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The D ivini zat ion of Cae sar and Augustus

This book examines the new institution of divinization that emerged as a political phenomenon at the end of the Roman Republic with the deifi cation of Julius Caesar. Michael Koortbojian addresses the myriad problems related to Caesar’s, and subse-quently Augustus’, divinization, in a sequence of studies devoted to the complex character of the new imperial system. These investigations focus on the broad spec-trum of forms – monumental, epigraphic, numismatic, and those of social ritual – used to represent the most novel imperial institutions: divinization, a monarchical princeps , and a hereditary dynasty. Throughout, political and religious iconography is enlisted to serve in the study of these new Roman institutions, from their slow emergence to their gradual evolution and eventual conventionalization.

Michael Koortbojian is Professor of Roman Art and Archaeology at Princeton University. He is the author of numerous articles on Roman art and Renaissance antiquarianism, and his book Myth, Meaning, and Memory on Roman Sarcophagi was published in 1995. He has been a Fellow of the Warburg Institute, Kings College Cambridge, and the American Academy in Rome.

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Cambridge University Press978-0-521-19215-6 - The Divini zation of Caesar and Augustus: Precedents, Consequences, ImplicationsMichael KoortbojianFrontmatterMore information

http://www.cambridge.org/9780521192156

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The D ivini zat ion of

Cae sar and Augustus

Precedents, Consequences, Implications

Michael Koortbojian Princeton University






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© Michael Koortbojian 2013

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Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication data Koortbojian, Michael.

The divinization of Caesar and Augustus: precedents, consequences, implications / Michael Koortbojian, Princeton University

pages cm Includes bibliographical reference and index.

ISBN 978-0-521-19215-6 (hardback) 1. Emperor worship – Rome. 2. Caesar, Julius – Cult. 3. Caesar,

Julius – Art. 4. Caesar, Julius – Monuments. 5. Augustus, Emperor of Rome 63 B.C.–14 A.D. – Cult. 6. Augustus, Emperor of Rome, 63 B.C.–14 A.D. – Art.

7. Augustus, Emperor of Rome, 63 B.C.–14 A.D. – Monuments. I. Title. DG124.K66 2013

937′.07–dc23 2013015611

ISBN 978-0-521-19215-6 Hardback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party Internet Web sites referred to in this publication

and does not guarantee that any content on such Web sites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.






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T.H.






