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THE ENVIRONMENTAND DEVELOPMENT

BELGIANDEVELOPMENT AGENCY

A VIEW OF 30 DEVELOPMENTPROJECTS

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About BTC The Belgian development agency, BTC, mobilises its resources and its ex-pertise to eliminate poverty in the world. BTC contributes to the efforts of the international community and works towards a society that provides present and future generations with sufficient resources to build a sustain-able and fair world.

Its staff members in Brussels and overseas embody the commitment of the Belgian State and other development partners to international solidarity. They support more than 300 cooperation projects and programmes in some 20 countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America.

BTC listens, gives advice and puts the experience of its staff to the disposal of its partners. Its staff members look for innovative solutions to the chal-lenges set by a continuously more complex environment. To support the development processes BTC provides services that are characterized by transparency and integrity, which are essential values in a relation of trust.

In Belgium BTC is presenting itself as a centre of excellence for develop-ment issues.

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ENVIRONMENTAL POLICIES 9

RELIEVING THE STRAIN 29ON THE LANDAGRICULTURE AND THE ENVIRONMENT

SAVING THE BLUE GOLD 55WATER AND THE ENVIRONMENT

NATURE, A PARTNER 67THAT NEEDS CARING FOR NATURAL RESOURCES AND THE ENVIRONMENT

TWO COMPETING DEMANDS 85ENERGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT

GREEN CLASSES 99EDUCATION AND THE ENVIRONMENT

URBAN HYGIENE 111SANITATION AND THE ENVIRONMENT

HOOFDSTUK

4

02

13

03

01

08

07

17

09

SENEGAL

of water resources

ALGERIA

water management

MOROCCO

NIGER

ECUADOR

PERU

of protected areas

BENIN

and agroforestry

DR CONGO

TANZANIA

of natural resources

RWANDA

programmes

LATIN AMERICA AFRICA

07

09

39121

32

88

69

82115

61

58

119

4799

91

51105

79

01 03 07

02 04 08

05 09

06 10

HOOFDSTUK

5

04

11

06

05

10

12

15

16

14

BELGIUMVIETNAM

and fertilisation

LAOS

and the environment

school buildings

CAMBODIA

school buildings

CAMEROON

management

BURUNDI

waste water and rainwater

MALI

ASIA EUROPE

11942

101

104

108

106116

77

94119

11 14 17

12 15

13 16

7

The issue of climate change has contributed to bring-ing environmental concerns to the fore. For industr-ialised countries and developing countries alike the challenge will be to rebuild their economies on new foundations using “low carbon” strategies. They will also have to implement policies to adapt to the effects of climate change (the poorest countries being the first and hardest hit).

Avoiding the effects of these climatic disruptions nor-mally comes down to promoting environmental “good practices”: managing natural resources in a sustainable and rational way, supporting technological innovations that create less pollution (energy, transport…), strength-ening the capacities of national institutions, supporting the definition and implementation of adaptation poli-cies, and integrating ecological aspects into the devel-opment approaches and strategies.

The link between fighting poverty and the rational man-agement of natural resources is becoming increasingly clear for many international development actors. Today, developing countries are already confronted at least to three major crises: The energy crisis, the food crisis and the water crisis. Climate changes will exacerbate these crises and make solutions even more complex. Add to this the context of the economic crisis, because of which financial resources for international cooperation become scarce.

Belgian cooperation decided (in the Law of 1999) that the environment should be a transversal theme, in other words environmental issues should be systematically integrated into all sectors of development cooperation and at all stages in the life cycle of initiatives (prepara-tion, implementation, evaluation).

In attempting to answer these questions, we wanted to present a range of initiatives, most of which do not have the environment as their core subject, but which have, in one way or another, incorporated this aspect in the overall strategy of the project, in the deployment of a specific component or in the choice of an approach or

evaluate all these initiatives (and this book describes only a selection of them), which very often result from the initiatives of experts working in cooperation and their national partners.

This publication is intended for everybody who is in-terested in environmental issues and who are won-dering what development cooperation actually does

effect and are convinced that each initiative can lead to another one. But we are also clear-headed and convinced that more can and must be done, and that it must be done better. All too often, the environmen-tal aspects are neglected or insufficiently acknowl-edged, budgets and specific indicators are lacking, and personnel are not trained well enough. Finally, we clearly see the arrival of a new generation

-able energy, the management of natural resources, the fight against deforestation, the management of waste materials and urban sanitation, and institu-tional strengthening concerning climate issues are all themes recurring increasingly frequently and we must prepare for them with determination. This publication is a step down this road.

INTRODUCTION

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ENVIRONMENTALPOLICIESINTERNATIONAL STRATEGIES› SYSTEMATIC INCLUSION OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS› TOWARD A WORLD ENVIRONMENTAL ORGANISATION?

EUROPEAN STRATEGY› THE EUROPEAN COMMISSION STRENGTHENS ITS ENVIRONMENTAL STRATEGY

BELGIAN STRATEGY› NEGLECTING THE ENVIRONMENT UNDERMINES THE VERY FOUNDATIONS OF DEVELOPMENT › THE 13 AREAS OF COOPERATION WORK› BTC, AN ENVIRONMENTAL PIONEER› MANAGE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

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ENVIRONMENTAL POLICIES

THE ENVIRONMENT FINALLY MADE A DECISIVE ENTRY INTOTHE CONFERENCE ROOMS OF NATIONAL,EUROPEAN AND INTERNATIONALDECISION-MAKERS IN THE 1990s.HOWEVER, ALTHOUGH ENVIRONMENTALISSUES CAN NO LONGER BE AVOIDED, THE STRUCTURES PUT IN PLACE TO DEAL WITH THEM HAVE NOT ANSWERED THE CONCERNS AND HOPES VOICED.TODAY, PEOPLE ARE SPEAKING OUTTO ASK THAT OUR PLANETBE PROVIDED WITH STRUCTURES AND BUDGETS THAT REFLECT THE EXTENTOF THE ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGE BOTH DOMESTICALLY AND WITHINSUPRANATIONAL BODIES.

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policies limited environmental in-volvement to following the three major agreements resulting from

desertification, the protection of biodiversity, and the fight against

few resources and too little po-litical attention have been brought to bear on these challenges with the current generation of political decision-makers failing to grow at the same rate as environmental issues. Faced with an emergen-cy, the environment has gradu-ally gained in importance and has complicated somewhat the aid paradigms, which were already under significant pressure. The question of bio-fuels alone suffic-es to make clear the complex ties and paradoxes that bind energy, food and the environment. As a result, development can no longer

is interrelated.

The environment in policiesThis holistic approach is reflected in the new international strategies that emerged at the beginning of the new century. For example, the

the centre of attention, particularly in cities, and demanded additional

-ing with the environment, under-lines the efforts required in terms of access to water and sanitation and the issue of urban habitat.

-erty reduction frameworks in-clude inevitable economic growth as part of a more global outlook. It was about time. The Stern re-port, which estimates the global cost of environmental damage at 5,500 billion euros, was partially to

-ternational frameworks are led by donors and remain insufficiently negotiated with partner develop-ment countries. In addition, while prospects are opening up, the en-vironment still does not hold a pre-eminent position in international aid paradigms.

-fectiveness barely reshuffled the

aid by each donor country to two sectors per country, thereby hop-ing to encourage greater impact and less dilution of the aid grant-ed. The increase in the number of

small projects is felt to be inef-fectual overall, at least in terms of cooperation between States. The question arises as to whether the environment may not be the main loser of this measure. As a trans-versal concern rather than a sec-tor of activity in their own right, environmental issues could be eclipsed by other priorities. Few resources and little political will would then be dedicated to it.

In addition, sector logic does not account for the full complex-ity of the context of interventions, which have logical frameworks and action planning methods that are far too linear to integrate this complexity. The development of a city, for example, is a challenge with innumerable dimensions. Im-proving water quality can mean moving people who are living in areas illegally, having an impact on the social fabric, organising new housing, waste collection and treatment, etc. And this involves

context, attempts to modify water distribution, housing, etc., lead to a series of chain reactions of which the effects and impact are difficult to predict and evaluate.

INTERNATIONAL STRATEGIES

SYSTEMATIC INCLUSION OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS

In 2008, hunger riots shook the world from Haiti to the Philippines via Egypt, Morocco, and Indonesia. Faced with the significant challenge of soaring food prices, international and national development aid organisa-tions suddenly revised their script, and particularly their approach to the environment.

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Political dialogue and institutional supportNew aid mechanisms, and par-ticularly budgetary support and the sector approach, may provide some opportunities. Technical advisors working with national authorities and other backers are well-positioned to plead in favour of consistently tak-ing environmental challenges into account during the creation of strat-egies and implementation plans, and while preparing policy dialogue. The environment is explicitly includ-ed in most policy paperstranslating this political will meets with obstacles including a lack of financing specifically dedicated to environmental issues.

The environment is, therefore, not a

positioning it transversally brings the risk of not giving it sufficient consideration or of simply adding a few green touches to development projects. These actions are certain-ly useful but can also become easy excuses to say that the environ-ment is not being forgotten.

One of the important challenges re-lated to the environment will be to shift from raising awareness to an integrated approach at every step of a project: design and planning, implementation, selection of ap-proach and methodology, selection of technique and materials, staff training, impact evaluation.

For international cooperation as a whole, the challenge is to inte-grate the environment into its vi-sion then into its policies and then to enable its experts to upgrade their skills through ongoing training. This theme must be omnipresent

yet time is needed to adopt a ho-listic approach. The rapid increase in the appearance of the climate change issue in international agen-das and in public awareness over recent years and the budgets that apparently have to be dedicated to it (review of energy and trans-portation policies, globalisation of stakes, etc.) may operate as a lever and force every player to face up to their responsibilities. The greatest challenge remains the complete in-tegration of the environment in the cooperation field, from design of development programmes to their implementation.

REFERENCE DATA

THE PARISDECLARATION, THEENVIRONMENT AND CLIMATE CHANGE

In the Paris Declaration, ratified in 2005, the governments of 90 countries and the heads of aid organisations committed to improving the effectiveness of aid and its impact on development. A concrete action plan was identified to reach this objective and 56 partnership agreements were announced, based on the following five principles: ownership, alignment, harmonisation, results, and mutual accountability.

The signatories encourage “a harmonised approach to environmental assessments” and recommend that environmental impact studies “go further and include the potential consequences of global environmental problems such as climate change, desertification, and loss of biodiversity.”

Implementation follow-up and evaluation of the progress made by the Declaration was scheduled in two stages. The first was held in Accra in 2008. The second will be held in 2010

TO FIND OUT MORE

www.ocde.org

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Scattered competenciesThese complex and multi-faceted stakes were compiled in the 7th

-lenges of deforestation, CO2 emis-sions, ocean resources, biodiversi-ty, access to water and sanitation, and shanty towns. Yet, although these environmental issues are in-terdependent, they relate to com-petencies that are scattered among

many secretariats of international environmental agreements. The

-

clearing house1 which has neither a mandate nor the means to meet environmental challenges.

The multilateral institutional mech-anism for the protection of the en-vironment therefore suffers from a significant drawback: its incoher-ence, which results from the scat-tering of its competencies across multiple bodies. This institutional incoherency makes it difficult, even impossible, to enforce international standards adopted on the basis of jointly agreed principles. Yet, without mechanisms of this type, environmental challenges have a de facto tendency to be subordi-nated to problems managed by constraining institutions such as trade agreements for which the

the guarantor.

1 | It processes, analyses, publishes and distribu-tes environmental information

Trade and the environment--

was to “establish a new and equi-table global partnership through the creation of new levels of coo-peration among States, key sec-tors of society and people” and to work “toward international agree-ments which respect the interests of all and protect the integrity of the global environmental and deve-lopmental system.”2 The result was

an action plan called “Agenda 21” which set the main objectives to be achieved to make sustainable de-velopment a reality.

In terms of the environment, gov-

commitment to the declaration of

the environment, adopted in Stock-

two international agreements on the

was also made with two agree-ments on desertification and for-ests, signed in 1994. This dynamic led to the signature of the Kyoto

to decrease greenhouse gas emis-sions by 5% of their 1990 levels by 2008-2012.

-

led to several agreements that went unfulfilled because of a lack of in-

decided to move forward in trade -

-

is a truly international organisa-tion that includes an international

-

complaints against other States for

the first international organisation with truly enforceable rules.

A number of voices were then raised to deplore the fact that environmen-tal issues, confined to ill-assorted agreements were, in fact, subordi-nate to the trade law guaranteed by

that enables States to apply trade measures to protect the environ-

case laid the foundations for this case law. The dispute set four Asian

States following an American deci-sion to curb imports of shrimps from countries whose fishing techniques did not adequately protect turtles.

stipulated that governments can apply trade measures to protect the environment, and notably “to

TOWARD A WORLD ENVIRONMENTALORGANISATION?

Climate change isn’t just a threat to the equilibrium of the ecosystem. It is also a challenge to the heart of the global economic system and North-South relations. In Africa, global warming and declining precipita-tion are aggravating the problem of access to water and of agricultural non-productivity. More generally, the emergence of a multi-polar world suggests an exacerbation of global competition for access to natural resources with significant environmental and geopolitical consequences. For this reason, environmental issues are at the heart of development and international cooperation policies.

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protect human, animal, or plant life”

3.

measures to protect the environ-ment is considered by some to be sufficient guarantee that environ-mental agreements will be respect-

the environment in the hands of an international organisation, which does not have this mandate, does not resolve the problem of scat-tered agreements. This gave rise

The challenges for a WEO

would be to centralise the secre-tariat of the various environmental agreements and to enable a com-mon doctrine to emerge, based on major concepts currently spread across various agreements (the polluter pays and precautionary

take over the activities currently

international organisation whose financing would be guaranteed by regular and compulsory contribu-

-eral negotiation forum where new environmental agreements could be

Court, a sort of environmental add-

States had not applied the “most favoured nation

by giving the Asian countries only four months to comply whereas they had given Carribbean coun-

States could apply measures to protect turtles ac-

-chy of standards would have to be ensured, would legally guarantee all environmental agreements. The

have a “financial arm” that would enable it to finance its own devel-opment projects.

The difficulty obviously resides in the fact that the creation of an international organisation is by its very nature hypothetical since it requires the agreement of a large number of governments. In addi-tion, developing countries fear that such an organisation would create universal standards that would not take into account their level of de-velopment and, therefore, penalise their development efforts. Never-theless, global challenges related to the environment have become

finding support with more and more people. In addition, to deal with the fears of developing countries, the guarantee of the polluter pays principle and the existence of fi-nancial compensation mechanisms

-sure that industrialised countries assume primary responsibility and that developing countries benefit from additional resources for sus-tainable development.

powerful engine for sustainable de-velopment. At a time when emerg-ing countries are wondering about

scale, it could ensure that devel-opment successes do not lead to a global environmental crisis with multiple consequences.

Arnaud Zacharie, Secretary General of the National Centre for Development Coopera-tion (NCDC-11.11.11)

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REFERENCE DATA

A FUND FOR THE ENVIRONMENTThe World Environmental Fund (WEF) has existed since 1991. It brings together 178 countries in partnership with international institutions, NGOs and the private sector. Thisorganisation deals with global environmental issues while encouraging sustainable development at the national level.

It is currently the primary source of financing for projects aimed at improving the world’s environmental situation. The WEF is an independent body that provides financial assistance for projects in the fields of biodiversity, climate change, international waters, soil depletion, the ozone layer and persistent organic pollutants.

The WEF is also the financial mechanism for four international environmental agreements: the Convention on Biological Diversity, the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification, the Stockholm Convention on POPs(Persistent Organic Pollutants) and the United NationsFramework Convention on Climate Change. The latter grants 250 million USD a year to renewable energy, energy efficiency and sustainable transport projects.

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--

ment policy, described in 2005

eradica-tion of poverty in the context of sustainable development, in line with the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), in particular”. The

-pean Consensus include the need to identify environmental chal-lenges for each country and each region. In addition, the text identi-fies the environment and the sus-tainable management of natural resources as one of the nine areas

theme can become a focus area within national and regional pro-grammes. In addition, a stronger approach to the integration of environmental sustainability as a transversal topic has been rec-ommended. The Consensus also proposes systematic environmen-tal assessments both at the sector and the project level. These activi-ties are essential to improve the effectiveness of programmes and projects focusing on the environ-ment and natural resources and to incorporate the environment as a transversal issue in other develop-ment cooperation programmes.

The environment as cooperation sectorAs demonstrated by a recent pro-gramming experience4, there are certain practical constraints with respect to the choice of the en-vironment as a focus area. Ben-eficiary countries and regions are asked to concentrate financing on one or, at most, two sectors of activity. The environment is not perceived as an urgent prior-ity by most of these because of its relatively unimportant politi-cal weight and the lack of knowl-edge about environmental issues and their many impacts on social, economic and political areas. The tendency is, therefore, to provide little financing for the environment and natural resources.

Furthermore, the principle that development activities should ul-timately be financially sustainable may be unrealistic for a range of environmental actions, particu-larly those dealing with public goods. In many cases there is no market for selling environmen-tal goods and achieving financial sustainability. In many developing

4 | The national indicative programmes of the

specifically for the environment, that is, around 1% of the total.

countries government budgets are insufficient to finance con-servation measures and greater financial benefits, at least in the short term, can be derived from depleting the natural resources base (often the main asset), due to the fact that externalities5 are not part of the cost-benefit analysis. The importance of mainstreaming environment as a cross-cutting issue derives from the fact that disregarding environmental con-sequences can be detrimental for poverty reduction efforts across the full spectrum of development priority areas.

The environment as a transversal issue

-sure that all environmental impacts resulting from development activi-ties (including indirect and long-term impacts) are taken into ac-count and mitigated if necessary and in turn contribute to poverty reduction. For example, emphasis on production in agricultural pro-grammes may lead to inadequate use of pesticides and fertilisers.

5 | The price of a product does not include costs of the production process that nature bears (water and air pollution, loss of biodiversity, etc.)

THE EUROPEAN COMMISSIONSTRENGTHENS ITS ENVIRONMENTALSTRATEGY

EUROPEAN STRATEGY

In 2007, the European Commission’s DG Development initiated a review of its environmental integra-tion strategy in partnership with the representatives of the Member States and civil society.

17

EUROPEAN STRATEGY

These unduly favour certain crops and types of production that are poorly adapted, with correspond-ing effects on poverty. Integrating environmental concerns in such programmes will help to ensure a more long-term sustainable pro-duction and to avoid over-exploi-tation, and also to diminish exter-nalities like environment-related

the environment is to be done at two levels: first into development cooperation actions, and second into the domestic policy of the beneficiary country. It should be applied right from the stage of programming cooperation, during identification, appraisal and im-plementation, all the way through to ex post evaluation.

Some specific mainstreaming tools have been developed, namely: Strategic Environmental Assess-ments Environmental Impact Assessments

-atically to ensure that environmen-tally friendly options are considered and that mitigation measures are included when designing the pro-

-ing and evaluating environmental impacts of development projects, and working out proposals to miti-gate negative impacts.

The evolution of aid delivery mech-anisms, particularly the increasing use of budget support, poses par-ticular challenges for environmen-tal integration. It also offers many opportunities. As a first step, the environment should be put on the policy dialogue agenda of the de-velopment partners, in the case of general budget support as well

as for sector support programmes where environmental impacts are significant (such as e.g. infra-structure, communications and transport, water and energy, rural development, territorial planning, agriculture and food security). Supporting the design and imple-mentation of environmental fiscal reforms or green budgeting would pursue environmental as well as fiscal objectives simultaneously (through e.g. reducing subsidies for less environmentally friendly measures and providing incen-tives for environmentally preferred ones).

