the five spiritual faculties-conze

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» Library » Authors » Conze The Way of Wisdom The Five Spiritual Faculties by Edward Conze © 1993–2013 Contents I. The Five Spiritual Faculties 1. Faith 2. Vigor 3. Mindfulness 4. Concentration 5. Wisdom II. Selected Texts 1. The Five Faculties 2. The Restraint of the Senses 3. The Control of the Mind 4. The Buddha's Sayings on the Faculties 5. The Balance of the Faculties Notes Part I: The Five Spiritual Faculties Spiritual progress depends on the emergence of five cardinal virtues — faith, vigor, mindfulness, concentration and wisdom. The conduct of the ordinary worldling is governed by his sense-based instincts and impulses. As we progress, new spiritual forces gradually take over, until in the end the five cardinal virtues dominate and shape everything we do feel and think. These virtues are called, in Sanskrit and Pali, indriya, variously translated by faculties, controlling The Way of Wisdom: The Five Spiritual Faculties http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/conze/wheel065.html 1 din 41 15.03.2013 11:39

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Page 1: The Five Spiritual Faculties-Conze

» Library » Authors » Conze

The Way of WisdomThe Five Spiritual Faculties

by

Edward Conze© 1993–2013

ContentsI. The Five Spiritual Faculties

1. Faith

2. Vigor

3. Mindfulness

4. Concentration

5. Wisdom

II. Selected Texts1. The Five Faculties

2. The Restraint of the Senses

3. The Control of the Mind

4. The Buddha's Sayings on the Faculties

5. The Balance of the Faculties

Notes

Part I: The Five SpiritualFacultiesSpiritual progress depends on the emergence of five cardinalvirtues — faith, vigor, mindfulness, concentration andwisdom. The conduct of the ordinary worldling is governedby his sense-based instincts and impulses. As we progress,new spiritual forces gradually take over, until in the end thefive cardinal virtues dominate and shape everything we dofeel and think. These virtues are called, in Sanskrit and Pali,indriya, variously translated by faculties, controlling

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faculties, or spiritual faculties.[1] The same five virtues arecalled powers (bala) if emphasis is on the fact that they are"unshakable by their opposites."

1. Faith

Faith is called "the seed," and without it the plant of spirituallife cannot start at all. Without faith one can, as a matter offact, do nothing worthwhile at all. This is true not only ofBuddhism, but of all religions, and even the pseudo-religionsof modern times, such as Communism. And this faith ismuch more than the mere acceptance of beliefs. It requiresthe combination of four factors — intellectual, volitional,emotional and social.

1. Intellectually, faith is an assent to doctrines which are notsubstantiated by immediately available direct factualevidence. To be a matter of faith, a belief must go beyondthe available evidence and the believer must be willing andready to fill up the gaps in the evidence with an attitude ofpatient and trusting acceptance. Faith, taken in this sense,has two opposites, i.e., a dull unawareness of the thingswhich are worth believing in, and doubt or perplexity. In anykind of religion some assumptions are taken on trust andaccepted on the authority of scriptures or teachers.

Generally speaking, faith is, however, regarded as only apreliminary step, as a merely provisional state. In duecourse direct spiritual awareness will know that which faithtook on trust, and longed to know: "Now we see through aglass darkly, but then face to face." Much time must usuallyelapse before the virtue of wisdom has become strongenough to support a vigorous insight into the true nature ofreality. Until then quite a number of doctrinal points must betaken on faith.

What then in Buddhism are the objects of faith? They areessentially four: (1) the belief in karma and rebirth; (2) theacceptance of the basic teachings about the nature of reality,such as conditioned co-production, emptiness, etc.; (3)confidence in the "Three Refuges," the Buddha, the Dharmaand the Order; and (4) a belief in the efficacy of theprescribed practices, and in Nirvana as the final way out ofour difficulties. I shall say more about them when I havedealt with the other aspects of faith.

2. In this skeptical age we, anyway, dwell far too much on

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the intellectual side of faith. shraddha (Pali: saddha) theword we render as "faith," is etymologically akin to Latin cor,"the heart," and faith is far more a matter of the heart thanof the intellect. It is, as Prof. Radhakrishnan incisively putsit, the "striving after self-realization by concentrating thepowers of the mind on a given idea." Volitionally, faithimplies a resolute and courageous act of will. It combines thesteadfast resolution that one will do a thing with theself-confidence that one can do it. Suppose that people livingon the one side of a river are doomed to perish from manyenemies, diseases and famine. Safety lies on the othershore. The man of faith is then likened to the person whoswims across the river, braving its dangers, saving himselfand inspiring others by his example. Those without faith willgo on dithering along the hither bank. The opposites to thisaspect of faith are timidity, cowardice, fear, wavering, and ashabby, mean and calculating mentality.

3. Emotionally, faith is an attitude of serenity and lucidity.Its opposite here is worry, the state of being troubled bymany things. It is said that someone who has faith loses the"five terrors," i.e., he ceases to worry about the necessitiesof life, about loss of reputation, death, unhappy rebirth andthe impression he may make on an audience. It is fairlyobvious that the burden of life must be greatly lightened bybelief in karma, emptiness, or not-self. Even an unpleasantfate can be accepted more easily when it is understood as adispensation of justice, when vexations are explained as aninevitable retribution, when law seems to rule instead ofblind chance, when even apparent loss is bound to turn intotrue gain. And if there is no self, what and whom do weworry about? If there is only one vast emptiness, what isthere to disturb our radiance?

