THE DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSFORkIATlONAL LEADERSHIP AMONGST THE lBAN COMMIJNITY LEADERS IN THE THREE AREAS IN KANOWTT DISTRICT, SARAWAK.

BY

Warren Aris / Aris Ak. Alap

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillinei~t of the requirements for. the degree of Master of Science

Faculty of Cognitive Science and Human Development UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SARAWAK

Jun 1998

Unit Kemasukan Siswazah Universiti Mataysia Sarawak

kdalah disahkan bahawa kami telah membaca tesis ini yang bertajuk "The Development Of Transformational Leadership Amongst The Iban Community Leaders In Three Resettlement Areas In Kanowit District, Sibu Sarawak" oleh Aris ak. Alap, dan berpendapat bahawa tesis ini adalah memuaskan dari segi skop, kualiti dan persembahan sebagai syarat keperluan ijazah Sarjana Sains (Pembangunan Sumber Manusia).

C+ - \J if-\\\ Dr Spencer Empading \ (Penyelia)

, y*TF,fz [dJ&&v5< Prof ladya Dr Jayum Jawan (kem'eriksa Luar)

Prof Madya Dr Dimbdb Ngidang (Perneriksa DaIam),

ABSTRACT

The primary purpose of this study was to explore the emergence of Transformational

Leadership amongst the Iban con~munity leaders in the tllrec. Resettlement Areas in

Kanowit District. The respondents were comprised of 5'7 Community Leaders from

the study areas. The demographic characteristics chosen for tlie purpose of this study

were: gender, age, number of years attended school, level of education, income,

position, experience as leaders, previous leadership position, how they become

leaders, institutionalised visit, official visit, and number of family members working

as government servants as independent variables. In addition, their expected and

actual roles were also taken into account as independent variable. The four

characteristics of Transformational Leadership: lnclividualised Consideration,

Inspiration Motivation, Intellectual Stimulation and Idealised Influenced were chosen

as dependent variables. The data was statistically analysed using SPSS version 6.01.

The findings of this study indicate that there were low to moderate levels

Transformational Leadership Characteristics amongst the community leaders in the

three resettlement areas. Pearson's Correlation Coefficient 'r ' revealed that there was

no significant correlation between all the independent variables and the dependent

variables, except for the level of education and Intellectual Stimulation.

Tujuan utama kajian ini ialah zcntuk melihat sanza nd(l ciri-ciri Kepimpinan

Tranformasi terdupat atuu tiduk di kulang~rn pemimpin kaum Iban di tiga buah

Kawasan Penempatan Semula di dalam Duerah Karzo~~i~. Kajiun ini tertumpu kepuda

57 orang ketua rnasyarukat di kawusan berkenuan. Ciri-ciri demograji yang dipilih

untuk tzljuan kajian ini ialah: jantina, umtir, bilan,yan tahun bersekolah, tahap

pendidikan, pendapatan, kedudukan, perzgelurnan si.bl/,qcri pemimpin, kedudukan

sebagai pemimpin masa lampau, caru bagairnunu merzjiidj penzinzpin, penjelajahan,

lawatun rasrni and bilangan ahli keluarw yung bekerj1.l dengan agency kerrgaan

adulah diamhilkiru sebagai angkuuhuh tak ber.sandar. T~m~blihan pula, peranan and

.fungsi ketua musyarakat digunakan sehagai angkauhah tuk bersandur. Empat ciri-ciri

Pemimpin Transformasi: Bertimbungrasa terhadap individu, Merangsung Inspirasi,

Stimulasi Intelektual, dun Pengaruh Peribadi dipilih sebrpr ungkaubah bersandar.

Data yang telah dikumpul dianali.sa secara statistik ckengmr rnenggunakan perisian

SPSS versi 6.01.

Dupntun kajian ini menunjukkan bahawa ter~lupcxl irrhup ciri-ciri kepimpinan

trun~formsi yung rendah ke sederhana di kalangan kt'tu~i musyarakat kaum Iban di

tigu buah kawasan penemputan semula. Korelasi Pearson 'r ' menunjukkan bahawa

tidak adu kaitun yang ,signzj?kan di antara semua angkaz~brrlz tak ber.sandar dengan

angkaubah bersandur kecuali bagi tahap pendidikan dun Stimulasi Intelektual.

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

Warren Aris 1 Aris Ak. Alap was born on 23rd November, 1953 in Kanowit, Sarawak.

He started his early education at Ng. Dap Primary School, Kanowit (1961 - 1966). He

continued his studies at Kapit Government Secondary School in 1967 - 1969 and then

at Kanowit Government Secondary School in 1970 - 1971. He obtained his B. Ed. in

1987, from Agricultural University of Malaysia. He is very active in social activities.

DECLARATION

No portion of the work referred to in this thesis has been submitted in support of an

application for another degree of qualification of this or 'my other university or

institution of higher learning.

DEDICATION

Especially for my beloved wife, Christina Chandu Seribu ; my sons Lislie Aris, Keegan Aris, Michael Aris and Irwin Aris; and my daughter Hilda Aris for their endless moral support rendered to me during the course of my study.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

In the completion of this theses, I received constant help and guidance from various individuals and Institutions to whom I would like to express my sincere thanks. Most significant of them all is the benefit of guidance of my esteemed supervisor Dr. Spencer Empading Sanggin, Faculty of Social Science. University of Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS), despite his heavy pre-occupations, provided my guidance whenever I approached him for the same and thus made this study possible to see the light of the day for which I am highly indebted to him.

I would like to express my sincere appreciation to all the lecturers involved in the IAB-UNIMAS Twinning Program for their guidance and support during the course of my study. My special gratitude to Dr. Ibrahim Ahrnad Bajunid, Professor Dr. Razali Arof, Dr. Abang Ahrnad Ridzuan , Dr. Maheswary and Tuim Haji Noor Bakar for their continuous advice and encouragement.

I put on record the assistance, affection and permission I have received from The State Secretary Sarawak, The Director of State Planning Unit, Sarawak and The Director of Sarawak Meseum to allow me to conduct researclr in the identified areas, and not forgetting those individuals especially District Officer Kanowit, Mr. Michael Dawi , Sarawak Administrative Officer, Mr. Katis , all my research assistants: Mr. Morris Abin, Mr. Henry and Mr. Kana, and all the respondents who have given me their support, assistance and information which made this project possible.

A special thanks to the members of Cohort 2 IAB/UNIMAS 1997 for their cooperation, assistance, guidance, support and understanding which made this theses possible.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page

Abstract

Biographical Sketch

Declaration

Dedication

Acknowledgements

Table of Contents

List of Tables

List of Abbreviations Used

Appendices

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.0 Introduction

1.1 Background of The Three Resettlement Areas

1.2 Statement of Problem

1.3 Purpose of Study

1.4 Objectives of The Study

1.5 Significance of The Study

1.6 Limitations of The Study

1.7 Definition of Terms

. .

11

. . .

111

iv

v

vi

xi . . .

