The Enlightenment

WORLD HISTORY UNIT ONE

Like other times that have come before- changes the way that people

see the world, in this case: government

Will lead to widespread political change in Europe

MAJOR CHANGES IN THOUGHT

SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION

Helped start this change of ideas.

Renaissance had led to a rebirth in classical learning (Greeks and

Romans) and then people were inspired to

challenge what they knew

Believed nothing was beyond the power of

humans to understand.

(Big change from medieval-

everything in God’s hands)

Gave people confidence

GREAT THINKERS

Astronomy the first major scientific area

Geocentric vs. Heliocentric theory- is the earth or the

sun the center of the universe?

Nicolas Copernicus: 1543 First modern thinker to propose heliocentric theory

Johannes Kepler: 1601 Proves mathematically

Galileo Galilei: 1610 Used Telescope to prove

rationally. (got in trouble with church)

1st defined by Aristotle: a logical method of testing hypothesis.

Francis Bacon: Said medieval and renaissance scientists too quick to accept what others had done. Had no use for abstract theories- you should believe

what you have proved for yourself. Empiricism: experimental method

Rene Descartes: Put greater faith in reason than experiments. Mathematical logic. Doubt everything

until you can prove it through reason.

SCIENTIFIC METHOD

The world is governed by nature rather than the direct hand of a divine being. (Deism: God as a great clockmaker- he created us and let us go- not listening to prayers)You can study the world and understand it- there are forces that are beyond our control, but NOT beyond our knowledgeIsaac Newton: Physics. 1687 There are natural laws, logical, equations that govern gravity, force, friction, and dozens of other things- we can understand them

NATURAL LAWS

Scientific discoveries and improvements were not merely abstract- they improved lives

Anton Van Leeuwenhoek- 1670 invented Microscope

Gabriel Fahrenheit: 1714 thermometer

Edward Jenner: 1699 inoculation for smallpox (borrowed from India)

William Harvey: 1628 blood circulation

QUALITY OF LIFE

From the idea that there are natural laws came the idea of Natural Rights: things that belong to all humans no matter place in life.

The Social Contract: Government exists to serve the people- that is why we give up our freedom to the governmentIf the government is not defending our rights, if it serves only its own power- then it should not exist.

THE SOCIAL CONTRACT

THOMAS HOBBES

First to define social contractWrote Leviathan (1651) horrified by the English Civil War- said humans are naturally aggressive and cruel, government exists to protect people.Thought Absolute Monarchy the best- (with a good monarch) total power to enforce proper laws.Got people talking about government

JOHN LOCKE

Wrote Two Treatise on Government 1690

Defined “Natural Rights”- specifically “Life, Liberty and Property” (foundation

of human rights)

Said the purpose of government is to provide just enough protection to

preserve our rights- then leave us alone

Most radical thought- if the government is NOT

fulfilling the social contract- people have

the right to overthrow itHeavily influenced the

Declaration of Independence

DAVID HUME

Scottish. Questioned idea of identity-

said there is nothing that continues unchanged over time-

ideas, and humans are constantly evolving (and that included government). But we

are not helpless- Free Will is the most important gift man has- we

can design our own changes.

Fought to disentangle religion and philosophy- saying that faith cannot be proved, and therefore is outside the realm of reason.

ENLIGHTENMENT IN FRANCE

Most sophisticated nation in Europe in

1700s.Intellectual debate

became fashion- which lead to creation and

spread of new ideas- far beyond what

government would sanctionCenter of

Enlightenment

“Lovers of Wisdom”- thinkers, debaters, intellectuals. (First non religious ones since fall of Rome)

Applied logic and scientific reasoning to understand and improve government and society. (action, not

just words)Tried to dissect humanity, to understand why people make the choices they do- and what they need from

governmental leadership

PHILOSOPHES

1694-1778. Leading mind of the Enlightenment. Believed in tolerance, (both political and religious)

freedom of thought and speech.Against corruption in government, idleness of aristocracy, prejudice, superstition, religious

persecution. Jailed and exiled from France for his opinions, lived

in Prussia and SwitzerlandDid believe a strong king could give best

government- but should be and “enlightened despot”

VOLTAIRE

DENIS DIDEROT

1750 Published First modern Encyclopedia: a 28 volume compendium of human knowledge (1st since Thomas Aquinas) Said Human knowledge needed to be collected so it could grow

Got contributions from thinkers in all major fields of philosophy and science.

