the emergence of a commercial trade in pangolins from ... emer… · 1 1 the emergence of a...
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This is the peer reviewed version of the following article: Mambeya MM, Baker
F, Momboua BR, et al. The emergence of a commercial trade in pangolins from
Gabon. Afr J Ecol. 2018;56:601–609, which has been published in final form at
https://doi.org/10.1111/aje.12507. This article may be used for non-commercial
purposes in accordance With Wiley Terms and Conditions for self-archiving.
https://doi.org/10.1111/aje.12507
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TheemergenceofacommercialtradeinpangolinsfromGabon12Runningtitle:EmergingtradeinpangolinsinGabon3
MeineMarieMambeya*1,FrancescaBaker2,BriceRoxanMomboua3,4,AurélieFlore4KoumbaPambo4,5,MartinHega6,V.JosephOkouyiOkouyi4,7,MartialOnanga4,5DanielW.S.Challender8,9,DanielJ.Ingram8,10,WangHongyan1,&Katharine6Abernethy7,11781NorthEastAgriculturalUniversityofHarbin,Harbin,China92InstituteforConservationScience,ImperialCollegeLondon,UK103DépartementdeBiologie,FacultédesSciences,UniversitydesScienceset11TechniquesdeMasuku,BP554,Franceville,Gabon12
4AgenceNationaledesParcsNationaux,BP20379,Libreville,Gabon135CentreNationaldeRecherchesScientifiquesetTechnologies,BP842,Libreville,14Gabon15
6WildifeConservationSocietyGabon,BatterieIV,Libreville,Gabon.167InstitutdeRechercheenEcologieTropicale,BP15539,Libreville,Gabon178IUCNSSCPangolinSpecialistGroup,℅ZoologicalSocietyofLondon,RegentsPark,18LondonNW14RY,UK19
9DurrellInstituteofConservation&Ecology,SchoolofAnthropologyand20Conservation,UniversityofKent,Canterbury,Kent,CT27NR,UK21
10SchoolofLifeSciences,UniversityofSussex,Brighton,BN19QG,UK2211AfricanForestEcologyGroup,BiologicalandEnvironmentalSciences,Universityof23Stirling,StirlingFK94LA,UK.24
25MeineMarieMambeya(*submittedposthumously)26FrancescaBaker:[email protected]:[email protected]@gmail.com29MartinHega:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]
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Acknowledgements41
Toourimmensesadness,theprimaryauthorofthiswork,MeineMarieMambeya,42
passedawayinJanuary2017afteralongstrugglewithcancer.Herdedicationtoher43
work,toecologicalresearchandtotheprotectionofAfricanpangolinswasan44
inspirationtoallofusandamodelforthenewgenerationofAfricanconservation45
scientists.Wethankherenormouslyforhercontributionandhopethatthe46
publicationofherworkwillbeaneverlastingtributetoher.WethankCENARESTfor47
permissionforresearchinGabonandtheInstitutdeRechercheenEcologie48
Tropicale(IRET)andtheAgenceNationaledesParcsNationaux(ANPN),Gabonfor49
supportforthefieldwork.InparticularwethankConservatorsDanielNzameand50
RostandAb’aa;ProfessorsLeeWhite,JacquesMavoungouandEJMilner-Gulland;51
DrsKathrynJefferyandVincentMejibeandM.ChristianMbinaforgeneralsupport52
andadvice.DatacollectioncostsandresourcesweresupportedbyIRET(VJOO);53
ANPN(MMM,FKP,MO,BRM);theIUCNSSCPangolinSpecialistGroup(FB,MMM,54
BRM);UniversityofMasuku(BRM)andtheUniversityofStirling(KA).Analysisand55
writingcostsinadditiontothesupportoftheauthors’institutionswereprovidedby56
theIUCNSSCPangolinSpecialistGroupandtheGaboneseRepublic(Studentgrants57
service).58
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Abstract61
Recentseizuresofillegally-heldwildlifeindicateamountingglobaltradeinpangolins62
involvingalleightspecies.Seizuresofillegally-tradedAfricanpangolinsare63
increasingaswildpopulationsofAsianspeciesdecline.Weinvestigatedtradein64
pangolinsandlawenforcementeffortsinGabon;acountrylikelytohaveintactwild65
populationsofthreeofthefourspeciesofAfricanpangolin.Wecomparedvillage66
salesandtradechainsbetween2002-3and2014.Huntersreportedpangolinstobe67
themostfrequentlyrequestedspeciesin2014andthevalueofpangolinshad68
increasedateverypointalongtheirtradechain.InLibreville,giantpangolinprices69
increased211%andarborealpangolinprices73%whilstinflationroseonly4.6%70