4. Socially, and that is more difficult to understand, faithinvolves trust and confidence in the Buddha and the Sangha.Its opposite here is the state of being submerged in caresabout one's sensory social environment, cares which springfrom either social pressure or social isolation. The break withthe normal social environment is, of course, complete only inthe case of the monk who, as the formula goes, "in faithforsakes his home." To a lesser extent it must be carried outby every practitioner of the Dharma, who must "live apart"from his society, in spirit if not in fact. The company ofothers and the help we expect from them are usually amainstay of our sense of security. By going for refuge to theBuddha and the Sangha one turns from the visible andtangible to the invisible and elusive. By placing one's

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reliance on spiritual forces one gains the strength todisregard public opinion and social discouragement. Somemeasure of defiant contempt for the world and its ways isinseparable from a spiritual life. The spiritual man does not"belong" to his visible environment, in which he is bound tofeel rather a stranger. He belongs to the community of thesaints, to the family of the Buddha. Buddhism substitutes aspiritual for the natural environment, with the Buddha forthe father, the Prajnaparamita for the mother, the fellow-seekers for brothers and sisters, relatives and friends. It iswith these more invisible forces that one must learn toestablish satisfactory social relations. In carrying out thistask, faith requires a considerable capacity for renunciation.

This concludes our survey of the four factors which go intothe making of faith. Like other spiritual qualities, faith issomewhat paradoxical in that in one sense it is a gift whichone cannot obtain by merely wanting to, and in anothersense it is a virtue that can be cultivated. The capacity forfaith varies with the constitution of the individual and hissocial circumstances. It is usual to classify types ofpersonality according to whether they are dominated bygreed, hatred or confusion. Those who walk in greed are saidto be more susceptible to faith than the other two, becauseof the kinship which exists between faith and greed. Toquote Buddhaghosa (Visuddhimagga III,75): "As on theunwholesome plane greed clings and takes no offense, sofaith on the wholesome plane. As greed searches for objectsof sense-desire, so faith for the qualities of morality, etc. Asgreed does not let go that which is harmful, so faith does notlet go that which is beneficial."

As regards social conditions, there are ages of faith and agesof unbelief. The present age rather fosters unbelief. It puts apremium on intellectual smartness, so that faith is easilyheld to indicate nothing but a weak head or a lack ofintellectual integrity. It multiplies the distractions from thesensory world to such an extent that the calm of the invisibleworld is harder to reach than ever. It exposes the citizen toso great a variety of conflicting viewpoints that he finds ithard to make a choice. The prestige of science, the concernwith a high standard of living, and the disappearance of allinstitutions of uncontested authority are the chief foes offaith in our present-day society. It is largely a matter oftemperament whether we believe that matters will improvein the near future.

As a virtue, faith is strengthened and built up by

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self-discipline, and not by discussing opinions. Intellectualdifficulties are by no means the most powerful among theobstacles to faith. Doubts are inevitable, but how one dealswith them depends on one's character. The first of our four"articles of faith" well illustrates this situation. There aremany sound reasons for accepting the rebirth doctrine. Thisis not the place to expound them, and I must be content torefer the reader to the very impressive "East-WestAnthology" on Reincarnation which J. Head and S.L.Cranston have published in 1961 (New York, The Julian PressInc.). Yet, although belief in rebirth is perfectly rational anddoes not conflict with any known fact, the range of theaverage person's vision is so limited that he has no access tothe decisive evidence, which is direct and immediateexperience.

The rebirth doctrine assumes at least two things: (1) thatbehind the natural causality which links together events inthe world of sense there are other, invisible chains of amoral causality, which assures that all good acts arerewarded, all bad actions punished; and (2) that this chainof moral sequences is not interrupted by death, butcontinues from rebirth to rebirth. To the average personthese two assumptions cannot be proved absolutely,conclusively and beyond the possibility of a doubt. Howeverplausible they may seem on rational grounds, Buddhismteaches that they become a matter of direct experience onlyafter the "superknowledges" (abhijna, abhiñña) have beendeveloped. The fourth "superknowledge" is the recollectionof one's own previous rebirths, and the fifth the knowledgeof the rebirths of other people, by which one "sees thatwhatever happens to them happens in accordance with theirdeeds." There are many well-authenticated cases of personsspontaneously remembering certain details of one or theother of their own previous lives, and these people obviouslyhave an additional reason for belief in rebirth which islacking in those who cannot recall ever having lived before.Full certitude on the issue is, however, given to those onlywho can, on the basis of the fourth jhana and by takingdefinite prescribed and disciplined steps on emerging fromthat jhana, "recall their manifold former lives," according tothe well-known formula: "There I was, that was my name,that was my family, that was my caste, such was my food,this was the happiness, this the suffering which Iexperienced, this was the duration of my life-span. Deceasedthere I was born elsewhere and there had this name, etc."When a monk has practiced properly and successfully,"these things become as clear to him as if lit up by a lamp"

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(Visuddhimagga, xiii, 23).

Until that time comes, we cannot claim that we fully knowthe doctrine of karma and rebirth to be true. We take itpartly on faith. And this faith of ours is maintained less byour dialectical skill as by the virtues of patience and courage.For we must be willing to wait patiently until we arespiritually ripe for the emergence of the super-knowledges,however far off that might seem to be. And secondly, wemust be willing to take risks. Life nowhere offers a onehundred per cent security, and for our convictions least ofall. Employed in gaining wealth a merchant must risk hisproperty. Employed in taking life, a soldier must risk his ownlife. Employed in saving his soul, the spiritual man must riskhis own soul. The stake automatically increases with theprospect of gain. Of course, we may be mistaken. Isometimes wonder what I would think if, on dying, I wouldnot, as I now fondly imagine, wake up on the Bardo plane,but find myself confronted with Acheron and the three-headed Cerberus, or, worse still, were ill-treated with fireand brimstone in a Christian hell. The experience would, Iadmit, be rather disconcerting. All that I can say in the faceof such uncertainty is that I am willing to take theconsequences, and that I hope that my fund of boldness,audacity and good humor will not run out.