Xl l l

xiv

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction

1.8 Conceptual Perspectives Of Leadership

2.1 .1 Leadership

2.1.1.1 The Transactional Leader

2.1.1.2 The Transformational Leader

2.1.1.2.1 Characteristics Of Tra~lsformational Leadership

2.1.1.2.1.1 Creativity

2.1.1.2.1.2 Interaction

2.1.1.2.1.3 Vision

2.1.1.2.1.4 Empowerment

2.1.1.2.1.5 Passion

2.1.1.2.1.6 Ethic

2.2 Brief Historical Background of Iban Leadership

2.3 Studies Related To Leaders Roles And Functions

2.4 Related Studies

2.5 Conceptual Framework Of The Study

2.6 Research Hypotheses

2.7 Summary

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOL,O

4.1.1.8 Ever been a leader before 54

4.1.1.9 Process of Becoming A Leader 54

4.1.1.10 lllstitutionalized Visits 54

4.1.1.1 1 Official Visits 0rg:inised By Government

Agencies 55

4.1.1.12 Family Members Working As Government

Servants 55

4.1.2 Behavioural Characteristics Of Transformational

Leadership 56

4.1.2.1 Individualised Considera tion 5 7

4.1.2.2 Intellectual Stimulation 53

4.1.2.3 Inspiration Motivation 60

4.1.2.4 Idealised Influenced 62

4.2 Expected And Actual Roles Of Commu~lity Leaders 64

4.3 Courses And Training 66

4.4 Relationship Between Demographic Ck~aracteristics,

Expected And Actual Roles Played By Leaders, And Courses

And Training Frequency Attended By Leaders With

Characteristics Of Transfoimational Leadership 67

4.5 Discussion 74

4.5.1 Emergence of transformational leadership. 74

4.5.2 Relationships Between Denlographic Characteristics

And Characteristics of Transfolmational Leadership 79

4.5.3 Relationship Between Courses/Tr;rining and

Characteristics of Transformational Leadership 8 2

4.5.4 Relationship Between Demographic Characteristics and

Expected and Actual Roles Played by Leaders. 82

4.6 Summary 83

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATlONS

5.0 Overview

5.1 Summary of The Major Findings

5.2 Conclusion

5.3 Recommendations

5.3.1 Suggestion for Future Research

5.3.2 Suggestion for Policy Maker

References

Appendices

LIST OF TABLES

Demographic Matrix 5 0

Indices on Behavioural characteristics of Transformational

Leadership 56

Mean Score For Behavioural Characteristics of Transformational

Leadership (Individualised Consideration ) 57

Total Maximum Score On Individualised Consideration 58

Mean Score For Behavioural Characteristics of

Transformational Leadership (Intellectual Stimulation) 59

Total Maximum Score On Intellectual Stimulation 59

Mean Score For Behavioural Characteristics of Transformational

Leadership (Inspiration Motivation) 6 1

Total Maximum Score On Inspiration Motivation 6 1

Mean Score For Behavioural Characteristics of Transformational

Leadership (Idealised Influenced) 62

Total Maximum Score On Idealised Influenced 63

Overall Total Maximum Score For Behavioural Characteristics of

Transformational Leadership 64

4.2a Mean Score of Expected And Actual Roles of Community Leaders 65

4.2b Total Maximum Score Of Expected rind Actual Roles of

Community Leaders 65

4.3a Mean Score On Courses And Training Attended By community

Leaders 66

4.3b Total Maximum Score On Course Amnd Tl,aining Attended By 67

Leaders

4.4 Davis Index (1 97 1) 67

4.4.1 Inter-correlation Index 6 8

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS USED

IC

IS

IM

I1

MLQ OCB

Std. Dev.

F

YSC

EDN

INC

WKF

OFVT

ER

CT

- Individualised Consideration

- Intellectual Stimulation

- Inspiration Motivation

Idealised Influenced

- Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire

- Organisation Citizenship Behabiour

- Standard Deviation

- Frequency

- Years of schooling

- Education

- Income

- Family members working as government servants

- Official visits

- Expected and actual roles

- Courses and Training

APPENDICES

Application to conduct research in Sarawak.

Interview schedule

xiv

HNTRODUCTI[ON

CHAPTER 1

Introduction

This is a research study on the development of the transformational leadership

amongst the Iban community leaders in three identified resettlement areas in the

Kanowit District ,Sibu Division, Sarawak. The primary purpose of the study was to

explore the emergence of transformational leadership characteristics amongst the Iban

community leaders in three resettlement areas in Kanowit District, Sibu, Sarawak.

The three resettlement areas are : Operation Bebatak Nanga Operation Tada, Bebatak

Nanga Ngungun and Operation Bebatak Nanga Jagau.

1.1 Background of the three Resettlement Areas

In 1972, the communist terrorist threat in Sarawak was a grave concern. The

communist terrorists carried out their subversive activities rampantly along the Rejang

basin , particularly in the then Third Division of Sarawak. ?'he militant Communist

Terrorists committed acts of atrocities and intimidation on innocent civilians

suspected of working for security forces. The worsening security situation compelled

the Government to declare the then Third Division a "Special Security Area". This led

to the formation of Rajang Area Security Command (RASCOM) on March 26, 1972.'

I Souvenir Magazine RASCOM, 1980.

This was to ensure that the Government machinery was fully geared and mobilised

towards the objective of maintaining public security and safety. As a result of the

wanton murder of the late Penghulu Imban of Rh. Balang, Ulu Oya, on 26.1.71 by the

communist terrorist, more and more people of the longhouses in the area felt

~nsecure .~ Similar fears were experienced by the people of Sg. Kabah and people of

Sg. Ngemah. After many meeting the then community leaders of Sg. Kabah and Sg.

Ngemah jointly requested for protection from the government. In late 1972,

RASCOM initiated Resettlement Exercises in three areas at Ng. Tada, Ng. Ngungun

and Ng. Jagau. The Resettlement process was called "Operation Bebatak": The code-

name "Bebatak" in Iban literally means "to pull togather". This regrouping was done

on a voluntary basis and came into being following the threat and intimidation by

communist terrorists. The people in Sg. Kabah abandoned their longhouses to seek

refuge near the Area Security Unit post at Ng. 'Tada. Similarly, the people in Sg.

Ngemah flocked to Ng. Ngungun and Ng. Jagau. The govel-nment had to come to

their immediate aid in the provision of materials for teinporary longhouses and

welfare assistance.

A long term plan for the resettlement of people in these three areas was finalised and

approved. In each of the three locations a Civic Action Group or CAG Team was set

up comprising of the following staff and under the direct charge of a Co-ordinator:-

1. CAG Leader (Civic Action Group Leader)

2. Agricultural Assistant

3. Junior Agricultural Assistant

Souvenir Magazine RASCOM Ke-8, 1980.

4. Co-operative Assistant

5. Medical AuxiBlary

6. Visiting Health Personnel

7. Home Demonstrator

8. Extension Assistant

The roles of the Civic Action Group Team (CAG Team ) are as follows:

Renting land for settlers to farm.

Supplying settlers with fertilisers and combating any outbreak of diseases in their

padi farms.

Supervising and advising settlers in the re-cultivation and planting of pepper and

vegetables.

Maintaining fishponds.

Maintaining the general sanitation and health.

Providing medical attention.

Keeping settlers informed of the policy, development and working of the

Government machinery.

Distributing welfare relief assistance to supplement the need of the settlers.

Assisting settlers in the management of the Co-operative Society.

Regrouping and resettlement involved the physical transplantation of the rural

population from scattered areas onto a large community thus necessitating the

provision of infrastructures, amenities and facilities apart from the rnain issue of

security. As the general security situation improved greater efforts were devoted to

helping the settlers in the Schemes to be economically viable.

It is at this point, that the settlers in these three Resettlement Areas shouPd have

undergone process of change In their lifestyles witln the provision of modern

amenities and facilities alike. As they had emerged into the circle of a modern society,

again a new pattern of leadership style should have emerged too amongst the Iban

Community Leaders in these three resettlement areas. Thus the focus of this study was

to find out whether there is evolutionary or revolutionary change in leadership style in

these areas - a change from traditional leadership style to trarlsformational leadership

style.

1.2 Statement Of Problem

The current transition in the life of the community became the take-off ground for this '

study. In a progressive organisation or social institution, effective leadership is a vital

determinant of success. The rural community dwellers need to have leaders who can

effectively transform the community style aligned wirh social changes. There is no

denying the fact that effective leadership in the Iban community is of paramount

importance in the present social fabric of lban community currently undergoing

transformation, particularly in these three resettlement areas. But to the knowledge of

the researcher, the Ibans in these areas have no regularly constituted leadership above

the level of the longhouse community. Thus the Iban conlmunity leaders have very

limited power and authority. Most of the Iban community leaders were conservative

in thoughts and confined to their traditional methods of looking after the welfare of

their subordinates pertaining to the comnlunity nornns, belief and values. With the

passage of time, things gradually changed.

This study is important as far as human resource development is concerned. The rapid

growth of socio-economic forces has initiated a large scale of development in the

country have changed the social structure and begin to alter thc old values and attitude

as well. The explosion of information and technology derr~ands certain degree of

attention and awareness. And as we are entering the era of the 21'' century, each and

everyone of us will face multiple challenges. With the introduction of modern

development projects, land-reforms and together with the explosion of information

and technology, traditional leaders are near to dysfunction. At this juncture, under the present circumstances, community leaders need to have a paradigm shift - Paradigm

shift of leadership styles from traditional leadersflip style to %lSt century

transformational leadership style. Leadership styles should be changing - and new

patterns of leadership should emerge, particularly alnongst the Iban community in the

three resettlement areas . In another words, Iban cominunity leaders need to be

transformed into visionary leaders and be able to adapt to progressive changes.

Have leaders in the three resettlement areas changed their leadership styles ? Are

there any influential factors in the emergence of trar~sformarional leadership among

the community leaders in the three resettlement areas '1 These are some of the

questions which this present study hope to address.