vii

CONTENTS

List of Illustrations page xi

Preface xvii

Abbreviations xxi

I Making Men Gods 1

Divine Honors for Caesar? 4

Deus and Divus 7

Three Claims 9

Four Assumptions 10

Prospectus 13

II The Question of Caesar’s Divinity and the Problem of His Cult Statue 15

The Problem of Cult Statues 17

Making Divus Julius 21

Mors Honoresque Caesaris 24

Sidus Iulium 27

Cicero’s Evidence 29

Cicero’s Challenge to Antony 31

The Simulacrum of Philippics II 36

The Aedes Divi Iulii and Its Statue 39

Two Visions of the Divus 45






Contents

viii

III Augural Images: Old Traditions, New Institutions 50

The Augurs and Their Competences 50

The Memory of Attus Navius and the Power of His Priesthood 53

Augurs in the Public Eye 56

Imagines Augurales 60

The Lituus and Its Symbolism 63

An Image of the Auspices? 73

IV Romulus, Quirinus, GENIUS , DIVUS 78

Romulus, Quirinus, and the Statue of Caesar 84

Invictus Quirinus? 88

A Change of Costume 91

V Caesar’s Portrait 94

The Statues and Their Imagery 95

The Portraits 100

Other “Caesars” 106

Typologies and Inconsistencies 110

Some Other Multiply Attested Portraits 112

Historical Circumstances and the Transformation of Types 114

Caesar’s Crown 118

From Republic to Empire 126

VI Auspicious, Propitious, Victorious 129

Worshipping the New Divus 130

Proteros Kaisar 133

The Bringer of Victory 138

Propitius Divus 144

Under the Emperor’s Auspices 146

VII Representation in an Era of Divinization 155

Numen Violatum 156

Public versus Private Cult 158

The Diff ering Character of Private Honors in the Public Sphere 160

Cult Honors and the Dedication of Sacra Privata 165

Augustan Numen and Numen Augusti 170

The Status and Form of the Shrines 179

The Longevity of Honors 180






Contents

ix

The Status of Statues 182

The Monument of the Aenatores 186

VIII AD URBEM ET EX URBE : The Imagery of the DIVUS and Its Fate 191

Public and Private Honors ad Urbem 192

Super Ceteros Mortales 193

Nude Statues, in Public and in Private 198

Nudity at Rome, Nudity Outside of Rome 203

The Image of Divus Augustus 211

To Look Like a Divus 217

IX Coda: Reverberations in the East 227

Notes 237

Works Cited 283

Index of Ancient Authors 313

Index of Inscriptions 321

Index of Coins 325

Index of Works of Art 327

General Index 331






xi

I LLUSTRATIONS

I.1. Divus Julius: cult statue (augur). RRC 540/2, rev., 36 B.C. , page 10 I.2. Divus Julius: cult statue (hipmantled). RRC 540/2, rev., 36 B.C. , 11

II.1. Libertas. RRC 433/1, obv., ca. 54 B.C. , 16 II.2. Capitoline Triad. RRC 296/1, rev., ca. 112–11 B.C. , 18 II.3. Enthroned Jupiter statue in Capitoline Temple. RIC II, 70,

no. 452, rev., A.D. 71 , 18 II.4. Terracotta Hercules and Minerva acroterion from the Forum

Boarium. Rome, Antiquarium Comunale. Mid sixth century B.C. , 22 II.5. Victory crowns triumphator. RRC 367, rev., ca. 82 , 23 II.6. Ferculum with statues in triumphal procession (from Amiternum).

Limestone relief. Chieti, Museo Archeologico Nazionale dell’Abruzzo. Claudian , 33

II.7. Caesar’s sella and corona . RRC 497/2d, rev., 42 B.C. , 35 II.8. Apotheosis scene from the Belvedere Altar. Marble. Vatican

Museums. 12–2 B.C. , 41 II.9. View of Aedes Divi Iulii in Forum , 43

II.10. Cult statue of Jupiter and Libertas. RRC 391/2, rev., 75 B.C. , 45 II.11. Algiers cult statue relief. Marble. Algiers, Mus é e Nationale

d’Antiquities. Julio -Claudian , 46 II.12. The Julio -Claudian Dynasty. Marble. Ravenna, San Vitale.

Claudian , 46 II.13. Divus Julius crowned by Augustus. RIC I, 77, no. 173 = RIC 2 I,

74, no. 415 = Giard 1976 , nos. 555–9, 12 B.C. , 47 II.14. Torso of Augustus (?) statue. Marble. Cherchel, Mus é e

Arch é ologique. Augustan , 47 II.15. Reconstruction of the Aedes Divi Iulii and its cult statue , 48 III.1. Aeneas sacrifi cing. Rome, from the Ara Pacis, west side.

Marble. 13–9 B.C. , 55 III.2. Augustus with lituus . RIC 2 I, 61, no. 275a = BMCRE , I, 106,

no. 650, obv., ca. 31–28 B.C. , 58 III.3. Tiberius with lituus. RPC 83, A.D. 14–37 , 58






Illustrations

xii

III.4. Apotheosis of Caesar Claudius Germanicus. Sardonyx. Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale, Cabinet des Médailles. After A.D. 54 , 59

III.5. Minucius Monument. RRC 242/1, rev., 135 B.C. , 62 III.6. Numa sacrifi cing. RRC 334/1, rev., ca. 97 B.C. , 62 III.7. Cornifi cius augur, crowned. RRC 509/2, rev., 42 B.C. , 63 III.8. Equestrian Octavian with lituus . RRC 497/1, rev., 42 B.C. , 63 III.9. Sulla coin with lituus . RRC 359/1, rev., ca. 84/83 B.C. , 65

III.10. Augural implements and trophy. RRC 460/3, rev., 47–6 B.C. , 66 III.11. Augural implements. RRC 374/2, rev., 81 B.C. , 66 III.12. Genius populi Romani . RRC 428/3, obv., 55 B.C. , 68 III.13. Jupiter’s eagle with thunderbolt, lituus , and jug. RRC 428/3,

rev., 55 B.C. , 68 III.14. Helmeted head of Roma. AR denarius. RRC 285/2, obv.,

116/115 B.C. , 69 III.15. Jupiter with thunderbolt in Triumph; lituus above. RRC

285/2, rev., 116/115 B.C. , 69 III.16. Sulla coin with lituus . RRC 359/1, rev., ca. 84/83 B.C. , 70 III.17. Venus. RRC 359/1, obv., ca. 84/83 B.C. , 70 III.18. Victory crowns triumphator. RRC 367, rev., ca. 82 B.C. , 71 III.19. Roma. RRC 367, obv., ca. 82 B.C. , 71 III.20. Antonius as augur. RRC 533/2, obv., 38 B.C. , 73 III.21. Vicus Sandaliarius altar. Marble. Uffi zi, Florence , 74 III.22. Augural chickens in cage (detail). Marble. Rome, Palazzo