Primary challenges Based on the lessons of the past, a number of issues can be identified to update the strategy and make it more effective and operational:

1. One of the key issues remains the low level of attention for en-vironment from the policy mak-ers in developing countries. This issue can be tackled by improv-ing knowledge and by develop-ing capacity at the level of key stakeholders. In addition, it will be important to put greater em-phasis on the need to work with other entities on the develop-ment and use of instruments allowing the economic value of environmental resources to be quantified, a more sustainable use of these to be promoted and the creation of more sustainable economic growth models to

mais leur mise en œuvre reste -

sion et une meilleure forma-

2. Several environmental integra--

ble but their use remains limited. Better distribution and better training are needed in this area, as is information exchange.

3. The increased use of budget support as an implementation modality has led to a tendency to overlook the environment and natural resources sector. It is quite possible to take into greater consideration the sub-ject of the environment and nat-ural resources in budgetary aid programmes by including the

-mension in sector programmes and projects.

4. -ment and natural resources should not only be done for “classic” cooperation sectors such as rural development and infrastructure, but also for new-er subjects like the promotion of good governance, human rights and conflict prevention.

5. There is a frequent need for overview and analytical data on

for the environment in general or for specific themes such as climate adaptation, biodiversi-ty, forestry etc. Because there are no agreed definitions of en-vironmental support measures, there is a tendency for ad hoc data compilation, which is not the most efficient way to deal with this issue.

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The conclusions reached by the

the Commission and its partners to establish a suitable framework (consisting of the Commission

preparation and follow-up of the -

proach to integration of environ-mental aspects. This will be pre-sented to the Council by 2011 at the latest.

Updating the Strategy for Environmental Integration in De-velopment Policy -

TO FIND OUT MORE

19

Development cooperation often operates in countries that are already experiencing climate change. In addition, it works with groups of people that are most vulnerable to the impact of cur-rent and future climate change. These issues inevitably impact, now and in the future, on devel-opment cooperation work. How can this recent parameter be taken into account? Is it possible to combat environmental issues and reduce poverty at the same time? If so, how? On the spot answers from a climate expert.

In your report, you recommend that Belgian Cooperation focus on climate change adaptation projects rather than on projects aimed at mitigation, that is, at reducing greenhouse gas emissions in the South. Why?Climate change is already hav-ing a significant impact on de-veloping countries. Regardless of what we do in the area of miti-gation, climate is like an ocean liner. Once it has been set on a course, time will be needed to redirect it. So warming will

continue over the next few dec-ades and countries in the South will be more and more affected by it. This is why it is essential to respond to the urgent request from these countries and help them adjust to change. This is a priority.

Is this true for all sectors? Shouldn’t cooperation projects in the energy sector, for example, target mitigation first? Of course. But Belgian coopera-tion has undertaken relatively few projects in the area of large en-ergy and other infrastructure. It manages less extensive projects such as institutional support and backing for education and health knowledge. Although mitigation can also be promoted through training and education, these fields are closer to adaptation than to mitigation. But my ob-servation relates to Belgian co-operation. There may be other types of cooperation that should be focusing on mitigation. This is a case-by-case issue.

You recommend the implementation of transversal structures in cooperation structures. At what organisational level? Cooperation’s first priority is of course development. However, it must integrate environmental concerns. This does not mean turning the environment into a super department that dictates development but rather promot-ing a transversal vision. This is necessary to avoid creating three problems when solving one. Qualified personnel and basic competencies are required to implement an interdisciplinary approach. So is a readiness, even if an expert in one sector, to listen to people from other sectors, to accept other ways of doing things, other approaches. This transversal approach must allow sector competence to re-tain its importance. The two ap-proaches must be balanced out. In any event, one of my main recommendations is to increase human resources. Qualified peo-ple must be given time to talk to people in other sectors.

Jean-Pascal van Ypersele (Catholic University of Louvain) is a climate specialist. He is also Vice-President of IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change), the organization that won the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize. In September 2008, at the request of the minister for Development Cooperation, he presented a report entitled “Climate Change and the Belgian Development Cooperation Policy: Challenges and Opportunities”.

NEGLECTING THE ENVIRONMENTUNDERMINES THE VERY FOUNDATIONSOF DEVELOPMENT

BELGIAN STRATEGY

20

ENVIRONMENTAL POLICIESENVIRONMENTAL POLICIES

It appears that the cooperation field lacks environmental competencies. Why did we miss this train 35 years after Stockholm [United Nations Conference on the Environment] and 20 years after Brundtland?Is this so surprising? Not really. Everything that happens in co-operation is as human as what happens elsewhere. Knowledge in itself is not sufficient for ideal action. All institutions suffer from inertia. And, until now, the climate and the environment have not been priorities. We hadn’t fully understood that neglect of the environment would undermine the very foundations of development.

Didn’t the cooperation sector face an additional difficulty: Couldn’t environmental protection linked to a cessation in resource exploitation, for example, appear to put the brakes on poverty reduction?That played a part. At the same time, the United Nations General Assembly gave a mandate to the Brundtland Commission in1984 to write a report on the environ-ment AND development in prep-aration for the Rio conference. Fifteen years after Stockholm, it became apparent that it wasn’t possible to focus solely on the environment without taking into account other issues such as poverty reduction. The two is-sues had to be brought to the table at the same time. Brundt-land’s central hypothesis is that increased well-being can be un-coupled from increased pollu-tion. If we don’t do this, we will saw through the branch on which development sits, given that the

foundation of human well-being is always physical and natural.

Here is an example with the most alarming figure in the latest IPCC report: an increase in global tem-perature of 1.5 to 2.5 degrees compared to 1990 would mean an increased risk that 20% to 30% of the planet’s living spe-cies, particularly in tropical ar-eas, will disappear. This is what we are heading for, at the very least. Can we really believe that this won’t have consequences for the human race? What’s more, reducing poverty is the number one priority but it must be taken into account along with the other issues. Or else, sooner or later, they will catch up with us and lead to even greater poverty than we started with.

What approach should we take in the agricultural sector, particularly with respect to agrofuels?I am convinced that biomass has an important role to play in ener-gy challenges, but the way farm and forestry operations are run causes many problems which have an indirect impact on hu-man food. And the benefits to the climate are extremely limited.

How can development projects take climate change into account?We have to start with the people who are very familiar with the re-gions where cooperation is ac-tive. They know the geographi-cal, social and cultural context. They can be given selective train-ing on the way in which climate change in the region may impact

certain contextual elements. These people are extremely well-positioned to pay close atten-tion to in the selection of devel-opment projects. It is important to be aware of all of these data, including uncertainties.

In the Sahel, for example, projects are based on one or two climate models, which forecast precise changes in the amount of rainfall in the region. However, the colour used for the Sahel in IPCC graphs is white because the IPCC believes that there is too great a discrepancy between the results of the various models. We don’t even know the sign (+ or -) for the expected change in rainfall in this region. It is impor-tant to explain this uncertainty about changes in climatic condi-tions. Hydrological parameters are very important but often unreliable. All of this can be ex-plained to the people in the field to be taken into account in de-velopment projects.

But regions in the South often lack scientific information about their climate.Knowing that there isn’t enough information is valuable informa-tion in itself. It’s better to know this than to use a very small amount of available but unrep-resentative data. Or else, what will happen if actual climate change does not coincide with this data? But it is true that it is also essential to improve data acquisition and climate research in the South. The goal of the Third World Climate Conference, which took place in September 2009 in Geneva, was precisely to

21

BELGIAN STRATEGY

develop a global framework for climate services in order to con-solidate the production, acces-sibility, supply and application of services and science-based climate forecasts.

You have referred to “a new international cooperation architecture”. Why? There are many tools, institu-tions, and funds in the climate field alone, but there isn’t much in the way of actual money. Is the creation of specific funds for one goal or another really effective? On one hand, this new architec-ture requires simplification of the institutions that redistribute mon-ey in the cooperation field, and on the other, much more finance in the neediest regions. We don’t need more fund structures, but more funds with money!

How can this be accomplished?We use the “polluter pays” prin-ciple. If this principle were imple-mented internationally, the money gathered could finance adapta-tion needs and help countries in the South participate more fully in mitigation efforts. It seems fairly logical that the countries respon-sible for climate change and, therefore, for its consequences, should assume responsibility.

We have a unique opportunity with the auctioning of CO2 quo-tas (via ETS, the European Emis-sions Trading Scheme). These CO2 quotas were previously dis-tributed free to companies. They will now have to buy a larger and larger portion of the quotas through auctions. Each country still has to decide what it will do

with the sums collected. It would be legitimate to add them to the State’s general budget but there is also merit in the idea that part of the money could be used to increase the cooperation budget to support adaptation and mitiga-tion projects.

Comments recorded by Olivier Bailly

22


1Start with a precise diagnosis.

-

“climate” as a priority within the transversal environment theme.

2Increase the development aid budget (0.7% of GNP).

3Be involved in an in-depth re-view of development coopera-tion. Apply the “polluter pays” principle and contribute to the creation of conditions to ensure that developed countries assume their obligations by gradually re-leasing new sources of financing to meet needs.

4Draw up a clear strategic framework for the integration of climate policy in develop-ment policy. There are three ways: promote the transfer of clean technologies (mitigation); support the creation of adapta-tion policies; contribute to im-proving capabilities.

5Organise integration axes into a hierarchy. In the short term: improve the adaptation measures of projects underway. In the me-dium and long term: implement “clean” projects in which green-house gas emissions are reduced (through technology transfer).

6Make it a priority to give adap-tation greater weight in bilat-eral projects. Integrate the im-portance of adaptation at every stage of project development.

7Tightly control forestry protec-tion projects. financial advantages granted in exchange for forest protection benefit local populations.

8Tightly control energy crop projects. using precise criteria and subject them to a guarantee of food safe-ty and sovereignty.

9Adhere to the original spirit of the Clean Development Mech-anism. Only use “carbon”6 cred-its as a complement to green-house gas reduction measures.

6 | The carbon credit (equivalent to a tonne of CO2) is a “saved” greenhouse gas unit to be bought (or sold) to achieve objectives to reduce greenhouse gas emissions

THE 13 AREAS OF COOPERATION WORK

Jean-Pascal van Ypersele made 13 recommendations in his 2008 report “Climate Change and the Belgian Development Cooperation Policy: Challenges and Opportunities”.

AT THE POLICY LEVEL AT THE STRATEGIC LEVEL

23

BELGIAN STRATEGY

10Initiate pilot mitigation projects in the alternative energy field.

11Contribute to increasing the legibility, simplicity and co-herence of multilateral financ-ing instruments for the fight against climate change. Take a stand in the dialogue aimed at bringing together and providing coherence to the proliferation of funds in the fight against climate change.

12Create an “environment-cli-mate” cell within the DGDC. This should provide a real impe-tus and follow-up with adequate competencies and resources.

13Introduce the issue of climate change during meetings with partners at all levels. the issue of climate change in policy dialogue with partners and the participation of Belgian politi-cal bodies in international confer-ences on climate change.

REFERENCE DATA

TWO RESPONSES TOCLIMATE CHANGE

MITIGATION: Projects intended to reduce the sources of green gas emissions or to expand carbon sinks.

ADAPTATION: Projects intended to adapt to climate change in order to lessen potential damage, to take advantage of opportunities provided and to deal with consequences (for example, by adapting infrastructure, equipment, and health, agricultural, environmental, and other policies).

AT THE OPERATIONAL LEVEL

24


BTC has developed a proactive policy toward environmental management since it began operations in 2000. The environment is one of the transversal items written into the law that created BTC. One of the strategic directions taken to achieve this goal was to implement a management system which takes into ac-count the ecological impact of activities, notably those carried out at or led by the headquarters in Brussels.

BTC, AN ENVIRONMENTAL PIONEER

This was important for the cred-ibility of the institution itself: how could people in the field and devel-opment partners be convinced of the importance of taking environ-mental issues into account unless BTC itself demonstrated its ability and willingness to implement this

the belief that leading by example is extremely important in the envi-ronmental field.

This willingness was first demon-strated through membership of the

first star in 2002. BTC continued with this approach and received

In 2005, the Belgian federal gov-ernment made a commitment to

would promote the gradual creation Eco-Management &

Audit Scheme) environmental man-agement systems for all federal bodies. A group of five federal in-stitutions which have already made progress in this area were identi-fied. BTC was a member of this first

7 pilot group.

Obtaining membership of the -

plex undertaking. Its framework is similar that of an ISO standard (in

-

this case ISO 14001) with proce-dures, document registers, an ac-tion plan and results indicators. In

regulatory conformity (adherence to all environmental laws must be demonstrated), transparency of in-formation (publication of an annual environmental statement) and ac-tive participation by staff.

It took one year to put certification in place, in particular to gather the required documents. BTC became

The following two years were dedi-cated to implementing and pursu-ing existing activities in a more structured way.

The main actions carried out as

Improvement of environmen-tal integration in development projects supported by BTC

-mental impacts (water, paper, and energy consumption, etc.) at headquarters Staff training and internal and external communication on the environmentImplementation of a sustainable mobility policy for staff

A carbon assessment was carried out in 2008 and a CO2 strategy was identified that same year. BTC then purchased carbon credits in order to compensate for its air travel, its main source of CO2 emissions.

Concrete resultsThis environmental approach also led to a focus on many “small” de-

increased awareness and of a concrete approach to more global challenges. Among other things, we systematically print our publi-cations on ecological paper (recy-cled, FSC, not chlorine bleached, etc.) using vegetable inks. BTC sorts most of its waste (household waste, printer and toner cartridg-es, electronic and electrical appli-ances, batteries, bulbs and neon

account social and environmental criteria. The use of “clean” trans-portation is encouraged.

Three items of consumption are particularly closely monitored: wa-ter, electricity and paper. The build-

are common to several organisa-tions and, therefore, BTC cannot currently provide precise gas con-

messages are sent to staff on a regular basis encouraging them to make moderate use of heating and air conditioning, with the environ-ment in mind.

25

BELGIAN STRATEGY

REFERENCE DATA

WHAT IS EMAS?EMAS (Eco-Management and Audit Scheme) is a European environmental management and audit system. This approach is accessible to every organisation that wants to evaluate and improve its environmental performance. The proper functioning and improvements of this management system are checked annually through an external audit.

TO FIND OUT MORE

26


How has staff responded to the implementation of an environmental management system?Very positively. Environmental val-ues are very close to development cooperation values. Those that want to work in cooperation are for the most part sensitive to envi-ronmental issues. This awareness enables us to have fairly good control over our environmental impact. Staff have been very dis-ciplined and follow practices put forward. Some would even like to go much further on these issues. The idea is for the whole of BTC to move forward in stages.

The gains attributable to this management are primarily environmental. Are there other gains for BTC? At the financial or organisational levels?I have become increasingly aware that the environmental issue is communicated by every person at his or her own level of respon-sibility. BTC employees integrate the environmental issue as one of their work criteria. The system is slowly but surely becoming a part of our internal culture.

To date, there has been no analy-sis of potential financial gains. BTC has seen a fairly significant reduction in its electricity and wa-ter consumption. However, these budget items are fairly small com-pared to other costs.

In addition, BTC sometimes makes choices that prove more costly by opting for environ-

mentally friendly products. But it makes gains in quality, image and staff comfort. This policy can have an impact on the type of projects that are entrusted to us. Partners ask us about envi-ronmental management because we have credibility thanks to our commitment and we are pioneers as a federal institution.

Is air travel one of the main areas BTC has to work on?It’s a big challenge. How can you avoid taking flights since, by definition, BTC works with fara-way countries? We have the tel-ephone, Skype, the internet and other tools, but nothing can re-place face-to-face contact. BTC employees travel little in relation to our overall business, although this data is difficult to estimate. We carried out a carbon assessment (or footprint) in 20088. Air travel was, in fact, a significant element of this assessment. We then trans-lated this assessment into a CO2 strategy or a “climate strategy”. It is based on three principles: reducing emissions (via good en-vironmental practice), promoting innovation and compensating for the remaining emissions. On this last point, we are currently making use of trade compensation (pur-chase and cancellation of 2,500 Gold Standard certificates) with the goal of promoting one or sev-eral projects which could eventu-ally generate green certificates in our partner countries.

8 | Validated assessment of overall CO2 emis-sions

Is it more difficult to integrate EMAS in southern countries?The EMAS system is still very cumbersome from a documen-tary and administrative point of view and it requires time. It is not suited to all situations. I think that to get involved with the type of management EMAS offers, the company introducing the proc-ess must already have reached a certain degree of environmen-tal maturity, often generated by significant environmental stress9,operate within a constraining le-gal framework and be supported by positive techniques, sectors and company organisation.

In Western societies, for ex-ample, we can now require ad-vanced selective sorting because effective collection is in place as are collection, reuse, recycling and treatment sectors. But we tend to forget that all this is quite recent. These collection systems are still rare in the countries in which BTC works. As a result, there are many frustrations since awareness is not followed by the creation of high-performance management systems. Sorting batteries is all very well but what do you do with them when there isn’t a company in the country to recycle them? From a more practical standpoint, many tech-niques, technologies and prod-ucts can be promoted within the framework of our projects. In

9 | A high level of pollution and strong social pressure are pushing authorities to pass laws in this area: civil society at large (associations, in-tellectuals, the medical profession, artists, etc.) is demanding measures to improve living conditions

MANAGEENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

Claude Croizer is an environmental advisor for BTC. Starting in 2002, he initiated the creation of the Envi-ronmental Management System and since he has piloted the EMAS process within the organisation.

27

BELGIAN STRATEGY

addition, all activities leading to a reduction in consumption can be encouraged. More responsi-ble buying can be supported as much as possible and there are also simple alternatives.

Will field projects also be included in EMAS?The EMAS registration perim-eter was BTC headquarters in Brussels (which can easily be reviewed by an outside auditor). However, BTC is very aware that its primary environmental im-pact lies in its projects and pro-grammes. Environmental issues should therefore be as closely integrated with development projects as possible. We are pro-posing actions, indicators, the systematisation of impact stud-ies and staff training. However, with over 200 projects in 20 or so countries, we still have a lot of work to do in this area.

Could the EMAS system lead BTC to reject a project?This is not the purpose of an en-vironmental management sys-tem. It must continue to further this environmental culture and provide more technical solutions such as the inclusion of a sys-tem to study the environmental impact of projects. With these tools, objective and measured criteria of the potential danger of a project can be taken into ac-count. They will not necessarily lead to a refusal but the rework-ing of a project via adaptive, cor-rective or compensatory meas-ures is possible.

In addition to the environmental benefits, is the pedagogical

value of this type of management also significant?Of course. And the commitment value certainly is too. Since all staff are involved in the proc-ess, it’s impossible to turn back. BTC is committed to continuous improvement and is always com-pelled to go further. What has be-come the norm today could have seemed very strange five years ago. For example, in 2007, the decision to carry out a carbon assessment was self-evident. BTC wants to be a responsible and innovative company and environmental management is a part of this.

What’s more, the issue of coher-ence between our various activi-ties is very important. We have a lot of work to do at the project design level in order to integrate the environmental dimension fur-ther upstream.

Aren’t existing tools, and notably the logical framework, adequate?It is rarely the tool but its use, which provides the “limitation”. For example, environmental indi-cators are often absent from logi-cal frameworks (although other planning tools are present). And suitable markers are not always used. For now, we should be us-ing existing tools in a thorough and systematic way. This will en-able us to understand their limi-tations. We also note with some satisfaction that our younger colleagues integrate the envi-ronmental dimension more eas-ily during project design because they are more aware and better trained in these issues.