One has the choice to magnify intellectual doubts, or tominimize them. It seems not unreasonable that one shouldblame the difficulties of the teaching on one's own distancefrom the truth, one's own intellectual and moralimperfections. How can one expect to remember one's pastlives, if at present one cannot even recall hour by hour whatone did during one single day a mere month ago? If onehesitates to accept, as not immediately obvious, the doctrinethat this world is the result of ignorance and of the craving ofnon-existent individuals for non-existent objects — is thisnot perhaps due to the very denseness of one's ownignorance, for which one can collect plenty of proofs all daylong? Doubts are effectively overcome when one purifiesone's own life, so as to become more worthy of knowledge.It is a condition of all learning that one accepts a great dealon trust, that one gives the teacher the benefit of the doubt.Otherwise one can learn nothing at all, and remains shut outfrom all truth. To have faith means to take a deep breath, totear oneself away from the daily cares and concerns, and toturn resolutely to a wider and more abiding reality. At firstwe are, by ourselves, too stupid and inexperienced to seethe tracks which lead to salvation. So we must put our trust

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in the Sages of the past, and listen intently to their words,dimmed by distance and the noise of the present day, butstill just audible.

One last word about tolerance, without which faith remainsraw and unsure of itself. It is a perpetual trial to our faiththat we should constantly meet with people who believedifferently. We are easily tempted to wish this irritantremoved, to coerce others, if only by argument, and toannihilate them, if only by dubbing them fools. Intolerancefor people of other faiths, though often mistaken for ardor,betrays nothing so much as doubts within oneself. We can,of course, always console ourselves by assuming that theothers, in their own way, believe what we do, and that in theend it all comes to the same thing. But that does not alwayssound very convincing, and what we must, I am afraid, learnto do is to bear with their presence.

2. Vigor

Next to faith, vigor (Skr.: virya; Pali: viriya). Little need besaid about the need for being energetic if one wants toachieve something. Without vigor, without strenuous effort,without perseverance, one obviously cannot make muchprogress. Everybody knows what "vigor" is, although ageneration which made the fortune of the discoverers of"night-starvation" might wish that it had more of it.

The fact that faith and vigor are virtues does not, however,imply that they are good all through, and that, regardless ofthe consequences, they should be strengthened at all times.Excess is to be deprecated, even in virtues. All the fivevirtues must be regarded as one whole. Their balance andharmony is almost as important as the virtues themselves.[2]

They support each other to some extent, but they also standin each other's way. The one must sometimes be used tocorrect the excess of the other. In this way, concentrationmust come to the rescue of the latent faults of vigor. Whenvigor and energy have it all their own way, tranquillity is indanger. We all know people with a large dash of adrenalin intheir blood, who are always busy, perhaps even "madlyefficient," but not particularly restful. Vigor by itself leads toexcitement, and has to be controlled by a development ofconcentrated calm.

Similarly, faith alone, without wisdom, can easily becomemere credulity. Wisdom alone can teach what is worth

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believing. This can be illustrated by Don Quixote, who inliterature is perhaps the purest embodiment of faith, andwhose actions demonstrate that too much faith, by itself, isnot necessarily a good thing. Cervantes' novel gives a fineand detailed description of all the chief attributes of faith.Don Quixote vigorously, fearlessly, without complaining, andeven serenely endures all tribulations because he wants tohelp others, all of them equally, according to their needs.When he dashes into the middle of the boiling lake, hereaches the very height of self-abandonment of which faithas such is capable. "And just when he does not know whatwill happen to him, he finds himself among flowery fieldsbeautiful beyond those of Elysium." His faith has conqueredthe senses, it transmutes the data of common-senseexperience, and the barber's basin becomes Mambrino'shelmet.[3] And yet, when we consider the intellectual basis ofhis faith, we find that it consists in nothing more than abelief in the truth and veracity of the Romances whichdescribe the fictitious and not particularly edifying doings ofthe knight-errants of the past. This is the reason why hisadventures form a sorry sight, why he is a caricature even ofa knight of the Middle Ages, why, shorn of all common-sense, faith in this case becomes slightly pathological.

Mr. Blyth claims that "the Don Quixote of the First Part isZen incarnate,"[4] that "the man who surpasses Hakuin,Rinzai, Eno, Daruma and Shakyamuni himself is Don Quixotede la Mancha, Knight Errant."[5] Zen, it seems, like all goodthings, can be abused. It is not very probable that, when thecloak of "Zen" is thrown over them, all donkeys do becometigers, all absurdities profundities. Irrationalism is notwithout its attractions, but can be overdone. To suggest thatone scripture, one conviction, one faith is as good asanother, smacks rather more of the spiritual nihilism of ourpresent age, than of the wisdom of Seng-t'san. I admit that Ihave always liked Don Quixote for saying that the"perfection" of madness does not consist in going "mad forsome actual reason or other" but "in running mad withoutthe least constraint or necessity." But still I cannot helpfeeling that there is some difference, intangible perhaps, butnevertheless real, between the perfection of madness andthe perfection of wisdom. Don Quixote's faith was a ratherpuerile one, because he had no judgment, and his vision wasdefective. Blyth himself admits in the end that Don Quixote"lacks the Confucian virtue of Prudence, the balance of thepowers of the mind" (p.210). I am not so sure aboutprudence, but the "balance of the powers of the mind" iscertainly not only a Confucian, but also a Buddhist virtue,

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and a very essential one. Buddhaghosa, whom I amexpounding here, leaves us in no doubt on this matter.[6]

What distinguishes a bhikkhu from a knight-errant is that heis essentially sober and calm, that his view of the world issweetly rational, that he avoids violence in the pursuit of hisaims, and that his estimate of his own role in the world doesnot greatly exceed his actual size in relation to the universe.

