The Eagle and the The Eagle and the Bear: The Doctrine of Bear: The Doctrine of Containment and the Containment and the Cold War, 1945-1950 Cold War, 1945-1950

PO 326: American Foreign PO 326: American Foreign PolicyPolicy

The Seeds of Containment – The Seeds of Containment – Kennan’s “Long Telegram”Kennan’s “Long Telegram”

►Mistrust and animosity between the US and Mistrust and animosity between the US and USSR, stemming from the development of USSR, stemming from the development of rival spheres of influence, colors American rival spheres of influence, colors American thinking immediately following the warthinking immediately following the war

► Kennan (chargKennan (chargéé d’affaires in Moscow)– d’affaires in Moscow)– Defines Soviet threat in 1946 telegramDefines Soviet threat in 1946 telegram Soviets “impervious to logic of reason”Soviets “impervious to logic of reason” Inherently expansionist; will only back down to Inherently expansionist; will only back down to

strong resistance – thus, manipulation of threat strong resistance – thus, manipulation of threat of war must be cornerstone of Soviet policyof war must be cornerstone of Soviet policy

Quickly becomes shared perspective in US Quickly becomes shared perspective in US foreign policy communityforeign policy community

The Seeds of Containment – The The Seeds of Containment – The Truman DoctrineTruman Doctrine

► Soviet pressure builds on Turkey, IranSoviet pressure builds on Turkey, Iran►Divided government; Republicans bash Divided government; Republicans bash

Democrats for “communist appeasement” Democrats for “communist appeasement” (FDR and Eastern Europe)(FDR and Eastern Europe)

► Social disruptions in postwar US; public Social disruptions in postwar US; public apathy concerning international affairs, but apathy concerning international affairs, but opinion can be shapedopinion can be shaped

► Consensus emerges in administration, based Consensus emerges in administration, based on long telegramon long telegram Acheson (SecState): Warns Congress of “likely Acheson (SecState): Warns Congress of “likely

Soviet breakthrough” (apocalyptic)Soviet breakthrough” (apocalyptic)

The Seeds of Containment – The The Seeds of Containment – The Truman DoctrineTruman Doctrine

► Greece and Turkey – domestic and foreign Greece and Turkey – domestic and foreign communist elements threatening to gain controlcommunist elements threatening to gain control

► Truman’s speech to Congress (1947)Truman’s speech to Congress (1947) Seeks monetary assistance to stave off communist controlSeeks monetary assistance to stave off communist control Security of US predicated on establishment of US-led Security of US predicated on establishment of US-led

international orderinternational order► Collapse of free institutions in other states would spread Collapse of free institutions in other states would spread

quickly, endanger security (domino theory)quickly, endanger security (domino theory) ““It must be the policy of the US to support free peoples It must be the policy of the US to support free peoples

who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures”minorities or by outside pressures”

Focuses on economic reconstruction (free trade), but issue Focuses on economic reconstruction (free trade), but issue is inherently politicalis inherently political

Similarities to/differences with WilsonianismSimilarities to/differences with Wilsonianism

The Seeds of Containment – the The Seeds of Containment – the Marshall Plan (ERP)Marshall Plan (ERP)

► Large-scale plan for economic recovery and Large-scale plan for economic recovery and integration for the purposes of maintaining integration for the purposes of maintaining democratic governance, limiting Soviet influencedemocratic governance, limiting Soviet influence Coincides with active attempts to create West Coincides with active attempts to create West

GermanyGermany► USSR invited to participate (avoids perceptions USSR invited to participate (avoids perceptions

of divisiveness), but would undermine their of divisiveness), but would undermine their influence – convinces USSR that US is bent on influence – convinces USSR that US is bent on European hegemony, penetration of Eastern European hegemony, penetration of Eastern EuropeEurope

► $17 billion assistance package passed by $17 billion assistance package passed by Congress (bipartisanship in recognition of threat, Congress (bipartisanship in recognition of threat, means to address it)means to address it)

The East-West Rivalry Solidified The East-West Rivalry Solidified – Kennan’s “X” Article– Kennan’s “X” Article

► Public restatement of “Long Telegram,” with Public restatement of “Long Telegram,” with additionsadditions US policy should specifically center on “long-term US policy should specifically center on “long-term

vigilant containment of Russian expansive vigilant containment of Russian expansive tendencies”tendencies”

Sought to force Moscow to moderate its aggressive Sought to force Moscow to moderate its aggressive behavior (only understands strength)behavior (only understands strength)

Must apply “unalterable counterforce at every point Must apply “unalterable counterforce at every point where [Soviets] show signs of encroaching upon the where [Soviets] show signs of encroaching upon the interests of a peaceful and stable world”interests of a peaceful and stable world”

Reflected sentiments of entire administration, but Reflected sentiments of entire administration, but vague; vague; would be used in future as basis for global would be used in future as basis for global military (not just economic) containmentmilitary (not just economic) containment

The East-West Rivalry Solidified The East-West Rivalry Solidified – Soviet Actions in Eastern – Soviet Actions in Eastern

EuropeEurope► Soviet actions in 1947-1948, partially in Soviet actions in 1947-1948, partially in

response to American policy, work to justify response to American policy, work to justify US fearsUS fears

► YugoslaviaYugoslavia Tito (communist) steers “middle course” – Stalin Tito (communist) steers “middle course” – Stalin

does not respond, but cracks down in other does not respond, but cracks down in other communist countriescommunist countries

► Czech Coup (February 1948)Czech Coup (February 1948) – Soviet- – Soviet-controlled communism implemented; USSR controlled communism implemented; USSR will not even tolerate communist rule will not even tolerate communist rule achieved by democratic meansachieved by democratic means US responds by further seeking to isolate USSR US responds by further seeking to isolate USSR