overthesameperiod.Wedocumentedalowrateofinterceptionofillegally-traded71
pangolinsdespiteincreasedlawenforcement.Surveysofpotentialexportroutes72
detectedexportsacrossforestborders,inconjunctionwithivory,butnotthrough73
publictransportroutes.Weconcludethatwhilstthereisclearpotentialand74
likelihoodthatawildpangolinexporttradeisemergingfromGabon,traditional75
bushmeattradechainsmaynotbetheprimarysupplyroute.Werecommend76
adjustingconservationpoliciesandactionstoimpedefurtherdevelopmentofillegal77
tradewithinandfromGabon.78
79
Keywords:pangolins,illegalwildlifetrade,Gabon,hunting,bushmeat, 80
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Maintext81
Introduction82
Althoughtradeinwildlifeproductsisanancienthumanendeavor,wildpopulations83
ofmanyspeciesarecurrentlysufferingdeclinesasdemandinglobalmarketsdrives84
unsustainableexploitation.Drasticpopulationdeclinesattributedprimarilyto85
commercialharvestsarereportedindiverseterrestrialandmarinetaxaandIUCN’s86
(InternationalUnionforConservationofNature)TheRedListofThreatened87
SpeciesTMnowlists8,613speciesasthreatenedbyoverexploitationworldwide88
(IUCN,2014;Rippleetal.,2016).Themajorityofimpactsonterrestrialspeciesare89
feltintropicalregions(Dirzoetal.,2014)andofthese,mammalssuffermorethan90
anyotherspeciesgroup(Rippleetal.,2016).91
Commercialexploitationhasbeenthekeyfactorintherapiddeclineofwild92
populationsofAsianpangolinspeciesinrecentdecades(Challenderetal.,2015;93
Challender,2011).Unsurprisingly,thishasledtoanoverallriseininternationaltrade94
aswellastraffickingofAfricanpangolins,primarilytheirscales,toAsia(Challender&95
Waterman,2017;ChallenderandHywood,2012;Newmanetal.,2014;Nijmanetal.,96
2016).Increasingglobaleconomicandtradelinksbutparticularlynewlinksbetween97
AfricannationsandEastAsiahavepossiblyfacilitatedthistrade(Challenderetal.,98
2016;WangandBio-Tchané,2008).Thevastmajorityofinternationaldemandfor99
pangolinscomesfromAsia,andinparticularChinaandVietnam(Challenderetal.,100
2015;Nijmanetal.,2016).However,exactcountriesoforiginoftradedAfrican101
pangolins,whicharefoundinmanyrangestates,areunattributedforthemajorityof102
seizuresmade(thoughseeChallender&Waterman,2017).Overthepastdecade103
ChinahasdevelopedincreasingeconomictieswithAfrica,inparticularthrough104
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directinvestment(Abernethyetal.,2016)andChinesecompaniesnowhave105
permanentbases,residentworkersandadministrativenetworksincountriesacross106
thecontinent(WangandBio-Tchané,2008;Putzeletal.,2011).107
Basedonavailableevidence,whichislikelytobeapartialpicture,international108
seizuresofillegallytradedproductsfromAfricanpangolinsareincreasing.Fourkgof109
Africanpangolinproductswereseizedin2008,312kgin2012,4tonnesofscales110
wereseizedinCameroonin2016andanother5.4tonneswereseizedinearly2017111
(LAGA,2017),thislastrepresenting10,000–20,000pangolins(seeChallender&112
Waterman,2017foracomprehensiveoverviewofglobalseizures).Thisisostensibly113
anexponentialrisewhich,despitesometargetedinternationallawenforcement114
efforts,maybesignallingamushroomingillegaltrade,ratherthandramatic115
improvementsinthedetectionoftrafficking.116
GabonishometothreeofthefourAfricanspeciesofpangolin,thefossorialgiant117
pangolin(Smutsiagigantea,Illiger1815);andthearborealwhite-belliedpangolin118
(Phataginustricuspis,Rafinesque1821)andblack-belliedpangolin(Phataginus119
tetradactyla,L.1766)(KingdonandHoffman,2013).Giantpangolinshavebeen120
integrallyprotectednationallysince1987(RepubliqueGabonaise,décretn°121
189/PR/MEFCR),butbothPhataginus(arboreal)speciescanbelegallyhunted122
locally,althoughhuntingmethods,catchsizes,seasonsandtradeareregulated.123
However,despiteregulation,anationwidesix-yearsurveyofsixteenbushmeat124
markets(2000-2006)recordedarborealpangolinsinallmarketsinallmonths,125
accountingfor10%ofallanimalstradedannually(AbernethyandNdongObiang,126