3. Mindfulness

A Buddhist owes his soberness to the cultivation of the thirdvirtue of mindfulness (Skr.: smriti, Pali: sati). Whereas faithand vigor, when driven to excess, must be restrained bytheir counterparts, i.e., wisdom and tranquil concentration,the virtue of mindfulness does not share this disability."Mindfulness should be strong everywhere. For it protectsthe mind from excitedness, into which it might fall sincefaith, vigor and wisdom may excite us;[7] and from indolence,into which it might fall since concentration favors indolence.Therefore, mindfulness is desirable everywhere, like aseasoning of salt in all sauces, like the prime minister in allstate functions. Hence it is said: 'The Lord has declaredmindfulness to be useful everywhere, for the mind findsrefuge in mindfulness and mindfulness is its protector.Without mindfulness there can be no exertion or restraint ofthe mind.' "[8]

Although traces of it are not altogether absent in otherreligious and philosophical disciplines, in Buddhism alonemindfulness occupies a central position. If one were askedwhat distinguishes Buddhism from all other systems ofthought, one would have to answer that it is the dharma-theory and the stress laid on mindfulness. Mindfulness is notonly the seventh of the steps of the holy eightfold path, thethird of the five virtues, and the first of the seven limbs ofenlightenment. On occasions it is almost equated withBuddhism itself. So we read at the beginning of theSatipatthana Sutta[9] that "the four applications ofmindfulness are the one and only way (ekayano maggo) thatleads beings to purity, to the transcending of sorrow andlamentation, to the appeasement of pain and sadness, toentrance upon the right method and to the realization ofNirvana."[10]

What then is "mindfulness"? The Abhidharma, guided by theetymology of the Sanskrit term (smriti from smri, "to

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remember"), defines it as an act of remembering whichprevents ideas from "floating away," and which fightsforgetfulness, carelessness and distraction. This definition byitself, though correct, does not really make the function ofthis virtue very clear to us today. The theoreticalassumptions which underlie the various practices summedup in the word "mindfulness" are too much taken forgranted. What one assumes is that the mind consists of twodisparate parts — a depth which is calm and quiet, and asurface which is disturbed. The surface layer is in perpetualagitation and turmoil. The center, at the bottom of the mind,beyond both the conscious and the unconscious mind asmodern psychologists understand it, is quite still. The depthis, however, usually overlaid to such an extent that peopleremain incredulous when told of a submerged spot ofstillness in their inmost hearts. In most cases the surface isso turbulent that the calm of the depth can be realized onlyin rare intervals.

Mindfulness and concentration are the two virtues which areconcerned with the development of inward calm. Theprincipal enemies of spiritual quietude are: (1) the senses;(2) the movements of the body; (3) the passions, wants anddesires; and (4) discursive thinking. They have the power tobe enemies when: (1) they are not subjected to anydiscipline; and (2) when the ego identifies itself with whattakes place on the surface of the mind, participating heartilyin it, and the illusion arises that these activities are "my"doings, "my" concerns and the sphere in which "I" live andhave my being. When thus busy with worldly things, wehave neither strength nor freedom. In order to conquerthese enemies of spiritual quietude we must: (1) withdrawthe senses from their objects, as the tortoise draws in itslimbs; (2) keep watch on our muscular movements; (3)cease wanting anything, and dissociate all wants from theego; and (4) cut off discursive thinking.

By an effort of the imagination one must try to see oneself atrest, floating freely, with no force exerted on one's spiritualself. The practice of mindfulness then is a series of effortswhich aim at maintaining this isolation. Mindfulness is thename given to the measures which we take to protect thepatch of inner calm, which may at first not seem very large.One, as it were, draws a line round this domain and at itsboundaries keeps watch on trespassers. The expectation isthat conscious attention will disintegrate the power of theenemies, diminish their number, and dissociate them fromthe ego. However diverse in nature the numerous exercises

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which come under the heading of mindfulness may seem tobe, they all have in common this one purpose, that ofguarding the incipient and growing calm in one's heart.

1. First, as regards the sensory stimuli, there is the"restraint of the senses," also called the "guarding of thedoors of the senses." For two reasons sense stimulation maydisturb inner calm: (1) because it gives an occasion forundesirable states, like greed, hate, etc., to invade and floodthe mind; (2) because attention to the sensory world,however necessary and apparently innocuous, distracts fromthe object of wisdom, which is the emptiness of dharmas.One cannot grasp what is meant by "restraint of the sensedominants," if one regards it as quite a natural thing that themind should dwell on sense-linked objects. This is, indeed,most unnatural. In its natural purity thought abides in thecalm contemplation of emptiness. The mind which sees,hears, etc., is a fallen mind.

The capacity of sense-experience to compel the mind to actin a certain way is greatly diminished if each sensorystimulus is examined at the point where it passes thethreshold of consciousness. Attention, normally passive,involuntary and compulsive, is subjected to voluntarycontrol. In the process of imposing some control on thesenses one will be surprised to find how keen they are tofunction, how eager to find suitable objects with which tofeed one's impulses and instincts, one's hopes and fears,one's interests and appetites, satisfactions and grievances.It is not so bad that one should see things, hear sounds,etc., but it is a threat to spiritual health when one getsinterested and entranced, when one takes up what is seenand heard and seizes on it as a sign of what matters.

The practice of mindfulness is not confined to taking note ofwhat enters the mind by way of the sense-organs. One alsotries to determine what is allowed to enter, and to generallyreduce the number of sensory impacts by restraining the useof the physical organ, for instance, when one walks witheyes directed only a few feet or yards ahead. In addition, byan effort of the will one refuses to co-operate with one'shabitual impulses in building up a mere casual observationinto a thing of moment to which one returns again and again.Finally the intruder is weakened and worn down byappropriate reflections. He is kept out of the heart anddevalued — as trivial, as already passed, as nothing inparticular, and by thinking that "this does not concern me atall, this means nothing to me, it is only a waste when

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salvation and Nirvana are considered."