Albani del Drago. After A.D. 100 , 75 IV.1. Temple Quirinus pediment relief. Marble. Rome, Museo Nazionale

Romano delle Terme. A.D. 81–96 , 79 IV.2. Temple Mars Ultor pediment relief. Marble. Rome, Villa Medici.

A.D. 41–54 , 80 IV.3. Sorrento Base (Romulus?). Marble. Sorrento, Museo Correale.

Late Augustan , 81 IV.4. “Origins of Rome” painting (Pompeii V,4,13: Naples, Museo

Archeologico). Augustan (?) , 83 IV.5. Temple of Mars (?) pediment relief with Rhea Silvia and

twins. Marble. Rome, Museo Nazionale delle Terme. Trajanic , 83 IV.6. Romulus trophaiophoros from Pompeii (IX,13,5). Fresco

(watercolor copy) , 90 IV.7. Genius populi Romani , standing. RRC 329/1, rev., 100 B.C. , 92 IV.8. Genius populi Romani , seated. RRC 397, rev., 74 B.C. , 92 IV.9. Genius populi Romani . Boscoreale silver cup (detail). Paris,

Mus é e du Louvre. 9 B.C. , 93 V.1. Apotheosis of Lucius Verus. Marble. Ephesus Monument.

Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum. A.D. 140/160 , 96 V.2. Via Cassia terracotta relief. Rome, Museo Nazionale delle

Terme / Palazzo Massimo. Trumviral (?) , 97 V.3. Villa Casali relief. Engraving from Piranesi, Vasi , II, taf. 75 , 97 V.4. Octavian coin with globe underfoot. RIC 2 I, 59,

no. 256 = BMCRE I, 100, no. 615, rev., 31–29 B.C. , 98 V.5. Temple of Clementia Caesaris. RRC 480/21, obv., 44 B.C. , 99 V.6. Tusculum Caesar, frontal. Marble. Turin. Augustan (?) , 102 V.7. Caesar. RRC 480/6, obv., 44 B.C. , 102 V.8. Caesar, frontal. Marble. Woburn Abbey. Augustan , 102






Illustrations

xiii

V.9. Caesar, frontal. Marble. Florence, priv. coll. Augustan , 102 V.10. Caesar, frontal. Marble. Pantelleria. Claudian , 103 V.11. Caesar, profi le. Marble. Pantelleria. Claudian , 103 V.12. Tusculum Caesar, profi le. Marble. Turin. Augustan , 103 V.13. Caesar, frontal. Marble. Pisa, Camposanto. Augustan , 104 V.14. Caesar, profi le. Marble. Pisa, Camposanto. Augustan , 104 V.15. Chiaramonti Caesar, frontal. Marble. Vatican Museums.

Augustan , 105 V.16. Chiaramonti Caesar, profi le. Marble. Vatican Museums.

Augustan , 105 V.17. Caesar, frontal. Marble. Rome, Staderini collection. Augustan , 106 V.18. Caesar, profi le. Marble. Rome, Staderini collection. Augustan , 106 V.19. McClendon Caesar, frontal. Marble. J. Paul Getty

Museum, Malibu. Augustan , 107 V.20. McClendon Caesar, profi le. Marble. J. Paul Getty

Museum, Malibu. Augustan , 107 V.21. Arles Caesar. Marble. Arles, Museum. Augustan (?) , 108 V.22. “Caesar,” frontal. Leiden. Marble. Augustan , 109 V.23. Diagram of Pisa/Chiaramonti variants , 110 V.24. Caesar, profi le. Florence, priv. coll. Marble. Augustan , 111 V.25. Caesar, profi le. Woburn Abbey. Marble. Augustan , 111 V.26. Crassus. Marble. Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen.