2010).Intwoyear-longvillagehuntingstudiesduringthesameperiodwhite-bellied127
pangolinswerecaughtbyvillagehunterseverymonthandformedapproximately6%128
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ofallanimalscaughtannually(Coad,2007;VanVliet,2008).Thereisnocensusdata129
foranypangolinspeciesinthewildinGabon.130
Inthefaceoftheglobalriseinillegalwildlifetradeinrecentyearsandinparticular131
thethreattoAfricanmammals(LondonDeclaration,2014;KasaneStatement,2015),132
anti-poachingeffortshavebeenincreasedinGabonandinparticularforspecies133
likelytobeathighestrisk.Snifferdogstrainedforthedetectionofivory,apeand134
pangolinproductshavebeenworkingatroadblocks,railwaystations,airportsand135
seaportssince2013,inanefforttointerceptwildlifebeingtradedillegally.136
InthisfirstevaluationoftraderisktoGabonesepangolins,ourspecificobjectives137
wereto:138
a) describethecurrenttradeofpangolinsinruralareasandrural-to-urban139
scenarios;140
b) evaluatetheextentofchangeoverthepastdecadeinthespeciesand141
relativevalueofspeciesinvolvedthistrade,withparticularattentionto142
changeinthevalueofpangolinsrelativetootherspecies;143
c) assesstheextenttowhichruralhuntingcommunitiesmaybethesourceof144
pangolinsforexportorwhetherthespeciesarepotentiallysourcedoutwith145
thetraditionalbushmeattrade;146
d) evaluatethetraderoutesforpangolinswithinandfromGabon,147
e) evaluatethecurrentcontroloftrade;andusingthedataweacquirefor148
pointsa-e;149
f) proposeactionstomoreeffectivelycombatanyemerginghigh-valuetradein150
thesespeciesoutsidethetraditionalsubsistenceeconomy.151
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Toaddresstheseobjectives,wecollecteddataintraditionalsubsistencevillageson152
huntersales;tradepricesatthe‘forestgate’;intheprovincialtownmarketssupplied153
andinthecapital;andlawenforcementeffortsin2014.Wecomparedourresultsto154
existingdatacollectedvariouslybetween2000and2006.155
Methods156
Villagehuntingand‘forestgate’tradein2014157
Pangolinofftakeandsaleswereassessedinlocalcommunitieslivinginrural158
subsistenceeconomies(whichincludehuntingformeatandincome).Thehunted159
areaswerenotprotectedareasandarborealpangolinscouldbelegallyhunted160
undertraditionalcustomaryrights.Weassessedthenumbersofpangolinstradedin161
2014fromvillagesintheOgooué-IvindoandtheNyangaprovincesinGabonbothto162
localclientsand,viaroadsidesalestotraders,intolargermarkets.Thetwokey163
provinceswerechosenforthefollowingreasons:a)comparativedatawereavailable164
fromthepreviousdecade(OkouyiOkouyi,2006;AbernethyandNdongObiang,165
2010);b)bothprovinceshaverelativelyrecentlyseenthearrivalofpopulationsof166
migrantAsianworkers,specificallyintheconstruction,agro-industrialandlogging167
industries(OxfordBusinessGroup,2015);and(c)theseareasbroadlyrepresentthe168
twomajorcatchmenthabitatsofcompletelyforested(OgoouéIvindo)and169
savannah/forestmosaic(Nyanga)foundinGabon.Surveysofvillagehunterswere170
madeinthedryseasonduringa43-daystudyperiodintheOgooué-Ivindo(June-July171
2014),anda10-dayperiodintheNyanga(earlyAugust2014).Duringthesestudies,172
24villagesweresurveyed(Figure1).Surveyscompriseddatacollectiononvillage173
characteristics(questionnairesfilledbythevillagechieforelderhunter)andsemi-174
structuredinterviewswithhuntersonhuntingactivity,clientrequests,salesand175
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revenuesfromthepastmonth.Examplesofthequestionnairesaregivenin176
SupplementaryMaterialsandcanalsobefoundinBaker,(2014)andMambeya,177
(2015).178
Atotalof138villagersparticipatedintheresearch.Oftheseinitialsurvey179
respondents,69villagersintenvillagesintheOgoouéIvindoand34villagersinten180
villagesintheNyanga(total103)reportedhuntingactivelyandwerefurther181
interviewed.Villagesrangedfrom64-800people(median200)withbetweenone182
andfifteenhunters(median4).Allinterviewedhuntersweremen,agedbetween16183
and70years,withthemajorityinthe31-50year-oldageclass(57.3%).Over90%of184
