child’s overall level of positivity towards that particular groupof positivity towards that particular group

We then ran the factor analyses on these overall positivity We then ran the factor analyses on these overall positivity scoresscores

Example 24: Factor analysis of overall positivity scores: Example 24: Factor analysis of overall positivity scores: Central Italian children’s factor structureCentral Italian children’s factor structure

Straightforward ingroup-outgroup factor structureStraightforward ingroup-outgroup factor structure

Factor 1Factor 1 Factor 2Factor 2

British 0.78British 0.78

French 0.77French 0.77

Spanish 0.71Spanish 0.71

German 0.63German 0.63

Italian 0.97Italian 0.97

eigenvalueeigenvalue 2.102.10 1.051.05

% variance explained% variance explained 42.02%42.02% 20.98% 20.98%

Example 25: Factor analysis of overall positivity scores: Example 25: Factor analysis of overall positivity scores: Russian (Moscow) children’s factor structureRussian (Moscow) children’s factor structure

Straightforward ingroup-outgroup factor structure (common)Straightforward ingroup-outgroup factor structure (common)


Azeri 0.82Azeri 0.82

Georgian 0.81Georgian 0.81

Ukrainian 0.76Ukrainian 0.76


English 0.58English 0.58

American 0.57American 0.57

Russian 0.83Russian 0.83


% variance explained% variance explained 43.86%43.86% 15.71% 15.71%

Example 26: Factor analysis of overall positivity scores: Example 26: Factor analysis of overall positivity scores: English children’s factor structureEnglish children’s factor structure

Multiple ingroups-outgroups two-factor structureMultiple ingroups-outgroups two-factor structure






Scottish 0.52Scottish 0.52




% variance explained% variance explained 31.21% 31.21% 22.31% 22.31%

Example 27: Factor analysis of overall positivity scores: Example 27: Factor analysis of overall positivity scores: Ukrainian (ULS) children’s factor structureUkrainian (ULS) children’s factor structure

One-factor structure (comparatively rare)One-factor structure (comparatively rare)






Ukrainian 0.52Ukrainian 0.52



eigenvalueeigenvalue 2.592.59

% variance explained% variance explained 36.97% 36.97%

Example 28: Factor analysis of overall positivity scores: Example 28: Factor analysis of overall positivity scores: Catalan children’s factor structureCatalan children’s factor structure

Multiple ingroups-outgroups structure (same as English children)Multiple ingroups-outgroups structure (same as English children)







Catalan 0.78Catalan 0.78


% variance explained% variance explained 31.47% 31.47% 22.57% 22.57%

Example 29: Factor analysis of overall positivity scores: Example 29: Factor analysis of overall positivity scores: Basque children’s factor structureBasque children’s factor structure

Note difference from Catalan children’s factor structureNote difference from Catalan children’s factor structure







Basque 0.97Basque 0.97


% variance explained% variance explained 44.16% 44.16% 17.56%17.56%

Example 30: Factor analysis of overall positivity scores: Example 30: Factor analysis of overall positivity scores: Scottish children’s factor structureScottish children’s factor structure

Three-factor structureThree-factor structure

Factor 1Factor 1 Factor 2Factor 2 Factor 3Factor 3


Scottish 0.83Scottish 0.83French 0.88French 0.88





eigenvalueeigenvalue 1.661.66 1.641.64 1.341.34

% variance % variance explainedexplained

23.70% 23.70% 23.43% 23.43% 19.12% 19.12%

Example 31: Factor analysis of overall positivity scores: Example 31: Factor analysis of overall positivity scores: Georgian (GLS) children’s factor structureGeorgian (GLS) children’s factor structure

Different kind of three-factor structureDifferent kind of three-factor structure

Factor 1Factor 1 Factor 2Factor 2 Factor 3Factor 3






Ukrainian Ukrainian 0.500.50


eigenvalueeigenvalue 1.851.85 1.601.60 1.021.02

% variance % variance explainedexplained

26.36% 26.36% 22.90%22.90% 14.54%14.54%

Conclusions from the factor analyses of Conclusions from the factor analyses of the trait attribution datathe trait attribution data

All of the obtained factor structures are readily All of the obtained factor structures are readily interpretable, which gives confidence in the quality of the interpretable, which gives confidence in the quality of the trait attribution datatrait attribution data