Controversial because writings challenged accepted church doctrines, government forms, and various laws. Had to be published and distributed in secret

JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU

1762 Passionate champion of individual freedom

Believed there should be as little government as

possible. “man is born free- and everywhere he is in

chains.”Power corrupt man’s natural

instincts, as does the inequality of social classes.

Only good government should be a democracy- the

will of the people

If people must give up some freedom for

common good- they should be able to

choose what they give up, and how it is used

BARON DE MONTESQUIEU

1748 Interested in political liberty- studied the decline

and fall of Rome- said it went bad because they changed from Republic to Empire.

Admired English constitution and separation of powers. (which he exaggerated)

Said the power of the government needed to be in many hands so that no one group can use it to destroy

liberty.

Needs “Checks and Balances”

Greatly admired by Americans in writing

Constitution

Italian. Wrote “On Crimes and Punishments” discussing the origins of crime in society, and what should be done about it. Argued against use of torture, and said death penalty did not prevent crime, so it is cruel.Wrote about prisons, saying they would be better used for reform for those who had committed crimes, rather than punish without hope of redemption

CESARE BECCARIA

THE ENLIGHTENMENT IN AMERICA (NOT ON OUTLINE)

Enlightenment ideas spread to America- and inspired and inspired action as well as debate. Ideas like the social contract justified our revolution- the colonists felt that the King and the British gov’t weren’t holding up their side of the deal….Declaration of Independence strongly influenced by LockeAfter we won the revolution (yeah us!) we used enlightenment ideas to create a new style of government. Primarily inspired by ancient Roman government and the ideas of Baron de Montesquieu. (separation of powers and checks/balances)Bill of Rights has strong influences from Voltaire- freedom of thought, action and tolerance

Author of Declaration of Independence.Borrowed (copied!) from Locke- natural rights become “inalienable rights” of Life, Liberty, and Pursuit of Happiness (property not such a big thing, it was easier to get here)Jefferson was also a driving force behind creating a Bill of Rights (he was nervous about a government

with too much power) Supported freedom of speech and religion.

Irony is that at the same time, he- and most of the other founding fathers were slave owners….

THOMAS JEFFERSON (REPLACES IMMANUEL

KANT)

WOMEN’S RIGHTS

Legally- didn’t really exist. Rare for women to be

educated, or able to own property in their own name, run their own businesses, or choose whom they married,

Most Enlightenment writers didn’t really get into

women’s rights- but the discussion of rights in

general brought attention to the idea for the first time. “If all men are born free,

how is it that all women are born slaves?”

Early and important feminist

1792 Vindication of the Rights of Women. (a parody of the Declaration of the Rights of Man) pointing at abuses of women, and demanding equal treatment under the law

Argued for women’s education so that they could be full and productive members of society.

MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT

Another new idea- using scientific approaches to study trade, business, banking etc.. So that you can understand

and control your economy.

Exploration(trade) and industrial revolution (business) had changed economy of Europe- not based on weather like

farming

ECONOMICS

Thinkers who look for Natural Laws to define and control economics.

Focus on control and reform

Didn’t like Mercantilism (policy of using colonies for raw materials and markets, and limiting trade) thought it gave

government too much power over the econ

Believed that the econ should actually control the government

PHYSIOCRATS

“Leave Alone” the main economic theory of the physiocrats.

Government should stay out of the economy.

Provide security for country- then allow a free market of supply/demand.

Opposed all forms of Tariffs (taxes on imports)

Would be general policy in Europe until late 1800s

LAISSEZ FAIRE

1776 The Wealth of Nations

Defined modern economic theory- specifically Laissez faire, and supply and demand.

Father of Capitalism: a free market economy will make countries powerful by making them rich.

ADAM SMITH

Best known for concept of

Utilitarianism- the measure of anything should be- how useful is it for the greatest number of people? (“greatest

happiness principle”)

Argued for the abolition of slavery and the death penalty- and also the earliest person on record to discuss idea of

animal rights.

JEREMY BENTHAM

Also reflected new ideas- went back for inspiration to the classical world

Valued symmetry and balance- logical harmony

ART

Architecture of age of kings was Baroque- elaborate, decorated, over the top

Architecture of Enlightenment borrowed ideas from Greece and Rome- a far simpler, more elegant style

 Characterized by

Symmetrical shape

Tall columns

Triangular pediment

Domed roof

NEOCLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE

Baroque music was Bach, and Handel- dramatic organ and choral pieces.

Music of Enlightenment lighter, true “classical” music

Hayden, Mozart, Beethoven

Writing was not only about philosophy- the modern novel developed

Had fully realized plots, suspense, explored characters thoughts and feelings.