intervieweeswerenativetothevillage(bornthereorlivingwithfamilybornthere)185
andgavesubsistenceastheirprimaryreasonforhunting.Culture,protectionof186
plantationsandsupplementaryincomewerealsoreasons(9.3%),butnohunter187
reportedevenlegitimatelocalcommercialtradeastheirprimarymotivationfor188
hunting.Huntersusedguns(47.6%)orsnares(28.1%)orboth(24.3%)andall189
huntersreportedhuntingwithinoneday’swalkfromtheirvillagewithoutusing190
camps.Comparisonwithavailableliteratureshowsthatthesevillagehunting191
communitiesconformtopreviouslyestablishedprofilesforsubsistencecommunities192
inGabonintermsofhunterages,hunternumberspervillage,huntingcatchment193
distancesfromthevillage(oneday’swalkormax10km),speciescaught,194
percentagestradedandpriceequivalencybetweenspecies(Coad,2007;Foersteret195
al.,2011;OkouyiOkouyi,2006;Starkey,2004;VanVliet,2008).196
197
Villagesurveysin2002-2003andchangeovertime2002-2014198
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Detailedstudiesofvillagehuntinghadbeencarriedoutin2002-2003intheOgooué-199
Ivindo(OkouyiOkouyi,2006)whichallowedustoanalyzechangesovertimeinlocal200
farmgate,orrather‘forestgate’,salepricesfortheOgoouéIvindo.Dataondate,201
timeandlocationofsale,speciessold,carcassstate(wholeorbutcheredparts,fresh202
orsmoked)andpriceobtainedwerecollectedoverfourteenmonthsin2002-2003in203
sixvillagesaroundMakokou(detailedmethodsinOkouyiOkouyi,2006)and204
Makokoumarketitself.Comprehensivesurveysofsixteentownandvillagemarkets205
inGabonfrom2000-2006showedthatpricesdidnotfluctuatesignificantlybetween206
seasonsofayear(Abernethy&NdongObiang,2010),howeverhunterofftakerates207
couldalterbetweenseasons(Coad,2007).Welimitedthehuntersalesdataanalysed208
from2002-2003tothemonthsofMay–August(dryseason)tolimitanypotential209
biasofofftakevolumeorcompositiononhuntertradedecisionsbetweenthe210
comparedstudyperiods.211
212
Changeinrelativevalueofspecies,withinandalongthetraditionaltradechain213
Toinvestigatechangeovertimeintherelativevalueoftradedbushmeatswelooked214
specificallyattheOgooué-Ivindomarketchain,fromwhichwehadcomparabledata215
from2002-2003and2014.MarketsurveysinMakokouandsurroundingvillages216
werecarriedoutforallsalesinsixmarketsononedayperweekduring2002-2003217
andonetothreedaysperlocationduringthreemonthsMay-Julyin2014.Datafrom218
LibrevilleMontBouëtmarket,alsocollectedfrom2002-2003allowedanalysisofthe219
evolutionofrelativevalueofspeciesoverthepasttwelveyearsfortheselocations.220
Weincludedthefivemostcommonotherspeciesgroupsrecordedinournational221
surveysinboth2002-2003and2014(blueduiker(Philantombamonticola,Thunberg222
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1822),brush-tailedporcupine(Atherurusafricanus,Gray1842),redduikers223
(Cephalophusspp.),redriverhog(Potamochoerusporcus,L.1758)andguenons224
(Cercopithecusspp.)andbothpangolintypes(Table1).Priceswerestandardizedto225
perkgpricesforcomparisonsbetweenspecies,usingmeanweightsofhunted226
animalsrecordeddirectlyinvillagesinGabon(Coad,2007;Abernethy&Ndong227
Obiang,2010).Forcomparisonofthepriceofthesamespeciesoverspaceandtime,228
weusedsalesofwholeanimalsonlytoreduceinherentnoisefromstandardizing229
weightsofbutcheredanimals.Wedidnotuseapurchasingpowerparityor230
ConsumerPriceIndex(CPI)correctionbetweenyears,asinferencesweredrawn231
fromtherelativerankvalueoftradedspeciesacrossspace,ratherthanfromtheir232
absolutevalues.However,betweenthestartof2002andtheendof2014,Gabon’s233
inflation(percentagechangeinCPI)wasapproximately4.6%(WorldBank,2017),234
thusariseofupto5%inabsolutevalueofproducts,maynotindicateanyreal235
changeovertimeinvaluerelativetootherproducts.236
237
Lawenforcementin2014238
One-daysurveysatpotentialexportlocationsinthecapital,Libreville(seaport,239
airport,trainstationandbusstation)werecarriedoutincollaborationwithlaw240
enforcementagenciesandconcentratedoncurrentpracticesusedforinterception241
ofillegaltradeandcollationofannualseizures,ratherthannumbersseizedduring242