However, any simple generalisation about the relationship However, any simple generalisation about the relationship which exists between ingroup and outgroup attitudes is not which exists between ingroup and outgroup attitudes is not viableviable

Instead, the relationship between ingroup and outgroup Instead, the relationship between ingroup and outgroup attitudes appears to vary depending on:attitudes appears to vary depending on: the particular country in which children live the particular country in which children live the specific situation within that country of the particular group the specific situation within that country of the particular group

of children involved (cf. Catalan vs. Basque children, English vs. of children involved (cf. Catalan vs. Basque children, English vs. Scottish children)Scottish children)

The specific factor structures which are found can usually be The specific factor structures which are found can usually be interpreted in terms of the prevailing pattern of intergroup interpreted in terms of the prevailing pattern of intergroup relationships within which the child’s own national and/or relationships within which the child’s own national and/or state groups are embedded state groups are embedded

Factor analysis of the affect dataFactor analysis of the affect data

We ran comparable factor analyses on the affect dataWe ran comparable factor analyses on the affect data

A similar variety of interpretable factor structures A similar variety of interpretable factor structures emergedemerged

Conclusion: There is substantial and pervasive variability in Conclusion: There is substantial and pervasive variability in the development of children’s attitudes to, and feelings the development of children’s attitudes to, and feelings about, national ingroups and outgroupsabout, national ingroups and outgroups

One of the tasks used to assess the strength of One of the tasks used to assess the strength of national identification: the relative importance tasknational identification: the relative importance task

The child was given a large set of cards containing the names of The child was given a large set of cards containing the names of possible age, gender, city, national, and supranational identities possible age, gender, city, national, and supranational identities

For example, in England, the children were given:For example, in England, the children were given:

6 years old6 years oldboyboy LondonerLondoner EnglishEnglish FrenchFrench

9 years old 9 years old girlgirl EuropeanEuropean ScottishScottish GermanGerman

12 years old12 years old BritishBritish SpanishSpanish

15 years old15 years old ItalianItalian

The child was asked: The child was asked: “Have a look at these cards. All of these “Have a look at these cards. All of these words can be used to describe people. Which ones do you think words can be used to describe people. Which ones do you think could be used to describe you? Which ones do you think you are? could be used to describe you? Which ones do you think you are? You can choose as many as you like.”You can choose as many as you like.”

The cards chosen by the child were then laid out on the tableThe cards chosen by the child were then laid out on the table

The child was asked: The child was asked: “If you had to choose just one of these cards “If you had to choose just one of these cards because it was the most important to you, which one would you because it was the most important to you, which one would you choose?”choose?”

The card which the child chose was then removed from the set, The card which the child chose was then removed from the set, and the question was repeatedand the question was repeated

This process continued until all the cards had been chosen by the This process continued until all the cards had been chosen by the child child

The order in which the cards were chosen by the child was used The order in which the cards were chosen by the child was used as a measure of how important each individual identity was to that as a measure of how important each individual identity was to that childchild

The findingsThe findings

At 6 years of age, in the first part of the task, the children did At 6 years of age, in the first part of the task, the children did usually select a correct national identity term in order to describe usually select a correct national identity term in order to describe themselvesthemselves

However, in the second part of the task, two different However, in the second part of the task, two different developmental patterns were founddevelopmental patterns were found

Pattern onePattern one

In the first pattern, the 6 year olds did not attribute very high In the first pattern, the 6 year olds did not attribute very high importance to their national identity importance to their national identity

Instead, these children attributed much higher importance to their Instead, these children attributed much higher importance to their age, to their gender, and to their city identitiesage, to their gender, and to their city identities

However, by 9 years of age, the importance attributed to the However, by 9 years of age, the importance attributed to the national identity by these groups of children had usually increased national identity by these groups of children had usually increased significantlysignificantly

The importance attributed to national identity then continued to The importance attributed to national identity then continued to remain high, or even increased still further, at 12 and 15 years of remain high, or even increased still further, at 12 and 15 years of ageage

Pattern twoPattern two

However, in some countries (e.g. Spain and Italy), a different However, in some countries (e.g. Spain and Italy), a different pattern occurredpattern occurred