1.3 Purpose Of Study

The primary purpose of this study was to find out the emergence of Transformational

Leadership characteristics amongst the Iban community leadess of the 3 Resettlement

areas, namely Operation Bebatak Ng. Tada. Operation Hehatak Ng. Ngungun and

Operation Bebatak Ng Sagau.

1.4 Objectives Of The Study

The specific objectives of this study were as follows: 1. To explore the emergence of transformational leadership amongst the Iban

community leaders in the three Resettlement Areas;

2. To identify the expected and actual roles of the Iban community leaders in the

three Resettlement Areas in bringing out social changes, and

3. To determine the personal and socio-economic characteristics of the Iban

community leaders in the Resettlement Areas.

1.5 Significance Of The Study

This study is important today because the social changes in the Iban community have

signalled the Ibans to transform and adapt to modern ways of life. In order for the

Iban community to transform and adapt to new lifestyle, they need new pattern of

leaderships which can break their cultural bondage without any fear and suspicion.

Thus, this study in the light of hope may help the Iban community leaders to

transform to the new dimensions of leadership styles wliich suit the current social

changes. In today's ever changing process of socialisation, the leaders of the 2lSt

century should be able to suit themselves to modernisatiori and at the same time they

should be in the capacity to bring about social changes to their community at large

The findings of this study hopefully may able be to inspire the authority concerned:

1. To plan or draw out special and specific curriculum dn training programme

needed to induce development of transformational leadership amongst the Iban

community leaders in order to cope up with moderr1 d,:velopment, such as in

educational field, particularly with the emergence o f thc information technology;

2. To make policy pertaining to recruitment of future Iban community leaders, and

3. To generate new knowledge (theoretical contribution) in transforming the Iban

community leaders.

1.6 Limitations Of The Study

As most of the respondents were illiterate, thus, considesabXe amount of problems were

encountered in getting the accurate responses from thl:m. 'Thus, the study's finding

were limited to the accuracy of the responses made by the respondents to the interview

schedule questions.

Due to the financial and time constraint, it was profoundly difficult to collect data

from the respondents. These three resettlement areas are located in the interior parts of

Kanowit District. The only means of transportation to these areas is by rivers. Then, the

accessibility of these areas is very much depending on the weather as a prevailing

factor. Apart from that, respondents were not always at ho~ne because they stayed out

at their farm house or they went somewhere else to do laborlous work.

The cost of achieving a proper number and mixture of people can be enormous. Due to

the financial and time constraint, the population of this study was only confined to

those identified areas. Because surveys deal with large nun~ber of people, they have

limitations other than just high costs. With so many people to deal with, time is

valuable if survey intends to study each and everyone of them thoroughly (Backstrom

& Hursh-Cesar, 198 1).

The study was restricted to the community leaders in the three resettlement areas

namely, Operation Bebatak Ng. Tada, Operation Bebatak Ng. Ngungun and Operation

Bebatak Ng. Jagau, Kanowit; therefore, generalisations to the same group of leaders in

other parts of the country are not advisable.

1.7 Definition Of Terms

For the purpose of clarification, the terms used in this sludy are defined as follows:

a) Community leaders : confine to leaders ( Tuai Rumah, E'enghulu, Pemanca and

Temenggong) in these three resettlement areas only.

b) "Tuai" : Iban word literally means headman or leader.

c) Tuai Rumah - headman of the longhouse.

d) Young leaders - those ages between 30 - 50 years.

e) Old leaders - those ages above 5 1 years

f) Transformational leaders - leaders who have the knowledge to bring changes and

able to transform community lifestyle in accordance with modernisation.

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction

This chapter presents on the conceptual and theoretical pe~spectives of leadership

roles and functions. It will highlight the characteristics 01' tmnsformational leadership

pertaining to this study . The chapter will also discuss on the studies related to

leaders' roles and functions. In addition , it represenrs a review of related studies,

specifically studies on transformational leadership and studies on Iban leadership. A

conceptual framework is presented in the later part of the chapter.

2.1 Conceptual Perspectives Of Leadership

Leadership is deemed important in an organisation towards achieving the common

goal and to materialise concerted effort rendered by everyone within the organisation.

One cannot deny the fact that the effectiveness of the leadership styles play a vital

role as a determinant of success of the organisation. "The importance of leadership in

the conduct of human affairs, has been recognised since the beginning of recorded

history," (Locke, 1991:l). " Leadership is an eternal and universal phenomenon.

Being a socio-psychological process it is present to some degree wherever human

beings gather together, be it the primitive fanlily of cave dwellers or the approaching

twenty first century national community" (Franklyn, 1557 as qouted by Singh,

1991:l).

According to Sanderson and Palson (1 939 as qouted by Singh, 199 1 :2):

If the community is to be able to act as a unit, it must have leadership which is recognised and has community confidence. Community leaders are necessary to make decisions, to direct cornrnunity activities, and to speak for the community both in relation to its internal organisation and its outside relationship. If there is no leader, no one can effectively speak for the community and the effective community action is aborted .

2.1.1 Leadership

Bennet (1994) defined leadership as the ability to influence the thoughts and

behaviour of others. But according to Murray (1996). leadership often refers to the

act of influencing the task related activities of people towards the attainment of

organisational goals. Three early approaches included trait (personal characteristics ),

behaviour ( what leaders do ), and contingency ( leaders vary their style to suit

various situations). Mondy & Premeaux (1993) stated that "influencing others to do

what leader wants them to do is leadership, or leading." Locke (1991) defined

leadership as the process of inducing others to take action toward a common

goalHollander (1978 ) likewise, defined leadership as a process of influencing

between a leader and those who are followers, while the leader may have power,

influencing depends more on persuasion than on coercion. Siniilarly, Cane (1996: 153)

exerted that,

Leadership is the art of being consciously responsive to the requirements of the task, the team arid the indi\,iduals within the team. In that tasks change and the needs of people at work change too, the different skills of leadership must be practised flcxibly with due regards to operational and human demands .

Research made over the last twenty years clearly shows that leadership is the prime

key to effective organisation reform ( Silins, 1992; Leithwood,l992 ). The kind of

leader and leadership needed to bring change to the organisation is called

transformational leader or transformational leadership.

According to Tremble (1996) a recent paradigm, developed by Bernard M. Bass and

his associates, identifies a leadership approach likely to develop the needed levels of

skill and will. This paradigm tries to differentiate between transactional and

transformational leadership. In order to have a better understanding of a

transformational leader as compared to the transactional leader, an attempt is made to

differentiate and compare the two concepts.

2.1.1.1 The Transactional Leader

A transactional leader is very much a manager, and may not be considered a true

leader by some researchers and educators ( Bennis, 1984; Covey, 1989). Covey

(1989:lOl) uses the words of Warren Bennis and Peter Drucker to explain why that

difference of opinion exists: "Management is doing things right, Leadership is doing

the right thing" .

The relationship between the employee and a transactional leader is based on mutual

system of reinforcement. A transactional leader get something he wants, and his

followers get something they want. The transactional leader recognises the basic

needs of the followers, those on the lower level of Maslow's hierarchy, for example,

money for housing, food and clothing. For that purpose he arranges relationship so

that the satisfaction of these needs is contingent on the fact that employees must

satisfactorily meet the transactional 1eader.s expectation for work (Hoover, 1991;

Leithwood, 1992). This is the time-honoured " carrot and the stick" approach to the

employer/employee relationships. It is assumed by the transactional leader that

individuals will naturally avoid work whenever and however they can; the leader must

coerce, direct and threaten in order to force the individuals to be productive. Further,

the transactional leader believes that people prefer to be directed, rather than take

responsibility for their own actions and decisions ( Silins, 1993; Tichy & Devanna,

1986; Sagor, 1991 ; Hoover, 1991). In its simplest sense, transactional leadership is

leadership by contingent reinforcemeilt. Followers are motivated by the leaders'

promises, rewards and / or threats of disciplinary actions or punishment.

Another characteristic of the transactional leader is that helshe cannot sublimate

hisher own needs to those of the organisation (Kuhnert, 1994; Hoover,l991). Take,

as a common example of this, a transactional school administrator. Hislher need is to

direct and control the people working under himker. As a result helshe refuses to

share knowledge, because knowledge is indeed power for him to control and

influence people. People can be controlled by knowledge.