Do you think that development cooperation will be different in 10 years thanks to the influence of a process like EMAS?I think that environmental issues are radically changing society and therefore also North-South rela-tions. Climate change is becoming an unavoidable subject and we must deal with it in a very deter-mined way. A great deal of learning is required on the part of all coop-eration stakeholders. An environ-mental management system such as EMAS translates and organises efforts but to a large extent these are still dictated by changes in so-ciety at large.


29

RELIEVING THE STRAINON THE LAND AGRICULTURE AND THE ENVIRONMENT

DIVERSIFY CROPS› AN ALTERNATIVE TO THE COTTON MONOCULTURE (BENIN)› BIOFUELS

ANIMAL PRODUCTION THAT RESPECTS THE ENVIRONMENT› A SUSTAINABLE MEAT INDUSTRY (ECUADOR)› THE LIVESTOCK GREEN CYCLE (VIETNAM)

MAINTAINING BIODIVERSITY› PRESERVING AND MULTIPLYING GENETIC RESOURCES (RWANDA)› A FINAL POINT CONCERNING BIODIVERSITY: GMOS …

THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABLE FISHING › A POTENTIAL UNDER THREAT (DR CONGO)

30

RELIEVING THE STRAIN ON THE LAND

The links between the environment and agriculture are complex. Al-though certain habitats have been preserved thanks to agriculture, farm-ing activities can also have harmful consequences for natural resources. Pollution of the soil, water and air, fragmentation of habitats and loss of biodiversity are all possible consequences of unsuitable practices.

Green farming at last?The concern to integrate the environment into the agricultural sector may seem obvious. But until the end of the 1980s, agricultural policies were mainly designed to increase yields (how to produce more from a given surface area) without seeking to provide compatibility with environmen-tal protection. Demographic growth, the increase in demand and a re-duction in available space have often led growers to favour production growth factors to the detriment of the environment. These policies have also been made possible by rapid and practical advances in research and the agricultural industry, in both the field of agricultural techniques and that of pesticides and synthetic fertilisers.

The 1990s saw greater awareness of the potential impacts of agriculture on the natural environment. Sustainable agriculture strategies were de-veloped to promote a fair balance between profitability and respect for the environment.

Present and future challengesAt least four major environmental challenges confront the initiatives sup-ported by BTC, namely: offering a sustainable method of managing sys-tems of cultivation, livestock breeding and fishing, and maintaining bio-diversity. In this chapter, each of these challenges will be analysed and then illustrated by a practical example.

Other questions are provoking debate: can GMOs become allies in meet-ing food and energy requirements? Do biofuels represent commercial outlets compatible with the preservation of open areas, crops and biodi-versity? In the coming years, what will be the effects of climate changes on ecosystems and how will the farming community adapt to them? The answers to these questions will determine the agriculture of tomorrow.

31

Intensive agriculture, such as irrigated monocultures with high input levels, is the source of serious environmental problems: the pollution and disappearance of water resources, physical and chemical erosion of soils and accidental poison-ing of human beings, animals, plants and insects, etc. by pesticides.

The productivity of many of these intensive systems is not sustainable if current approaches are maintained. This evidence is alarming. It is therefore imperative to develop and promote alternative and more sustainable systems of cultivation.

These systems use water, soil, energy and nutrients in a rational manner, while producing long-term economic and social benefits. Among the methods of sus-tainable cultivation are mixed farming systems, organic agriculture, integrated pest control, crop rotation, etc.

In order to apply these new methods, farmers ask for advice on the most ef-ficient way of adapting their cultivation systems and management practices to local conditions. Innovative agricultural research must be sustained to provide answers to the problems facing agriculture and to suggest suitable systems for popularisation.

DIVERSIFY CROPS

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In northern Benin, cotton growing has upset the natural balances, which previously existed through the use of traditional production methods. In addition to negative consequences for the environment, privatisation of the cotton industry and the crisis troubling the sector have undermined the local economies.

Between 2003 and 2008, the Project to support the rural environment of Atacora and Donga -

-tural production and improving soil fertility.

-ing, as an alternative to cotton growing, due to its many environmental, social and economic virtues. On the environmental front, growing cashew trees contributes to com-bating erosion, the maintenance of forest resources and the recovery of eroded agricultural areas. In addition, it has been observed that plant-ers are more willing to protect these plants (which are valuable) against bush fires. On the economic front, Benin provides between 2 and 3% of world production of raw nuts and is hoping to increase production in terms of quantity and quality in order to improve its export capacity in the near future. On the social front, the development of cashew nut farming is helping to reduce poverty by introducing new sources of income.The cashew nut appears in the planting programmes undertaken since

the young cashew tree plants with a main annual crop such as yams, followed by other annual crops such as maize, cotton and manioc, while awaiting the growth and fructification of the trees.

Increasing yieldsAlready, a project carried out with nurserymen (60,000 selected young plants produced per year) has resulted in an increase in planted areas. This means that the growers, with almost no training, have achieved what several reforestation projects were unable to do despite the input of considerable resources.

Better soil managementIn addition to diversification of agricultural production, the project concentrated on the restoration and management of soil fertility and combating erosion, in collaboration with the Benin National Institute

AN ALTERNATIVE TO THE COTTON MONOCULTURE

DIVERSIFY LOCAL PRODUCTION TO REDUCE DEPENDENCY ON COTTON GROWING

BENIN

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DIVERSIFY CROPS

AT STAKE

COTTON AND DEVELOPMENT

It has long been known that growing cotton has often proved very polluting for the environment. The use of pesticides (insecticides, herbicides and fungicides) constitutes one of the main reasons for this situation. Andfor good reason: No other agricultural crop consumes more of these products than cotton. In fact, it is estimated that this crop alone absorbs respectively about 11% and 25% of the total quantities of pesticides and insecticides used in the world, while occupying only about 2.4% of arable land. Among the many pesticides used in the cotton fields are some classified by the World Health Organisation (WHO) as “highly dangerous” or “extremely dangerous”.

In addition to the massive use of pesticides, the non-sustainable use of water also seriously damages the environment. As a rule, cotton growing consumes very large quantities of water. It is estimated that to produce 1 kilo of cotton-fibre, 10,000 to 17,000 litres of water are required. In regions where precipitation does not provide such quantities, recourse to irrigation is required. Toachieve this, rivers must be diverted, dams constructed or pumps installed to extract water from the ground. Irrigation may result in increased salinification of the soil (increase in mineral salt content), threatening to render the land concerned unsuitable for cultivation - a major problem, to say the least, in the case of cotton.

Moreover, monoculture, in other words growing the same crop year after year, impoverishes the soil, forcing the farmers to resort to fertilisers. In addition, the ill-considered expansion of areas dedicated to cotton can result in deforestation and the elimination of dense vegetation, with all the resulting consequences for fauna. Another negative impact on the environment, less well known but nevertheless very real, is that cotton growing contributes to global warming, in particular through the use of energy for the transportation of fertilisers.

-grammes have been carried out on a number of sites

and riverbanks, nurseries for cover plants, etc. These experimental initiatives are being progressively in-corporated into the different agricultural sectors re-ceiving other forms of support, mainly rice, cashew nuts and market gardening.

From cotton to nutsAgricultural diversification and the sustainability of production methods are really at the heart of the projects and these are their main benefits. The cash-ew nut now appears as a strategic crop whose pros-pects for development and guaranteed income are very promising, in particular compared with cotton. But the environmental aspect is still not systemati-cally reflected in the practices of the different agri-cultural operators. Long-term consolidation remains to be undertaken.

TO FIND OUT MORE

www.anacadium.info

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IF PEOPLE ARE UNABLE TO ESCAPE FROM POVERTY, THE EXPECTEDRESULTS WILL NOT BE ACHIEVED

Why have you chosen the cashew nut or rice as an alternative crop to cotton?As regards the cashew nut, this crop is traditional and prices be-came attractive towards the end of the 1990s. In addition, the favour-able growing area corresponds to the area in which cotton is also grown. We were therefore able to recover the areas previously used for cotton and restore eroded ar-eas. As regards rice, Benin imports almost 80% of its consumption. If we could improve the quality of the rice, local growers could supply the domestic market. In the north of the country, isolated land could be used for rice production, which would allow high returns from a smaller area.

Are these sectors also made aware of the environmental impact of their production? Making them aware of the envi-ronmental risks is done indirectly, although this is an eventual ob-jective of the project. Growing cashew nuts allows eroded soil to be renewed. By directing certain growers to the cashew tree, live-stock breeding or rice, the pres-sure on nature is reduced. We can also avoid negative events such as bush fires, whether started ac-cidentally or deliberately. Some-one needing food and who is hunting an animal may set fire to a whole area of vegetation in or-der to catch it! But if he gets the chance to breed rabbits or chick-ens, he will give up hunting and the environment will benefit. Every year, unintentional bush fires burn 10% of Benin’s cashew trees.

Can environmental awareness exist without developing economic activity?A central component of projects with an environmental connota-tion is improving the living con-ditions of the beneficiaries. If people cannot escape from pov-erty, the expected results will not be achieved. Even if they do not immediately feel the benefit in monetary terms, they must be re-assured concerning the improve-ment in their living conditions. But most programmes start with visibility or ‘flagship’ initiatives. This immediately puts the benefi-ciaries into a ‘receiving environ-ment’ and misses the point. If, on the other hand, they feel that what is being offered will allow them to progress, they will participate in the initiative and realise that it can help them become more in-dependent.

The PAMRAD project is aimed at long-term behavioural changes although it has only been in existence for four years. Has this been long enough to change attitudes?The Atacora departement is the size of a small country and has a constantly increasing population. In addition, the habits of slashing and burning have developed over many years, even centuries. It is impossible to change this behav-iour in just four years.

On the other hand, results are pos-sible in the short-term by organis-ing sectors. Organisation of the cashew nut growers, for example, has allowed the results of this work

to be obtained very quickly. In ad-dition, Benin has now identified cashew nuts and rice as priority sectors. They have become sec-tors to be supported, in particular in terms of information, training and awareness. These are practi-cal gains.

Comments recorded by Guido Couck

OVER TO ANDRÉ MAHOUTIN TANDJIEKPON, INRAB

Col. André Mahoutin Tandjiekpon is a research worker at the Benin National Institute for Agricultural Research. He has particularly been collaborating with the PAMRAD project in the Atacora and Donga regions.

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DIVERSIFY CROPS

Traditional biomass, in particular firewood, charcoal and animal dung, con-stitutes by far the leading source of energy in many regions of the world.

-ficient conversion technologies now allow biofuels – solid, liquid or gas – to be obtained from materials such as wood, plant crops and waste products.

effects of climate change and improve the energy security and prospects of farmers throughout the world, appeared promising. Now, the international community is wondering about the real environmental impact of biofuel pro-duction in an already tense agricultural context.

Types of biofuelBiofuels are energy vectors, which store energy extracted from biomass. The range of biomass that can be used to produce bioenergy in different forms is wide. For example, residues from the industrial processing of foodstuffs, fibres and wood; energy crops; waste materials from the farming sector; residues from the forestry sector; all these can be used to produce or co-generate electricity and heat and other forms of bioenergy.

The impacts on the environment depend in particular on the way in which the change in land allocation is managed. The replacement of annual crops with perennial crops (such as palm oil, jatropha or perennial grasses) may improve the soil carbon balances, but the conversion of tropical forest to the production of crops, whatever these may be, may release quantities of greenhouse gases which are much greater than the annual savings which could be made by the use of biofuels.

BIOFUELS

NEGATIVE POSITIVE

Exhaustion of water resources. The production of plants (sugar-cane for example) intended to be converted into biofuels must be limited according to available water resources.

Reduction in emissions of greenhouse gases. The carbon cycle balance is not neutral for all biofuels. The crops with the highest positive greenhouse gas emission balance, accompanied by the lowest social and environmental costs, must therefore be prioritised.

Soil depletion. A prudent use of inputs is essential to minimise pressure on soil. Targeted research, and investment in the tech-nologies relating to this area are necessary.

Recycling of waste materials. Agricultural residues (sugarcane, oil palm, wood waste) may be recycled to produce biofuels.

Loss of biodiversity. Impacts on the environment may be gener-ated at all stages in the production of crops for biofuels, but the processes associated with change and the intensification of soil use tend to be the most important in this regard. Over the last ten years, rapid growth in demand for biofuels due to the energy poli-cies implemented should accelerate the conversion of non-agri-cultural land to crop production, involving a risk to biodiversity.

THE POTENTIAL NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE EFFECTS OF BIOFUELS

36


REFERENCE DATA

TWO PRODUCTS FOR BIOFUELSETHANOL is an alcohol obtained from plants containing sugar or starch, such as sugarcane, maize, sugar beet.

AGRODIESEL is reduced from the oil of oleaginous plants such as the African palm, soya and rapeseed.Mixed with petrol or diesel, ethanol and agrodiesel can be used by current engines without conversion.

A difficult decision -

house gas balances and the environmental, social and economic sustain-ability criteria will have to be taken into account. The impacts of biofuel production on greenhouse gas emissions, soil, water and biodiversity vary markedly according to the country, the type of biofuel, the crops and the

of biofuels does not compete with food crops, which are essential for the food security of populations.

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Occasional falls in the price of oil do not alter the unanimous obser-vation: Fossil fuel is expensive and its durability uncertain. Moreover, the greenhouse gas emissions it generates contribute signifi-cantly to climate imbalance and the resulting ecological disasters. Since the end of the last century, the development of other forms of energy has been an imperative. At the end of the 1990s, a solution appeared to be emerging: agricul-ture-based fuels, incorrectly called “biofuels”. They were soon being praised to the skies. Some coun-tries rushed to bring out legislation on them. Their major concern was to promote the rapid development of these new fuels, by means of in-centive policies and restrictive tar-gets. In Europe, there are currently calls for 20% renewable energy by 2020 and a biofuel content of 10% in transportation.

In the countries of the South, en-thusiasm has been mixed depend-ing on the region. In Argentina, Brazil and Colombia it has become a major issue and the plantations of soya, sugarcane and palm trees stretch as far as the eye can see. This has also happened in Malay-sia and Indonesia. Besides the of-ten mixed ecological results, par-ticularly in respect of ethanol made from maize or sugarcane, the pros-pects for development are far from encouraging: eviction of farmers from their land, deplorable work-ing conditions, land degradation, deforestation, etc.

On the African continent, biofuels have also appealed to politicians

and investors. In West Africa, sev-eral governments have seen it not only as a solution to the problems of high oil prices and energy de-pendence, but also as a new po-tential income for both growers and the State after the fall in the prices of export crops (coffee, co-coa, cotton, groundnut, etc.). And finally, the private sector has seen it as a promising market … but promising for whom?

For the moment, the farming or-ganisations are far from convinced. Everywhere, they are counsel-ling prudence. There is a real fear that biofuels will bring more prob-lems than solutions to their con-cerns. Large-scale projects are emerging in the countries of the South for the production of etha-nol or biodiesel. These projects are manifesting themselves in the merging and requisition of land, the hiring of dozens of previously self-employed farmworkers and the use of agro-industrial methods which intensify the depletion of soils already leached out through decades of groundnut and cotton growing. Not to mention the door opened to the spread of GMOs.

There are other approaches. For ex-ample, the jatropha – a shrub pro-ducing oilseeds – appears prom-ising. Non-edible, it provides less competition to food production. It can be grown in a semi-arid envi-ronment, and could assist in com-bating desertification. As pointed out by Nadjirou Sall, Secretary General of the FONGS (Senegalese Farmers’ Association), jatropha is being tried out in family farms; we

must await the test results before committing ourselves, and find the right balance between energy pro-duction and food production. In countries where there is no strong agricultural policy guaran-teeing the priority of feeding local populations, the appeal of bio-fuel exports directly or indirectly threatens these populations, in particular their right to produce crops to feed themselves.

At a time when food crises are acute and land requirements are increasing in proportion to popula-tion growth, it is incumbent on us to be vigilant concerning the ener-gy policies implemented in Europe and their inevitable repercussions in the countries of the South.

Virginie Pissoort is a campaign manager at SOS Faim.

TO FIND OUT MORE

BIOFUELS, THE CASH CROP OF THE21ST CENTURY: FOR WHICH KIND OF DEVELOPMENT?OVER TO VIRGINIE PISSOORT, SOS FAIM

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ANIMAL PRODUCTION THATRESPECTS THE ENVIRONMENT

The role of livestock breeding in the agricultural economy is crucial and increasing. It provides significant means of subsistence to a large propor-tion of the poor populations on the planet and plays a decisive role in their health and diet.

breeding, including land degradation, water pollution and global warming. Overgrazing may result in the compaction, erosion and low fertility of soils. Aquatic ecosystems are polluted by the excess nitrogen and phosphorus entering the soil through leaching or runoff. In addition, excessive concen-trations of animals and animal wastes produce gases which affect the at-mosphere by trapping solar energy and thereby contributing to climatic warming; this process is thought to be the cause of 18% of greenhouse gases.

Today it is necessary to take major corrective measures to remedy the ad-verse effects of animal production on the environment and to prevent them assuming catastrophic proportions. It is essential to make this process eco-logically sustainable, for example by recycling waste on agricultural land and the application of suitable technologies, in particular for the manage-ment of fodder production and the treatment of waste.

In western countries, pollution of the soil, water and air has led to an aware-ness of the environmental problems associated with livestock breeding. This has often led to the implementation of appropriate policies and regulations. By contrast, developing countries, where the demand for animal products is ever increasing, do not normally have any appropriate regulations in this area or the political means for expressing concerns regarding the growing environmental and health dangers of industrial livestock production.

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DES PRODUCTIONS ANIMALES ÉCOLOGIQUES

A SUSTAINABLE MEAT INDUSTRY

support the meat production industry in order to improve the income and liv-ing conditions of 3,600 families of small and medium-sized meat producers. To achieve this, each link in the “meat” chain (producers, butchers, slaugh-terhouses) is supported and the production system improved.

-diate producers were trained for two years to assist and advise the members of their community on improving animal production. They attended numer-ous training courses over two years, on one day a week. The courses covered various topics: artificial insemination, animal health, feeding and nutrition, etc.

-

activities, 80% of the meat production now satisfies the required standards of hygiene and quality. Qualified staff carry out the cutting up and processing of the meat. At the end of the production chain, a market for live animals and processed meat products opened at Ibarra. Finally, the producers are united, organised and strong enough to define a sales strategy for their products.

Today, the daily weight gain per species varies between 20 and 60%, and the costs of production have fallen by about 10%.

TO CONVERT ANIMAL WASTEINTO BIOMASS

ECUADOR

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Problems remain -

jority operated by municipalities, 11 of which are in the north of the country. In 2004, a study revealed the deplorable general state of most of them, none of which currently have an environmental licence. The slaughterhouse waste, namely blood, the content of the belly or rumen of the animal and the faeces are normally thrown directly into a drain or nearby river,

the few water purification plants are out of service. In addition, the clearing of forests to provide grazing land has contributed to soil erosion and the disappearance of forest cover.

with the classic contradiction of many development projects: If the project attains its objectives, meat pro-duction and sales increase, the consequent rise in the income of the producers improves the standard of liv-ing of the families and … contamination of the envi-ronment becomes increasingly serious. In addition to these drawbacks, the situation is aggravated by the fact that the animals also produce methane, a green-house gas.

attempt to transform problems into opportunities. As an experiment, it installed 23 biodigesters in model pig farms. These machines recycle animal faeces and produce biogas to be used in rural kitchens instead of

wood. A user manual was distributed and the tech--

A commercial outletFollowing a conference on the production of organic

-dara, the project tested production of organic fertiliser

-uador. The municipality of Ibarra (the regional capital of

the project. So, producers, public authorities and tech-nological skills are combined in this initiative.