In these countries, relatively high importance was attributed to In these countries, relatively high importance was attributed to national identity already at 6 years of agenational identity already at 6 years of age

Conclusion: There is cross-national variability in the importance which Conclusion: There is cross-national variability in the importance which is attributed to national identity by children is attributed to national identity by children

Example 32: Italian vs. Scottish childrenExample 32: Italian vs. Scottish children

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Italian children

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Variability within countriesVariability within countries

However, we found that there is not only variability in development However, we found that there is not only variability in development between different countries - there is also variability in development between different countries - there is also variability in development within individual countrieswithin individual countries

For example, we found differences in the development of children For example, we found differences in the development of children who were growing up in different places within the same countrywho were growing up in different places within the same country

In Russia, for example, children who were growing up in Moscow In Russia, for example, children who were growing up in Moscow attributed greater importance to their national identity than children attributed greater importance to their national identity than children who were growing up in Smolenskwho were growing up in Smolensk

We also found in the British project that, in England, children who We also found in the British project that, in England, children who were growing up in London attributed greater importance to their were growing up in London attributed greater importance to their national identity than children who were growing up outside Londonnational identity than children who were growing up outside London

Example 33: Russian children living in Example 33: Russian children living in Moscow vs. SmolenskMoscow vs. Smolensk

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MoscowSmolensk

Why are there higher levels of national Why are there higher levels of national identification in capital cities?identification in capital cities?

There are at least three possibilities:There are at least three possibilities:

Knowing that you live in the capital city of a country might enhance Knowing that you live in the capital city of a country might enhance your awareness of your own national identityyour awareness of your own national identity

Living in the capital city might mean that you have greater access to Living in the capital city might mean that you have greater access to the most important emblems of your own nation (e.g. the Kremlin, Red the most important emblems of your own nation (e.g. the Kremlin, Red Square, etc.), which then enhances your awareness of your own Square, etc.), which then enhances your awareness of your own national groupnational group

Living in the capital city might mean that you are more likely to Living in the capital city might mean that you are more likely to encounter tourists and people from other national groups in your encounter tourists and people from other national groups in your everyday environment, which enhances your awareness of your own everyday environment, which enhances your awareness of your own national identity national identity

Example 34: Exception to the general rule - ItalyExample 34: Exception to the general rule - Italy

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VicenzaRome

Why is Italy an exception?Why is Italy an exception?

There are at least three possibilities:There are at least three possibilities:

In Italy, national emblems are not concentrated in the capital city as In Italy, national emblems are not concentrated in the capital city as much as they are in other countries (e.g. Tower of Pisa, Rialto much as they are in other countries (e.g. Tower of Pisa, Rialto Bridge, etc.)Bridge, etc.)

Vicenza is located in Veneto, not far from Venice, and both Rome Vicenza is located in Veneto, not far from Venice, and both Rome and Venice attract over 12 million visitors per year and Venice attract over 12 million visitors per year

In Vicenza, the Lega Nord is a prominent political party, which might In Vicenza, the Lega Nord is a prominent political party, which might make everyday discourse about the nation more pervasive and make everyday discourse about the nation more pervasive and salient than it is in Romesalient than it is in Rome

Conclusion: There is variability in the importance which is attributed to Conclusion: There is variability in the importance which is attributed to national identity by children according to where they live within the national identity by children according to where they live within the nationnation

The situation within SpainThe situation within Spain

In Spain, we collected data from children living in three different In Spain, we collected data from children living in three different locations: Girona (Catalonia), San Sebastian (Basque Country) and locations: Girona (Catalonia), San Sebastian (Basque Country) and Malaga (Andalusia) Malaga (Andalusia)

We found a major difference in the children’s levels of identification We found a major difference in the children’s levels of identification with being Spanish in Andalusia vs. the other two locationswith being Spanish in Andalusia vs. the other two locations

The children’s levels of identification with being Spanish were very The children’s levels of identification with being Spanish were very much higher in Andalusia than they were in both Catalonia and the much higher in Andalusia than they were in both Catalonia and the Basque CountryBasque Country

Example 35: Spanish children’s levels of identification with Example 35: Spanish children’s levels of identification with being Spanishbeing Spanish

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AndalusiaBasque CountryCatalonia

Why should these differences arise?Why should these differences arise?