Julio -Claudian , 113 V.27. Crassus. Marble. Paris, Louvre. Julio -Claudian , 113 V.28. Tivoli “General” (detail), frontal. Marble. Rome,

Palazzo Massimo alle Terme, Museo Nazionale Romano , 114 V.29. Tivoli “General” portrait head, frontal. Marble. Vatican

Museums , 114 V.30. Palazzo Barberini “General,” portrait head, frontal.

Marble. Rome, Museo Nazionale Romano delle Terme , 115 V.31. Apollonia (Tirana) replica of the Palazzo Barberini “General”:

head, frontal. Marble. Tirana, Archeological Museum , 115 V.32. Lex Rufrena . Inscribed statue base. Stone. Vatican Museums.

Augustan , 116 V.33. Caesar divi fi lius . RRC 535/1, obv., ca. 38 B.C. , 116 V.34. Divos Iulius . RRC 535/1, rev., ca. 38 B.C. , 116 V.35. Augustus portrait. Marble. Pontevedra (Spain). Augustan , 117 V.36. “Caesar” with corona civica , frontal. Marble. Thasos, Museum.

Julio -Claudian , 121 V.37. The comet of Divus Julius. RIC I, 84, no. 253 = RIC 2 I, 44,

no. 37b, rev., ca. 20 B.C. (?) , 122 V.38. Divus Julius with star atop crown. RIC I, 73, no. 141 =

RIC 2 I, 66, no. 340, rev., ca. 17 B.C. , 122 V.39. Tusculum Caesar, back view. Turin, Museum. Augustan , 124 V.40. Juba II, profi le. Marble. Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen , 124 V.41. Diademed Greek ruler. Bronze. Princeton Art Museum, ca.

275–250 B.C. , 124 V.42. Divus Julius and Caesar divi fi lius . RPC 517, obv., ca. 36 B.C. (?) , 125 VI.1. Divus Julius with star. RRC 480/5b, obv., ca. 44 B.C. , 132 VI.2. Breastplate of the Augustus from Prima Porta. Marble.

Vatican Museums. Augustan , 137






Illustrations

xiv

VI.3. Augustus crowned by Divus Julius. RPC 1650. (Augustan) Claudian reissue , 138

VI.4. Silver Victoriatus . RRC 53/1, rev., ca. 211 B.C. , 140 VI.5. Venus proff ering the victoriola . RRC 480/3, rev., 44 B.C. , 140 VI.6. Victory atop the globe. RIC I, 62, no. 27 = RIC 2 no. 254b., ca.

31–29 B.C., 141 VI.7. Octavian proferring the victoriola . RIC 2 I, 60, no. 270, rev., ca.

31–29 B.C. , 141 VI.8. Octavian portrait with Jupiter’s thunderbolt. RIC 2 I, 60,

no.270, obv., ca. 31–29 B.C. , 141 VI.9. Octavian atop rostral column. RIC 2 I, 60, no. 271, rev., ca.

35 B.C. , 142 VI.10. Augustus restores rights and laws. Aureus, ca. 29 B.C. , 143 VI.11. Augustus as world ruler. Silver cup from Boscoreale. Paris,

Mus é e du Louvre. 9 B.C. (?) , 143 VI.12. Germanicus delivers victory to Tiberius. Tiberius sheath,

detail. Bronze. British Museum. After A.D. 16 (?) , 147 VI.13. Cult statue of DEO AUGUSTO . RPC nos. 221–3, obv. A.D. 22 , 150 VI.14. Gemma Augustea. Sardonyx. Vienna, Kunsthistorisches

Museum. Augustan , 152 VI.15. Grand Cam é e de France. Sardonyx. Paris, Bibliotheque

National. Tiberian , 152 VI.16. Germanicus on parade before enthroned Augustus.

Sardonyx. Florence, Museo Archeologico. Augustan , 153 VII.1. Seated Augustus statue. Marble. Tivoli, Museo Archeologico.

After 13 B.C. (?) , 164 VII.2. Tivoli site (plan). After NSc 1925. Drawing , 165 VII.3. Ara Pacis, 13–9 B.C. (view) , 166 VII.4. Augustus with the fl amines . Rome, Ara Pacis, south frieze

(detail). Marble. 13–9 B.C. , 166 VII.5. Sacro -idyllic painting with shrine from Boscotrecase. Naples,

Museo Archeologico Nazionale. Augustan , 178 VII.6. Shrine of the Vestals. Rome, Forum Romanum , 179 VII.7. Augustus at an outdoor shrine. Belvedere Altar. Vatican