2.1.1.2 The Transformational Leader

Although there are variations in definitions, one constant throughout all definitions is

that the transformational leader is, above all, an agent of cllange (Leithwood & Jantzi,

1990; Bosler & Bauman, 1992; Leithwood, 1993; Fisher, 1994; Hoover, 1991;

Konnert & Augenstein, 1990; Leithwood & Steinbach. 1993; Tichy, & Devanna,

1986; Holland, 1989; Leithwood, 1994: Kubnert, 1994, Wissler & Ortiz, 1988; Staw,

1986; Bradley, 1993; Bennis, 1984; Sergiovanni, 1984: Mruvey, et al., 1992). Hisher

main function is to serve as a catalyst of change, but never as a controller of change

(Avolio, 1994).

A transformational leader has a compelling vision, a holistic picture (Tichy &

Devanna, 1986), of how the organisation should look in the hture, when it is meeting

all of it's stated goals (Beimis, 1984; Sergiovanni, 1984. 1989, 1990; Tichy &

Devanna, 1986; Yarnmario, 1994; Covey, 1989; Peters, 1992; Leithwood, 1993;

Bosler & Bauman, 1992). That vision guides the leader's behaviour(s) and decisions,

and serves as a reference point for all activities within the organisation. All processes

and actions are judged in the light of whether or not they aid the organisation in achieving its vision; all efforts are viewed through the needs of people (Harvey, et al.,

1992). They further stressed that vision speaks to the highest purposes of the

organisation and serves to give meaning to the job done by every member (Tichy & Devanna, 1986) of the organisation by creating shared goals to work toward. It also

engenders optimism for the future of the organisation. By keeping that vision and

those shared goals always at the forefront of the organisation, the transformational

leader can align the organisation to it's future needs (Tichy & Devanna, 1986) rather

than to the past or to the present. ( Often in a transactional organisation, the phrase

"it's always been done that way" indicates orientation to the past). A very important

corollary characteristic is that the leader must be able to comn~unicate that vision both

internal and external constituencies. No matter how worthy a vision is, if it does not

get communicated to those who need to know, it is useless. " Without vision, there is

no revitalisation" (Tichy & Devanna, 1986: 146).

The transformational leader is able to inspire the members of the organisation to

aspire to, and to achieve, more that they thought was possit)le (Konnert & Augenstein,

1990; Sagor, 199 1 ; Bennis, 1986; Hoover, 199 1 ; Bosler & Bailman, 1992; Leihtwood

& Jantzi, 1991 ; Kuhnert, 1994; Yarnrnario, 1994; Avolio, 1994). The strength and

compelling nature of the vision empowers the organisation's members to excel. The

transformational leader raises the organisation's level of consciousness (Hoover,

199 1) about the purpose of the organisation, as leadership (Sergiovanni, 1989).

Sergiovanni further contends that the symbolic meaning of the leader's actions are

even more important than the actual actions themselves: "What a leader stands for is

more important than what he/she does" (Sergiovanni, 1984: 106). The values held by

the leader are of the utmost importance. He/she must serve as a model of those values,

transforming the values of the organisation, if necessary, in order to help bring about

the realisation of the vision (Sergiovanni & Carver, 1980). Modelling is but one

example of symbolic action; he/she should use symbolic action extensively. The

leader must be adept at using symbols (Avolio, 1994; Leitli~ood & Jantzi, 1990): to

motivate, to inspire, to give value to intentions and actions (Banis, 1984), to indicate

priorities, and to show strong advocacy (Harvey, et nl., 1992). A synlbol by itself is

meaningless. It is the background, the believes, the actions, and the understandings

that surround the symbol that give it meaning. The transformational leader is present

at important occasions ( graduations, awards, etc.), and is seen often and informally in

the workplace (Fisher, 1994; Cuban, 1976; Dunnerstick, 1992). The same action can

mean two different things to two different people. It is the task. of the transformational

leader to imbue symbols with the meanings useliul for facilitating organisational

change. This type of symbolic action is characteristic of transformational power.

The most surprising element in a listing of the characteristics of a transformational

leader, is that helshe must have passion (Covey, 1989; Peters, 1992): a passion to

achieve goals and vision of the organisation and a passion for improvement.

There are some interesting dichotomies in a listing of characteristics of

transformational leaders. The transformational leader is a holistic leader, more

concern with people than with processes. I-Ie/she has a very basic commitment to the

ethic of client service (Leithwood & Jantzi, 19909) that focus the organisation on

relationships. Yet, while helshe is a "people person", helshe maintains a social

distance (Fisher, 1994): open, but still remote from the rest of the organisation's

membership. The transformational leader is a politician, but mustn't appear to be

political (Merrow, et al., 1974): meaning that helshe can never show evidence

partisanship or partiality. Indeed. helshe must use thc political system to exert

influence on others to develop action on behalf of the organisation's goals

(Sergiovanni & Carver, 1980). He/ she must be able to commit to a plan, but not to

any preconceived solutions (Leithwood, 1992). The leader is expected to engage in a

cycle of continuous improvement where everything is constantly being evaluated for

its relevance to the vision (Bennis, 1984; Yarnrnario, 1994). The leader's behaviour

must always be consistent in nature, but not consistent as to preclude trying new ways

or experimenting with processes (Staw, 1984).

The transformational leader is a diagnostician (Schon. 1986). Nelshe takes the time

and the effort to diagnose a problem from all aspects before looking for solutions.

Helshe diagnoses the needs of the people who are served by the organisation and the

community members just all be considered. Any new plai~. product, or process is based on the leader's knowledge of those needs, along with its relevance to the vision.

There are differences between transformational and transactional leadership. For Bass

and Avolio (1993), transformational leadership contains the interrelated components

of charisma or idealised influence (attributed or behavioural), inspirational

motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualised consideration. Other theorists

working in the same genre of the "new leadership" such as House and Shamir (1993)

and Conger and Kanungo (1988) conceived that the same components fall under the

fabric of charismatic leadership.

When leadership is charismatic, followers identify with the leaders aspirations and

want to emulate the leaders. If leadership is truly transformational, its charisma or

idealised influence is characterised by high moral and ethical standards. Its

inspirational motivation provides followers with challenges and meaning for engaging

in shared goals and undertakings. Its intellectual stimulation helps followers to

question assumptions and to generate more creative sol~~tions to problems. Its

individual consideration treats each follower as an individual and provides coaching,

mentoring and growth opportunities (Bass, 1985).

Burns (1978) contrasts the transforming leader with power wielder (transactional

leader) suggesting that the transformational leader has interest in the personal

development of the follower. He states that, "Leaders can also shape and alter and

elevate the motives and values and goals of followers. .."@.425). Thus, transactional

leadership is immature in nature because it is based on the needs of the leader rather

than the follower, but transformational leadership always motivate followers to act in

the interest of the organisation rather than to maximise self-interest.

According to (Mondy, & Premeaux, 1993:337) "a person who has the ability to lead

an organisation through major strategic change is a transfurmational leader. They further stress that, such a leader can modify the mission, structure, and human

resource management and continue to guide the organisation toward its objectives. Likewise, Bass (1986) argued that transformational leaders inspire, energise, and

intellectually stimulate their employees (Sims, et a1.,199:2). l'ransformational leaders

may be charismatic to their followers and thus inspire them ; they may meet the

emotional needs of the employees and they intellectually stimlllate them.

Sims, et al. (1 992:2 1 0) further characterised transformational leadership as Charisma: provide vision and sense of mission, instils pride, gains respect and trust; Inspiration: communicates high expectations, uses symbols to focus efforts, express important purposes in simple ways; Intellectual stimulation: promotes intelligence, rationally, and careful solving problem; and lndividualised consideration: gives person attention, treats each employee individually, coache~ and advises.. . . Transformational leadership can instil confidence among the followers in the organisation and may bring harmony within the organisation which may create conducive workplace for everyone. Attaining charisma in the eyes of one's employee is central to succeeding as a transformational leader. Charismatic leaders have great power and influence. Employees want to identify with them, and they have a high degree of trust and confidence in them .

They also found that employees not only do better job when they believe their supervisors are transformational leaders, but they also are much more satisfied with

the organisation performance appraisal system. Thus, transformational leadership

should be encouraged, for the success of the organisation, because it can make a big

difference in the firm's performance at all levels.

According to Crawford (1995) there are six characteristics of transformational

leadership: creative, interactive, visionary, empowering, passionate and ethical. As

leader in the organisation a leader holds responsible for bringing changes, success and

the smooth running of the organisation. Therefore, a true leader should be creative,

interactive, visionary, empowering, passionate and ethical. These characteristics are

further discussed below.