Because Spanishness is interpreted very differently in Andalusia vs. in Because Spanishness is interpreted very differently in Andalusia vs. in Catalonia and the Basque CountryCatalonia and the Basque Country

In Andalusia, Spanishness is interpreted by most adults as being both In Andalusia, Spanishness is interpreted by most adults as being both their national and their state identity, and they do not see any their national and their state identity, and they do not see any incompatibility between being Andalusian and being Spanishincompatibility between being Andalusian and being Spanish

However, in both Catalonia and the Basque Country, many adults However, in both Catalonia and the Basque Country, many adults view being Spanish as an imposed state/legal citizenship category, view being Spanish as an imposed state/legal citizenship category, not as their national identitynot as their national identity

Instead, many adults in Catalonia and the Basque Country construe Instead, many adults in Catalonia and the Basque Country construe their national identity as being Catalan or Basque, rather than as their national identity as being Catalan or Basque, rather than as being Spanishbeing Spanish

Catalan and Basque identity vs. Spanish identityCatalan and Basque identity vs. Spanish identity

These adults are very concerned to protect the distinctive linguistic These adults are very concerned to protect the distinctive linguistic and cultural heritage of their own region (Catalan or Basque) against and cultural heritage of their own region (Catalan or Basque) against the dominance of Spanish language and culturethe dominance of Spanish language and culture

Notice that the variability which occurs in children’s levels of Notice that the variability which occurs in children’s levels of identification with Spanishness mirrors that of many adults within their identification with Spanishness mirrors that of many adults within their local environmentslocal environments

Conclusion: There is variability in the importance which is attributed to Conclusion: There is variability in the importance which is attributed to the state identity by children according to how the state category is the state identity by children according to how the state category is interpreted by adults living within their local environmentsinterpreted by adults living within their local environments

Variability across different ethnic groups Variability across different ethnic groups within a countrywithin a country

In our studies, we have also found significant differences in levels of In our studies, we have also found significant differences in levels of national identification within countries according to children’s ethnicitynational identification within countries according to children’s ethnicity

For example, in the British study, we found that amongst teenagers For example, in the British study, we found that amongst teenagers living in London, ethnic majority teenagers and ethnic minority living in London, ethnic majority teenagers and ethnic minority teenagers exhibited different levels of identification with being British teenagers exhibited different levels of identification with being British

This difference was exhibited on four different identification measures This difference was exhibited on four different identification measures which we used in this studywhich we used in this study

All four of these measures were of Britishness rather than Englishness All four of these measures were of Britishness rather than Englishness (i.e., they involved the superordinate and supposedly inclusive (i.e., they involved the superordinate and supposedly inclusive category)category)

The four measuresThe four measures

Importance: Importance: “How important is it to you that you are British?”“How important is it to you that you are British?” very important, quite important, a little bit important, not at all very important, quite important, a little bit important, not at all

importantimportant

Degree of identification: Degree of identification: “Which one of these do you think best “Which one of these do you think best describes you?”describes you?” very British, quite British, a little bit British, not at all Britishvery British, quite British, a little bit British, not at all British

National pride National pride “How do you feel about being British?”“How do you feel about being British?” very happy, quite happy, neutral, quite sad, very sad very happy, quite happy, neutral, quite sad, very sad

Internalisation Internalisation “How would you feel if someone said something bad “How would you feel if someone said something bad about British people?”about British people?” very sad, quite sad, neutral, quite happy, very happyvery sad, quite sad, neutral, quite happy, very happy

Example 36: Levels of identification with being British Example 36: Levels of identification with being British amongst London teenagersamongst London teenagers

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import. degree pride internal.

White English

Black African

Indian

Pakistani

Why do these minority groups identify with Why do these minority groups identify with Britishness less than the majority group?Britishness less than the majority group?