Museums. 12–2 B.C. , 181 VII.8. Claudius. Marble. Aquilea. Claudian , 184 VII.9. Divus Augustus. Marble. Aquilea. Claudian , 184

VII.10. Divus Augustus portrait (from a cuirassed statue). Marble. Jesi, Pinacoteca Civica , 185

VII.11. Aenatores’ monument: four -stage reconstruction drawing , 187 VIII.1. “Terme Ruler.” Bronze. Rome, Museo Nazionale delle

Terme. Second century B.C. (?) , 196 VIII.2. Hipmantled man. Bronze. Brindisi. Museo Archeologico

Provinciale “Francesco Ribezzo,” 196 VIII.3. Cavenzano “Navarca” statue. Marble. Aquilea, Museo

Nazionale , 197 VIII.4. Capua “Narvarca” statue. Marble. Capua, Museo Provinciale

Campano di Capua , 197 VIII.5. Delos fragment. Marble. Delos, Archaeological Museum , 197 VIII.6. Tivoli “General” statue. Marble. Rome, Palazzo Massimo /

Museo Nazionale Romano delle Terme. Ca. 80 B.C. , 197






Illustrations

xv

VIII.7. Via Salaria funerary relief (now lost). Marble , 199 VIII.8. Man wearing Greek himation (from the Villa dei Papiri,

Herculaneum). Marble. Naples, Museo Archeologico. Julio -Claudian , 200

VIII.9. Man wearing Greek himation on an Etruscan kline (from Volterra). Marble. Volterra, Museo Etrusco Guarnacci. Ca. 200 B.C. , 201

VIII.10. L. Cornelius Pusio portrait. Bronze. Rome, Museo Nazionale delle Terme. Late sixties A.D. , 202

VIII.11. C. Cartilius Poplicola. Marble. Ostia, Museo Archeologico. Late republican (Triumviral period) , 203

VIII.12. Nude Claudius (from Herculaneum). Bronze. Naples, Museo Nazionale. Claudian , 206

VIII.13. Nude seated Claudius (from Cerverteri). Marble. Vatican Museums. Claudian , 206

VIII.14. Octavian, from Tusculum. Marble. Paris, Louvre , 208 VIII.15. Augustus portrait (from Pergamon). Marble. Istanbul , 209 VIII.16. Genius/paterfamilias (from the house of Vettii, Pompeii) , 210 VIII.17. Genius Augusti . BMCRE I, 248, no. 251 = RIC 2 I, 163,

no. 215, rev., ca. A.D. 64–66 , 211 VIII.18. Seated Divus Augustus statue from the Theater of Marcellus.

RIC I, 106, no. 20 = BMCRE I, 130, no. 74, rev., A.D. 22–23 , 211 VIII.19. Arles Augustus (reconstruction: Boschung). Marble , 212 VIII.20. Arles Apollo relief (from the theater, Arles). Arles, Museum , 213 VIII.21. Nude Divus Augustus (from Herculaneum). Bronze. Naples,

Museo Nazionale. Claudian , 214 VIII.22. Enthroned Divus Augustus from the Rostra at Leptis Magna.

Marble. Tripoli, Archaeological Museum , 215 VIII.23. Enthroned Claudius from the Rostra at Leptis Magna. Marble.

Tripoli, Archaeological Museum , 215 VIII.24. Hipmantled Tiberius from Nemi. Marble. Copenhagen, Ny

Carlsberg Glyptotek , 216 VIII.25. Claudius sacrifi cing before statues of Divus Augustus

and Livia (as Venus). Round altar. Marble. Abellinum, Museo Irpino , 218

VIII.26. Deceased Germanicus and his wife, Agrippina the elder, fl anking trophy. Round altar. Marble. Abellinum, Museo Irpino , 218

VIII.27. Dedicant (?) and Antonia the younger (mother of Germanicus). Round altar. Marble. Abellinum, Museo Irpino , 218

VIII.28. Augustus/Diomedes, from Otricoli. Marble. Vatican Museums , 221 VIII.29. Pompeian portrait: Doryphoros model. Naples, Museo

Nazionale , 221 VIII.30. Nude citizen from the theater at Venafro. Venafro, Museo

Archeologico , 222 VIII.31. Nude citizen from the theater at Venafro. Venafro, Museo

Archeologico , 222 VIII.32. Nude young man (“Formia III”). Marble. Formia, Museo

Archeologico , 224 VIII.33. Nude man (“Formia II”). Marble. Formia, Museo Archeologico , 224 VIII.34. Nude man (“Formia I”). Marble. Formia, Museo Archeologico , 225






Illustrations

xvi

VIII.35. “Augustus Versospi.” Marble. Vatican Museums , 225 IX.1. Roma crowns Augustus. Pergamene cistophoros. BMCRE

I, 196, no. 228 = RIC 2 I, 131, no. 120 = RPC 2221. Claudian , 230 IX.2. Augustus crowned. Marble. Aprhodisias, Sebasteion , 231 IX.3. Temple of Roma and Augustus with hipmantled emperor.