2.1.1.2.1 Characteristics Of Transformational Leadership.

2.1.1.2.1.1 Creativity

Creativity is a key element of the transforming leader. Hackman and Johnson (1991)

pose that creativity is "changing the status quo by seeking out new ideas.. ."(p. 64).

Managers typically concern themselves with status quo m3intenance, but leaders

move beyond that status quo to face and deal with the future (Hackman & Johnson,

1991). Transformation requires innovation and fresh perspectives to enduring

questions.

2.1.1.2.1.2 Interaction

Hackman and Johnson (1991) also suggest that an interactive leader provides better

direction than a non-interactive leader. In order to meet the needs of the follower, the

leader must take a posture of open participation with follower. Hackman and Johnson

(1991) contend that interaction is central to putting leadership into motion .Other

theories of leadership emphasise communication in order to attain success. Bennis and

Nanus (1985) confirm this notion when they discuss the importance of open

communication. Much empirical support has also been given to the need for open

honest interaction between organisational members (Goldhaber, 1990). Zorn (1 99 1)

also supports the position saying effective transactional and transformational leaders

must have effective communication skills. Effective leaders must use communication

as the tool to create understanding between different levels of the social organisation.

2.1.1.2.1.3 Vision

Vision is also an important component of the effective leader, perhaps the most

elemental characteristic of the transformational leader " more than anything else,

transformational leaders communicate a vision to their followers" (Hackman &

Johnson, 1991:65). Bennis and Nanus (1985) contend that the transfornlational leader

must create a shared vision with the follower; they must become the social architect

for follower performance. Tichy and Devanna (1 986: 122) indicate the importance of

vision suggesting "the challenge for transformational leaders is to.. .find and create a

vision of an organisation that is in some way better than the old one and to encourage

others to share that dream" . Zorn (1991) notes that vision helps to rally action

toward achievement of the goal. Leaders must not only speak the vision, they must

also enact the vision for individuals and the organisation (Bemzis & Nanus, 1985).

2.1.1.2.1.4 Empowerment

Empowerment is the fourth aspect that Hackman and Johnson (1991) suggest as

important for the leader. Empowerment is the ability to "tninslate intention into reality

and sustain [for the followers]" (Bennis & Nanus, 1985:SO). Bennis & Nanus (1985)

further explain that empowerment is the reciprocal of power and that empowerment

puts duality into motion. In other words, power translates into empowerment and

empowerment, in turn, creates more power. Empowerment is a necessity for the

modem organisation Without leaders promoting responsibility and displacing power

followers cannot hlly achieve their potential.

2.1.1.2.1.5 Passion

Transformational leaders are passionate in their commitment to task and people alike

(Hackman & Johnson, (1991). Bennis & Nanus (1985:76) elaborate, "like explorer,

and artists, [leaders] seem to focus their attention on a limited field - their task - to

forget personal problems, to loose their sense of time, to feel competent and in

control. To transform leaders must have a strong commitment to their vision. Passion

is essential for this strong commitment; without passion dlere is no direction and

vision is short lived.

2.1.1..2.1.6 Ethic

One final notable characteristic is that of high ethical standards. This one facet is

perhaps as important as any other. Any discussion of transformational leadership must

include some mention of ethics. Burns (1978:455) comments about the importance of

ethics, "Leaders must effectively 'connect with' followers fiom a level of morality

only one stage higher than that of the followers, but moral leaders who act at much

higher levels relate to followers at all levels.. .". Blanchard and Peale (1988) suggest

that a manager with strong ethical standards is armed with the ability to do the right

thing all of the time. They further conclude that ethics must not only be the result, but

ethics must be involved in the process of decision making. An effective leader must

be committed to ethical responses to any situation. Kouzes and Posner (1993) noted

that the credibility of leadership depended on its moral purpose, trust, and the hopes it

engendered. Leaders are seen as obligated and responsible for the moral environment

of their group, organisation or society (Greenleaf, 19'77). A rnajor task for leaders is bringing together their followers around common values (Fairholm, 1991). The

leaders themselves, often are seen as the embodiment of such values (McCollough,

1991). And just as when leaders are more competent, those they lead are more effective, so when leaders are more morally mature, those they lead display higher

moral reasoning (Dukerich, et al, 1990).

Apart fiom those characteristics, a leader should posses the ability to make decision

any time under any circumstances. "A leader's actions u e the pivotal link between

personal beliefs and organisational aims" (Badaracco, & Ellsworth, 1989: 107). The

transformational leader should be able to handle and solve the conflicts in the

organisation, otherwise may result in the declination of the organisation's

performance. In his award-winning book Leadership, James MacGregor Burns, as

quoted by Badaracco and Ellsworth (1 989: 17 I), has observed that the willingness to

confront conflict characterises leaders. He writes, "Leaders, whatever their

professions of harmony, do not shun conflict; they confront it, exploit it, ultimately

embody it". They view conflict not only as a means to better, more thoughtful

decisions, but as a stimulus to change and a constant challenge to the inertial forces

within organisations that spawn bureaucracy and reinforce the status quo, A true

leader should take conflict as an opportunity to change for the betterment of the

organisation and not as treat to the organisation. He should have the credibility to

solve and overcome the problems posed by conflict within the organisation at the

right time and with the right approach skills viable to the situittion. Thus, the viability

of a leader's interpersonal skills are very much required. "In totality, the emphasis

will be on organisational integration, reaching the point where everything - plant,

performance systems, values, competencies, management, training, culture, corporate

goals - is aligned. And the factor that will hold all this together is leadership" (Barnes,

19955).

Barnes (1995) believes leadership is about visioning, that is seeing beyond the next

horizon and the next and the one after that, but always keeping sights fixed firmly on

the here and now and the immediate future. The 21" century leadership should be

futuristic in nature and be able to map out the future of the organisation. " We do face

an uncertain and unsettling future, but not one without vision. Vision is the

commodity of leaders, and power is their currency" (Bennis & Nanus, 1986:18).

Therefore, a leader is the one who determines the vision and mission of the

organisation as a whole.

A leader should has a clear vision which is easier understood by his followers.

"Vision animates, inspirits, transforms purpose into action" ( Bennis & Nanus,

1986:30).. Apart from a clear vision he should have the power to execute his action.

At this point, it doesn't matter whether a leader is s transactional leader or a

transformational leader, "what matters is whether the leader leads in the right

direction or misleads" (Drucker, 1989: 108

Many organisations have been transformed or are being transformed - re-engineered,

downsized or consolidated in accordance with the demands of the changing

environment. " More important, successful organisational change depend on

transformational leadership" ( Yeoh, 1993:87). It is, therefbre, the job of leaders in the next century to be the agent of change and to create the ri,;ht environment for the

members in the organisation to expand, because orga~~issltionu may change according

to their vision and values.

Taking an optimistic view of the future, we may be witnessing revolutionary change

in the structure of the society, community and organisation. As the structure of the

organisation change, leadership style should change.

Singh (1991 ) pointed out that the new socio-economic force!; generated by the large

scale development plans have shaken up the social structure and are beginning to alter

the old values and attitudes as well. Thus, traditional leadership should undergo a

change-and new pattern of leadership should emerge on the scene in order to cope up

with the surge of new development trend. In an attempt to achieve objectives towards the year 2020, leaders need to be transformed and developed.

In brief, leaders play a vital role to manage the organisation. He holds the

responsibility towards making the organisation an adorable institution. Therefore,

traditional leadership should be transformed into transformational leadership. The

transformational leader is able to visualise the future and diagnose problems from all

aspects before looking for solutions. A leader should have clear vision and missior),. In

an organisation vision and mission (action plan) are important elements of a

successful organisation. Thus, a transformational leader carries a heavy responsibility

to lead, and is totally focused on the mission of the organisation and its attendant

improvement of the entire organisation.

2.2 Brief historical background of Iban Leadership

The restless warlike Iban had been described as classless 'vld egalitarian, arid known

as swidden agriculturalists of Borneo; steady expansion is the hallmark of their

history (Brown,1979). They migrated from Kalimantan to Sarawak, led by their own

chiefs and leaders to attack their enemies in order to take away their land (Sandin,

1970).

The Iban had no proper style of leadership but they had their own institution of war

leadership. Brown (1979) stressed that, although Iban leadership institutions were

elementary, Iban war parties were surprisingly large.