The municipality made a piece of land of more than

slaughterhouse waste was tipped on to it, in the open air. A plastic film had previously been stretched over the surface to prevent pollution of the soil. The blood, rumen content and animal faeces were mixed with the sugarcane leftovers and bacteria to improve and accelerate the natural composting proc-ess. Naturally enough, the mixture rapidly began to give off foul odours. Neighbouring inhabitants com-plained and the test had to be terminated. On the oth-er hand, contamination of the local river (which flows

was restarted. In the meantime, the bacteria used to produce the compost started to produce good results

41

ANIMAL PRODUCTION THAT RESPECTS THE ENVIRONMENT

and, after four weeks, the bad smells had completely disappeared.

After ten weeks, the process ended and the compost, which was of excellent quality, was sold. The fertiliser collected had the odour of fresh earth. The yields ob-tained were very good. Fifteen tonnes of by-products produced 7 tonnes of humus and 1.2 tonne of liquid fertiliser created by the lixiviation (percolation) of liq-uids from the composting action, in other words an overall yield of 55%. And it is all 100% organic!

So the polluting waste materials have become com-mercial products with multiple outlets. The many ba-

are now buying this local high-quality humus.

In the face of this indisputable success, the regional authorities wanted to extend the trial to other regional slaughterhouses (having learned that the land must be well away from habitation)… to the benefit of the rivers, and also the slaughterhouses, which are discovering a new source of income!

Animals and plants helping the soil-

tive: support for silvopastoral techniques. The silvopas-toral approach reconciles the presence of trees and animal production on the same piece of land. It takes advantage of the ecological and economic benefits resulting from the association of trees with the animal

systems dedicated to livestock breeding provide sev-eral services: binding soil and improving the quality of the soil, a positive effect on the water cycle, preserva-tion of arboreal species, a habitat and additional food resources for wild animals, the availability of additional forage, curative products, shade for cattle, the produc-tion of produce (fruits, sap, wood, etc.).

-nique were told about it. The silvopastoral techniques

and San Lorenzo.

48,000 plants were produced and distributed among breeders who participate to the programme and planted the trees on their properties. In order to promote and disseminate this experiment throughout the north of the country, a manual on silvopastoral practices was drawn up and 1,000 copies printed.

Taking the initiativeThese two experiments incorporate the environmental aspect in a practical approach, which takes into ac-count the economic and social issues. But not all the problems have been resolved: The project managers, the breeders and the other partners are well aware of

for ten purification plants have just been produced.

aerobic, decomposition in urban areas, and use filtering aquatic plants, where space allows, in rural areas.

TO FIND OUT MORE

www.procanor.com

42


Although little known and invisible, the pollution generated by breeding dairy cattle is significant. Cows are real gas plants, producing ammonia

-

can also be found.

In Vietnam, the growing demand for high-quality dairy products is forcing small producers to change the way in which they manage their activities. To boost productivity, the Dairy Vietnam project is encouraging producers

-

shown that environmental pollution can be reduced using simple tech-niques, which can be applied on all farms (small or large), with economic benefits as well!

From waste to resource

are next to the farm. Solid droppings can be stored in a tank for example, mixed with water and the effluent produced can be applied directly to the land by irrigation, by hand or using simple machines. But what can be done

RECYCLING LIVESTOCK WASTEINTO ENERGY AND FERTILISERS

THE LIVESTOCK GREEN CYCLE VIETNAM

43


BIOGAS SUBSTITUTES CONVENTIONALDOMESTIC ENERGY SOURCES, REDUC-ING RELIANCE ON FOSSIL FUEL AND FIRE-WOOD (CO2)

BIO-SLURRY CAN SUBSTITUTE CHEMICALFERTILIZER, REDUCING N2O EMISSIONS

BIOGAS PLANTS TRANSFORM TRADITION-AL MANURE MANAGEMENT; REDUCINGCH2 EMISSIONS

prevented from getting into the public water supply and

-portation of the fertiliser in tanker lorries or installing a network of pipelines becomes necessary. And, to be re-ally useful and risk-free for the soil and water supplies, the fertiliser must be applied in quantities that are suit-able for crop requirements and at the right time of year. These are all solutions recommended by Dairy Vietnam.

Anaerobic digestion to produce biogas and fertiliserThe project also supported the installation of a plant to produce biogas from the methane released by cattle. Biogas can be used as a fuel for cooking and heating

-bustion, the methane is converted into CO2, also a

greenhouse gas but less dangerous for the atmosphere than methane. In addition, the biogas forms an alterna-tive to the use of other sources of energy, such as oil or coal, which are not renewable.

The green cycle

-cally all the waste materials are converted and reused.

The manure is first digested under anaerobic condi-tions, to produce biogas and fertiliser. The fertiliser is then mixed with irrigation water and spread over the fodder crops, which allows a reduction in the amounts of chemical fertiliser used. The biogas is used to provide power for the irrigation system.

BIOGAS PLANT

45


In conclusion, the project showed that incorporation of environmental con-cerns into the management of the dairy farm is not complicated or expen-sive. Correct storage of manure and appropriate use of residues contribute to a better environment. The reduction of losses during storage and the ap-plication of fertiliser have a positive effect on the soil, water and air. Finally, the application of organic fertiliser to arable land encourages the growth of microorganisms in the soil, resulting in better yields.

46


MAINTAINING BIODIVERSITY

According to the FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization), biodiversity is di-

of habitat, climate change and the overexploitation of resources, have in-creased the speed at which species are disappearing by some 1,000 times

Nevertheless biodiversity constitutes a wide range of plants and animals,

species also contribute to the essential ecological functions on which ag-riculture depends, including soil mineral wealth and the water cycle. The preservation of biodiversity provides in particular the genetic certainty of adaptation to the evolution of present and future conditions (climate change, consumer demand, etc.). The preservation and sustainable use of biological diversity are therefore essential for the future of humanity and the food security of present and future generations.

AT STAKE

THREATS TO GENETIC RESOURCES Today, several factors, of both human and natural origin, are threatening the survival of many species. The adoption of cereal monoculture in certain countries has led to the use of a limited number of very high yield varieties and the loss of varieties of wheat, barley and rice. This agricultural choice has resulted in severe erosion of the precious genetic heritage. Otherdangers: bush fires, deforestation, recurrent floods, conflict.

But food security depends on these phytogenetic resources, which allow the establishment of sustainable

agricultural production methods. Ittherefore depends to a great extent on international exchanges concerning preservation and the dissemination of genetic material, which ensure that no part of the world lacks seeds adapted to its agroclimatic conditions.

To get round this problem, EX SITUand IN SITU programmes for the preservation of genetic resources for cultivation and livestock breeding have been set up.

EX SITU preservation consists of taking samples representative of their

natural habitats for their preservation in seed banks. There are about 1,500 establishments throughout the world.

IN SITU preservation involves the maintenance of viable populations of crops and livestock in the agricultural landscape in which they have developed their individual properties. Farmers, as the guardians and managers of biodiversity, use traditional selection to maintain plant and animal diversity.

47


PRESERVING AND MULTIPLYING GENETIC RESOURCES

Belgian cooperation is supporting the emergence of a professionally-run

promoting, through the strengthening of private sector capacities (farming organisations and private developers) the production, marketing and distri-bution of seeds of certified quality. These activities are supported by meas-ures aimed at preserving and multiplying the number of agricultural species available in the country through the creation of a gene bank. Indeed, in

-ing a great number of agricultural species with disappearance.

High-quality seeds… reducing environmental pressure-

tive effect on the preservation of the environment, and is normally accom-panied by a change in methods of cultivation. For example, to maximise crop potential, farmers are encouraged to use more suitable soil- improving agents and techniques for preventing erosion.

The increased production per unit of surface area may also result in a re-duction of pressure on the land. This benefit is particularly attractive in a

constantly diminishing.

Gene bankThe project also supports the establishment of a gene bank accommodat-ing all the phytogenetic resources of the country. The second stage involves

multiplication activities have therefore started, to allow regeneration of the

Difficult choicesSupport to the seed sector is an attempt to incorporate the concept of sustainable development: economic development of a maximum of pro-ducers, social development through integration of the informal system and acknowledgement of the environmental aspect.

-mental protection is sometimes difficult. Anxious to improve their living con-ditions as quickly as possible, populations give little attention to environ-mental protection, which is often seen as opposing immediate well-being.

IMPROVING VARIETYAND QUALITY OF LOCAL SEEDS

RWANDA

48


demographic growth, mountainous landscape relief and limited available land, the choices are complicated. Although the national strategic legisla-tion often takes environmental protection into account, converting these intentions into initiatives on the ground remains a challenge.

A FINAL POINT CONCERNING BIODIVERSITY: GMOS…

-

which should not be dismissed out of hand, we should employ objectivity and rigour in examining the risks of this type of production: environmen-tal risks, agricultural risks and risks to human health. The main cultivated plants (maize, rice, cotton, rape, sugar beet, potato, soya) already have genetically modified versions.

For farmers in the South, social and economic constraints are often more of a deciding factor than technical constraints as regards increasing their productivity (lack of resources for buying fertilisers, lack of access to the

market involves a potential risk of increasing the dependence of farmers on these large groups.

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NEGATIVE POSITIVE

Genes may mutate with harmful effects. It is not yet known whether the artificial insertion of genes could destabilise an organism by stimulating mutations or if the inserted gene remains stable in the plant for generations. There is no convincing data on this point.

More food from less land. Thanks to the greater productivity

be forced to cultivate so much marginal land.

Genes may end up in unexpected places. If a gene “escapes”, it may be transmitted by an organism to other members of its own species, or to other species. This could be serious if, for example, genes resistant to herbicides are transmitted to self-propagating plants.

Restoration of degraded or less fertile land. -tion could produce varieties tolerant to soil salinity. Very advanced research is being carried out in this area, but tolerance to salt and drought is the result of somewhat complicated genetic combina-tions, which means that the results will take longer to obtain than for resistance to insecticides and herbicides.

“Dormant” genes may be accidentally activated and active genes deactivated. This problem mainly concerns long-lived organisms, such as trees.

More nutritious basic foods. By transplanting genes into plants such as rice and wheat, their nutritive value could be increased.

Interaction with wild and indigenous varieties. compete or reproduce with wild species. Transgenic plants could constitute a danger to biodiversity, especially in zones that are the cradle of this type of cultivation. In addition, they could supplant traditional varieties and their wild relations, which have adapted over time to local constraints.

Better resistance to stress. If crops become more resistant to pest infestations, the risk of lost harvests could be reduced, and there could be other benefits, such as better weather resistance (frost, heat waves, drought) - although this would require the manipulation of complex combinations of genes.

Impact on birds, insects and soil organisms. The potential risks to non-target species, such as birds, pollinators and micro-organisms, are another important issue. Furthermore, there is a risk that the widespread use of genetically modified crops could lead to the development of resistance among insect populations.

THE NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF GMOS

50


THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABLE FISHING

The management of fishing poses a challenge to all countries. Aquatic bio-diversity provides vital subsistence resources to the world population. This resource is however under threat, from factors within the fishing sector such as overfishing, destructive fishing practices and the introduction of exotic species, and from external factors such as the disappearance and pollution of habitats caused essentially by human activities.

This is why it is urgent to encourage the preservation and sustainable use of fishing resources by incorporating considerations dealing with ecosystems into the practices and procedures of fishing management. The FAO has developed a range of directives and measures intended to promote sustain-able fishing: incorporating the ecosystemic approach and the principle of precaution, eliminating by-catches and discards, regulating bottom trawl-ing, and combating illegal, undeclared and unregulated fishing.

In many countries, these measures are not yet in effect and improvement of fishing resources management goes hand in hand with reform of the public sector and measures designed to encourage better governance. Capacity development relating to fishing management must be a priority for both developing and developed countries.

51

THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABLE FISHING

SUPPORTING SMALL-SCALE FISHING ACTIVITIES THAT ARE SUSTAINABLE AND PROFITABLE

A POTENTIAL UNDER THREAT

In the province of Katanga, Belgian Cooperation is supporting the devel-opment of small-scale fishing that is environmentally friendly. The ben-efits of this initiative are threefold:

Improving the quality of production and its preservation by suitable processing techniques (popularisation of salt water curing and smoke curing in efficient Chorkor ovens requiring little firewood); Improving the organisation of the fishing sector;

through the observance of legal regulations (temporary fishing bans and net mesh size).

central Africa with 208 fish farming ponds in the 1960s, has been partial-ly restored. Leaking everywhere and poorly maintained for years, these ponds allowed neither profitable fish farming nor training of the fisher-men in sustainable fish farming techniques. The project commenced with restoring the offices, residential buildings and an initial series of 20 training ponds and cleaning up of the access roads and water pipes.

In addition, studies on the environmental impact of the mining industry on fishing resources have allowed an accurate diagnosis of the situa-

lake resources. The studies also propose indicators for restoration of the resources in the polluted bodies of water. A year of study and analysis of samples of water, plants, molluscs and fish has already shown heavy pollution by heavy metals in Lake Tshangalele, thanks to the efficient collaboration of students from the Faculty of Agriculture at Lubumbashi,

Second, the fishermen (more than 800,000 in Katanga, including 20,000 in the mining area), now are aware of responsible fishing techniques and are being invited to participate in programmes for the joint management

with legislation. Together, the populations will employ the best fishing and fish processing techniques.

AT STAKE

With 86,000 km2 of water bodies (three times the surface area of Belgium), the potential fishing resources in the Congo are estimated at 750,000 tonnes a year (an average of 87 kg per ha), of which Katanga accounts for 40%. In this province in the southeast of the country, several lakes traversed by the tributaries of the Congo River and located in an uncontrolled mining area are subjected to disturbing levels of pollution due to heavy metal residues and the sulphuric acid used to extract the raw materials from the soil.

Lakes N’Zilo and Tshangalele 1, in the southeast of the province, form part of these waters, which pay a heavy environmental price due to human activity. Situated in a heavily urbanised mining area, they are subject to all the forms of anthropic pollution: overfishing, mining pollution and urban pollution. Nevertheless, despite this progressive poisoning of the water, between 10,000 and 20,000 fishermen earn their living on these two lakes.

-

DR CONGO

HOOFDSTUK

52

Preserving natural interactionsTo ensure sustainable management of the lakes, the fishermen have been invited to protect (or, at least, to no longer hunt) large mammals such as

their organic droppings, plankton, the basic food of most of the fish in the rivers and lakes, would become scarce.

The project will identify and protect areas in which large mammals are found

fishing and hunting would be strictly forbidden. These areas could in time become observation sites for tourist photographers.

55

SAVING THE BLUE GOLD WATER AND THE ENVIRONMENT

PROTECTING THE SOURCE› ACCESS TO DRINKING WATER IN A RURAL ENVIRONMENT (SENEGAL)

PROTECTING THE RESOURCE› TROUBLED WATER (ALGERIA)

56

SAVING THE BLUE GOLD

In many developing countries, improved drinking water coverage is not assured for many inhabitants. This fact is even more striking in rural en-vironments, where the level of access to drinking water is close to 76% (compared with 94% in urban environments). This disparity is even more pronounced in terms of sanitation, with only 39% of rural inhabitants benefiting from improved sanitation systems as against 71% of town dwellers1.

By 2015, the international community has undertaken to “Reduce by half the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation” (MDG 7). But that means reconciling major technical, economic and environmental constraints. And, as observed by UNDP: “During most of the recent past, political leaders have focused their attention on three major users of water: industry, agriculture and domestic consumers. Without a political voice to support it, the fourth big user, the environment, has been ignored.”2 Providing everyone with safe drinking water while preserving available reserves constitutes one of the major challenges of the 21st century.

There are two environmental approaches to the water sector: action to protect the SOURCE, with the goal of providing permanent access to genuine drinking water, and actions to protect the RESOURCE. It could be said that the direct beneficiary of protecting the source is the popula-tion, the indirect beneficiary “the environment”. The opposite is true for the “the resource approach”.

57

The environmental issues must be taken into account in order to guarantee 3, even the indicators

the quality of the water, and therefore whether it is fit to drink. The statistics regard as safe an “improved water source”, such as running water, a stand-pipe, a borehole, a pump, a protected well, rainwater, whatever their direct

household latrines close to sources of water, especially where the popula-tion density is very high.

It is therefore essential to investigate whether any source of pollution, such as latrines, fertiliser spreading or industrial activities, exists close to the source. Its location must take these factors into account. Also, a watering point is a place in which men and women, and often livestock, congregate, especially in rural environments. It must therefore be protected with an en-closure and have a separate access to the water source for animals.

PROTECTING THE SOURCE

REFERENCE DATA

HYDROLOGICAL KNOW-HOW

The development of water supply systems contributes to monitoring water quality and quantity. Forexample, the exploitation of groundwater aquifers raises questions concerning hydrogeology and encourages research in this domain. This increases knowledge and promotes the development of sustainable management policies for water resources.

With the installation of drinking water supply infrastructure, monitoring of the basic indicators can be initiated. In the case of a borehole, monitoring of the volume extracted, the depth of the water table and the quality of the water contributes to knowledge of the local hydrogeology. In this way, water use can become more rational and be viewed over the long term.

58


ACCESS TO DRINKING WATER IN A RURAL ENVIRONMENT

The Project for improvement and strengthening of the water supply in the Groundnut Basin

Thirty-two drinking water systems were constructed. A further fourteen ex-isting sites benefited from enhancement or expansion of their distribution

contracted out to professional organisations to ensure the durability of the water supply service.

In 2005, Senegal launched the Millennium drinking water and sanitation pro-grammehas been supporting this initiative through the PEPAM-Groundnut Basin

fifteen rural communities in the same region.

Operation “clean hands” Access to clean water, hygiene and basic sanitation are an integral part of reducing the prevalence of diseases, whose prevention requires the or-

-eral training sessions in hygiene and sanitation for the 108 women acting

participants analysed the diseases associated with water in order to estab-lish a cause and effect relationship between hygiene behaviour and health. They learned how to express these different types of behaviour in the form of images, in order to be able to pass on information and awareness mes-sages to their whole community. The instructions are relatively simple: for example, washing hands with soap and water before eating and after using the toilet, using clean latrines, maintaining hygiene around public drinking fountains, water hygiene, environmental hygiene, personal hygiene, food hygiene, etc. The role of each person was also established. The commu-nity was then able to consider the distribution of tasks between men and women and contemplate the desired changes.

REFERENCE DATA

PHASTThe PHAST method, which stands for “Participatory Hygiene and Sanitation Transformation” has the objective, which is known to its participants, of improving water and sanitation hygiene in order to prevent diarrheic diseases. This method is based on the skills and abilities of the local population. Ithas been developed by UNDP and WHO.

In itself, the method is not revolutionary. Itfollows the main phases of all processes: Identifying the problems, analysing them, proposing solutions, and finally applying them.

PHAST is implemented through the adaptation of teaching aids to the audience and by systematic decision-making on the part of the participants. The organisers start from the needs of the inhabitants. Working with small groups, they encourage discussion and help to express ideas using illustrations so that everyone can follow.