Nicomeidan cistophoros. BMCRE III, 396, no. 1096 = RIC 2 II 396; no. 459a. Hadrianic , 232

IX.4. Temple of Roma and Augustus with cuirassed emperor. Nicomedian cistophoros. BMCRE III, 396, no. 1097 = RIC 2 II, 396, no. 459b. Hadrianic , 232

IX.5. Emperor crowned by Fortuna (?). Pergamene cisotophoros. BMC Mysia, 142, no. 263. Trajanic , 233

IX.6. Emperor crowned by Fortuna (?) with additional fi gure (?). Nicomedian cistophoros. BMC Pontus 108, no. 32. Hadrianic , 233

IX.7. Greek imperial funerary monument with hipmantled fi gure. Marble. Verona , 235






xvii

This is a book that has been long in the making. An early exposition of the basic arguments expounded in Chapters I – III and VIII was presented as a lec-ture at the American Academy in Rome in 1999, and a more concise version in Toronto later that same year. More recently, part of Chapter IV was given as a lecture at the University of Pennsylvania (2010); some aspects of Chapter V at the University of Iowa (2010); portions of Chapter VII at the Columbia University Seminar in Classics (2010); and a version of Chapter VIII at the Roman Art Seminar in London (2011). I am indebted to the audiences on all of these occasions for their stimulating responses. In addition, material related to Chapter VI appeared in “Crossing the Pomerium: The Armed Ruler at Rome,” in The Emperor and Rome , ed. B. C. Ewald and C. Nore ñ a (Cambridge, 2010), and a large portion of Chapter VI was included in an essay entitled “The Bringer of Victory” in Representations of War in Ancient Rome , ed. S. Dillon and K. Welch (Cambridge, 2006).

The book’s diff erent chapters constitute relatively independent essays devoted to a sequence of interrelated historical problems. I have endeavored to make plain those interrelationships, with as little repetition as seemed feasible – although a fair amount of redundancy has proven inevitable, in order that each chapter might have some sense of self-suffi ciency.

In these essays I have tried to off er a wide-ranging investigation of several specifi c historical phenomena, and in so doing have been compelled to enter fi elds that are hardly my own. The writings of several scholars have provided much-needed direction, and the exemplary works of four of them – Duncan Fishwick, Jerzy Linderski, John Scheid, and, above all, Stefan Weinstock – deserve special mention, for my debt is profound; indeed, their names might well have appeared more frequently amid the notes than they already do.

PREFACE






xviii

Preface

Turning to my own fi eld, I have relied extensively, as shall be clear, particularly in Chapters VII and VIII , on the comprehensive works of Dietrich Boschung, Christopher Hallett, and Brian Rose; it is my hope that they will regard what I have attempted to do as both a compliment and a complement.

The bibliography, long enough as it is, makes no pretension to be comprehen-sive; to have cited it all would have more than doubled the size of a list already unwieldy, which is constantly expanded by new publications that address the topics treated here, and I have tried to take account of as many of these contri-butions as was possible – some of which reach similar, some dissimilar, conclu-sions to my own. And many scholars might have been referred to with even more regularity, but I have refrained in order not to further overburden the already abundant citations, with which I have tried not only to acknowledge those to whom I have been directly indebted for specifi c information or whose ideas I have depended on explicitly, but to signal those contributions that have played an important if only implicit role in the formation of my own views. Citations of work published after 2010, when the manuscript was submitted, are highly selective.

My translations of the Latin authors owe much to those of the Loeb Classical Library, and at times – as is the case with all those of the Greek authors – borrow directly; translations of the epigraphic materials are my own.

This leaves only the great pleasure of thanking all of those individuals and institutions whose generosity has made the writing of this book possible.

For research funds I am grateful to the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada for three years of support, the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation for a fellowship at the American Academy in Rome, and both The Johns Hopkins University and Princeton University.