(Washington Conference, calls for alliance)(Washington Conference, calls for alliance)

The East-West Rivalry Solidified The East-West Rivalry Solidified – Soviet Actions in Eastern – Soviet Actions in Eastern

EuropeEurope► The Berlin Blockade (1948-1949)The Berlin Blockade (1948-1949)

Soviets not invited to London; Stalin seeks to communicate Soviets not invited to London; Stalin seeks to communicate positionposition

Western military shipments to West Berlin halted by USSR Western military shipments to West Berlin halted by USSR in April; full blockade applied in June in response to in April; full blockade applied in June in response to Western currency reform in occupied areaWestern currency reform in occupied area► Stalin sought to force change in Western approach to German Stalin sought to force change in Western approach to German

question; instead, resulted in increased unity and resolvequestion; instead, resulted in increased unity and resolve US sends nuke-capable B-29s to EnglandUS sends nuke-capable B-29s to England West German constitution drafted in late 1948West German constitution drafted in late 1948 West begins airlift to relieve West Berliners (early 1949); West begins airlift to relieve West Berliners (early 1949);

Soviets relentSoviets relent► Berlin outcome, formation of West Germany serious Berlin outcome, formation of West Germany serious

defeats for USSRdefeats for USSR

The East-West Rivalry Solidified The East-West Rivalry Solidified – The Formation of NATO– The Formation of NATO

► By late 1948, calls for defensive alliance amongst US By late 1948, calls for defensive alliance amongst US and Western Europeans intensifyand Western Europeans intensify

► Problems facing Administration:Problems facing Administration: What would be the true purpose of the alliance? Political or What would be the true purpose of the alliance? Political or

military?military? What would the US’s role be? Would it absorb most of the What would the US’s role be? Would it absorb most of the

costs, or seek defensive integration amongst Western states? costs, or seek defensive integration amongst Western states? Would it engage in a forward defense of Western Europe Would it engage in a forward defense of Western Europe (tripwire), making explicit an automatic commitment if USSR (tripwire), making explicit an automatic commitment if USSR attacked? Associated domestic issuesattacked? Associated domestic issues

► In its drafted form (April 1949), the US was not In its drafted form (April 1949), the US was not required to supply automatic commitment or large required to supply automatic commitment or large numbers of troops, and it hoped it could deter USSR numbers of troops, and it hoped it could deter USSR via nuclear superiorityvia nuclear superiority However, as operational details were left vague, these However, as operational details were left vague, these

commitments could and would be implementedcommitments could and would be implemented

The Containment of The Containment of Communism Elsewhere – The Communism Elsewhere – The

Fall of ChinaFall of China► China was, admittedly, of lower priority for China was, admittedly, of lower priority for

TrumanTruman► Chinese communists under Mao threaten to Chinese communists under Mao threaten to

unseat Nationalist government (1948-49)unseat Nationalist government (1948-49) US gradually withdraws economic assistanceUS gradually withdraws economic assistance Republicans in Congress attack administration Republicans in Congress attack administration

for cutting Chiang loosefor cutting Chiang loose By 1949, only direct US military assistance would By 1949, only direct US military assistance would

stave off communists – Truman unwillingstave off communists – Truman unwilling►Nationalists fall in October 1949 – source of Nationalists fall in October 1949 – source of

domestic criticism in the US (communism domestic criticism in the US (communism has spread)has spread)

Containment’s Capstone – NSC Containment’s Capstone – NSC 6868

► State/Defense draft directive that incorporates previous State/Defense draft directive that incorporates previous US policy into a conceptual framework for future policyUS policy into a conceptual framework for future policy Bipolarity is a “permanent and fundamental alteration” of world Bipolarity is a “permanent and fundamental alteration” of world

power distribution – total struggle between free and imprisoned power distribution – total struggle between free and imprisoned societiessocieties

Must aggressively stop Soviets from consolidating power, Must aggressively stop Soviets from consolidating power, expanding – may also seek to undermine Soviets at homeexpanding – may also seek to undermine Soviets at home

Bleak assessment of relative capabilities – suggested “rapid Bleak assessment of relative capabilities – suggested “rapid buildup of political, economic, and military strength in the free buildup of political, economic, and military strength in the free world”world”

Does not leave out possibility of offensive approach, including Does not leave out possibility of offensive approach, including nuclear first strikenuclear first strike

Negotiation seen simply as tool by which time could be bought Negotiation seen simply as tool by which time could be bought for gaining superiorityfor gaining superiority

Administration’s duty was seen from within as being the total Administration’s duty was seen from within as being the total selling of this perspective to Congress and the American peopleselling of this perspective to Congress and the American people

Development of the Development of the Containment Doctrine to 1950Containment Doctrine to 1950

► Marshall Plan and Truman Doctrine – Economic Marshall Plan and Truman Doctrine – Economic approach with political goal; sought to minimize approach with political goal; sought to minimize threat perceived by USSR, but failedthreat perceived by USSR, but failed

► Subsequent Soviet reactions convinced Subsequent Soviet reactions convinced policymakers that Kennan’s view of Soviet threat policymakers that Kennan’s view of Soviet threat was entirely correct, and that all available means was entirely correct, and that all available means must be exhausted to counter USSR at every turn must be exhausted to counter USSR at every turn (not just economic and political, but military (not just economic and political, but military vigilance required as well)vigilance required as well)

► By 1950, communism seen as largely contained in By 1950, communism seen as largely contained in Europe, but the fall of China shows the difficulties of Europe, but the fall of China shows the difficulties of a global containment policy (vast requirements)a global containment policy (vast requirements)

► Korean invasion removes all doubts about Korean invasion removes all doubts about communism, no matter what its nationalitycommunism, no matter what its nationality