LIMITING WATER POLLUTIONTHROUGH THE APPLICATIONOF BASIC HYGIENE RULES

SENEGAL

© B

TC

59

PROTECTING THE SOURCE

The role of the water point manager The role of the water point manager is central in preserving the quality of the water source. The internal regulations of the Borehole Users Associations

of the distribution point, and list obligations and tasks. The water point man-ager must prevent anyone from washing, bathing, washing clothes or pouring

animals do not wander round near the water supply point.

A fair price for waterOne of the lessons learned from water supply programmes is the need to make consumers pay for access to water and to set a price based on the volume consumed (rather than a fixed price). This may appear surprising.

principle is that the population is paying for the water supply service, not the water, which is communally owned. The objective is to make the water sup-ply sustainable, by ensuring correct operation and maintenance. Clearly the price must be affordable for the population, and it must be set in a transpar-

-tion to pay for water is normally linked to its scarcity (see column to the left for an example of Niger).

Control of the total volume extracted at the water supply point is also essen-tial to prevent losses. In fact, when the water is sold by volume but without control (of the total volume), considerable wastage is often observed - for example, when the water point manager does not stop the water flow be-tween the individual buckets. On the other hand, if that person has to make a note of takings at the end of the day according to the total volume delivered, he will ensure that the losses are reduced to a minimum. This kind of water management reduces demand on the source.

-erably reduced through the sale of water by volume and the installation of meters at all the water supply points. The price is fixed by the association responsible for management and includes the costs of production, main-

are read and the water point manager is remunerated pro rata the volume of

NIGER: PRIORITYFOR WATER

The Village and Pastoral Water Supply Programme in Dosso, one of the priority regions of Belgian cooperation in Niger, has two objectives: on the one hand, access to drinking water for rural populations through the construction and rehabilitation of water supply installations, and on the other hand, basic sanitation through the construction of domestic and public latrines.

The programme is promoting equitable access to drinking water in the five departements of the region, by building more installations in places where modern water supply points are scarce. Works are in progress in the basins of the three dallols (ancient seasonal rivers). Here, water almost reaches the surface but its presence in the ground makes it sensitive to human pollution, with the consequence of regular epidemics of cholera and other waterborne diseases. Theprogramme therefore recommends boreholes to tap the lower aquifer. It has been observed, however, that the population, used to easy access to non-potable but free water, is less inclined to pay for the clean water. On the other hand, where water is completely absent, the populations are calling for the water extraction works and claim they are ready to pay immediately. The awareness messages must take these different attitudes into account in order to guarantee the operation and long-term maintenance of all the water supply points.

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61

PROTECTING THE RESOURCE

service and the quality of the water distributed, protection of the resource involves a wider area of operation and long-term objectives. It consists of analysing and maintaining the natural balances associated with water and preventing or limiting the adverse effects of human intervention, agriculture and industry on drinking water supplies.

TROUBLED WATER

Algeria is confronted with an estimated, theoretical annual availability of water per inhabitant of 500m3. This situation is considered “catastrophic” by interna-

order to meet the economic objectives of the country and maintain sustainable development. The Integrated water resources management in the Algiers coastal catchment area project supported by BTC falls within the general context of the economic development of northern Algeria, of which the Algiers catchment area is the spearhead. Its task is to create the conditions for efficient management of the water in the catchment area by, on the one hand, developing a manage-ment plan and a decision-support tool for the future managers, and on the other, stimulating new practices for the use of water, which are more economical and designed for the long term.

This has been the case in many regions of the world in which it has been pos-sible partially to “make good” the consequences of poor water management and restore the ecological balance.

But the project must also be understood in a context of climate change, which, according to some projections, would be quite unfavourable for the region. The interaction between the prospects of climate change and the project initiatives

-

These questions are being asked while another argument has not yet been tack--

fore the major climate changes predicted. The use of desalinated water, possible today thanks to the very low price of energy in the country, will become a luxury and possibly prohibitively expensive in a context of falling national revenues.

PLANNING THE DIFFERENT USES OF WATER ON A LARGE SCALE

ALGERIA

62


The ‘IMWR’ approach as a lifebuoy As water supply programmes are regarded as high-risk, the majority com-mence with a detailed analysis of their environmental impact. The Envi-ronmental Impact Assessment is also a legal prerequisite for infrastructure projects in most countries. In addition to the analysis, the assessment normally provides for mitigation measures and alternative approaches where the options contemplated are not deemed sufficiently sustainable. These evaluations reflect a growing environmental awareness of the sec-tor. But for genuine protection of the resource, a common effort by differ-ent sectors is necessary.

Overuse of water is evident when the sole objective is to increase access to drinking water or irrigation water. The authorities (central, regional and local) have the responsibility for ensuring that in the long term, the exploi-tation of resources does not compromise the range of business sectors and ecosystems that depend on water.

a process that promotes the coordinated deve-lopment and management of water, land and related resources, in order to maxi-mise, the resultant economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems”.

This integrated management approach regards access to water as one of the main structural components of a society. It encourages communica-tion and coordination between different authorities and operators divided

-

The following are a few examples of interaction between water use and the ecological balance of the region of the Algiers coastal catchment area:

Agricultural extraction (70% of the water used in the catchment area) exhausts the aquifer and thereby allows penetration of seawater into the underground, contaminating the water table;Inefficient management of urban and industrial effluents compromise the use of surface water (as a resource), which becomes a vector of diseases;The rivers discharge heavily polluted effluents (from industries, hospitals,

etc.) into the sea;Intensive agriculture results in pesticide and nitrate pollution of the water table and rivers;Accelerated urbanisation contributes to modifying the local pluviometry and increases the water shortage. A process of desertification is predicted in the region. In addition, the disappearance of agricultural and forest areas has an adverse effect on the CO2 balance;The absence of a comprehensive master plan for the maintenance of wadis (seasonal watercourses) may lead to human or ecological disasters:

floods, erosion of river banks, landslides, etc.;The brine discharged by seawater desalination plants may adversely affect the ecological balance of the sea bed in the discharge area; The lack of information and awareness and the attitude of certain players who help to spread the idea that there is nothing more to be done to improve the state of the rivers or combat the lowering of water tables. Thatway, fatalism is encouraged, with a cumulative effect on the damage to the environment.

REFERENCE DATA

INITIATIVES CONCERNING WATER AND EQUILIBRIUM

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PROTECTING THE RESOURCE

ment committees, irrigation associations, landowners,

authorities, etc.

But all these operators do not always have the skills or overall vision to carry out integrated water man-

boundaries do not necessarily correspond with the boundaries of the natural resources. Thus, negotiating agreements on the sustainable management of water is often laborious and demands a long-term effort.

An external, independent actor, without any local in-terest, such as a development agency, may play the role of a catalyst in this context. It may participate in

-ing alliances with operators who wish to take part in a long-term programme, and promoting dialogue with and organisation of such operators. Through these ap-proaches, development initiatives contribute to turning visions into practice.

It is important to remember that such an initiative is complex, and its duration must always take into ac-count the considerable time necessary to change atti-tudes and improve communication and harmonisation between actors.

MOROCCO: SECURING THEFUTURE OF THE RESOURCE

BTC is firmly established in Morocco where its initiatives in the domain of drinking water go back to 1965 and are concentrated in the Souss-Massa-Drâa and Tafilalet regions where the rural populations suffer from recurrent drinking water shortages.

The programme currently in progress aims to provide sustainable access to drinking water for a rural population of more than 67,000 people.

However, sustainability of the resource is not guaranteed. The majority of the water supply points are wells which tap water levels that are highly sensitive to rainfall. Inaddition, here as elsewhere, a large proportion of the water is used for irrigation and the concept of sharing often causes conflict between the two demands: drinking water and irrigation water. As a result, drinking water networks installed are harmed by the economic interests of a few. By over-exploiting the water tables, the latter cause a significant drawdown (fall in the level of the water tables) and sudden drying up of the wells. This demonstrates that coordination, and in fact, integrated management of the water resource is essential.

64

Water is increasingly becoming a central issue in the development of the countries of the South. Faced with many competing demands, how do you choose areas for intervention?Surprising as it may seem, coop-eration does not operate in a con-text of water shortage. We do not work in areas where the historic availability of water resources is no longer in balance with the pres-ence of populations. It is therefore more a question of quality and management than of availability.

Always with major participation by local actors. Is decentralisation a step in the right direction for water management?It is a prerequisite; water must be managed locally or not at all. We must work with the local actors us-ing the lessons learned from their initial work. The well is therefore a starting point for most villages; to be able to manage the whole proc-ess of contracting the construc-tion of their well and water supply system is important. They have to focus on this project. Often the skills and resources required to work on a more long-term view of water management are lacking. We are about to experience a pe-riod of ten years of knowledge de-velopment, with responsibility in the hands of local communities, of organising the skills for developing water systems. This complicates matters somewhat, but it is a fun-damental requirement.

Is drinking water the prime objective of a project?We always have two objectives: one is strategic and the other one is operational. The operational ob-

jective is access to water, which improves the overall situation. However, we also have to make use of the knowledge and poten-tial of the populations. And these assets are not obtained simply through the presence of a well in the village. The inhabitants do not derive any more significant power from it for their own development.The strategic objective may there-fore involve decentralisation or the organisation of structures in rural environments, which are issues more closely linked with power that involve organisational, institu-tional and political aspects. Water governance is a catalyst for gener-ating energies to work on strategic objectives. And vice versa. Work-ing on these objectives results in good water governance. None takes priority. They are equally important and mutually reinforce each other.

But water supply is a very technical subject. Is it possible to let the populations decide? If the technology cannot be incor-porated within a process driven by the local actors, the project will go nowhere. The technical approach must be within the framework of a local programme.

Also the cultural approach plays a part with a symbol as strong as water?Absolutely. All cultural aspects are factors we have to be familiar with from the start. We have to under-stand how the population perceive water and what their relationship with water is. In South America for example, wa-ter is a medium between man and his ancestors, it goes into the sky

and returns to the earth, it binds the earth and the sky. In Andean cultures, the concept by which water can connect people is very strong.In West Africa, water has more of a divine function. As part of a water supply project, an expert had to visit a Fulani vil-lage where we had drilled a bore-hole. The Fulani welcomed us in front of their encampment. This is where the first discussions start, with the words of welcome and permission to enter. They offered us a pot of water, not to drink, be-cause no one knew where it had come from. It was enough to touch it with the lips by way of thanks. The expert didn’t want to make this gesture. Result: we were never allowed to return to the village. It was over, nothing more was said. The spiritual and social value of water is extremely important in these cultures. In Haïti, one of the first things done near a new source is a ceremony with priests.

Does the cultural approach modify the technique?There are places that should not be crossed by water pipes. The local populations will not neces-sarily point them out, but we must have the sensitivity to understand this and to find such places.


Stef Lambrecht is coordinator of the NGO Protos, specialising in water projects and programmes

WATER MUST BE MANAGED LOCALLY OR NOT AT ALLOVER TO STEF LAMBRECHT, PROTOS

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NATURE,A PARTNER THATNEEDS CARING FORNATURAL RESOURCES AND THEENVIRONMENT

THE IMPLEMENTATION OF NATIONAL MANAGEMENT PLANS> TOWARD COMMUNITY-BASED ACTION (TANZANIA)

THE SUSTAINABLE EXPLOITATION OF FRAGILE ECOSYSTEMS> BAKA PYGMIES, PROTECTORS OF THE TROPICAL RAIN FOREST (CAMEROON) > TABACONAS NAMBALLE, A THREATENED SANCTUARY (PERU)> THE PALM GROVES OF THE DRAA VALLEY (MOROCCO)

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NATURE, A PARTNER THAT NEEDS CARING FOR

A significant percentage of the population of Belgian cooperation partner countries survives on available natural resources (crops, fishing, hunting, etc.). These countries also contain exceptional ecosystems (oases, wet-lands, old-growth forest, etc.), which have been made fragile by human pressure and the effects of climate change.

Over the past years, the conservation paradigm has made way at spe-cialised agencies and institutions for one of careful and sustainable re-source and land management that brings together all parties (private citizens, associations, institutions, etc.) and users.

The focus of BTC as a development agency is on human beings. Its primary goal is to eradicate poverty and promote a better life for the people who benefit from its activities. This goal is often in conflict with environmental priorities and raises many questions. How can the socio-economic and cultural well being of populations be guaranteed while at the same time managing available resources well and over the long term? How can tourism become an engine of development? How can the protection of biodiversity be coupled with the right of local peoples to exploit their natural resources?

These questions and many more become apparent in the field. A number of projects backed by Belgian cooperation go to the heart of this issue. Its experiences have brought one thing to the fore: It is absolutely neces-sary to involve local populations in programme implementation. This is a prerequisite for obtaining results and having a tangible impact.

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THE IMPLEMENTATIONOF NATIONAL MANAGEMENTPLANS

One of the tools available to act on the environment is found at the institu-tional level. The definition of a legislative framework that takes into account environmental stakes ensures that all field projects will consistently take environmental issues into consideration. Once legal texts have been ap-proved, one of the first challenges is to ensure that they are known by all, then to apply and regulate the process.

TOWARD COMMUNITY-BASED ACTION

In 2004, Tanzania developed a new strategy for growth and poverty reduc-tion. In it, environmental issues are deemed fundamental to the economic and social development of the country.

Tanzanian authorities concurrently adopted a legislative framework that is favourable to the community-based management of natural resources. The new policies seek to bring local authorities (districts) closer to local resi-dents and they also strive to bring concrete benefits to the latter.

This paradigm shift is important. The “conservation through restrictions”approach (practices are prohibited and violators are punished) gives way to “sustainable conservation and use through cooperation with local commu-nities” where the emphasis is on participation, information, capacity devel-opment and resource sharing.

Obviously, this change is not taking place without bumps and gnashing of teeth. The local population and authorities are not always willing to take on their new roles. The representatives of local power are not necessarily inclined to see their prerogatives diminished. The economic stakes are very high.

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conditions were separate, if not opposing, concerns. Yet, lost revenue from exploitation of natural resources in Tanzania has been estimated at 58 million dollars for 2005 alone. This is enough to build several hundred primary schools! The link between environmental damage and the poverty of the population has become increasingly obvious to the general public.

IMPLEMENTATION OF A NEW LEGAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE MANAGEMENTOF LOCAL NATURAL RESOURCES

TANZANIA

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This is, notably, thanks to media coverage of environmental issues, which

and more often, information is playing a role and Tanzanians are increas-ingly able to assess the significance of the issues as well as the related economic stakes.

AT STAKE

PREREQUISITES FOR THE SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES BY THE LOCAL POPULATION:

An appropriate legal framework and a real political will enabling implementation of participatory and community approachesTraining and capacity development of community members in order to enable and promote decision-making at this levelRespect of the principles of good governance at all levels

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THE IMPLEMENTATION OF NATIONAL MANAGEMENT PLANS

PROMOTING THE ROLE OF WETLANDS

Belgian cooperation is supporting the Tanzanian government in its efforts to --

agement plan for the Kilombero Valley, located in the east of the country.

This plan creates zones of activity for conservation, wildlife observation, hunting, tourism, village life, etc. Once boundaries have been accepted by

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boundaries defined will then be subject to user rights.

The many discussions surrounding this process strengthen the capacities

is not happening without friction. One of the first obstacles that must be overcome is the fear of local communities that they will be excluded from having a say in the management of the area, as has been the case in the national parks.

BTC is supporting the parties (including 31 villages) in defining land use and in conflict resolution by emphasising the need for a global, long-term man-agement plan accepted by the entire community. Training, workshops and visits are organised in order to bring together the players and promote dis-cussion, listening and, in the end, solutions that will not harm any element

must certainly include decision-making, planning that involves the popula-tion as much as possible and an emphasis on strengthening capacities.

TANZANIA

PROTECTING AND PROMOTINGREMARKABLE ECOSYSTEMS

REFERENCE DATA

RAMSAR AND KILOMBERO

In order to ensure the conservation and protection of wetlands, the RamsarConvention recognised over 1,800 remarkable wetlands around the world. It acknowledges their essential environmental purpose (flood control and prevention, water purification, animal reproduction, specific biodiversity, etc.)

The Ramsar list includes four Tanzanian sites. One of these is the KilomberoValley. Covering 4,868,242 ha, it is the largest flood plain in East Africa and home to 75% of the world’s population of a rare antelope (Puku)- see picture above.

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WILDLIFE, A MAJOR CHALLENGE FOR THE TANZANIAN ECONOMY

-larly for its tourism sector. Twenty-four percent of its territory has been set aside for wildlife. Over 70% of these protected areas are national parks

aside for tourism only whereas game reserves are primarily dedicated to hunting, professional photography and, occasionally, fishing and apiculture.

The main concern is that only a tiny part of tourism and hunting revenues go

and buffaloes destroy fields and eat the crops of nearby villages. Lions and

complain about poaching by villagers.

To put an end to these quarrels, the Tanzanian government has come up

hunting tourism, villager hunting, photography, etc.) Villagers have accept--

ing, several villages have to work together in order to provide a sufficient amount of land. The process is long, complex and fairly heavy from an administrative standpoint. Once completed, a village entity is recognised as an Authorised Association (AA) and is officially granted management rights to that area. The AA can then conclude contracts directly with economic operators and benefit from any financial spin-off. It must, however, adhere to a strict set of specifications, as it is responsible for the good governance of the defined area. The local communities are both responsible for and the beneficiaries of the wildlife and they become key partners in the sustain-able management of this resource. This should gradually lead to a decline in illegal practices.

BTC is involved in this process at the Selous game reserve. The reserve is located in south-eastern Tanzania where it covers 47,500 km2 (larger than Belgium). The project supports 22 villages (about 4,000 families) in defining area boundaries, assigning land use, community organisation, and training

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information feedback on methodology and the definition of new ways to obtain better results.

CREATING WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT AREAS THATRESPECT LAND USE DIVERSITY

TANZANIA

73


By the end of the five-year collaboration, Belgium and Tanzania will have created two Wildlife Management Areas.

level (provincial, regional and national) will promote the eventual emergence of a suitable legal framework and a real political willingness enabling the implementation of participatory and community approaches.

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Tanzania has significant potential and a great deal of experience in apicul-ture. Bees are an important source of income in forest areas and they play

that apiculture promotion has mainly been successful in areas that already produce honey, where there is already a beekeeping “tradition”.

-ports over 6,000 beekeepers in the production and commercialisation of

have consistent quality, be produced regularly, and be sold at a high enough price. On the one hand, producers feel that the market is not receptive to their products. On the other hand, distributors complain about the quality of the honey or about insufficient or irregular supply. The project reconciles

improve their harvesting, preparation and packaging techniques to meet market needs. Beekeepers, organised in associations or cooperatives, will eventually negotiate honey sales directly. This requires training in market rules and better access to commercial information.

support. They are offered new opportunities. Is protective clothing re--

tributors also benefit from the creation of centres where products can be brought together.

MAKING HONEY TO PROTECT FORESTSA NEW OUTLET: APICULTURETANZANIA

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A FIRST ASSESSMENTOF THE TANZANIAN PROGRAMMEThe three Belgian cooperation operations are very complementary. They enable testing of methods and strategies and an assessment of the validity of initial hypotheses, notably those related to the importance of involving the authorities and local populations in the sustainable management of re-sources. The project to promote apiculture re-examines support to family farms. Traditionally, development projects focus primarily on increasing pro-duction capacity. Long-term commercial opportunities are not sufficiently addressed. In this case, the project is taking a broader view of the market and taking into account the other players in the sales chain. It organises local markets and trains small entrepreneurs.