thesurveydays.Nationwidedataonseizuresofpangolinsorpangolinproductswere243
obtainedfromallrelevantgovernmentagencies(MinistryofForestsandProtection244
oftheEnvironment(MinistèredesForêtsdedelaProtectiondelaNature),the245
ConventiononInternationalTradeinEndangeredSpecies(CITES)Management246
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AuthorityforGabon,NationalPoliceForce(GendarmerieNationale),theBorder247
Police(PolicedesAiresetFrontières),Customs(DouanesNationales)andNational248
ParksAgency(AgenceNationaledesParcsNationaux;ANPN)forassessmentoflaw249
enforcementefforts(2012-2015)andpotentialexportroutes.250
251
Results252
HuntersandtradersdidnotreliablydifferentiatebetweenthetwoPhataginus253
speciesofpangolinineitherthe2014surveysorthe2002-2003villagestudies,thus254
dataaregivencollectivelyfor‘arborealpangolins’.255
256
Villagehuntingand‘forestgate’tradein2014257
Ofvillagehunterswhogaveinformationonsales(90/103),allhuntersreported258
catchinganarborealpangolin‘commonly’and89%ofhuntersreportedsaleofan259
arborealpangolininthepastthreemonths.260
Theaveragepriceperkgforallbushmeatcarcassesrecordedassoldattheroadside261
invillageswasnotsignificantlydifferentbetweenthetwoprovinces.Mean2014262
roadsidepriceforallbushmeatwas1008±400FCFA(US$1.81±0.72)perkgfor514263
recordsfromhuntersales.Figure3showsmeanpriceperkgforallsalesreportedby264
huntersin2014.Bothtypesofpangolinsoldatahigherpriceperkgthanthemean265
priceofallbushmeat:wholearborealpangolins(estimatedat1.8kgfromasampleof266
93huntedanimalsweighedinGabon;Coad,2007,Hymas,unpublisheddata)were267
soldatameanroadsidepriceof2,447±930FCFA(US$4.40±1.67),equivalentto268
1,359±517FCFA(US$2.45±0.93)perkg(n=65salesobservedduringfieldstudy).269
Giantpangolins(estimatedat28.75kg)soldattheroadsideatameanpriceof270
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38,100±17,822FCFA(US$68.39±32.07)equivalentto1,325FCFA(US$2.38±1.28)271
perkg(n=25).272
273
Expresseddemandforpangolinsinruralareasin2014274
Themajority(70%)ofhuntersreportedonlysellingtheirmeatopportunistically.Of275
the30%ofhuntersthattookordersformeatbeforehunting,34%oftheircustomer276
base(bynumberofclients)wereAsianimmigrants,althoughhuntersdidnotknow277
theparticularnationalityofindividualclients.Allhuntersthattookordersformeat278
beforehuntingwerefromtheOgoouéIvindo.MeatordersplacedbyAsianclients279
wereheavilybiasedtopangolins(Figure2).Huntersandvillagechiefsreportedno280
knowledgeofhuntingintheforestbyimmigrantworkersthemselves,ineither281
province.282
283
Changeinrankpositionofpangolinspecieswithinthetraditionalbushmeattrade284
Sixteenspecieswererecordedinthemarketsin2014.Thetopfivespecies,or285
speciesgroups,soldbytotalnumberofcarcassesinallmarketswere,inrankorder;286
blueduiker(26.1%carcasses),brush-tailedporcupine(20.3%),redduikers(18.8%),287
redriverhog(9.4%)andguenons(7.2%).Arborealpangolinswerethesixthmost-288
tradedspecies,forming4.3%ofallcarcassesandgiantpangolinsweretheseventh289
most-tradedspecies,forming3.6%ofallcarcassessold.290
Changeovertimeandspaceinmarketvalue291
ThepriceofanybushmeatattheforestgateinOgoouéIvindohadrisenfromamean292
761±236FCFA(US$1.31±0.42)perkgin2002-2003to1008±400FCFA(US$1.81±293
0.72)in2014;anincreaseof32%ofthe2002price.Pangolinsweretradedatabove294
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averageperkgpricesinboth2002and2014,buttherelativepriceincreasewasfar295
greaterforgiantpangolins,whichsoldin2014for52%morethantheir2002price,296
whilstthepriceofarborealpangolinshadonlyrisenby9%onthe2002forestgate297
value.298
Usingpricesofwholeanimalsofthemostcommonandcomparablespecies;blue299
duikersandbrush-tailedporcupinesaccountforaround50%ofallsales,Makokou300
townpricesforwhole,freshanimalshadrisenfrom3631±1177FCFA(US$6.53±2.12)301
to5453±1297FCFA(US$9.81±2.33)percarcass,andLibrevillepriceshadrisenfrom302
8455±1716FCFA(US$15.22±3.09)to15700±4461FCFA(US$28.26±8.03),relative303