No scholarly work can be accomplished without libraries. I am much indebted to the following and their staff s: the Library of the American Academy in Rome, the Robarts Library of the University of Toronto, the Sheridan Library of The Johns Hopkins University, the library of the German Archaeological Institute in Rome, and the Marquand and Firestone Libraries of Princeton University.

Many friends and colleagues have over the years provided advice, criticisms, and assistance of varying kinds, and I should like to thank in particular Yelena Baraz, Tim Barnes, Seth Bernard, Dietrich Boschung, Christer Bruun, Matteo Cadario, Ted Champlin, Christina Corsiglia, Werner Eck, Jonathan Edmondson, Lisa Fentress, Harriet Flower, Michael Flower, Nicholas Horsfall, Brad Inwood, Barbara Kellum, Ann Kuttner, Daria Lanzuolo, W.-R. Megow, Tim Moore, Josiah Osgood, Clementina Panella, Michael Putnam, Matt Roller, Thomas Sch ä fer, Susan Walker, and Paul Zanker.

Finally, three individuals have, for nearly thirty years, in their very diff erent ways, provided the examples that have shaped all of my scholarly endeavors.






xix

Preface

They are acknowledged by the dedication with profound gratitude for the inspiring intelligence of their scholarship, their enduring friendship, their con-stant encouragement, and last, but surely not least, their unfl agging criticisms. It is no exaggeration to say that I am indebted to them for much if not most of what may be of value in the pages that follow. The fl aws are all mine.

Princeton, 2013






xxi

AA Archäologischer Anzeiger ActaAArtHist Acta ad archaeologiam et artium historiam pertinentia ActaClDebrec Acta classica Universitatis Scientiarum Debreceniensis AE L ’Année épigraphique AJA American Journal of Archaeology AJAH American Journal of Ancient History AJN American Journal of Numismatics AJP American Journal of Philology AnalRom Analecta Romana Instituti Danici ANRW Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt ANSMN American Numismatic Society Museum Notes AntCl L’Antiquité Classique ArchCl Archeologia classica: rivista della Scuola naz. di Archeologia, pubbl. a

cura degli Ist. di Archeologia e Storia dell’arte greca e romana ARG Archiv für Religionsgeschichte ArtB The Art Bulletin BA Bolletino di Archeologia BCH Bulletin de correspondance hellénique BdA Bollettino d’arte BÉFAR Bibliothèque des Écoles françaises d’Athènes et de Rome BICS Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies of the University of London BJb Bonner Jahrbücher des rheinischen Landesmuseums in Bonn und des

Vereins von Altertumsfreunden im Rheinlande BMC Catalog of Greek Coins. British Museum, Department of Coins and

Medals , 1873ff . BMCRE H. Mattingly , Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum.

London, 1965 [1923–36]. BMCRR H. A. Grueber, Coins of the Roman Republic in the British Museum.

3 vols. London, 1920. BSFN Bulletin de la Société française de numismatique BullCom Bullettino della Commissione Archeologica comunale di Roma

ABBREVIATIONS






Abbreviations

xxii

CAH Cambridge Ancient History CCCA Corpus cultus Cybelae Attidisque , ed. M. J. Vermaseren. Leiden, 1900–. CCG Cahiers du Centre Gustave Glotz CIL Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum . Berlin, 1862–. CJ Classical Journal ClAnt Classical Antiquity CLE Carmina latina epigraphica . F. Buecheler, ed. (Suppl., ed. E.

Lommatzsch.) 3 fasc. Leipzig, 1895–1926. CNR Corpus Nummorum Romanorum , ed. A. Banti and L. Simmonetti.

Florence, 1972–73. CP Classical Philology CQ Classical Quarterly DFG Deutsches Forschungs Gemeinschaft DialArch Dialoghi di Archeologia EchCl Echos du monde classique / Classical Views GaR Greece and Rome GGA Göttingische Gelehrte Anzeiger Helbig 4 W. Helbig, Führer durch die öff entlichen Sammlungen klassischer

Altertümer in Rom . Tübingen, 1963–72. HSCP Harvard Studies in Classical Philology HTR Harvard Theological Review ICLW D. Fishwick, Imperial Cult in the Latin West . Leiden, 1987–2005. IG Inscriptiones Graecae . Berlin, 1873–. IGR Inscriptiones Graecae ad Res Romanas Pertinentes , ed. R. Cagnat

et al. Paris, 1906–27. ILLRP Inscriptiones Latinae Liberae Rei Publicae , ed. A. Degrassi, 2 vols.