For BTC, simultaneously following these three projects, which are imple-mented by local teams and coordinated centrally, enables a focus on har-monisation and on the synergy between practices. It also enables lessons to be drawn on an ongoing basis. This local experience provides data for reflection at the national level and to influence policy-making.

In the end, a major benefit of these projects is to provide support for the decentralisation process under way in Tanzania through the transfer to local powers of matters related to the management of natural resources. That is, a true paradigm shift that will naturally take time to be implemented and bear fruit. In the meantime, it is essential to keep motivation high and to develop trust through more immediate action with tangible benefits that can immediately contribute to improving the daily lives of local residents. The actions carried out in the apiculture sector are an example of this. The participatory approach to the management of natural resources is prob-ably not the easiest or the least expensive alternative but it does guarantee long-term results.

Seeing beyond the projectOne of the main lessons from these projects is the need to ensure that the development tools created remain applicable beyond the end of the project. For example, two of the projects (wildlife management and wetlands) have helped villages prepare rural land use plans. These plans are too often seen as an activity implemented for the needs of a specific project. This exercise is, however, useful for overall rural development and this has not yet been fully assimilated. It is therefore essential that the parties involved in proc-ess implementation insist from the very start that the tool be considered for

Wildlife Manage-ment Areas) or to wetlands management is merely one use among others.

The local authorities (District Councils) should make better use of these plans when they make strategic decisions about investment in their dis-

strategic decisions taken in the villages are submitted to and supported

- and of the entire planning exercise - will only be recognised when the plans are implemented.

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The DR Congo has the second largest forest in the world. This is an opportunity and a responsibility for the country’s inhabitants.Yes, the Congo’s image is often that of a rural and forested coun-try. Yet, 50% of all Congolese people live in cities, and the forest is increasingly managed by city-dwellers. The ties with the forest are being lost, as is the know-how to manage this resource.

Is this urbanisation a threat to the forest?The population of urban centres plays a determining role in the deterioration of the environment. As you approach a city, its outer urban areas become biodiversity voids because they are subject to a dual pressure, from people who are leaving the city and from rural migrants who do not have the means to make it in the city. These people are primarily re-sponsible for the deterioration of the environment but they have no choice because they need to eat, have a place to live, cut wood for cooking, etc. This observation brings us to the issue of property rights. “New-comers” settle in areas that they do not feel are their own to man-age. The concept of private prop-erty is so fragile that they use up the resources without any thought for tomorrow. This approach is obviously radically different from that of people who believe that their land once belonged to their ancestors.

Isn’t it up to the local authorities to arbitrate these land conflicts?Failure to take responsibility for land management is also a State problem. There is a legal duality in the DRC, where, according to Con-golese law, the Bakajika Law, which has been in place since 1966, land and whatever is under the land be-longs to the State. However, in the villages, residents say that they are the owners of land passed down by their ancestors and that they must preserve it for future generations. There is, therefore, a split and dual authority in peri-urban areas. This duality puts traditional power and the elites in conflict with the gen-eral population.

What are the consequences in the field?One result is the population’s in-operative participation in resource management and all the more so because this is a country defined by its extreme poverty. Nature is seen as a public space; it be-longs to whoever can take it. Par-ticipation in management, and any agreement, are immediately swept away by personal gain. What is more, participatory man-agement will only work if all of the expectations and strategies of stakeholders are included. This means strengthening the State, working at a very local level, work-ing with low-level government offices, clarifying land issues, cooperating with the customary power, and improving technical and financial partnerships and the partnership with civil society. This

sounds like a huge shopping list. A link must therefore be found that enables everyone to work on the same overall scheme. We are still very far from having a clear and shared strategy to address these challenges.


Theodore Trefon is head of the Contemporary History Section at the Royal Museum for Central Africa

PERIPHERIESHUNGRY FOR NATUREOVER TO THEODORE TREFON,ROYAL MUSEUM FOR CENTRAL AFRICA

77

THE SUSTAINABLEEXPLOITATION OF FRAGILE ECOSYSTEMSBAKA PYGMIES, PROTECTORS OF THE TROPICAL RAIN FOREST

hunter-gatherer skills. Today, these traditional activities are being threat-ened because the forest is becoming less isolated; there have been deep changes in consumer habits and the wood industry has developed sig-nificantly. The resulting deforestation is a threat to habitat, to the resident

Certain forestry operation techniques also contribute to non-respect of the

discussion, the definition of areas open to forestry operations does not take into account hunting zones, places of cultural and religious significance, or

-ful to local residents. They facilitate access by poachers, impoverish biodi-versity and threaten the way of life and means of subsistence of people who depend on the forest. Bantu communities are better represented because their chiefdoms, and therefore territories, are recognised. They also have a better understanding of the administrative management requirements of a

-ern law does not include their customary knowledge of forest management.

Useful knowledgeYet, traditional customs and knowledge can be effectively integrated into

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communities are and how dependent they are on the forest ecosystem.

One important principle: spread any economic effects fairly in order to dem-onstrate the value of “careful resource management” to local populations.

some encouraging first results. One example is the Annual Forest Tax (a tax paid by forestry operators in exchange for the right to operate), which, in

-cated to specific micro-projects managed by Baka associations (nurseries, training, collective fields, small-scale animal husbandry, etc.) The amount should increase in the coming years.

Concrete actions...

for Baka lands are an important challenge. In the first phase of the project, and following awareness-raising work with traditional and administrative

CAMEROON

BETTER INTEGRATION OF LOCAL POPULATIONS IN FOREST MANAGEMENT

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-eroon) finally had the boundaries of their villages defined in cooperation

and a hunting and gathering area. This mapping work continued in other zones and was extended to 36 villages. Village boundaries were drawn up on maps created collaboratively.

Helping the forest’s economic branch grow

villages resulted in the identification of several products with economic

multi-use tree for wood, fruit, pharmacopoeia, etc.). Baka associations were trained in gathering and storage techniques and in management

for the purchase of wild mango. It is stored and then sold at the right time at market price.

Community liaison Liaisons are like transmission belts between projects and communities and between the various communities. This strategy was implemented to re-solve some of the difficulties. In addition to encouraging Baka participation in development projects, it creates an effective working system that takes into account the environment and Baka culture.

TO FIND OUT MORE

www.agefo.eu

The AGEFO PROJECT (Support for Forest Management through Baka Pygmy Involvement) financed by the European Union and implemented by BTC supports the application of a sustainable forestry policy in Cameroon. It proposes strategies and actions intended to improve equality and relations between the players in matters of land ownership, customary rights and access to natural resources. The project is working to improve the economic integration of Pygmies through effective participation of Baka communities in sales channels for agricultural and forest products. Emphasis is on improving the technical, organisational and institutional competencies of intermediate organisations. Theproject has also done a significant amount of work to get recognition for Baka citizen rights (ID cards, birth certificates, etc.), which play an important role in access to property.

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THE SUSTAINABLE EXPLOITATION OF FRAGILE ECOSYSTEMS

TABACONAS NAMBALLE, A THREATENED SANCTUARY

The Brasilia agreements of 1998 put an end to the border conflict between

by investing in development for local populations. Belgium is taking part in

to support sustainable development in the zone of influence of the Tabaco-

by addressing local structural problems such as forest deterioration and, in particular, extreme poverty.

A remote area of PeruThe region in which Tabaconas Namballe National Sanctuary is located consists of tropical rain forest and paramo, special ecosystems of moors, grassy plains and marshland. They extend from the edges of the forest to peaks rising to 3,500 metres and are home to endemic species such as the Andean spectacled bear and the mountain tapir. Only a few dozen of these animals still exist in the region.

REDUCING ENVIRONMENTALPRESSURE FROM LOCAL POPULATIONSLIVING NEAR PROTECTED AREAS

PERU

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Isolated and far from major roads, the region provides little access to trade and markets. Basic services are minimal and public services scant. In ad-dition, the rate of schooling is one of the lowest in the country. Agricultural practices are out of step with the principles of sustainable soil manage-ment. Cultivated land, usually areas of old-growth forest, undergoes slash-and-burn until the soil is exhausted. New areas are then cleared. Illegal logging and poaching add to these problems. These multi-faceted issues demonstrate that touching the environment means taking a position at the heart of social, economic, political and cultural problems.

An uncertain future for protected areasAlthough substantial progress has been made over the past years on both the social and economic fronts in the region, nothing has been able to stop the continued deterioration of the forest and the increasing scarcity of the species

have had the benefit of inciting reflection and debate but these continue to be insufficient to slow the damage wreaked on ecosystems. Large-scale min-ing, the regular influx of new families and the effects of climate change are additional risk factors for protected areas.

The right level of actionThe extent of a project must be precisely defined and adapted to legal and

-ment projects are too ambitious or are intended, by their design, for too ex-

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REFERENCE DATA

PRINCIPLES OF ACTION TAKENAT FOOT OF THE TABACONASNAMBALLE SANCTUARY:

Quick, concrete action with immediate results contributing directly to greater economic and social well being by heavily involving local powers and agricultural cooperatives. Among the accomplishments are the upgrading of rural roads, of bridges, of water conveyance and treatment networks, the training of farmers in more effective and sustainable farming methods (fertilisation, etc.) Action has also been taken with local government, cooperatives, small entrepreneurs and associations.Coaching and training on site rather than ex cathedra. Training is provided where activities are carried out.Information transparency, notably through the publication of tenders, supplier lists, market rates and the cost of works. These new practices build trust. They create democratic control over expenditures and are crucial for the participation of local residents in various development activities. The balance of power is shifting. As the population becomes aware of its power, others lose privilege. Transparency comes with a certain amount of friction and resistance.Local investment, even if this is sometimes more complicated and longer to implement. Relyingconsistently (see training) on local technical and administrative skills and labour helps add value to skills and improve them (learning and understanding through doing).Redirection of activities outside of forest areas. Improving production yields and improving access to markets to avoid clearing of protected forest.

tensive an area or too large a group of beneficiaries. They embrace issues that are too complex to be tackled within the framework of development projects, which have lim-ited timeframes and resources. Is the central concern of the project achievable from an environmental stand-

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The goodwill of partners

is essential. A cooperation project can only support a change process (by contributing resources, expertise, work methods, etc.) when the goodwill of local authori-ties becomes concrete action.

Immediate resultsChanges in practices, environmental education, and raising awareness are by definition long-term activities.

-ceptance of change and enable the building of trust. It is on this basis that long-term development strategies, including the (good) management of natural resources will achieve results.

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THE PALM GROVES OF THE DRAA VALLEY

thanks to the availability of water and the work of people. They are fragile ecosystems that play a crucial part in the fight against desertification and they reflect global climate changes.

possible compromise between economic development in the region and the conservation and good management of this oasis ecosystem, which is now threatened. A number of different ideas have been explored including improving date production, growing plants in nurseries, providing support for marketing, improving water management and providing support for ba-sic education.

Economic survival and the promotion of datesThe date palm is the keystone of the palm grove. It creates a microclimate that enables the growing of other crops on the ground and, therefore, of a wide range of agricultural products (pomegranates, figs, cereals, vegeta-

valley. In addition, they are a major part of oasis culture.

the 20th century. There are many reasons for this: successive droughts, the bayoud (fungus) and other diseases, destructive pests (mealy bug, locusts, etc.), desertification (wind erosion, sand, increased salinity of soil and water).

current population pressures (a 50% increase in 20 years). Faced with this situation, the overall economy of the valley, based primarily on agriculture, has been deteriorating and the medium-term outlook is alarming.

In order to support date production, technical training on the date palm, awareness-raising sessions on oases, and the distribution of packaging have been organised for the benefit of the members of producer associa-

a way to counter the disastrous effects of climate change. By working with producer groups, information dissemination to other members is as-sured. This increases the chance that current activities and structures will continue to survive.

MOROCCO

CONSERVATION AND IMPROVED USE OF PALM GROVES

83


Water, a key element for oasis survival

over the past decades. In addition, the construction of the Ouarzazate dam has disrupted traditional irrigation water management.

-lage level have been trained in associative manage-ment practices and in irrigation systems. Thanks to a computerised system, they are better able to manage water distribution among the various areas.

projects (covering of canals, collective pumping sta-tions, and diversion dams). They receive the building materials required and supply labour in exchange. Thanks to these installations, farmers can reduce water wastage, increase the amount used on plots, increase the area irrigated and improve production yields. The promotion of economical irrigation systems

a response suited to the needs of farmers and makes them responsible, particularly in terms of infrastructure maintenance.

Women have a major part to playThe role of women has always been important and

workloads and responsibilities increase as men have

support for income-generating activities have enabled them gradually to become fully involved in the devel-opment of their region. They combine their efforts and organise themselves through the associations. Or-ganised into official groups, they can contact donors to obtain financing for their projects. Only very few of them have received an education, but some have taken literacy classes. This has led to greater under-standing and involvement in projects intended to im-prove their living standards. Institutional backing and partner training is sometimes required to ensure the implementation of a development policy that respects ecosystems.

cooperation in the oasis region. It is complemented by a new project in a nearby valley (Tata). There is still an enormous amount of work to be done. It is urgently required to save these threatened ecosystems and to improve the living conditions of local populations.

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TWO COMPETINGDEMANDSENERGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT

RATIONALISING ENERGY USE> WOOD: AN OLD MATERIAL, NEW TECHNOLOGIES (NIGER)

ACCESSING SUSTAINABLE ENERGY> POWER FROM WATER (RWANDA)> POWER FROM WIND (MALI)

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TWO COMPETING DEMANDS

Access to energy greatly improves living conditions, creates opportu-nities and increases the production potential of every individual and therefore their source of income. Energy and development are intimately connected. But although the positive effect of access to energy on de-velopment is indisputable, its production unfortunately poses many en-vironmental problems: deforestation, pollution, over-exploitation of nat-ural resources, emission of greenhouse gases… This tension between development and the environment increases even more if the sources and/or methods of producing energy are not sustainable. There is there-fore a need to promote renewable energies and improve the energy ef-ficiency of production and consumption.

For a development agency, the energy issue appears at two levels: at the level of designing and implementing programmes related to energy (micro-electric power plants, rural electrification, etc.) and at the level of managing energy within actual initiatives, whatever the sector (supply-ing a hospital or school with electricity, for example).

In all cases, considerations concerning energy management are built around three aspects (the trias energetica) or a combination of them: 1. Minimising the demand for energy (reducing energy consumption);2. Using sources of renewable energy as much as possible (reducing

the use of primary fossil fuels);3. Using efficient energy systems.

Applied to the context of developing countries, the trias energetica may be expressed as follows: Existing consumption (1) is often minimal or non-existent (apart from biomass), therefore reducing demand is rela-tively difficult. The potential for renewable energy (2) is however sig-nificant (solar, wind, water) and technical advances in the industrialised world allow better energy efficiency to be achieved (3), without passing through intermediate stages.

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RATIONALISING ENERGY USE

Like other countries of the Sahel, Niger is subject to continuous degrada-tion of its forest resources. Two essential factors explain this development: an increasingly dry climate and growing pressure on natural resources. This pressure is linked to the demographic growth of the country, which is one of the highest in the world (3%).

The inhabitants of Niger use wood for cooking and heating. It satisfies al-most 87% of the energy requirements of the country, 89% relating to do-mestic consumption. This uncontrolled exploitation of wood is endangering the national forest heritage.

The government of Niger is aware of the ecological danger and concerned about the supply of wood to towns. Since the end of the 1980s the govern-ment has been implementing a forestry policy and a domestic energy strat-egy. The results, after 15 years of effort, are encouraging: 700,000 hectares of forests that are exploited as part of planned development are recovering

consumption have also been implemented.

100%

80%

60%

40%

20%

0%NIGER SENEGAL TOGO

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76

45

7

11

2 20

44

4

4

COALOIL-BASES PRODUCTSELECTRICITYBIOMAS

BREAKDOWN OF ENERGY CONSUMPTION IN CERTAIN WEST AFRICAN COUNTRIES

SOURCE : SIE NIGER, 2007

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WOOD: AN OLD MATERIAL, NEW TECHNOLOGIES

The project entitled Increase in Financial Income of Women in the Region of Dosso -forestation process, although it is gender-focused and without a direct environmental scope. The objective of the project is to reduce the poverty of women. To do this, it is necessary to reduce the burden of their daily household chores. These domestic occupations take up a great deal of time, almost 15 hours a day!

Among these chores: gathering wood. In terms of both price and proximity, access to wood is becoming in-creasingly difficult. The women are fully aware of this due to the increas-ing difficulty of carrying wood as they have to go further and further to find it. Young girls perform this task, and therefore they are often deprived of a normal education.

prevent women from developing virtually any income-generating activi-ties.

The fireplace as a solutionStarting from these premises, one of the solutions for reducing the wom-

women use a fireplace made of three stones for cooking their food. These stones are laid on the ground, surrounding the flames and supporting the pan. The fire exposes the housewives to smoke, which is very harmful to their health. In addition, the cooking time is relatively long.

The improved “albarka” fireplace was introduced as a solution. It covers the fire with a dome of earth like an oven, retains the heat and reduces smoke emissions. It reduces the cooking time by more than half and im-proves preparation hygiene. It also allows cooking with half the amount of wood for the same quantity of food. Its construction requires very few resources and is technically simple. It constitutes a tool that the women can take over easily after a short technical training course.

-ing to the field follow-up, almost 100% of the trained women are apply-ing their new skill and are passing it on to other women. Today, 20,000 households are using the improved fireplaces following the project train-

NIGER

REDUCING THE CONSUMPTIONOF WOOD ENERGYREFERENCE DATA

Wood constitutes 87% of energy use in Niger.The coverage rate of wood energy demand in Niger should go from 57% in 1990 to 14% by 2015.The women on average spend more than 15 hours a day on domestic chores including wood gathering.The use of the improved fireplace reduced the use of wood by 50% and the women’s chores by 20%.

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RATIONALISING ENERGY USE

This project was therefore a success and has reduced demographic pressure on the environment. The main arguments in favour of adopting this technique were initially remote from direct environmental concerns.

based on simple technologies, can lead not only to-wards the socio-economic independence of the very poor, but can also prevent or limit environmental deg-radation. So, actively contributing to the fight against deforestation and to energy management is possible without necessarily resorting to complex technologies.

Improved standard of living…It was in the municipality of Falwel that the success

counted more than 390 fireplaces built in three villag-Before,

all of us had to gather wood every day. Now, we have learned how to build fireplaces at a lower cost; each household has built its own improved fireplace in the village and we’ve also bought a cart. With these two tools, our group takes only one day to gather enough wood for two weeks, and this has saved us two to three hours a day.” The women of the region also wel-come the safety aspect of using the improved fire-

place, which protects them from burns and reduces the risks of fire. The women of Sokorbe know all about this, having lost almost everything in a fire in their vil-lage. The fire resulted from the use of a traditional “3-stone” fireplace.

An additional benefit of the process is the develop-ment of skills and the provision of services concerning

-

villages to pass on their knowledge. They pointed out that “the earnings for women who build improved fire-places is between FCFA 150 and 250 for each fire-

amount to additional income of FCFA 2000 to 3000

greater recognition from their family, the authorities and local villages. Their expertise is highly valued!

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ACCESSING SUSTAINABLEENERGY

development (small and medium-sized enterprises, mechanisation, communi-cation, etc.) and the quality of basic services (drinking water pumps, lighting in schools, improved health care, etc.). On the other hand, development creates a demand for energy (television, refrigerators, telephone chargers, computers, etc.). If we compare access to energy with the human development index1, the correlation is striking, as shown by the following graph.