risesof50%and87%on2002prices.Duringthesameperiod,theaveragepriceof304
giantandarborealpangolinsinLibrevilleroseby212%and74%respectively(Figure305
4).306
307
Lawenforcement308
During2014,governmentwildlifelawenforcementteamswithsnifferdogscarried309
out209controlmissionsonpotentialexportroutesattheLibrevilleseaportand310
airport,theN1majorroadarteryintoandoutofLibrevilleandthetrainstation.311
Dailycontrolswithoutdogsalsooperatedatfiveroadblocksonmajorroadarteries312
acrossthecountry.Standardcustomscontrolsnotspecializedtowildlifeissuesalso313
operatedonallflightsdepartingtheinternationalairportandshipsdepartingthe314
seaport.Illegallyheldpangolinswerelocatedandseizedononlyfouroccasions:315
threeontheN1roadandoneatthetrainstation,recoveringintotaltwelvearboreal316
pangolins,equivalenttoapproximately21kgtotalweight.In2015(January-June)317
teamsworkingatthesamelocationsmadeoneseizureofscalesinthetownof318
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Oyem.ThesescaleswerereportedlydestinedforaChinesebuyerinEquatorial319
GuineawhoregularlyplacedorderswithGabonesehuntersandwereassociated320
withaseizureofivory.Noseizuresofpangolinsorproductsweremadeatthe321
internationaltransporthubs.322
323
Discussion324
Wesetouttodescribethecurrentpositionofpangolinswithinthetraditional325
subsistencetradechain,toevaluatetheextentofchangeoverthepastdecadeinthe326
tradefromforestgatetocity,andtoassesstheextenttowhichruralhunting327
communitiesmaybeasourceofpangolinsforinternationaltrade,andhowand328
whereillegaltrademaybeemerging.Wehavefoundthat329
1. Frequencyofsaleofpangolins,particularlygiantpangolins,maybeincreasing330
withinthetraditionalbushmeatmarketchains,butthattheseincreasesare(as331
yet)smallandmaynotreflectanincreaseinhunterofftakesforarboreal332
pangolins.In2000-2006,althoughgiantpangolinswererecordedintrade,the333
speciesdidnotappearintheeighteenmostcommonly-tradedspeciesfroma334
comprehensivesurveyacrossGabon(Abernethy&NdongObiang,2010).Yetin335
our2014studytheyaretheseventhmost-tradedspecies.Itislikelythattheir336
salefrequencyhasrisenoverallinourstudyareasandpossiblynationwide.337
2. Allpangolinshaveincreasedinvalueovertime,relativetootherspecieswithin338
theexistingbushmeattradestructure.Relativevalueincreasesaremost339
extremeinmosturbanareasandsmallerinruralareas.Thisisconsistentwith340
absenceofahigh-valuetradedevelopingfromwithinthetraditionalmarket341
tradeandotherwiseprimarilyinvolvingvillagehunters.342
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3. Specificdemandforpangolinsexpressedtovillagehuntersishighincertain343
areasrelativetoexpresseddemandforotherspecies,andparticularlyfor344
consumptionbytheimmigrantAsianpopulation.345
4. Giantpangolinshavebecomerelativelymorevaluablethanarborealpangolins,346
whichisinlinewiththeirmuchhigherweightofscales,ifscalepriceisa347
determinantofvalue.348
5. Despiteanintensificationoflawenforcementefforttodetectpangolin349
trafficking,nomovementthroughpublicinternationalordomestictransport350
hubshasbeendetected.Instead,averysmallnumberofinformaltraderoutes351
havebeenfoundacrossforestborderswherenoenforcementisroutinelymade.352
Itisprobablethatclientswithinestablishedillegaltradechainsforivorymay353
alsobeexpressingademandforpangolinscales.354
Thereislittleevidencefromoursurveysofvillagehuntersthattheyareengagingat355
presentinhuntingpangolinsformorecommercialpurposes,noringreaternumbers,356
thanin2002-3.Thetopfivespeciesreportedbyhuntersinthisstudyasmost357
frequentlycaughtareverysimilartothosefoundbyhunterstudiesadecadeago358
(thetopfivespeciesin2014villagecatcheswerealsofoundinthetopeightspecies359
inall2002-2006studies:OkouyiOkouyi,2006,Coad2007,vanVliet,2008).These360
resultssuggestthatthishuntingisstillprimarilyorientedtowardssubsistence,rather361
thannewercommercialpossibilitiesassociatedwithintercontinentaltrafficking.362