As Pringle (1970:35) rightly stresses, among the Ibail there was no regularly

constituted leadership above the level of the longhouse community. Moreover, the

longhouse community leaders ( tuai rurnah, perhaps also lzrui burong: bird auger) had

very limited power and authority. In broadly cross-cultural terms, the !ban are

classified as a "stateless society"(Murdock 1967; Tuden and IvIarshall 1972).

To the Iban community, leadership means "tuai" which carries a wide connotation.

Thus, Iban community has no groper leadership styles. 111 the Iban community,

leaders are always being associated with elderly persons as their headmen. Headmen

traditional leaders, whose tasks are to safeguard the community welfare and uphold

the norms, values, tradition, morale, customs and belief of the community. They

command respect from others, and become the decision makers pertaining to

community life.

According to Sather (1989) the Iban society never wanted for effective leaders, and

those who excelled were honoured, as, for example in ritual and oral tradition, still a

leader had always to sustain his following by his personal actions.

Iban ancient leaders were chosen among those who .,veri: just in his dealings,

adventurous in actions and were knowledgeable of the [ban customary law and

history. Under the Iban own rule, there were different types of leaders existed such as

Tuai serang (war leader), Tuai kayau (leading warrior), Mcrnolc sabong (warrior), Tuai

menou (chiefmen) and Tuai Rumah (headmen) (Sandin,l970).

But when Iban were one time under the Brunei governnlent, their leaders were

bestowed with titles such as Orang Kaya, Orang Kqyn Pemancha, Orang Kaya

Panglima and Orang Kaya Temenggong, in recognition of their merits and bravery

Sandin, 1970).

During the reign of colonial rule Sir James Brooke did not confer the title Orang Kaya

to the Iban chiefs, not until Sir Charles Brooke became the Rajah of Sarawak he accepted the Brunei customs and then conferred these titles to the Iban chiefs. The

title Penghulu Dalam was conferred in 1990 upon Penghulu Munan and Tuai Rumah

Ujang (Sandin,1970).

In modern Sarawak, the title Temenggong was first conferred by the third Rajah Sir Vyner Brooke upon Penghulu Koh of Balleh in 1924. Penghulu Ringkai was the first

appointed Pengarah (literally Director) for the whole thexi Second Division in 1886.

From then onwards Pengarah has always been appointed by the Resident, and must

have previously been a Penghulu. He has judicial functions who assists the District Officer in Court hearings. The first Penghulu was appointed in the late 1870's in

Saribas. Formerly the Iban chiefs are known as Tuai. The Penghulu functions were

the same as the functions of the Iban chiefs (Sandin,l970). He administered and kept

order of the customary laws.

Likewise, the Tuai Rumah (longhouse headmen) performed a number of important

functions. Under the Brooke rule, and to this day, he was the custodian of the

customary law (adat), an arbitrator in land disputes and was recognised for his

knowledge of genealogies, and is looked upon as intermediary between his longhouse

and the government (Pringle, 1967).

2.3 Studies Related To Leaders Roles And Functions

Several researchers who had done studies related to leadership and leadership

functions had defined leadership variably. However, in general, the researcher feels

that leadership is a process which involves both a leader and a follower and the

effectiveness of a leadership is very much influenced by the leadership style a leader

executes in a specific situation in which the leader fi~~lctions, with the skills he

possesses.

Lewis (1954) analyses the nature and functions of "factions" in Jat dominated village

near Delhi. He has shown how patterns of influence 'and comnlunication within

extended family groups reach out to several villages. Jat factions, as described by him,

are based on kinship. The picture elsewhere in the country is different. Factions are

found often to cross ties of kinship and caste.

Dube (1955) does not deal with leadership directly, but he has made some interesting

observations on authority structure, status and decision making. Instances of actual

decision making cited by him are suggestive and revealing.

Gupta (1984) in his study found that the functioning of local bodies and local

leadership have increased political consciousness. political participation, political

involvement and sense of civic duty, which together have contributed a great deal to

political development of the village communities and lead to strengthening of the

support structures of the ruling party in villages. Young Political leadership is slowly

gaining ground both in urban and rural areas, both in nat.iona1 or state level politics

and in village politics.

A leader's interpersonal skills are vitally important in the process of inspiring others

toward implementing the vision. Insensitivity to others has been found to be a primary

reason that formerly successful executives become derailed according to a study

conducted by the Center for Creative Leadership (McCall and Lombardo, 1983).

The classic Michigan studies (sumrnarised in Yukl. 1989) examined the role of

effective and ineffective leaders in attaining group productivity. Effective leaders

were found to concentrate on task-oriented behaviours, such as planning and

scheduling work, co-ordinating subordinates activilies, and providing technical

assistance and resources. They also tended to guide subordinates in setting high but

realistic performance goals. Administrative ability (based on in-basket measures of

organising, planning, and decision-making) was found by Howvard and Bray (1 988) to

be predictive of managerial success. and Cox and Cooper (1988) report that

successful managing directors in the United Kingdom consistently exhibits skills in

problem-solving and decision-making.

In a research on leadership, Kouzes and Posner (1987) distinguished between leaders

and managers, whom they see as playing different roles. The former are associated

with change and innovation; the latter with stability and control. Each is associated

with different times: managers with period of constancy; leaders with periods of

turbulence. Both are needed, but leaders seem to merit spccisl attention because they

take us in new directions which are required by the newer circumstances of upheaval

and change that confront the modern business organisation..

2.4 Related Studies

Dhillon (1 955: 1 15) finds out " the leader is the influential person of the village who is

respected, followed and obeyed by villagers due to the wealth, family, caste or other

reasons". Barnabas (1958:388) in his article based on field study in U.P. village,

recognises " caste leaders, faction leaders, formal leaders and informal leaders. Caste

and length of residence in the village are two important determinants of leadership".

Srinivas (1959) regards the concept of "dominant caste" crucial for the understanding

of power relations in rural social life in most parts of the country. For understanding

village, it is essential to study the locally dominant caste and the kind of dominance it

enjoys. He has recognised four important elements of dominance: (a) Numerical strength; (b) Economic and Political Power; (c) Ritual status; and (d) Western

Education and Occupations. These elements are usually distributed among the

different castes in a village and that only the caste enjoying all or most of them can have the decisive dominance. Srinivas provides empirical data in support of his

concept from his own field work in a Mysore village.

Metha (1 972: 14 1) in his study found out that,

the leadership tends to be of an emerging pattern. Many new forces have set in the village social life. The increasing contact with the development blocks and the satellite industrialised towns will usher in the village social life the new social, economic and political goals. Over a period of time, it is expected that because of the increasing modernisation of these villages, the social structure of the village will

change considerably and the leadership pattern, to a 1-arge extent will be of modern order.

Sachchidananda and La1 (1973) in their study concluded that the power of a

leader over his followers is the function of the leader's resources and

dependencies of followers upon him and alternative open to them. The greater

the resources of the leader the wider the dependencies of his followers, who

have no alternative other than him, the more powerful he will be. Education is

an important asset for a leader whose sphere of influel~ce has crossed the

boundaries of the village. Unlike in the past, advanced age is not an essential

pre-requisite for leadership in present day rural India. The leadership role of a

person possessing many power resources are accepted by people having high

dependencies and on alternative.

Singh ( 1991 ) in his study concluded that gerontocratic leadership is being replaced

by youth leadership. According to his study, sex, education, wealth, age, and family

typology are highly significant variables in rural leadership.

Oscar Lewis (1 954:45-46), writes in his study of the village life in northern India,

we see that in the traditional pattern of leadership the older men were both the ceremonial and Panchayat leaders. With the coming of education and outside employment. however, middle aged educated people are being given opportunities by the older people to represent them in official panchayats, school committees, and deputations outside the village. Moreover, particularly the educated unemployed is developing and representing a threat to the traditional values in the villages .

An influential review by Stogdill (1948) of trait research cast doubt on the evidence.

His was not the only assessment that had sounded a negative note, but it was the most

influential. Stogdill failed to find consistent evidence to suggest that personal factors

played a part in who became a leader. At best, he was able to conclude that the

personal factors associated with leadership are substantially effected by the

requirements of the situation from which the leader emerges. This suggests that the

personal factors associated with leadership are situation specific.

Initial investigations of leadership considered leaders as individuals endowed with

certain personality traits which constituted their abilities to lead. The studies

investigated individual traits such as intelligence, birth order.. socio-economic status,

and child rearing practices (Stogdill, 1948, 1974). Stogdill (1 974) identified six

categories of personal factors associated with leadership: capacity, achievement,

responsibility, participation, status, and situation but concluded that such a narrow

characterisation of leadership traits was insufficient: "A person does not become a

leader by virtue of the possession of some combination of traits" (p.64). The attempts

to isolate specific individual traits led to the conclusion that no single characteristic

can distinguish leaders from non-leaders.