-creases the energy needs of developing countries. Both the population and the consumption of energy per capita increase. The cumulative effect of these two increases is an exponential growth in demand for energy over the coming years and a further burden on the planet.

electrification, the use of very low-power “pico” generators (1-10 kilowatts, usu--

ing these generators is accessible to most people: The initial investment is low (about 100 dollars per family) and the fuel can be found everywhere. In addition,

-erator is a more reliable alternative. But this option is expensive! It costs 1 euro

this alternative is especially polluting and its efficiency is low.

But the links between development and energy and pollution can be discon-nected, if a country can meet the increasing energy demand by using renewable

1.0

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0 5000 10000 15000 20000

ETHIOPIAMOZAMBIQUE

ZAMBIA

ZIMBABWE

BANGLADESH

INDIA

MOROCCO

SOUTH AFRICA

MALAYSIA

ARGENTINA

ITALY

UAE

UNITED STATES

FINLANDSWEDEN

CANADA

QATAR

CHINA

INDONESIA

BRAZIL

kWh per capita

IDH

The least bit of access to energy contributes

to development (left part). From a certain

point onward (at about 4,000 kWh/year/

person), the graph flattens out. Beyond that

point, consuming more energy does not

contribute to more development

SOURCE : UNDP

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ACCESSING SUSTAINABLE ENERGY

POWER FROM WATER

-mestic needs, either as they find it in the country, or in the form of charcoal in towns. Bearing in mind the number of inhabitants and the limited surface area of the country, the impact on the forests is enormous.

The government wants to diversify the sources of energy. In its strategic plan it has undertaken to triple electrical production capacity, from the cur-rent 44 megawatts to about 120 megawatts by 2011. This target will be

but also through the production of electricity from the methane gas con-

Belgian cooperation is assisting this plan with a programme of electricity distribution in rural environments on the basis of renewable energies. This programme includes the construction of mini-hydroelectric power plants and the development of other sources of renewable energy (solar power) and the installation of medium-voltage power lines to improve the access of rural populations to electricity. The overall plan is intended to increase the access level of populations to electricity from 4% in 2007 (less than 1% in the countryside) to more than 10% in 2012, which will effectively triple the number of connections (from 77,000 now to almost 200,000).

economic and environmental advantages:

streams);Strengthening the energy autonomy of the country;

renewable energies;

electricity for firewood for household consumption;

The programme also provides for other environmental initiatives such as the establishment of an industry to compost plant waste caught in the water intake screens of the mini-power plants. The compost produced will be used to offset soil impoverishment due to erosion and reduce the use of chemical fertilisers.

As part of this programme, the Bringing electricity to rural populations using renewable energies

-voltaic systems. In order to accurately plan the installations in proportion

RWANDA

PRODUCTION OF HYDROELECTRIC POWERCONGOLESEELECTRICITYPAYMENT COPIES THE PHONE Many developing countries have electricity production and transportation infrastructures, but they are often poorly maintained through lack of investment, due to the low rate of cost recovery. Inthe Democratic Republic of Congo, the success of prepayment cards for the mobile telephone has inspired other sectors to follow suit. “Prepaid” meters will be installed in a hydroelectric power project (Support for Electricity Supply to Kisangani). These will allow better management of finances, through a system that has already proved itself in other countries on the continent. At the same time, the population will be made aware of the fact that electricity, although having a natural origin (solar, wind, water), does not come free. By paying for this service, it will be encouraged to reduce its consumption.

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to requirements and to target the initiative, two related actions were carried out:

according to the size of the centres and their equipment.Collection of map data on the existing and proposed electrical network, to target the initiative on areas isolated from the network. Connection to the national grid is the least expensive and most sustainable solution.

Priority to concentration areas The wide dispersion of the rural population makes the investment cost of

-

therefore concentrating on electrification of imidugudu (concentrated set-tlements), rural centres, social infrastructure (health centres, schools) and commercial activities (welding shops, communications, engineering, sewing

-nectable” to the network, will be supplied with electricity from solar panels or wind turbines. The approach is therefore a combined one and allows the best technical option to be chosen for each locality.

From the design phase onward, the construction of mini-power plants has

gas distribution company, thereby providing a local basis for the projects.

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ACCESSING SUSTAINABLE ENERGY

The watt is the unit of power expressing “energy per second”. Akilowatt = 1,000 watts; a megawatt = 1 million watts. As an example, a good cyclist generates power of around 500 watts; he could illuminate twelve 40-watt light bulbs. A steam iron might use 1 kilowatt. A refrigerator, 100 watts. A Toyota 4x4, 127 kilowatts, in other words the energy necessary to illuminate 3,000 40-watt bulbs!

The old “horse power” unit (hp) represents the power produced by a horse: about 750 watts. Ourcyclist produces 0.67 hp.

The kilowatt-hour is the unit of energy most widely used in the technical world. A kilowatt-hour corresponds to the energy necessary to supply one kilowatt for one hour, in other words to do the ironing for one hour, to illuminate a 40-watt bulb for 25 hours, or to ride a bicycle fast for two hours. The kilowatt-hour (kWh) is also the unit used for paying electricity bills.

Other units of energy: caloriesor kilocalories. One calorie corresponds to 4,184 joules, and a joule represents the energy released to produce the power of one watt for one second. A person consumes about 2,000 calories per day, or about three kilowatt-hours. The average human being therefore corresponds to three 40-watt bulbs, a little less when resting, a little more when active.

A battery contains a certain amount of energy. Depending on the power required, its life span will vary. A 1.2 volt (rechargeable) battery of 2,000 milliampere-hours can deliver 2,000 milliamperes (or two amperes) at 1.2 volts for one hour, or 0.0024 kilowatt-hours. Ahuman being would therefore need 2,000 of these batteries every day! Or three car batteries. Thisexample illustrates the efficiency of our human food and biomass digestive system.

At a price of 0.17 euro/kilowatt-hour, a human being, if he could run on electricity, would consume 0.5 euro per day.

ENERGY UNITS EXPLAINED FOR THE NON-INITIATED

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POWER FROM WIND

regions, where settlements are scattered, is not profitable. In 2004, the level of electrification of the country was 13%, but did not exceed 1% in the countryside, where more than 70% of the population actually lives. This low level is explained by the enormous difficulties experienced by Electricité du Mali in financing the expansion of its network. On the other hand, local mini networks connected to renewable sources can be created, with the same efficiency as a connection to the main grid, at a reasonable cost and with less environmental impact.

The potential for wind energy is enormous in this country, as is that for hydroelectric power (more than 1000 megawatts, largely under-exploited)

sunniest zones in the world. But despite these different renewable energy

This dependence is costing the population dear, with electricity prices of

expected explosion in the price of hydrocarbons over the next few decades

on the exploitation of wind energy in the Timbuktu region. The results are

-opment of a park of 6 turbines would save 50% of the oil used by the power station currently located on the site, in other words more than 3,000 litres of fuel per day and more than 2,500 tonnes of CO2 per year, while retaining the same reliability of electricity production. This fuel saving would be reflected in a reduction in electricity prices for consumers.

therefore becomes easier to persuade investors to finance the installation of wind turbines and the political decision-makers to appreciate the benefits of “harnessing the wind” and the need to set up a legal framework that is favourable to renewable energies.

MALI

ANALYSIS OF WIND ENERGY POTENTIAL

95

Wind technologies in Africa As regards solar energy, the necessary technical skills and the private operators exist locally. But as regards wind power, often developed in parallel with more com-plex hybrid systems, the technology is not yet assimi-lated. But a combination of electricity generators and renewable energies makes sense in isolated areas. This is a concept that is economically viable, but technically more difficult to achieve.

In addition to training, maintenance and the funds for servicing are essential.

In fact, from the global standpoint, Africa must aim for installation of a critical mass of wind power genera-tion. The wind power market has a two-year waiting list following the booms in the American, Canadian and

would represent significant risk in terms of maintenance and guarantees. The volume of orders must therefore rise in order to ensure delivery and reduce costs.

The role of the public sector

distributor cannot meet the target of a certain percent-age of renewable energy, it is fined. But it is this fine that gives value to green electricity. This system is still absent in developing countries. It is therefore essential for the local operators in these countries to establish a legal framework guaranteeing a purchase price for each kilowatt-hour produced lo-

-

energy projects in the implementation phase have been blocked for five years due to the absence of a legal framework.

THE POTENTIAL BENEFITSOF THE AFRICAN WINDOVER TO LUC DEWILDE, 3E

Luc Dewilde is head of the wind power depart-ment in the company 3E, which specialises in re-newable energy expertise. 3E has carried out a study of the wind power potential of the town of Timbuktu, in Mali.

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GREEN CLASSES EDUCATION AND THE ENVIRONMENT

THE ENVIRONMENT AS AN EDUCATIONAL TOPIC> ECOLOGY THROUGH SCIENCE (RWANDA)> INFOCYCLE STARTS A GREEN REVOLUTION (BELGIUM)

THE ENVIRONMENT AS ‘TRANSVERSAL’ LEARNING> WASTE MANAGEMENT (LAOS)> DARING TO RECYCLE (DR CONGO)

EDUCATION UNDER CONSTRUCTION> A NEW DESIGN FOR SCHOOL BUILDINGS (CAMBODIA)> A RENOVATED CAMPUS (LAOS)

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GREEN CLASSES

Education is, without a doubt, one of the basic tools for understand-ing environmental challenges. It is an essential prerequisite for imple-menting “sustainable” practices and behaviours. Unfortunately, in many countries, education runs into obstacles equal to the challenge: low lev-els of teacher and school administrator training on the subject, a lack of suitable pedagogical materials and a dearth of solutions for daily man-agement of the environment.

Yet, concrete examples demonstrate that it is possible to promote action in matters of environmental conservation and protection. They are car-ried out in a number of ways and at every level: budgetary and sectoral aid programmes in education, support for the design and development of school programmes (curricula), teacher training, particularly in the area of vocational training, “environmental” school buildings, and turning to environmental criteria when buying school materials and equipment.

In practical terms, cooperation projects supported by BTC develop the link between education and the environment in two main ways: the envi-ronment as educational material and the environment as the transver-sal dimension of a project tied to education (construction of buildings, organisation of vocational classes, waste management).

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THE ENVIRONMENT AS AN EDUCATIONAL TOPIC

School programmes are particularly well suited to promoting education on the environment. Teachers and students are able to better apprehend en-vironmental issues through learning tied to daily life (what is an ecosystem, what are the various types of pollution or damage done to the environment, how is the damage done, what are the links between the environment and

levels: the local and individual impact, the collective impact and the global impact (climate, biodiversity, resource exhaustion, etc.) The links between individual behaviours are understood on an increasingly wider scale and enable a gradual progression from local and concrete challenges, to an intellectual understanding and then to individual and collective action.

substantial investment in awareness-raising and training for the main play-ers of the educational enterprise. The key persons are usually school ad-ministrators, teachers, and parents belonging to associations. They can encourage students and provide an example.

ECOLOGY THROUGH SCIENCE

---

this policy specifically by improving the quality of science education (biology, physics, chemistry) at the first level of secondary education, has integrated environmental concepts and values into a nine-year school curriculum.

1. The general scope of the biology curriculum makes it explicit that teaching this subject will bring to the forefront the importance of nature conservation

stakes for the environment are addressed more specifically, with practical implications, beginning in the second year. This includes identifying the rela-tionships between the living organisms of a natural environment, identifying the environmental services from which people benefit (air, water, and soil quality, etc.) and the impact man has on the environment.

DEVELOPING KNOWLEDGE AND PROMOTING RESPONSIBLEATTITUDES IN STUDENTS

RWANDA

100

GREEN CLASSES

2. The goal of the chemistry curriculum is to encourage learners to adopt a watchful and careful attitude toward the environment. By the end of the first year, students are able to prevent certain causes of water pol-lution and to protect themselves against the dangers of polluted and contaminated water.

3. The revised physics curriculum teaches third-year students to identify energy sources and resources. They also learn to recognise alternatives and perhaps to propose solutions that can contribute to resolving the

school curricula and integrate the standards, values and attitudes required for students to become active and conscientious citizens of society. These standards, values and attitudes are built at the same time as knowledge, personal and social skills are acquired.

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THE ENVIRONMENT AS AN EDUCATIONAL TOPIC

BELGIUM

RAISING AWARENESS AND TRAININGIN ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

INFOCYCLE STARTS A GREEN REVOLUTION

and provides over 1,000 participants a year with residential training on

involved in global development and to encourage their commitment to international solidarity.

Of course, including the environment first requires that regular talks on the topic be organised. Several questions have already been raised at this time:

on the environment in seven out of eleven programmes, leaving itself time to deal with its traditional topics.

the need for consistency between the policies developed and the actions taken in both South and North. In fact, environmental issues are global in scale and damage to the environment is borderless, as is demonstrated by the repercussion in the South of climate disturbances in the North. The information, and demonstrations, can be used as a starting point for a re-flection on commitments that will benefit the South. And what if training

Reducing our own impact -

ronmental impact; hundreds of people travel to the training centre to take a class or to give a presentation. Infocycle encourages travel by public transport and facilitates car-pooling. The way in which conference attend-

to leave their car in the garage; with a set reimbursement amount per km, public transport becomes more economical than using a car. In addition, the Infocycle coordination team uses shared vehicles to transport teach-ing materials and opts for public transport for staff travel. The decision to centralise training in Brussels has also led to a reduction in travel for all stakeholders and has increased the use of public transport.

The teaching materials used are another area for potential improvement in practices, for more sustainable training: using electronic documents when printing is not essential, front and back printing on recycled paper, the use of binders and note pads made from recycled paper, etc.Living together for four weekends in a youth hostel provides an opportunity for reflecting on the practices of a group consisting each time of over a

102

GREEN CLASSES

rooms and bedrooms - these are all routine activities that can be ques-tioned in the light of new information and thanks to pressure from group

-tices quickly led to a major concern: the practices of the hostel, the lodging provider, and of the conference rooms and restaurant services. Faced with inconsistencies between the cooperation discourse, which puts a great deal of emphasis on sustainable development, and the practices of the hostel during the training period, participants mobilised: they spontaneously cre-

at each training session. Its mission is to carry out projects to increase the

and on the training coordinators. Some of its concrete actions include par-ticipation in sustainable development activities in Brussels and the informal

These include bringing a cup to avoid using plastic, centralising the printing of some articles, bringing sugar in pots instead of using individual bags, etc.

must meet objectives set in advance. Special focus on sustainable de-velopment was not part of the agreement between BTC and the Belgian government and it has not been possible to structure this initiative to the point that it is formally given time in the programme. This handicap has been compensated for by participant and Infocycle team motivation to

-ness and in putting pressure on them. This has been successful, the hos-tel has decided to become an eco-dynamic enterprise and has asked BTC for environmental advice.

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Vietnam is facing all sorts of en-vironmental challenges. These in-clude a heavy demand for water and energy, lack of infrastructure and planning and an overall lack of environmental awareness. These challenges are associated with general trends: loss of biodiversity and a reduced ability to produce environmental services.

In addition to improvements in-tended to modernise infrastructure and increase the ability to deal with environmental problems tied to population growth and socio-economic changes, the longer-term solution consists in promot-ing environmental awareness. The environment, and particularly envi-ronmental education (EE), is an in-tegral part of the VVOB programme in Vietnam. We are convinced that “green” convictions are reflected in people’s behaviour. Successful behavioural change therefore de-pends on which attitudes are pro-moted and on the methods used to promote them.

The Phu Lo B school, located in a poor suburb of Hanoi, has far more room than most urban schools. It decided to create an eco-garden where students can learn about nature in nature. It wasn’t easy to convince the school director, the teachers and the community in which the school is located to cre-ate this educational garden where nature can grow on its own rather than create a nicely landscaped space. After many discussions about the educational and environ-mental added value, actual teach-ing and learning in and around the garden has demonstrated that these initial discussions helped to

add to the quality of teaching and learning. For example, rather than teach the food chain in class, stu-dents are able to discover, identify and explore actual food chains in the garden. The surprise students felt during these discovery activi-ties created a good opportunity to strengthen their environmental awareness and to talk about the choices that one can make for the benefit of the environment.

Making both teaching and the school greener implies a paradigm shift rather than the organisation of an event or of an isolated cam-paign. Garbage collectors speak to the students of the Nhan Chinh school about their work and this leads to less waste. Their stories become part of maths, language and other courses. These experi-ences are shared thanks to the in-ternal Hanoi training service and to the Vietnam Women’s Union. As a result, EE is not seen as an addi-tional burden by teachers but rath-er as an added value to the culture of the school. In Vietnam, where schools are becoming increasingly autonomous, these innovations create advantages for the schools that implement them.

Cultural traditions and belief sys-tems are also a foundation of a relationship to the environment. They provide a framework for the decisions people take and also for the impact that they have on the environment. Buddhism encour-ages a respectful relationship in a number of ways. Without being ex-plicit, exploring the historical and cultural value of the environment can shed new light on it. And while this is primarily a personal matter,

it helps students and their teach-ers to understand that nature has significant value in itself.

There is, therefore, no standard approach. And while development is often seen as having a negative impact on the environment, it can also lead to actions that are posi-tive in terms of protecting the en-vironment.

TO FIND OUT MORE :

www.vvob.be

Toon De Bruyn works in Vietnam for VVOB, the Flemish association for development cooperation and technical assistance.

ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION...A LONG-TERM STRATEGYOVER TO TOON DE BRUYN, VVOB VIETNAM

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GREEN CLASSES

THE ENVIRONMENT AS ‘TRANSVERSAL’ LEARNING

There are many dangers involved in workshops. Future professionals in training must be informed about the risks they will face and about the dam-age these dangers can cause. New behaviour can be learned, for example, the use of less polluting materials that are not necessarily more expensive (paints without solvents), reusing waste oil and materials, and sorting. In addition to being beneficial for the environment, these habits are also (and perhaps especially) useful to public health and hygiene and sometimes also

-ness to others with openness to the environment.

WASTE MANAGEMENT

Support to Improving the Quality of Vocational Training programme creates a great deal of waste. This includes waste produced by the 2,000 people liv-ing on site (waste water, kitchen waste, etc.) and that specific to vocational training (wood and metal waste, oil, fuel, paint, solvents, dyes, electronic waste, batteries, bulbs, neon lights, etc.) The system implemented by the project is based on savings (use only what is necessary), reuse (promoting a second life for many materials and objects) and the organisation of an internal channel for collecting and sorting what will eventually be thrown out. This is not only a matter of avoiding waste and saving resources but also of getting involved in vocational training by recommending careful use of resources.

importance of protecting vegetation and, notably, the trees on campus.

more important to protect this resource and to use it wisely with techniques designed to limit waste.

LAOS

THE ENVIRONMENTIN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

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THE ENVIRONMENT AS ‘TRANSVERSAL’ LEARNING

DARING TO RECYCLE

The few dustbins in Kinshasa are always overflowing. The City does not provide regular waste collection services. In addition, there is no rubbish tip available to receive the waste. As a result, the rule is everything “straight to the gutter”, or more precisely, everything “right into the street”.

-lution problem into an opportunity for economic development, the Belgian

--

-lected in the streets and in the markets by 120 families. They are paid 0.25 dollars per kg. The plastic undergoes several processes and ends up as granules. This product is sold to factories, which transform it into electrical tubing or other items using injection processes.

The simplicity of this technology is such that it can easily be reproduced by artisans and implemented in cities across the Congo. Better still, machines developed on the same principle could be used to recycle hard plastics, glass and paper.

by the Support to Technical and Vocational Training programme have drawn up plans for these machines. From design to prototype, students are made aware of, and directly involved in, a major environmental challenge: the recycling and reuse of waste. The exercise goes beyond theory since eco-nomics students have studied the viability of artisanal micro-enterprises based on the recovery and recycling of this waste.