Written mainly for the entertainment of the middle classes

MUSIC/LITERATURE

Enlightenment began in France- but became important in other areas as well.

Most successful in more “liberal” places, that were more involved with “progressive” ideas like business, and less involved with “traditions” like

the Catholic Church. England, Holland and Prussia particularly affected.

Few things can spread as quickly, or create as much change as a revolutionary idea

ENLIGHTENMENT IDEAS SPREAD

Enlightenment made strict class hierarchy seem wrong

People began to question the privileges of the aristocratic class. In Middle Ages they provided

protection- what did they provide now?Believed the govt’s role was to create justice, not

indulge self pleasure.Peasants began to rumble- unhappy with system

that keeps them down

QUESTIONING THE OLD

Established leaders often felt that Enlightenment ideas were unflattering- and wanted to restrict or silence them.

(Louis XIV esp.)Banned and burned books- imprisoned and

exiled writers (Voltaire)One trick writers used was to use satirical

“fiction” with made up names to avoid trouble (Candide)

CENSORSHIP

Informal gatherings of Enlightenment thinkers- most often sponsored by noblewomen. (they had a

long tradition of hosting social gatherings for entertainment)

Madame Geoffrin’s the most famousLaunching place for writers, musicians etc…

(Mozart)Court of the mind, where wit, rather than beauty

was worshippedCritical to spread of ideas

SALONS

This is still the age of the absolute monarchIn Middle ages the purpose of king was to protect-

now people are safe- and they want more from their leader

Kings generally disliked the ideas that favored limiting their power. (Louis XIV and XV strongly

against)

ENLIGHTENMENT AND MONARCHY

Some rulers (though not many) became interested in Enlightenment ideas and

embraced them.Kept their political power- but used it to

create change in societyOften backed change off if they felt

challenged

ENLIGHTENED DESPOTS

King of Prussia 1740-86.

Saw his role as “1st servant of the state” (from Augustus)

Greatly influenced in his early reign by Voltaire. (they later fought bitterly)

Inherited a large army from his father- used them in peacetime to clear land, build roads, other civil service

projects. (again, Rome)

Provided opportunity for universal elementary education, abolished serfdom, abolished torture

Invited people being persecuted in other countries (esp. Huguenots and Jews) to come live in Prussia

FREDERICK THE GREAT

Tsarina of Russia 1729-1796

Another admirer of Voltaire and Diderot- corresponded extensively with both

Granted limited reforms- but backed off when nobles threatened to undermine her power.

Admired the theory more than the practice- but brought the ideas into Russia

CATHERINE THE GREAT

Emperor of Austria 1741-1790. Son of Maria Theresa (brother of Marie Antoinette)Probably the monarch most influenced by Enlightenment- known as “the Peasant King”.Went out in disguise to gather information about how his people lived and what they needed.Introduced numerous reforms including:

Abolition of serfdom freedom of press

Equality of taxation religious toleration

Elementary education and scholarships for higher ed

State funded hospitals and healthcare

Reforms ended with his death in 1790 (and partly b/c of French Revolution)

JOSEPH II

90% of the people of Europe NOT nobleMost people more worried about food on the table

than style of government- but DID think the government should spend more time making sure

there WAS food.Bad econ times make people call for change

ENLIGHTENMENT AND AVERAGE PEOPLE

Only a maximum of 15% of the population in any European country.

Was growing significantly due to increased trade with colonies and growing industrialism

(enlightenment and industrial revolution cross each other significantly)

Backbone of Enlightenment- they want moreMaking the $$ want the power to go with it

Most effective in England where they had a voice. Loudest in France where they did not (Louis XIV-

XVI)

MIDDLE CLASS

75 % of most populations (up to 90% in Eastern Europe, esp. Austria and Russia)

Conditions varied wildly- some owned their land and were relatively prosperous (England, France,

Holland, Prussia)

PEASANTS

Tied to the land as they had been since fall of Rome

Still common in eastern Europe.Enlightened Despots ended legal serfdom (Russia

the last- not until 1861) but nobles had little incentive to change a system that worked for

them.Would become a restless underclass- no power-

but a LOT of anger.

SERFS

Opened the door to new discussions and ideas- which would lead to eventual changes. (some

peaceful- some not so much- age of revolution is coming next)Key changes

Belief in progress : things shouldn’t just stay status quo

A more worldly outlook: don’t just accept- work to make the world a better place

Importance of the individual: one person’s ideas and actions are important- make your own

decisions

RESULTS OF ENLIGHTENMENT