2. Secondly, as regards the muscular movements of thebody — an unquiet body is a concomitant of a disturbedmind, both its cause and symptom. It is important tomindfulness that one should consciously notice the positionand movement of the body when walking, eating, speaking,etc., and suppress and correct those movements which areuncontrolled, hasty and uncoordinated. This practice can, itis true, not be carried out at all times. In London traffic, forinstance, the unhurried and unflurried demeanor of themindful has little survival value. Where, however, it can beapplied, we come to cherish this exercise which pulls ustogether, sometimes to an amazing extent in an amazinglyshort time. Insignificant as it may seem, compared with thesplendors of Buddhist art and metaphysics, this training istheir indispensable foundation stone. It is by his dignifiedand self-possessed deportment that the bhikkhu isrecognized. And, of course, we should not forget that themindful attention to muscular movements includes thebreathing practices, which are a most fruitful source ofinsight.

3. Where we have to face the disturbance of the passionsand of stray thoughts in general, the defense of our inwardcalm becomes more difficult. Mindfulness itself turns intoincipient concentration.

At this point one may ask whether the practice of the fivecardinal virtues, from faith to wisdom, is at all likely to befurthered by writing articles about them. It is, of course, notan entirely useless undertaking to guard the traditionalteaching from current misunderstandings, quite apart fromthe pleasure of putting fleas into peoples' ears, andfomenting discussions about the importance of faith, or thevalue of erudition. But what about the virtues themselves?Thomas a Kempis once said that he would rather feelcompunction than know the definition of it. What matters toa Buddhist is that he should be strong in faith, vigor,mindfulness, concentration and wisdom, and what use to himis the knowledge of how they are defined? Detailed advice onhow these virtues should be practiced, it is true, can neverbe given in articles written for the general reader. Suchadvice must always be addressed to one person at a time,must take their individual constitution into account, and can,therefore, be given only by word of mouth.

On the other hand, if mindfulness is a virtue, then the ability

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to recollect one's own virtues is also a feature of theBuddhist life. And how can one attend to the presence orabsence of mental states in oneself if one is unable torecognize them for what they are? The Satipatthana Suttarecommends systematic meditation on the wholesome andunwholesome mental states which arise in the mind. Toquote the Sutta, one knows, for instance: (1) when there isvigor that there is vigor; (2) when there is no vigor thatthere is no vigor; (3) how the vigor which did not exist cameto be produced; and (4) how and under what conditions itwill grow to greater perfection. Psychology is so vital toBuddhist instruction because one cannot know anythingdefinite about the furniture of one's mind unless one isacquainted with the categories into which mental conditionscan be analyzed. A mindful man is well informed about hisown mental condition. His capacity for introspection is highlydeveloped. And his interest in his own mind will not reallymake him self-centered as long as he remembers that hehas to deal with the rise and fall of impersonal processes. Inaddition, in the case of the higher mental states, rationalclarity is imperative if constant self-deception and wastefulgroping in the dark are to be avoided. In a new country amap is helpful so that one may know where one is. Themanuals of mystical theology written by the practicingcontemplatives of the Catholic Church are also rich indescriptions of the sublimer virtues.

But this is not all. Where the Buddhist virtues are describedfor a lay audience one must not omit to mention theall-important fact that the upper ranges of these virtuesdemand a reformation of the conduct of life which is greaterthan almost any layman is willing to undertake. The highermindfulness, and nearly the whole range of concentrationand wisdom, presuppose a degree of withdrawal from theworld which is incompatible with the life of an ordinarycitizen. Those who are unwilling to achieve a radicalseclusion from the world can practice these virtues only in avery rudimentary form. It is quite idle to pretend that theydo not involve a complete break with the established habitsof life and thought. Unless we make the sacrifices involved inwithdrawing from the world, we are bound to remainstrangers to the fullness of mindfulness, concentration andwisdom.

But if the monastic life is a necessary condition for thesevirtues, why talk about them at all? Partly because it issalutary, though painful, that we should see their absence inus, and partly because they constitute the subjective

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counterpart of the scriptures which we read. The Suttasdescribe the world as it appears on a spiritual level on whichconcentration and wisdom have come to maturity. Theunderstanding of the scriptures is furthered by anunderstanding of the subjective attitude which correspondsto them. And so, although we are forced to go beyond therange of our immediate experience, and although thedescription tends to become more intangible as it rises toloftier heights, we will now, leaving aside the higher rangesof mindfulness, try to explain the traditional definitions ofconcentration and wisdom, as they are handed down to us.

4. Concentration

Concentration (samadhi) continues the work of mindfulness.It deepens our capacity to regain the peaceful calm of ourinner nature. But here we are at once faced with thedifficulty that in Buddhist psychology "concentration" occurstwice: (1) as a factor essential to all thought; and (2) as aspecial, and rather rare, virtue.

1. In its simplest form, concentration is the narrowing of thefield of attention in a manner and for a time determined bythe will. The mind is made one-pointed, does not waver,does not scatter itself, and it becomes steady like the flameof a lamp in the absence of wind. Without a certain degree ofone-pointedness no mental activity at all can take place.Each mental act lasts, strictly speaking, for one momentonly, and is at once followed by another. The function ofconcentration is to provide some stability in this perpetualflux, by enabling the mind to stand in, or on, the sameobject, without distraction, for more than one moment. Inaddition it is a synthetic quality (sam-a-dhi = syn-thesis),that binds together a number of mental states which arise atthe same time, "as water binds the lather of soap."