Althoughvillagehuntersareexperiencinghighlocaldemandforpangolinsfrom363
Asianimmigrantworkers,andareprovidingsupply,itwouldbepossibletoachieve364
morepangolinsalesin2014thanin2002-3withoutinitiallyincreasingofftakes.Coad365
(2007)foundvillagehunterstradedonly10%ofthepangolinstheyhunted,366
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consumingtherestathome.Thus,thereissignificantpotentialforincreasedtrade367
toberecordedwithoutnecessarilyincreasedofftakes,simplybyhuntersdecidingto368
sell,ratherthanconsume,theircatch.369
Arborealpangolinswereonlythetenthandtwelfthmosttradedspeciesinmarkets370
nationallybetween2000-2006(AbernethyandObiangNdong,2010),yetinthis371
studywerethesixthmost-tradedspecies(bynumberofcarcassessold).Thelarge372
differenceinsamplesizeandperiodmeansthatthisresultmustbeinterpretedwith373
caution,howeveritsupportstheconclusionthatarborealpangolinsmaybetraded374
moreoftenin2014thantheywerein2002-2003,whetherornotofftakesfromthe375
forestarehigher.Sustaineddemandandhighvaluewillbealmostcertaintocreate376
increasedofftakesfromthevillagehuntinggroundsovertime.377
The2015seizureof2kgofscalesinOyemwasthefirstdomesticinterceptionof378
scaletrade,despiteconsiderableeffortssince2012dedicatedtocontrollingmajor379
transporthubsandfocusingsearcheffortsonpangolinsandtheirderivatives.The380
traderinterceptedwasalsodealinginivoryandreportedhavingregularlysupplied381
theChineseclientinvolvedforthepasttwoyears,exportingscalesinformallyacross382
aforestbordertoaspecificrecipient,ratherthanusingestablishedbushmeat383
traderswithinthecountrytooffertheproductforgeneralsalealongsidemeat.In384
2016asecondivorytraderwasalsointerceptedintheMinkébéregionofGabon,385
with2sacksofpangolinscalesassociatedwithaseizureofrawivory(ANPN,2016).386
Althoughthesearesmallpiecesofevidence,combinedwiththelackofseizuresof387
pangolinsinmajordomestictransporthubsandthetraditionalbushmeattrade388
network,eventheseanecdotesprovidesomeinsightintothepossiblemechanisms389
ofnewillegaltradeemergence.390
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Weconcludethatthebeginningsofhighervaluetradechainsarepossibleand391
indeedprobableforeachspeciesofpangolin.bothwithinandfromGabon,andthat392
pathwaysforincreasingthetradeofpangolinshuntedinvillagesarealreadyevident,393
evenifthistradeisnotyetfullyrealised.Thevalueofgiantpangolinsindomestic394
tradehasincreasedgreatlyinurbanmarkets,despitethespecies’fullyprotected395
status,whichisanindicatorthatpressureonthisspeciesmaybehigherand396
expressedmorerapidlythandemandforarborealpangolins.Whilstwedemonstrate397
thatillegaltradenetworksforpangolinsmayevolveoutsideofthetraditional398
bushmeatmarketstructureandbe‘invisible’totraditionalmeatmarketsurveysand399
controls,evolutionofpangolintradebothwithinandoutsidethetraditional400
bushmeatsupplyisofcoursepossible.401
Iftheinternationalpangolintradeisnotsourcinganimalsfromthetraditional402
bushmeatmarkets,thenitmaybedifficulttodetectaparalleltradestructureusing403
thecurrentconservationstrategies.Weseeanimmediateneedforpro-active404
monitoringofthehuntingandtradeofpangolinsinvillagesandadiversificationof405
pangolin-focusedlawenforcementactivities.Suchactionswillrequireinnovationon406
thepartofgovernmentagenciesandNGOssupportingsuchefforts,anincreaseof407
resourcesdedicatedtocombattingtheillegalwildlifetradeinandfromGabon,and408
strengtheningofmultipleinternationalcollaborations.However,wefeelitisuseful409
toallfuturepartnerstosetoutaroadmapforconservationactionforpangolinsin410
Gabonfromthispointforwards.411
Specificrecommendationsare:412
1. Improvedenforcementandinterceptioneffortsinlessfrequently-used413
domestictradeandpotentialexportroutes,tocomplementcurrentefforts414
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18
onlargertransporthubs,includingpayingparticularattentiontodetecting415
andrecordingconcurrentseizuresofpangolinsandivory.416