Florence, 1965. ILS Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae , ed. H. Dessau, 3 vols. Berlin, 1892–

1916; reprint, 5 vols., Chicago, 1979. Inscr. It. Inscriptiones Italicae , ed. A. Degrassi. Rome, 1947–. IRT Inscriptions of Roman Tripolitania , ed. J. M. Reynolds and J. B.

Ward Perkins. Rome, 1952. JdI Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts JRA Journal of Roman Archaeology JRGZM Jahrbuch des Römisch-germanischen Zentralmuseums, Mainz JRS Journal of Roman Studies Kleine Pauly Der Kleine Pauly. Lexikon der Antike in fünf Bänden , ed. K. Ziegler

and W. Sontheimer. Munich, 1979. LIMC Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae LTUR Lexicon Topographicum Urbis Romae , ed. E. M. Steinby. Rome, 1996. MAAR Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome MDAI(I) Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Abteilung

Instanbul MDAI(M) Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Abteilung Madrid MDAI(R ) Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Abteilung Rom MEFR Mélanges d’Archéologie et d’Histoire de l’ école Française de Rome MEFRA Mélanges d’Archéologie et d’Histoire de l’ école Française de Rome,

Antiquité MemLinc Atti dell’Accademia nazionale dei Lincei, Classe di scienze morali,

storiche e fi lologiche. Memorie. MGR Miscellanea greca e romana






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xxiii

MH Museum Helveticum MNR Museo Nazionale Romano. Le Sculture , ed. A. Giuliano, 12 vols.

Rome, 1979–91. MonPiot Monuments et mémoires. Fondation E. Piot MRR T. R. S. Broughton, The Magistrates of the Roman Republic , I [1951].

Atlanta, 1986. MRSH Maison de la Recherche en Sciences Humaines NC Numismatic Chronicle NSc Notizie degli scavi di antichità OGIS W. Dittenberger, Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae . Leipzig,

1903–5. OpRom Opuscula Romana: acta Inst. Rom. Regni Sueciae PBSR Papers of the British School at Rome PCPhS Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society RA Revue Archéologique RE Real-Encyclopädie der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft , ed. A.

Pauly, G. Wissowa, and W. Kroll. Stuttgart, 1893–. REA Revue des Études Anciennes REL Revue des Études Latines RendIstLomb Rendiconti. Classe di lettere e scienze morali e storiche, Istituto

lombardo, Accademia di scienze e lettere RendPontAc Rendiconti. Atti della Pontifi cia accademia romana di archeologia RG Res Gestae Divi Augusti. The Achievements of the Divine Augustus ,

ed. P. A. Brunt and J. M. Moore [1967]. Oxford. RIC Roman Imperial Coinage , ed. H. Mattingly and E. A. Sydenham.

London, 1923. RIC 2 C. H. V. Sutherland, Roman Imperial Coinage, I: 31 BC–AD 69 .

London, 1984. RIT Die römischen Inschriften von Tarraco , ed. G. Alföldy. Berlin, 1975. RivFil Rivista di fi lologia e d’istruzione classica RN Revue Numismatique RPC A. Burnett, M. Amandry, and P. P. Ripollès, Roman Provincial

Coinage , 2 vols. London and Paris, 1992. RRC M. H. Crawford, Roman Republican Coinage . Cambridge, 1974. RS Roman Statutes , ed. M. H. Crawford, 2 vols. London, 1996. SCI Scripta Classica Israelica SDHI Studia et Documenta Historiae et Iuris SEG Supplementum epigraphicum Graecum (1923–) SIG W. Dittenberger, Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum , 3. Leipzig,

1915–24. SMSR Studi e materiali di storia delle religioni SNG Sylloge nummorum graecorum (Denmark) StMisc Studi miscellanei. Seminario di archeologia e storia dell’arte greca e

romana dell’Università di Roma SymbOslo Symbolae Osloenses TAPA Transactions of the American Philological Association ThesCRA Thesaurus Cultus et Rituum Antiquorum , ed. V. Lambrinoudakis and

J.-C. Balty, 5 vols. Los Angeles, 2004. WJA Würzburger Jahrbücher für die Altertumswissenschaft ZAKMIRA Zentrum für die antiken Kulturen des Mittelmeerraumes ZPE Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik






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