One possible explanation is as follows:One possible explanation is as follows:

Hall (1999) and Parekh (2000) have both argued that the concept of Hall (1999) and Parekh (2000) have both argued that the concept of Britishness is embedded in a set of implicit beliefs and stories about Britishness is embedded in a set of implicit beliefs and stories about the imperial and colonial past of Great Britainthe imperial and colonial past of Great Britain

In these stories, English people are the major players, and ethnic In these stories, English people are the major players, and ethnic minority groups are relegated to a subordinate and minor role (along minority groups are relegated to a subordinate and minor role (along with Scottish, Welsh and Irish people)with Scottish, Welsh and Irish people)

Ethnic minority individuals may therefore find it harder to identify with Ethnic minority individuals may therefore find it harder to identify with the category of British because it relegates their own ethnic group to a the category of British because it relegates their own ethnic group to a subordinate and minor position in the story of what Britishness is all subordinate and minor position in the story of what Britishness is all about (as are Scottish, Welsh and Irish people)about (as are Scottish, Welsh and Irish people)

A second possible explanationA second possible explanation

The category of Britishness is defined, at least partially, in terms of race. The category of Britishness is defined, at least partially, in terms of race. In the words of Shah (2000):In the words of Shah (2000):

“ “The word The word ‘British’‘British’ – rather like – rather like ‘Chinese’‘Chinese’ – conjures up many images. – conjures up many images. And just as I would be unlikely to imagine a black or brown face when And just as I would be unlikely to imagine a black or brown face when thinking of the word thinking of the word ‘Chinese’‘Chinese’, so the images brought to mind with the , so the images brought to mind with the word word ‘British’‘British’ are more likely to be of an Anglican church rather than a are more likely to be of an Anglican church rather than a Sunni mosque, warm beer rather than a cold lassi, a white face rather Sunni mosque, warm beer rather than a cold lassi, a white face rather than a black or brown one.”than a black or brown one.”

In other words, people’s mental representations of Britishness possibly In other words, people’s mental representations of Britishness possibly contain a racial dimensioncontain a racial dimension

If this is the case, then it is not surprising that members of visible ethnic If this is the case, then it is not surprising that members of visible ethnic minority groups find it harder to identify as Britishminority groups find it harder to identify as British

Ethnic minority childrenEthnic minority children

This pattern of differences in levels of national identification between This pattern of differences in levels of national identification between ethnic minority and majority group children does not only occur in ethnic minority and majority group children does not only occur in BritainBritain

For example, in Georgia, we examined patterns of national For example, in Georgia, we examined patterns of national identification in ethnic minority Armenian childrenidentification in ethnic minority Armenian children

These Armenian children also showed very different patterns of These Armenian children also showed very different patterns of national identification compared with majority group Georgian national identification compared with majority group Georgian children who were attending the same schoolschildren who were attending the same schools

Conclusion: Patterns of national identification vary within countries Conclusion: Patterns of national identification vary within countries according to children’s ethnicityaccording to children’s ethnicity

Another aspect of variability: the use of Another aspect of variability: the use of language in the family homelanguage in the family home

Example: the case of the Basque CountryExample: the case of the Basque Country

In the Basque Country, many people speak two languages, In the Basque Country, many people speak two languages, Spanish and BasqueSpanish and Basque

In families with children, parents often make a conscious In families with children, parents often make a conscious decision when their first child is born whether to speak only decision when their first child is born whether to speak only Spanish in the home, only Basque in the home, or both Spanish in the home, only Basque in the home, or both languages in the homelanguages in the home

We found differences in children’s patterns of national We found differences in children’s patterns of national identification depending upon which languages were spoken in identification depending upon which languages were spoken in the family homethe family home

Example 37: Importance of being Spanish vs. Example 37: Importance of being Spanish vs. importance of being Basqueimportance of being Basque

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Importance of being Spanish

Importance of being Basque

Basque at homeBoth languages at homeSpanish at home

Another example: the case of CataloniaAnother example: the case of Catalonia

In Catalonia, many people also speak two languages, Spanish In Catalonia, many people also speak two languages, Spanish and Catalanand Catalan

So Catalan parents also have to make a similar decision about So Catalan parents also have to make a similar decision about whether to speak only Catalan, both Catalan and Spanish, or whether to speak only Catalan, both Catalan and Spanish, or only Spanish in the family homeonly Spanish in the family home

Once again, we found differences in children’s patterns of Once again, we found differences in children’s patterns of national identification depending upon which languages were national identification depending upon which languages were

spoken in the family homespoken in the family home

Example 38: Importance of being Spanish vs. Example 38: Importance of being Spanish vs. importance of being Catalanimportance of being Catalan

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Importance of being Spanish

Importance of being Catalan

Catalan at home

Both languages athome

Spanish at home

Why should these differences arise?Why should these differences arise?