2. Improvedtraceabilityofseizuresinvolvingpangolinsandtheirderivatives,417
through418
a. improvednationalcapacityfortracingoriginsofdomesticillegaltrade419
(giantpangolins)tosource,forexamplebymonitoringtransportlinks;420
b. improvedcollaborationandparticipationoftheGaboneseState421
agenciesininternationalenforcementtoolsforallpangolins(i.e.422
CITESpermitsandtrademonitoring;Heinrichetal.,2016,Challender423
&Waterman,2017);and424
c. mappingofgenotypicvariationofwildGabonesepangolin425
populationstoenabledifferentiationoforiginwithinthecountry,as426
wellasacrossthespecies’globalrange(i.e.Gaubertetal.,2016).427
3. toensurerobustmonitoringofsubsistencehunterpressurebyworkingwith428
localhuntersandvillagesinorderto:429
a. detectchangesinofftake,includingtobetterunderstandthe430
sustainabilityofcurrentharvests(Coadetal.,2013;Ingrametal;431
2017);and432
b. toenableearlyreactivitytoincreasedcommercialtradeand/or433
trafficking.434
4. tosupportandencouragerobustscientificresearchonwildpangolin435
populationsinGabon,withaparticularfocusondeterminingthestatusof436
populationsinquantitativetermsandtemporaltrends,suchthatbaselines437
canbeestablishedtoproperlyunderpinnationalconservationmeasuresand438
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19
internationaldecision-making,includingwithinCITES,andre-assessmentof439
AfricanpangolinsforTheIUCNRedListofThreatenedSpeciesTM.440
441
442
443
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20
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550
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Tables.551
Table1.Huntersale‘forestgate’pricechangesover12yearsfrom2002-2014inthe552OgoouéIvindovillages.Datafromthe2002-2003samplewerelimitedtorecords553fromMay-Septemberforcomparisontothe2014samplingperiod.Thelinesfor554pangolinrecordsareshaded.555556
Speciesgroup
BodyWeight(kg)
2002 2014price
increase(%2002)
Price/kgFCFA(SD)
EquivalentPrice/kgUS$
(SD)N
Price/kgFCFA(SD)
Price/kgUS$(SD) N
Redduiker 16.2 661(126)1.19(0.23) 347 715(239)
1.29(0.43) 72 8
Arborealpangolin 1.8 1,252(209)
2.25(0.38) 16 1,359(334)2.45(0.60) 57 9
Blueduiker 4.2 744(182)1.34(0.33) 34 879(312)
1.58(0.56) 56 18
Brushtailedporcupine 3.4 1,013(175)
1.82(0.31) 63 1,240(257)2.23(0.46) 58 22
Allspecies 761(236)1.37(0.42) 966 1,008(400)
1.81(0.72) 515 32
Redriverhog 55.0 569(97)1.02(0.17) 73 765(301)
1.38(0.54) 91 34
Guenon 4.0 676(204)1.22(0.37) 36 945(619)
1.70(1.11) 25 40
Giantpangolin 28.8 874(598)1.57(1.08) 53 1,325(517)
2.38(0.93) 66 52
557
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24
Figurelegends558
Figure1.ThestudysitesinGabon.LibrevilleisthenationalcapitalcityandMakokou559
andTchibangaareprovincialcapitals.Hunterswereinterviewedinthevillages560
(shownasblackdots)supplyingthesetwoprovincialtownmarkets.Villagesin561
Gabonaregenerallysituatedalongtheroadnetwork,insimilardensitiestothose562
shownaroundthetwoprovincialtownsstudied.563
564
Figure2.RequestsreceivedfromlocallybasedAsianindustrialworkersbetween565
MarchandMay2014byhuntersfromsurveyedOgooué-Ivindovillages,forsupplyof566
particularspecies(N=34specificrequestsrecorded).567
568
Figure3.MeanpriceperkgFCFA($1USD=555FCFA)forspeciessoldbyhuntersat569
theforestgatein2014(Nsales).ErrorbarsrepresenttheSEofprices.Bodyweights570
weretakenfromempiricaldataforweighedcarcassesinGabon(Coad,2007&571
Abernethy&NdongObiang,2010).Atequalmeatvalue,bybodyweight,giant572
pangolinswouldbeexpectedtosellforasimilarpricetoredduikersandredriver573
hog,approximatelyhalftheiractualsaleprice.Thebarforthemeanofallspeciesis574
showninwhiteandbarsforpangolinspeciesinbrown.575
576
Figure4.Percentage(ofearlierprice)riseinmeanpricebetween2002-2003and577
2014forwholeanimalsalesofa)mostcommonlysoldtaxaunder5kg(palmcivet,578
blueduiker,brush-tailedporcupine,arborealpangolinsandguenons)b)arboreal579
pangolinsc)Giantpangolinsrecordedfromforestgatevillages,Makokoutownandin580
Libreville’slargestmarket(MontBouët).581