The Ohio State researcliers (Halpin, 1957; Elalpin and Winer, 1957; Fleishman, et al.,

1955) initially suggested that considerate leaders proLide a pleasant work

environment for their subordinates, but are regarded as less effective. Leaders who

emphasise structuring work activities often reduce the levels of job satisfaction

experienced by the work group, but regarded as more effective by their superiors.

Although the research on transformational leadership is relatively new, there is some

empirical support for validity of Bass and Avolio's transformational leadership

construct. Using the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire, Bass, Avolio and their

associates (e.g. Bass, 1985; Hater & Bass, 1988) have found significant relationships

between subordinate ratings of leader effectiveness and sdisfaction with their leader

and transformational leadership across a number of settings. Transformational

leadership is significantly related to other relevant otltcome variables, such as

follower perceptions of role clarity, mission clarity, and openness of communication.

Podsakoff, et al., (1 990) have also adopted a quantitative approach to transformational

and transactional leadership. Drawing on a number of New Leadership approaches

they conceptualised transformational leadership as comprising, six dimensions each of

which was measured by a multiple-item scale: identifying a id articulating a vision;

providing an appropriate model; fostering the acceptance of group goals; high

performance expectations; providing individualised support, and intellectual

stimulation. The first three were found to be highly interrelated in their research and

were collectively dubbed a "core" dimension of transformational leadership.

Transactional leadership was measured by one scale alone-contingent reward

behaviour. The researchers were concerned with the impact of the two forms of

leadership on organisation citizenship behaviour (OCB), which refers to behaviour

that goes beyond the requirements of a formal role and that also contributes to

organisational effectiveness. Data were collected frcrrn employees and their

supervisors in a US petrochemical company. The six types of leader behaviour (as a

group) had an effect on OCB, but the effect was indirect, that is, it was mediated by

trust and satisfaction (the former to a far greater degree than the latter). Trust was

found to be positively by 'core' transformational leadership and individualised

support, negatively by high performance expectations and ix~tellectual stimulation, but

not at all by contingent reward behaviour. This research suggests that the extent to

which leaders are able to create trust in themselves through transformational

leadership plays an important part in the preparedness of their subordinates to put

more into their work than is strictly required by their formal role obligations. The

research also implies that there would be some virtue in examining the extent to

which the effects of the forms of leader behaviour measured by the Multifactor

Leadership Questionnaire on such outcomes as extra effort and effectiveness are

mediated by potential intervening variables like trust.

In their study Kouzes and Posner (1987) distinguished between leaders and managers,

whom they see as playing different roles. The former are associated with change and

innovation; the latter with stability and control. In this study, they developed two

research instruments for investigating leadership. 'The Personal Best Questionnaire

asks leaders to describe their 'personal best leadership experience'. They are then

asked a number of open-ended questions about this experience. In-depth interviews

have also been carried out with forty-two managers. From this questionnaire the

Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI) was derived to tap subordinates' ratings of the

extent to which their superiors exhibit the five leadership practices (challenge the

process, inspire a shared vision, enable others to act, models the way and encourage

the hearts of organisational members to persist with the vision). There are thirty items

(six per leadership practice) which are statelnents about leader behaviour, and

respondents have to answer how far the item applies to their superior.

In their study, Yammarino & Bass (1990) had conceptually clarified transformational

leadership by focusing on leader-follower interactions in tenns of multiple levels of

analysis: individuals, dyads within groups, and groups. The focal leaders were 186

United States Navy Officers who were graduates of the United States Naval Academy

and on active duty assigned to the surface warfare fleet. Data about the officers were

collected from 793 senior subordinates of the officers via a mail survey. The

leadership and outcome data were collected using the Multifactor Officer

Questionnaire ( MLQ-Forms 11R and 1 1s). Nine leadership scales were used in this

study: Charisma, Individualised Consideration, Intellectual Stimulation, Inspirational

Leadership, Contingent Promises, Contingent Rewards, Active Management-by-

Exception, and Laissez-Faire. Results from within and between analysis (WABA)

suggest that the network of relationships was based primarily on individual

differences in subordinates' perceptions of leadership and outcomes.

Transformational leadership as compared to transactional or laissez-faire leadership

was related more strongly to subordinates' extra effort and satisfaction with the focal

officers and the officers' effectiveness.

Howell, & Bass (1993) in their study, used measures of leadership, locus control, and

support for innovation to predict the consolidated-unit performance of 78 managers.

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship of transactional and

transformational leadership to unit performance. In addition, they examined the

degree to which leader locus of control predicts transformatioilal leadership behaviour

as well as the moderating effect of support for innovation on the relationship between

transformational leadership behaviours and performance. Leadership behaviour was

measured with Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ)- Form 10. The three

scales used to measure transformational leadership were: charisma, intellectual

stimulation and individualised consideration. Locus of corltrol was measured with 13

items from Rotter's scale. Support for innovation was measured with two scales from

Siege1 and Kaemmere's measure of support for innovation in organisations and the

risk-taking scale from Litwin and Stringer's survey of orgmisationall climate. The

measure of consolidated-unit performance represented Ihe degree to which a manager

achieved targeted goals for the year, calculated in terms of the percentage of goals

met. Results revealed that three transformational leadership measures were associated

with a higher internal locus of control and significantly and positively predicted

business-unit performance over a 1-year interval. Transactional measures of

leadership, including contingent reward and management by exception (active and

passive), were negatively related to business-unit pe~formance. Causal relationships

between the transformational leadership behaviours and unit performance were

moderated by the level of support for innovation in the business unit.

Campbell, et al., (1973 ) in their research examined the effects of four factors on the

perceived appropriateness of a displayed leadership style in two dimensions. The

study employed a case description to nlanipulate leader style (participative or

consultative), leader gender (male or female), organisdtional setting (civilian or

military) and eventual task outcome (successfi~l, unsuccessful or no information); and

then had 264 Singaporean business students (age between 20 and 24 years) and 223

American business students (age between 19 and 41 years) judge the appropriateness of the style used. During a regularly scheduled class meeting, individuals were

requested to read a short but detailed case situation. and then to respond to set of

questionnaire items on a five-point Likert-type scale. The independent variables are:

Leadership Style Manipulation, Gender Manipulation, Organisational Setting

Manipulation, Task Outcome Manipulation, and Perceptions of Appropriateness

Leadership Style. The dependent variables are: Perceived Appropriateness,

Leadership Ability, and Willingness to Work for the Manager. Factorial ANOVA

analyses revealed that the style itself and eventual task outcome had strong effects on

perceptions of appropriateness. Further, perceptions of leadership appropriateness

influenced judgements of leadership ability and one's willi.rlgness to work for the described leader. Gender and setting had no substantive impact. Identical results were

obtained in both the Singaporean and American samples. Implications of the results,

and their limitations, are considered from both a theoretical and a practical

perspective.

A local study was carried out by Syed Husin Ali (1977) on leadership in Malaysian

village. Apart fkom gathering other information on i-ural community dwellers, he tried

to recognise the types of leadership existing in tke different communities, their roles

and the position of leadership in social context, economy and politic. He further

evaluated the effectiveness of leadership style to the rural conlrnunity dwellers. From

the observation he concludes that there are two types of leadership. The two types of

leader are traditional leaders and new leaders. The traditional leaders are chosen from

elderly persons who have a very strong influence on people. They are known as Ketua

Kampung and PenghzJu. The new leaders includes, party leaders and government

officers. The village party leaders come from diversified background such ex-

government officers, teachers, farmers and labourers.

Sandin (1966) stated that the Iban of Borneo is an animist, believing in the existence

of an Almighty God and a multitude of spirits. He ft~rther stressed that, it was because

of such belief leaders in the past centuries concentrated in dreams. Children in the

past were advised by their parents to behave well during their sleeping hours for the

respect of those seeking dreams. It was believed that before Iban young men became

leaders they must have had dreams which thus caused thein to become successful and

effective leaders.

According Jensen (1974) ,to the Iban, the thni rumah's traditional roles is to maintain

the correct relations among longhouse members and between these and the spirit

world: to ensure that the longhouse community does not become angat, literally 'hot',

implying an unexpiated offence against the spirits.