Because, in the Basque Country and Catalonia, adults use language as Because, in the Basque Country and Catalonia, adults use language as an expression of their own national identityan expression of their own national identity

Adults who frequently use Basque or Catalan in their everyday Adults who frequently use Basque or Catalan in their everyday interactions have been found to have higher levels of identification with interactions have been found to have higher levels of identification with being Basque or Catalanbeing Basque or Catalan

Adults who frequently use Spanish in their everyday interactions have Adults who frequently use Spanish in their everyday interactions have been found to have higher levels of identification with being Spanish been found to have higher levels of identification with being Spanish

The use of language in the family home therefore reflects parents’ own The use of language in the family home therefore reflects parents’ own ideological and national orientationsideological and national orientations

Conclusion: Children’s patterns of national identification vary within Conclusion: Children’s patterns of national identification vary within countries according to the use of language within the family homecountries according to the use of language within the family home

A further aspect of variability: children’s A further aspect of variability: children’s language of schoolinglanguage of schooling

In Ukraine, Georgia and Azerbaijan, parents can choose to send their In Ukraine, Georgia and Azerbaijan, parents can choose to send their children either to schools which deliver all their teaching in the national children either to schools which deliver all their teaching in the national language (Ukrainian, Georgian or Azeri) or to schools which deliver language (Ukrainian, Georgian or Azeri) or to schools which deliver their teaching in Russiantheir teaching in Russian

In the NERID project, we assessed the national identifications of In the NERID project, we assessed the national identifications of children who attended national language schools and children who children who attended national language schools and children who attended Russian language schoolsattended Russian language schools

We found systematic differences in national identification according to We found systematic differences in national identification according to the children’s language of schoolingthe children’s language of schooling

Example 39: The importance of being Ukrainian Example 39: The importance of being Ukrainian in Ukrainian childrenin Ukrainian children

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Example 40: The importance of being GeorgianExample 40: The importance of being Georgianin Georgian childrenin Georgian children

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Why should these differences arise?Why should these differences arise? Because parents choose which school their children should attend Because parents choose which school their children should attend

based upon their own ideological and national orientationsbased upon their own ideological and national orientations

Parents who support the independence of their country from Russia and Parents who support the independence of their country from Russia and who value their own national language and culture send their children to who value their own national language and culture send their children to the national language schoolsthe national language schools

Other parents who instead support closer relations with Russia and who Other parents who instead support closer relations with Russia and who value Russian language and culture send their children to the Russian value Russian language and culture send their children to the Russian language schoolslanguage schools

The schools which children attend therefore reflect parents’ own The schools which children attend therefore reflect parents’ own ideological and national orientationsideological and national orientations

In addition, the schools themselves vary in their ethos and in the In addition, the schools themselves vary in their ethos and in the respect they accord to the local language and culturerespect they accord to the local language and culture

Conclusion: Children’s patterns of national identification vary within Conclusion: Children’s patterns of national identification vary within countries according to their language of schoolingcountries according to their language of schooling

Summary of the main findings on children’s Summary of the main findings on children’s national identificationsnational identifications

Children’s strength of national identification varies according to six Children’s strength of national identification varies according to six main factors:main factors:

the child’s nationthe child’s nation

the child’s geographical location within the nationthe child’s geographical location within the nation

the way in which the state category is interpreted within the the way in which the state category is interpreted within the child’s local environmentchild’s local environment

the child’s ethnicitythe child’s ethnicity

the use of language in the family homethe use of language in the family home

the child’s language of schoolingthe child’s language of schooling

The big theoretical questionThe big theoretical question

Is there a more comprehensive theoretical Is there a more comprehensive theoretical explanation which we can offer of why there is so explanation which we can offer of why there is so much variability in children’s development in this much variability in children’s development in this domain?domain?