Buddhaghosa stresses the fact that intellectual concentrationis also found in unwholesome thoughts. The mind must beundistracted so that the murderer's knife does not miss, thetheft does not miscarry. A mind of single intent is capable ofdoing what it does more effectively, be it good or bad. Thehigher degrees of this kind of concentration owe much to thepresence of the "hunting instinct," and can best be observedin a stoat following a rabbit. Intellectual concentration is aquality which is ethically and spiritually neutral. Manyscientific workers have an unusually high capacity forconcentrated thought. Anyone acquainted with the "scientific

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humanists" who inhabit our big cities will, however, agreethat their intellectual achievements are not conducive toeither peace of mind or spiritual progress. When Sir IsaacNewton boiled his watch instead of the egg his landlady hadgiven him, he thereby showed the intensity with which hefocussed his mind on his intellectual task. But the result ofhis intellectual labors has been to cast a dark shadow overthe spiritual radiance of the universe, and ever since, thecelestial harmonies have become nearly inaudible. As H.W.Longfellow, in his poem on "The Arsenal at Springfield," hasput it:

Is it, O man, with such discordant noises,With such accursed instruments as these,Thou drownest Nature's sweet and kindly voices,And jarrest the celestial harmonies?

2. How then does concentration as a spiritual virtue differfrom concentration as a condition of the intellect? Spiritual ortransic concentration results less from intellectual effort thanfrom a rebirth of the whole personality, including the body,the emotions, and the will. It cannot possibly be achievedwithout some discipline over the body, since we must beable to endure the prescribed posture, practice theprescribed breathing exercises, and so on. It is further builton a change of outlook which we can well describe as"ethical." Tradition is quite unambiguous on this point.Before spiritual concentration can be even approached, wemust have stilled or suppressed five vices, which are knownas the "five hindrances": sense desire, ill will, sloth andtorpor, excitedness and sense of guilt, and doubt. Wherethese hindrances are present, where concentrated thought isfused with greed, the desire to excel, to get a good job, etc.,there concentration as a spiritual virtue is not found.

In this sense physical ease and self-purification are the firsttwo distinctive features of spiritual concentration. The thirdis the shift in attention from the sensory world to anothersubtler realm. The methods by which this shift is effectedare traditionally known as the four trances (jhana) and thefour formless attainments. They are essentially a training inincreasing introversion, achieved by progressivelydiminishing the impact of the outer stimuli. As a result oftheir successful withdrawal and renunciation the spirituallyconcentrated release the inward calm which dwells in theirhearts. This concentration cannot be won, however, unlessno attention is given to sensory data, and everythingsensory is viewed as equally unimportant. Subjectively it is

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marked by a soft, tranquil and pacified passivity, objectivelyby the abstraction into an unearthly world of experiencewhich lifts one above the world, and bestows a certaintygreater than anything the senses may teach. The experienceis so satisfying that it burns up the world, and only its coldashes are found when one returns to it.

5. Wisdom

And so we come to wisdom (Skr.: prajna; Pali pañña), thehighest virtue of all.

"Wisdom is based on concentration, because of the saying:'One who is concentrated knows, sees what really is.'"[11] Isconcentration then an indispensable pre-condition ofwisdom? The answer lies in distinguishing three stages ofwisdom, according to whether it operates on the level of: (1)learning about what tradition has to say concerning thepsychological and ontological categories which form thesubject-matter of wisdom; (2) discursive reflection on thebasic facts of life; and (3) meditational development.[12] Thethird alone requires the aid of transic concentration,[13]

whereas without it there can be proficiency in the first two.And the wisdom which consists of learning and reflectionshould not be despised.

The main stream of Buddhist tradition has always greatlyesteemed learning. Our attitude to the apple of knowledgediffers from that of many Christians. On the whole, weregard it as rather more nourishing than baneful. Thewisdom, which is the fifth and crowning virtue, is not thewisdom that can be found in the untutored child of nature,the corny sage of the backwoods, or the self-madephilosopher of the suburbs. It can operate only after a greatdeal of traditional information has been absorbed, a greatdeal of sound learning acquired. The required skill inmetaphysical and psychological analysis would be impossiblewithout a good knowledge of the material on which this skillought to be exercised. From this point of view learning isperhaps less to be regretted than its absence.

The second stage, after learning, is reflection, which is anoperation of the intellect. Even the relative beginner cangreatly increase his wisdom by discursive meditations on thebasic facts of life. Finally, it is on the level of mentaldevelopment (bhavana) that this meditational techniquereaches its maturity, and then it does, indeed, require the

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aid of mindfulness and concentration.

"Wisdom" is, of course, only a very approximate equivalentof prajna. To the average person nowadays "wisdom" seemsto denote a compound made up of such qualities as sagacity,prudence, a well-developed sense of values, serenity, andsovereignty over the world won by the understanding of themode of its operation. The Buddhist conception of "wisdom"is not unlike this, but more precise. It is best clarified byfirst giving its connotations, and then its actual definition.

As for the connotations, we read in the Dhammasangani:[14]

"On that occasion the dominant[15] of wisdom is wisdom,understanding,[16] search, research, search for dharma;[17]

discernment, discrimination, differentiation, erudition, expertskill, subtlety, clarity,[18] reflection, investigation,[19]

amplitude,[20] sagacity,[21] a guide (to true welfare and to themarks as they truly are), insight, comprehension, a goad(which urges the mind to move back on the right track);wisdom, wisdom as virtue, wisdom as strength (becauseignorance cannot dislodge it), the sword of wisdom (whichcuts through the defilements), the lofty (and overtowering)height of wisdom, the light,[22] luster and splendor of wisdom,the treasure[23] of wisdom, absence of delusion, search fordharmas, right view." From mere cleverness wisdom isdistinguished by its spiritual purpose, and we are toldexpressly[24] that it is designed "to cut off the defilements."