Sandin (1970) in his study of Iban leaders, used the term "hereditary" in his

description of Iban leadership. He gave the phrase "hereditary chiefs" to describe the

status of individuals who had been appointed to office for the first time as leaders. It

was in the past that Tuai Rumah power was generated down to his siblings upon his

retirement or death. Morgan in her paper asserted that " in the long-settled

Saribas.. .it was taken for granted that the position of chief' and warleader should pass

from father to son" (1 968: 146).

The power of the Iban leaders had been underestimated by outside observers. Part of

the reason has almost certainly to do with the fact that Iban leaders do not fit well

with Western concepts of political authority (Wagner, 1972 as cited by Sandin, 1994).

Sandin (1 994:9) further exerted that:

Thus, power in Iban society is exercised informally by self-made men of action and proven ability who lead their followers primarily by consensus and personal example. Formal stratification is absent, positions of power are non-hereditary, and regional leadership was historical linked to migration and to the exercise of authority over recognised territorial domains created in the process of pioneering.

Jawan (1996) in his paper revealed that less than half of the Iban elected

representative has at least college level education and a majority of the Iban leaders had only up to secondary level education. He further stressed that, due to the lower

educational attainment the Iban elected representatives/leaders have not attained much

experience and success in their previous undertakings before moving into positions of

greater responsibilities.

2.5 Conceptual Framework Of The Study

Implicit in many of the writings on leadership styles and particularly on

transformational leadership, there is still not many articles written on the Iban

community leaders. Several research and studies related to leaders' roles and

functions have been carried out by researchers but hut none have focused specifically

on Iban community leaders-i.e Tuai rumah and Penghultr level.

To the Iban community, leadership means ''furrim which carries a wide connotation.

Thus, Iban community has no classification proper leadership styles. In the Iban

community, leaders are always being associated with elderly persons as their

headmen. Headmen traditional leaders, whose tasks are to safeguard the community

welfare and uphold the norms, values, tradition, morale, customs and belief of the

community. They command respect fiom others, and become the decision makers

pertaining to community life.

As Pringle (1970 :35) rightly stresses, the Iban had no regularly constituted leadership

above the level of the longhouse community. Moreover, the longhouse community

leaders ( tuai rumah, perhaps also tuai bzirong: bird auger) had very limited power

and authority. In broadly cross-cultural terms, the Iban are classified as a "stateless

societyV(Murdock 1967; Tuden and Marshall 1972).

Reflected upon the previous related studies on leadership, thus, a conceptual

framework for this study was developed in relation to comply with the research aims

and research questions the study proposed to address. Henceforth, sex, age, education,

income, experience, and institutionalised travels were the independent variables of

this study. Whilst individualised consideration, intellectual stimulation, inspirational

motivation, idealised influence and the expected roles became dependent variables

of this study.

2.6 Research Hypotheses

Based on the review of the literature the following hypotheses were formulated to

guide the present study:

HI. There are significant relationships between the demographic factors and the

emergence of transformational leadership characteristics amongst the Iban community

leaders.

H2. The degree of executing the expected and actual roles amongst the Iban

community leaders is influenced by the demographic factors.

H3. There is a significant relationships between the leader's income and the

emergence of transformational leadership characteristics arnangst the Iban community

leaders.

H4. There is a significant relationship between courseftraining and the emergence of

transformational leadership among the Iban community leaders in the three areas.

2.7 Summary

In brief, this chapter has deliberated on the literature review pertinent to leadership

roles and functions. In this chapter the researcher has discussed the conceptual and

theoretical perspectives of leadership in general. In addition, the researcher

deliberated on the related studies on leadership functions and roles pertinent to the

research aims and research questions the study proposed to address. Past research

studies related to this study were also discussed in this chapter. Implicit in previous

related studies, and conceptual and theoretical perspectives the researcher developed a

conceptual framework and research hypotheses for this study. The research

methodology used in this survey research study was thoroughly discussed in the next

chapter.

CHAPTER 3

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.0 Overview

This chapter deliberates on the research design and data collection used as guided by

the research objectives. It argues for the need to use both the quantitative and

qualitative method of data collection. It describes the research processes undertaken,

discusses the methods of analysis of the data collected, and reports on the personal

and career profiles of the respondents and informants. This chapter is presented in six

sections: research design. population of the study. instrumentation, data collection,

data collection procedures and data analysis.

3.1 Research Design

The intent of the study was to address the research question regarding the roles of

community leaders in bringing about social changes and to find out whether pattern of

transformational leadership has emerged or not amongst the lban community leaders

in those three Resettlement Areas. A structured interview schedule was used to

collected necessary data.

3.2 Population Of The Study

The population of this study comprised community leaders in the three resettlement

areas. There are 57 community leaders in these areas: 15 Tuai Rumah from Operation

Bebatak Ng. Tada, 18 Tuai Rumah from Operation Bebatak Ng. Ngungun , 21 Tuai

Rumah from Operation Bebatak Ng. Jagau , 2 Perrghzrlu and 1 Temenggong. All of

these leaders became the respondents. According to Clrampion (198 l), a total size of

30 samples can be considered as minimum size for statistical analysis. Fraenkel and

Wallen (1993) also stated that for a correlatim study, the minimum size of 30 is

appropriate. According to Backstrom and Hursh-Cesar ( 198 1 :53),

Our concern is that the number and kinds of people in the sample be sufficiently representative of the whole population to enable us to make sound generalisations about that population. In other words, a proper sample of people must constitute a small-scale replica of the larger community.

3.3 Instrumentation

As most of the community leaders in these areas are illiterate, structured interview

schedule was used to collect the data and information on issues pertaining to the roles

of leaders in bringing changes to the community, their personal and socio-economic

characteristics, and the degree to which the leaders practice transformational

leadership style. This technique provided an opportunity to probe deeply the

problems and issues pertaining to leadership skills and knowledge the community

leaders possess.

The interview schedule was designed and developed under the guidance of a research

supervisor. The research questionnaire were divided into three parts. Part 1 (5 1 items )

was designed to identify the level of behavioural characteristics of transformational

leadership: Individualised consideration which has the elements of caring, concern

and empathy; intellectual stimulation that is generally characteristics of valuing the

intellect, encouraging imagination and challenging old ways; inspirational motivation

with general characteristics of clarification of future states (vision 1 mission), treating

threats as opportunities and aligns individual and 0rgani:mtional goals; and idealised

influepce ( Charisma) with sets of high moral standards which is dominated by the

general characteristics such as confidence in the vision, full responsibility for actions,

sense of purposes and trust, and identification with the leader. These behaviour

indicators was adopted from Keenan (1997) in order to fully facilitate in finding out

whether pattern of transformational leadership emerge or not amongst the Iban

community leaders in the three Resettlement Areas. the primary purpose of this

study. These behaviour indicators were used as dependent variables.

Part 2 (10 items) of the interview schedule was developed by the researcher based on

his own experience as a community leader once upon a time. This part was specially

constructed to explore, reflect and to identify the expected and actual roles of

community leaders in bringing out social changes. In addition, part 2 also contained

questions (1 1 items) to evoke the respondents' exposure to training and courses

regarding leadership dimensions.

Part 3 (11 items) of the interview schedule helped to identify the personal

demographic characteristics of the leaders which became the independent variables

of this study.

3.4 Data Collection Procedure

The following procedures was carried out to gather tlic: data and information for the

study:

a) A copy of the research proposal was submitted to the Sarzivak State Planning Unit

to seek approval to conduct research in the State.

b) A copy of the research proposal was also submitted to Sarawak State Secretary to

seek approval to carry out research in Sarawak, particularly in Sibu Division.

c) Several research assistants were engaged to carry the research survey in the areas.

They were trained by the researcher on the proper ~echniques of interviewing.

Cover letters explaining the importance and nature ol'the study were provided to

the research assistants as they were doing the interview with the aid of an

interview schedule. In the case of illiterate respondents, the research assistants

helped them to choose the answers to the questions that correspond to or reflect

their personality as leaders.

d) The research assistants were chosen from the people of those areas They were

male college-trained teachers with good command of English and Iban languages.

3.5 Data Collection

Before data collection proper was carried out, a pretest was conducted on 10 Tuai

Rumah nearby Kanowit town on September 7, 1997 and Sepkember 8, 1997 in order

to determine how respondents responded to the various items in questions. Reliability

test was performed on items pertairling to behatioral characteristics of

transformational leadership, on expected and actual roles, and on co~~rsesltraining

regarding leadership dimensions. Reliability analysis scale showed that individualised

consideration has standardised item alpha value 3438, idealised influenc