Possible factors influencing children’s Possible factors influencing children’s development: a rapid review of the development: a rapid review of the

literatureliterature School curriculum School curriculum

e.g., Barrett & Short (1992), Byram et al. (1991), Wills (1994)e.g., Barrett & Short (1992), Byram et al. (1991), Wills (1994)

School textbooks School textbooks e.g., Lambert & Klineberg (1967), Maw (1991), Preiswerk & Perrot (1978), e.g., Lambert & Klineberg (1967), Maw (1991), Preiswerk & Perrot (1978),

Winter (1997)Winter (1997)

School practices School practices e.g., Baumann & Sunier (2004), Mannitz & Schiffauer (2004), Sunier e.g., Baumann & Sunier (2004), Mannitz & Schiffauer (2004), Sunier

(2004)(2004)

Media representations (television, movies, comics, books, posters, Media representations (television, movies, comics, books, posters, etc.) etc.) e.g., Byram et al. (1991), Himmelweit et al. (1957), Johnson (1966), e.g., Byram et al. (1991), Himmelweit et al. (1957), Johnson (1966),

Lambert & Klineberg (1967), Roberts et al. (1974), Stillwell & Spencer Lambert & Klineberg (1967), Roberts et al. (1974), Stillwell & Spencer (1973)(1973)

Travel to other countries Travel to other countries e.g., Barrett & Short (1992), Bourchier et al. (2002), Wiegand (1991a, e.g., Barrett & Short (1992), Bourchier et al. (2002), Wiegand (1991a,

1991b)1991b)

Family discourse and practices in relationship to nationsFamily discourse and practices in relationship to nations e.g., Tulviste & Wertsch (1994), Valencia et al. (2003), Vila (1996)e.g., Tulviste & Wertsch (1994), Valencia et al. (2003), Vila (1996)

The role of cognitive and motivational The role of cognitive and motivational factorsfactors

Children’s representations of national groups must also be Children’s representations of national groups must also be driven, at least in part, by their cognitive and motivational driven, at least in part, by their cognitive and motivational processes:processes:

Firstly, children’s uptake of information from all Firstly, children’s uptake of information from all environmental sources is necessarily affected by their environmental sources is necessarily affected by their perceptual, attentional, retentional and cognitive-perceptual, attentional, retentional and cognitive-representational processesrepresentational processes

Secondly, children’s uptake of information is also Secondly, children’s uptake of information is also influenced by the affective valence and salience of the influenced by the affective valence and salience of the available information for the individual child, and by the available information for the individual child, and by the child’s own motivational state and affective preferenceschild’s own motivational state and affective preferences

It is precisely because children’s uptake of information It is precisely because children’s uptake of information from the environment is driven by their own cognitive and from the environment is driven by their own cognitive and motivational processes that children are active social motivational processes that children are active social agents in their own national enculturationagents in their own national enculturation

Geographical, historical, economic and political circumstances of the child’s own state and nation, including the situation of that state and nation in relationship to other states and nations

Beliefs, attitudes, values and practices of individual members of the child’s own state and nation (including those of parents, teachers and the producers of school curricula, textbooks, media texts, internet texts and other literacy and visual resources)

Parental discourse and practices

Parental choice of school

Parental choice of place of abode, family holidays, kinship relations

Parental control of access to the mass media and the internet, and

purchase of home literacy and visual

resources

Putting all this together means that we need a model of Putting all this together means that we need a model of children’s national enculturation along the following lineschildren’s national enculturation along the following lines

Direct personal contact with foreigners and foreign places

School curriculum and school textbooks to which the child is exposed

Teacher discourse and practices to which the child is exposed

Peer group discourse and practices to which the child is exposed

Representations of states and nations in the mass media, the internet and other literacy and visual resources to which the child is exposed

The child’s perceptual

and attentional processes

The child’s retentional and representational

processes

The child’s affective and motivational processes, including levels of

national and state

identification

ReferenceReference

Further information about the research which has Further information about the research which has been discussed in this paper can be obtained been discussed in this paper can be obtained from:from:

Barrett, M. (2007). Children’s Knowledge, Beliefs Barrett, M. (2007). Children’s Knowledge, Beliefs and Feelings about Nations and National Groups. and Feelings about Nations and National Groups. Hove, UK: Psychology Press. Hove, UK: Psychology Press.

the development of children’s national identifications and attitudes martyn barrett

Documents

national stereotypes

national ingroups

national outgroups

ingroupbut national

buildings national ceremonials

national grouplevels

childrens feelings

previous studiesmost