Now to the actual definition: "Wisdom penetrates[25] intodharmas as they are in themselves. It disperses thedarkness of delusion, which covers up the own-being ofdharmas."[26]

What then does wisdom meditate about? Wisdom may beheld to concern itself with three possible topics: (1) truereality; (2) the meaning of life; (3) the conduct of life.Buddhist tradition assumes that the second and third dependon the first. In its essence wisdom is the strength of mindwhich permits contact with the true reality, which is alsocalled the realm of dharmas. Delusion, folly, confusion,ignorance and self-deception are the opposites of wisdom. Itis because ignorance, and not sin, is the root evil thatwisdom is regarded as the highest virtue. A holiness which isdevoid of wisdom is not considered impossible, but it cannotbe gained by the path of knowledge, to which alone thesedescriptions apply. The paths of faith, of love, of works, etc.,have each their own several laws.

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As the unfaltering penetration into the true nature ofobjects, wisdom is the capacity to meditate in certain waysabout the dharmic constituents of the universe. The rules ofthat meditation have been laid down in the scriptures,particularly in the Abhidharma, and a superb description canbe found in the latter part of Buddhaghosa's Path ofPurification. Mindfulness and concentration were, as we saw,based on the assumption of a duality in the mind — betweenits calm depth and its excited surface. Wisdom similarlyassumes a duality between the surface and depth of allthings. Objects are not what they appear to be. Their truereality, in which they stand out as dharmas, is opposed totheir appearance to commonsense, and much strength ofwisdom is required to go beyond the deceptive appearanceand to penetrate to the reality of dharmas themselves.

Part II: Selected Texts

1. The Five Faculties

(A) FROM THE MILINDAPAÑHA

The king said: "Is it through wise attention thatpeople become exempt from further rebirth?" —"Yes, that is due to wise attention, and also towisdom, and the other wholesome dharmas." — "Butis not wise attention the same as wisdom?" — "No,Your Majesty. Attention is one thing, and wisdomanother. Sheep and goats, oxen and buffaloes,camels and asses have attention, but wisdom theyhave not." — "Well put, Venerable Nagasena."

The king said: "What is the mark of attention, andwhat is the mark of wisdom?" — "Consideration isthe mark of attention, cutting off that of wisdom." —"How is that? Give me a simile." — "You knowbarley-reapers, I suppose?" — "Yes, I do." — "Howthen do they reap the barley?" — "With the left handthey seize a bunch of barley, in the right hand theyhold a sickle, and they cut the barley off with thatsickle." — "Just so, Your Majesty, the yogin seizeshis mental processes with his attention, and by his

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wisdom he cuts off the defilements." — "Well put,Venerable Nagasena."

The king said: "When you just spoke of 'the otherwholesome dharmas,' which ones did you mean?" —"I meant morality, faith, vigor, mindfulness andconcentration." — "And what is the mark ofmorality?" — "Morality has the mark of providing abasis for all wholesome dharmas, whatever they maybe. When based on morality, all the wholesomedharmas will not dwindle away." — "Give me anillustration." — "As all plants and animals whichincrease, grow, and prosper, do so with the earth astheir support, with the earth as their basis, just sothe yogin, with morality as his support, with moralityas his basis, develops the five cardinal virtues, i.e.,the cardinal virtues of faith, vigor, mindfulness,concentration, and wisdom."

"Give me a further illustration."

"As the builder of a city when constructing a townfirst of all clears the site, removes all stumps andthorns, and levels it; and only after that he lays outand marks off the roads and cross-roads, and sobuilds the city, even so the yogin develops the fivecardinal virtues with morality as his support, withmorality as his basis."

The king said: "What is the mark of faith?" — "Faithmakes serene, and it leaps forward." — "And howdoes faith make serene?" — "When faith arises itarrests the five hindrances, and the heart becomesfree from them, clear, serene and undisturbed." —"Give me an illustration." — "A universal monarchmight on his way, together with his fourfold army,cross over a small stream. Stirred up by theelephants and horses, by the chariots and infantry,the water would become disturbed, agitated andmuddy. Having crossed over, the universal monarchwould order his men to bring some water for him todrink. But the king would possess a miraculouswater-clearing gem, and his men, in obedience to hiscommand, would throw it into the stream. Then atonce all fragments of vegetation would float away,the mud would settle at the bottom, the streamwould become clear, serene and undisturbed, and fitto be drunk by the universal monarch. Here the

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stream corresponds to the heart, the monarch's mento the yogin, the fragments of vegetation and themud to the defilements, and the miraculous water-clearing gem to faith."

"And how does faith leap forward?" — "When theyogin sees that the hearts of others have been setfree, he leaps forward, by way of aspiration, to thevarious fruits of the holy life, and he makes efforts toattain the yet unattained, to find the yet unfound, torealize the yet unrealized." — "Give me anillustration." — "Suppose that a great cloud were toburst over a hill-slope. The water then would flowdown the slope, would first fill all the hill's clefts,fissures, and gullies, and would then run into theriver below, making its banks overflow on bothsides. Now suppose further that a great crowd ofpeople had come along, and unable to size up eitherthe width or the depth of the river, should standfrightened and hesitating on the bank. But thensome man would come along, who, conscious of hisown strength and power, would firmly tie on his ownloin-cloth and jump across the river. And the greatcrowd of people, seeing him on the other side, wouldcross likewise. Even so the yogin, when he has seenthat the hearts of others have been set free, leapsforward, by aspiration, to the various fruits of theholy life, and he makes efforts to attain the yetunattained, to find the yet unfound, to realize theyet unrealized. And this is what the Lord has said inthe Samyutta Nikaya:

By faith the flood is crossed,By wakefulness the sea;By vigor ill is passed;By wisdom cleansed is he."

"Well put, Nagasena!"