VOCATIONAL TRAINING AT THE SERVICE OF PLASTIC WASTE RECYCLING

RD CONGO

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GREEN CLASSES

EDUCATION UNDER CONSTRUCTION

A significant percentage of BTC project budgets is still dedicated to con-struction. This is also the case in the educational sector where the need for infrastructure is being realised through the building of new schools and training centres. In this area too, paying attention to the environment is ena-bling a reduction in the environmental impact of these activities. Thoughtful use of local materials for construction and renovation can benefit both the environment and the health of those using the premises, notably through special attention to sanitation issues.

A NEW DESIGN FOR SCHOOL BUILDINGS

Teacher Training) classroom construction model as a standard for future activities throughout the country. The project has substantially improved the design of school buildings while maintaining the same classroom size.

Steel is used to build roofs, windows and furniture. The decision not to use wood was based on three observations: the deforestation spreading across the country and the lack of environmentally managed forests; the decrease in the quality of wood available on the local market and its ris-ing price; and the rapid deterioration of wood caused by insect activity in remote areas. It was therefore suggested that doorframes, battens and furniture, all traditionally made out of exotic woods (primarily from Koh Ker), be made out of different materials, mainly steel.

Although this option reduces pressure on endangered local natural re-sources, it is still very polluting because of the material used (steel). As

-bodia, it was a difficult choice. The fact that there are no environmen-tally managed forests revealed the non-sustainability of the wood option. The destruction of old-growth forest is particularly damaging, not just for Cambodia but for the world, given loss of biodiversity and the impact on

after studying both options, despite the fact that it does have a negative impact in terms of CO2 production.

BUILDING CLASSROOMS THAT ARE STRONG, PLEASANT AND OF HIGH ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY

CAMBODIA

107

This dual reality demonstrates the difficulty of taking into consideration various constraints and levels of impact (global and local) in a single activity.Another improvement was made with the use of hori-zontal louvres to enable easy adjustment of light in the room, protection against rain, and natural ventilation.

metal louvres. This type of construction builds in long-term energy savings because there is no need for air conditioning or artificial light.

on a sustainable plan are completely comfortable from a thermal standpoint and do not require electri-cal equipment. In addition, light and ventilation adjust-ments are also important from a health standpoint (air quality, visual comfort).

Student access to water was not forgotten either. In Cambodia, most wells are shallow. They are often dry during the dry season and polluted at the beginning of the rainy season (lack of water treatment). In addition, they are not equipped with sand filters, which remove iron and arsenic from the water.

access to water via a rainwater collection and stor-age system. This system enables an increase in the number of toilets. Independent blocks of toilets are

directly linked to a hand pump located on a platform positioned 1.75 metres above the ground and at least 30 metres away. The pump is connected to a deep well guaranteeing that there is water throughout the year.

tank by gravity; the tank also stores rainwater coming off the roof.

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GREEN CLASSES

A RENOVATED CAMPUS

The Support to Improving the Quality of Vocational Training programme

The school consists of two campuses, which welcome about 2,000 stu-dents a year. Site buildings include classrooms, workshops, warehouses,

condition. In the long term, their renovation will provide better access to professional life for young people and an improvement in the living condi-

This project did not initially include an ecological facet and its environmental context was of concern: no access to drinking water, poor or non-existent sanitation infrastructure and no system in place to manage liquid and solid

etc.) was not being managed in a satisfactory way and it could cause dam-age to public health and the environment.

These issues were tackled in two ways. On the one hand, by specifically working through a number of environmental issues (for example, ensur-ing access to drinking water, installing equipment to evacuate waste wa-ter) and, on the other hand, by including environmental awareness into the building activities (use of more environmentally-friendly techniques in the construction of school buildings).

Local brick

imported, requiring a great deal of cement, then needing to be coated and painted) to build the buildings (workshops, warehouses, dormitories, etc.), the project opted for another approach - using compressed clay bricks. These clay bricks are made in a mould, then dried. They are made us-ing clay (crushed laterite), which is abundant in the area. These bricks are strong, cheap and they can be made on site. In addition, they do not require

an earth-based coating instead of industrial paint. From a visual standpoint, the result is as convincing as “traditional” construction but requires meticu-lous work because defects cannot be hidden with the wall finish.

In terms of access to water, a 70-metre well borehole was drilled to ensure -

and students. A water transport system (ditches, pipes, and taps) and toilet blocks were also installed.

LAOS

TEACHING AND APPLYING ECOLOGICAL CONSTRUCTION PRINCIPLES

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EDUCATION UNDER CONSTRUCTION

Teachers and trainees carried out this work. The ap-proach was borrowed from the “training cum construc-tion” or “training cum production” concept. All trades were involved: brick-laying, carpentry, steel construc-tion, electricity, and textiles. The students learned as they went and were effective in both designing and up-grading or building school infrastructure and associated living quarters.

-sons and, especially, because this enabled the trans-mission of skills required to design the facility. In addi-tion, campus residents feel completely involved in the renovation of their working and living areas and willingly get involved in their maintenance.

school itself makes the stakes concrete and part of an everyday approach.

awareness can only be acquired over time and there

remains long, the results nevertheless demonstrate that taking environmental concerns into consideration can be done without large budgets or advanced know-how. A good approach, awareness, and a dose of common sense are also effective tools. There are only a few sim-ple principles but they must be applied constantly and consistently.

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111

URBAN HYGIENESANITATION AND THE ENVIRONMENT

REMOVING A LIQUID NUISANCE> COLLECTIVE SANITATION STEP BY STEP (MOROCCO) > DRY ROADS (BURUNDI)

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT> SANITATION INVOLVING THE LOCAL POPULATION (SENEGAL/MALI/VIETNAM)> WASTE WITHOUT DUMPING (ECUADOR)

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URBAN HYGIENE

In 2008, the International Year of Sanitation, UNICEF and the WHO de-clared that the progress made on sanitation was insufficient to achieve Target 10 of Millennium Development Goal 71.Of the eight MDGs, this is the one that appears to be most behind schedule2. Thirty-eight percent of the world’s population, 2.5 billion people, do not have access to im-proved sanitary facilities. In sub-Saharan Africa, this rate is 69% (com-pared to 74% in 1990)3.

Yet, sanitation is a basic need and this is particularly evident in areas of high population density. Urban centres which do not have adequate sanitation systems for liquids and solids clearly illustrate how environ-mental deterioration leads to human problems: latrines next to a “drink-ing” water well, children playing among hospital waste, floods caused by blocked gutters.

The local populations consider sanitation more a cost to dispose of use-less waste than a payment for a service rendered. This perception gener-ally results in less willingness to pay for rubbish disposal and water and waste treatment than for drinking water services. In addition, there is the often-high cost of the work required. These parameters explain the rela-tive lack of interest of local authorities and donors in this problem. How-ever, with the rapid growth of most of the cities of developing countries, neglecting this issue could lead to an unprecedented environmental and health crisis. Without an improvement in hygiene and access to basic sanitation services, the positive impact of access to safe drinking water on health is halved.

to safe drinking water and basic sanitation.”

THE WORLD IS NOT ON TRACK TO MEETTHE MDG SANITATION TARGET.

100%

80%

60%

40%

20%

0%

54

62 67

77MDG TARGET

1990 2006 2015SOURCE : UNICEF/WHO 2008

IMPROVED SANITATION

Current trend 1990 - 2006

Projected coverage if current trend continues

HOOFDSTUK

113

Among those who do not have access to improved sanitation facilities, seven out of 10 live in rural areas.

Most drinking water supply programmes in rural areas include a hygiene/sanitation component intended to increase the impact of access to drinking water. The interventions of Belgian cooperation in sanitation matters have focused primarily on building latrines and promoting hygiene.

Implementing these projects requires considerable effort and a suitable approach to information, awareness-raising and training. However, obtaining financing for sanitary facilities (latrines) remains a challenge. The cost of improved facilities, such as covered pit latrines, ventilated improved pit latrines, flush latrines/toilets and composting latrines is relatively high.

A basic question remains: should the State, and therefore, bilateral cooperation, build household infrastructure? By analogy with the water supply sector where the installation of individual pipes is generally paid for by residents, and taking into account the enormous needs and the limited budgets, Belgian cooperation’s rural sanitation projects usually focus on:

Building public latrines (in markets, health centres, schools, etc.) Building pilot private latrines and/or the implementation of a system to subsidise private latrines (for example, working capital) Organising information, awareness-raising, and hygiene and sanitation training activities.

AT STAKE

ASSAINISSEMENT RURAL

114

URBAN HYGIENE

REMOVING A LIQUID NUISANCE

In 2006, the urban population worldwide overtook the rural population for the first time in history. A consequence of the growth in cities and, in par-ticular, in secondary centres, has been an increase in water consumption by inhabitants and in the volume of wastewater to be treated. In addition, urban development has reduced the area of permeable surfaces and con-current runoff causes more and more problems.

The provision of sanitation in urban areas is predominantly a collective un--

fore, critical.

There are many environmental problems linked to lack of sanitation: Contamination of ground watercontaminates groundwater. Installing a water treatment network leads to a reduction in pollution from organic and inorganic compounds (heavy metals, for example);Soil contaminationfrom compounds which are not very soluble;Olfactory pollutionsignificant olfactory pollution;Flooding: The absence of an adequate sanitation network can cause flooding in low-lying areas;Microbial proliferation: Stagnant wastewater is home to bacteria and provides breeding places for the vectors of certain diseases such as malaria;Soil erosion -off;Visual pollution: Inadequate liquid sanitation systems lead to significant visual pollution in some neighbourhoods.

115


COLLECTIVE SANITATION STEP BY STEP

These can then entrust sanitation management to utilities, the main one being the -

tion for more than 100 urban centres. Its projects systematically include the three components necessary for a viable and sustainable system: collection, transpor-tation and, especially, wastewater treatment before it is disposed of in nature.

80% of the urban population and to treat 60% of wastewater by 2020. Belgian cooperation has been active in the country for over 40 years and is support-

networks for wastewater, pumping stations and water treatment plants in the

and Tinghir. The project pursues the same operational strategies and promotes activities to raise awareness and mobilise the population and strengthen the capacities of the actors involved.

-ferred systems are lagooning (based on natural water purification systems) and bacterial beds (organic treatment with micro-organisms).

Legislation covering agricultural and forestry irrigation does not currently con-tain standards suited to wastewater reuse. Current wastewater treatment standards do not require tertiary treatment - except for environmental reasons of possible groundwater contamination or

cost involved in the potential reuse of treated wastewater.

-nologies is under way, both at the national and international levels.

MOROCCO

LIQUID SANITATION IN URBAN AREASWHEN A SEWER BECOMES A CANAL: URBAN RENEWAL IN HO CHI MINH CITY

Belgian cooperation has been a contributor to the Tan Hoa Lo Gom sanitation and urban renewal project in Ho Chi Minh City in Vietnam for the past eight years (Tan HoaLo Gom Canal Sanitation and Upgrading Project).

As part of this project, the People’sCommittee of Ho Chi Minh City, PC HCMC,and BTC, brought together in a Project Management Unit (PMU 415), started up the first water treatment plant in HoChi Minh City on 30 March 2006. Whenoperating at full capacity, the plant can treat the wastewater produced by 200,000 residents. It includes two parallel systems which both treat water naturally and in an environmentally friendly way using aerated lagooning. This system is the first of its kind in Vietnam. Treated water meets the requirements of class B standards for surface water and the plant does not generate any olfactory or noise nuisance. The buffer zones around the reservoirs have been turned into a park and provide residents with a pleasant setting.

116

URBAN HYGIENE

DRY ROADS

In Bujumbura, BTC is implementing an urban road project aimed at promot-ing socio-economic development in remote neighbourhoods of the city.

-hoods, make them accessible to transport, stimulate business and facilitate movement of people and trade in goods.

off creating torrents that eat away at the roadbed, causing it to deteriorate rapidly.

which are breeding grounds for disease vectors. Flooding, which can cause huge damage during heavy rains, is also avoided.

The building of an urban road enables the installation of a wastewater trans-port system and has the added benefit of avoiding the cost of separate works. BTC assesses each project to determine whether or not it would be

BURUNDI

DISPOSING OF WASTE WATERAND MANAGING RAIN WATER

117


beneficial to include sewerage under a new urban road. This makes sanita-tion more complete.

-ing conditions of local populations. Once wastewater has been collected,

-stream and taking the wastewater to an area that is not properly equipped

another one. The importance of having an overall sanitation plan for the city becomes self-evident. This type of plan, preferably with a computer model to validate it, will manage the wastewater and detail what infrastructure is required to deal with water coming from sanitised areas. This includes col-

type of tool, the risk of simply moving the problem elsewhere is very real. By financing and supporting studies to develop these plans, Belgian coopera-tion proves to be very relevant.

The Esmeraldas Health and Environment Programme - SYMAE 1, implemented jointly by the municipality of Esmeraldas and BTCin the coastal province of the same name (north-western Ecuador),views health as the foundation for local development. Improvement in institutional management capacities and strengthening of civil society participation are the two main pillars of the project. The environmental component of the programme plans for pilot activities in the areas of drinking water supply, the collection/treatment of wastewater, household and bio-hazardous waste and the installation of hygiene facilities.

SYMAE has undertaken feasibility studies for the construction of independent sanitation systems for communities of 250 to 2,000 inhabitants as well as pilot sites for the treatment of wastewater in two towns (Tabiazo and Vuelta Larga), which together have 2,700 residents. Two systems that use the purifying properties of soil and a plant cover selected for its oxygenation properties are currently being tested: sand filters and bio-filters or “green filters” associated with primary treatment of suspended matter. The plan is to promote their development with the blessing of the Ministry for the Environment and in line with current legislation in force for matters of wastewater disposal into the natural environment. The advantages of using

them (compared to more traditional systems using bio-digestion or lagooning which provide a comparable level of treatment) resides primarily in the low installation cost per inhabitant, the fact that qualified labour is not needed for occasional maintenance, and that there is no risk of disease vectors since there is no open surface water.

LOCAL HEALTH POLICY: THE ENVIRONMENT IS INVITED TO THE DEBATE

118

URBAN HYGIENE

119

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Treatment of solid waste is vital to avoid pollution and ensure that the en-vironment remains healthy as regards hygiene, public health, welfare and even tourism. The solid waste produced by developing countries has in-creased and has become more diversified with access to consumer prod-ucts while the means to dispose of and process waste have not followed as quickly. Large-scale treatment of waste such as plastic bags and batteries as well as, more generally, petroleum-based products and products of in-dustrial processing, is becoming more and more urgent.

SANITATION INVOLVING THE LOCAL POPULATION

Those involved in the emerging sector of solid waste management do not yet benefit from long experience in their field as is the case for water, for example.

-mented by BTC4, related to the management and treatment of solid waste in

These three projects used the same technology for waste treatment, namely the creation of a technical waste disposal site. Such a site is a landfill designed for the disposal of waste without generating environmental pollution. The im-portant aspects of constructing one are:

Although the civil engineering does not generally present many problems, the installation of membranes is very important because they ensure the

equipment and trained, even certified, welders to ensure complete water-tightness of the site. Landfill management after construction is probably the most sensitive is-

treatment is required during the entire period between the filling of the site and waste neutralisation following final capping. This time period can range from 20 to 50 years depending on local conditions.

SENEGAL/MALI/VIETNAM

PROMOTING THE INVOLVEMENTOF LOCAL RESIDENTS IN WASTECOLLECTION SYSTEMS

120

URBAN HYGIENE

In addition to the technical challenges inherent in a solid waste project, the collection and transport of waste must be organised in a well-thought out way. The implementation of a sustainable collection system depends primarily on the participation of the local people. This is even more important than for a

awareness campaigns, support and supervision.

The example of Saint-Louis illustrates that raising the awareness of local peo-ple is fundamental and must be ongoing. This city is largely built on areas that are prone to flooding and waste is used as infill. It therefore has a commercial value and it is purchased from waste collector groups. This business creates health risks and potential groundwater pollution. Community services must continue to increase awareness and train the local people to ensure that these practices do not go on.

121

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

WASTE WITHOUT DUMPING

The progress achieved in waste collection and treatment infrastructure may turn out to be vain if maintenance is not supported by local political and technical measures - by making users financially responsible. This very important aspect enables an assessment to be made of the sustainability

ecological catastrophes than if the solid waste were widely dispersed (con-centration of pollutants).

to completely upgrade over half of the infrastructure built in the city seven or eight years earlier. As for the rural environment, all the systems are now

operation must be reviewed taking greater account of user participation and the technical and financial mechanisms that will enable sustainable and economically appropriate maintenance.

The current situation is a concern: 140 tonnes of waste is produced daily and more than 150 municipal employees are assigned to collection and cleaning services. The tax on users covers only 40% of the expenses in-curred to operate the services. The vehicle fleet is obsolete and inadequate and the open-air landfill site does not meet any national environmental

been trying to maintain a voluntary policy in favour of better public health.

5 --

ture the regulatory, technical and organisational framework of the service from waste collection through final treatment. Systematic studies (time and transport) were carried out to optimise waste collection and cleaning serv-ices. Training in management, human resources and conflict resolution and in composting and hygiene was provided to municipal employees. The sup-ply of light transportation equipment as well as protection equipment has

in upgrading standards and in reducing the environmental impact of the landfill site that had been in operation for over ten years that the greatest

-doran engineers. The upgrade was the subject of technical, financial and impact studies in line with local management capacities.

-

ECUADOR

BETTER MANAGEMENT OF URBAN WASTE

122

The cooperation programme between Algeria and Belgium includes support for the Bachir Mentouri hospital in Kouba, a district of Algiers. The management of hospital waste and the installation of an incinerator are at the heart of this project, which commenced in 2008.

Hospital waste is a significant potential source of contamination for both humans and the environment and it also involves both infectious and toxic risks. Most hospitals are located in city centres and their airborne and waterborne pollution has a direct impact on nearby residents.

Infection risk is related to the various micro-organisms carried in blood, anatomical waste and biological liquids. Toxic risks are primarily related to chemical products (including medications, laboratory waste and wastewater), which are disposed of carelessly and can pollute wastewater networks. Some products can also have allergenic, mutagenic, or teratogenic toxicity... Moreover, volatile solvents form a permanent risk for explosion, fire, and atmospheric pollution, also after being disposed of.

The project supports managers in implementing Algerian legislation. It contributes to organising the collection, sorting, storage, and treatment systems for hospital waste and improves the quality of incineration of this waste. The project is also involved in other areas such at providing training for hospital managers and personnel as well as for the specialised technical staff in charge of incineration. It helps to adapt hospital infrastructure to enable smooth collection, sorting, and disposal of medical waste and the temporary storage of toxic waste.

Beyond the hospital itself, this pilot project provides a testing ground for strategies, methods and technical issues. It provides those in the medical and environmental fields with opportunities to assess their relevance and effectiveness. Algerian managers have also been able to come to Belgium to study the legislation in this field and how it is applied in hospitals.

This project will be copied in other regions since the problem of hospital waste management is a recurring one in many hospitals supported by Belgian cooperation.

HOSPITAL WASTE: TOO DANGEROUS TO IGNORE

BTCBELGIANDEVELOPMENT AGENCY

RUE HAUTE 147 1000 BRUSSELST +32 (0)2 505 37 00 F +32 (0)2 502 98 62 E [email protected]

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