The king asked: "And what is the mark of vigor?" —"Vigor props up, and, when propped up by vigor, allthe wholesome dharmas do not dwindle away." —"Give me a simile." — "If a man's house were fallingdown, he would prop it up with a new piece of wood,and, so supported, that house would not collapse."

The king asked: "And what is the mark ofmindfulness?" — "Calling to mind and taking up."

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"How is calling to mind a mark of mindfulness?" —"When mindfulness arises, one calls to mind thedharmas which participate in what is wholesome andunwholesome, blamable and blameless, inferior andsublime, dark and light, i.e., these are the fourapplications of mindfulness, these the four rightefforts, these the four roads to psychic power, thesethe five cardinal virtues, these the five powers,these the seven limbs of enlightenment, this is theholy eightfold path; this is calm, this insight, thisknowledge and this emancipation. Thereafter theyogin tends those dharmas which should be tended,and he does not tend those which should not betended; he partakes of those dharmas which shouldbe followed, and he does not partake of those whichshould not be followed. It is in this sense that callingto mind is a mark of mindfulness." — "Give me asimile." — "It is like the treasurer of a universalmonarch, who each morning and evening remindshis royal master of his magnificent assets: 'So manyelephants you have, so many horses, so manychariots, so much infantry, so many gold coins, somuch bullion, so much property; may Your Majestybear this in mind.' In this way he calls to mind hismaster's wealth."

"And how does mindfulness take up?" — "Whenmindfulness arises, the outcome of beneficial andharmful dharmas is examined in this way: 'Thesedharmas are beneficial, these harmful; thesedharmas are helpful, these unhelpful.' Thereafter theyogin removes the harmful dharmas, and takes upthe beneficial ones; he removes the unhelpfuldharmas, and takes up the helpful ones. It is in thissense that mindfulness takes up." — "Give me acomparison." — "It is like the invaluable adviser of auniversal monarch who knows what is beneficial andwhat is harmful to his royal master, what is helpfuland what is unhelpful. Thereafter what is harmfuland unhelpful can be removed, what is beneficial andhelpful can be taken up."

The king asked: "And what is the mark ofconcentration?" — "It stands at the head. Whateverwholesome dharmas there may be, they all areheaded by concentration, they bend towardsconcentration, lead to concentration, incline toconcentration." — "Give me a comparison." — "It is

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as with a building with a pointed roof: whateverrafters there are, they all converge on the top, bendtowards the top, meet at the top, and the topoccupies the most prominent place. So withconcentration in relation to the other wholesomedharmas." — "Give me a further comparison." — "Ifa king were to enter battle with his fourfold army,then all his troops — the elephants, cavalry, chariotsand infantry — would be headed by him, and wouldbe ranged around him. Such is the position ofconcentration in relation to the other wholesomedharmas."

The king then asked: "What then is the mark ofwisdom?" — "Cutting off is, as I said before, onemark of wisdom. In addition it illuminates." — "Andhow does wisdom illuminate?" — "When wisdomarises, it dispels the darkness of ignorance,generates the illumination of knowledge, sheds thelight of cognition, and makes the holy truths standout clearly. Thereafter the yogin, with his correctwisdom, can see impermanence, ill, and not-self." —"Give me a comparison." — "It is like a lamp which aman would take into a dark house. It would dispelthe darkness, would illuminate, shed light, and makethe forms in the house stands out clearly." — "Wellput, Venerable Nagasena."

— Milindapañha, pp. 51-62; translated by EdwardConze

(B) FROM THE AKSHAYAMATI SUTRA

The five faculties are faith, vigor, mindfulness,concentration, and wisdom. Here what is faith? Bythis faith one has faith in four dharmas. Which four?He accepts the right view which assumes renewedbecoming in the world of birth-and-death; he putshis trust in the ripening of karma, and knows that hewill experience the fruit of any karma, that he mayhave done; even to save his life he does not do anyevil deed. He has faith in the mode of life of aBodhisattva, and, having taken up this discipline, hedoes not long for any other vehicle. He believeswhen he hears all the doctrines which arecharacterized by the true, clear, and profoundknowledge of conditioned co-production, by suchterms as lack of self, absence of a being, absence of

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a soul, absence of a person; and by emptiness, thesignless and the wishless. He follows none of thefalse doctrines, and believes in all the qualities(dharmas) of a Buddha, his powers, grounds ofself-confidence, and all the rest; and when in hisfaith he has left behind all doubts, he brings about inhimself those qualities of a Buddha. This is known asthe virtue of faith. His vigor consists of his bringingabout (in himself) the dharmas in which he has faith.His mindfulness consists in his preventing thequalities which he brings about by vigor from beingdestroyed by forgetfulness. His concentrationconsists in his fixing his one-pointed attention onthese very same qualities. With the faculty ofwisdom he contemplates those dharmas on which hehas fixed his one-pointed attention, and penetratesto their reality. The cognition of those dharmaswhich arises in himself and which has no outsidecondition is called the virtue of wisdom. Thus thesefive virtues, together, are sufficient to bring forth allthe qualities of a Buddha.

— Akshayamati Sutra (quoted inShikshasamuccaya); translated by Edward Conze

2. The Restraint of the Senses

(A) FROM ASHVAGHOSHA'SSAUNDARANANDAKAVYA

By taking your stand on mindfulness you must holdback from the sense-objects your senses, unsteadyby nature. Fire, snakes, and lightning are lessinimical to us than our own senses, so much moredangerous. For they assail us all the time. Even themost vicious enemies can attack only some people atsome times, and not at others, but everybody isalways and everywhere weighed down by his senses.And people do not go to hell because some enemyhas knocked them down and cast them into it; it isbecause they have been knocked down by theirunsteady senses that they are helplessly draggedthere. Those attacked by external enemies may, ormay not, suffer injury to their souls; but those whoare weighed down by the senses suffer in body andsoul alike. For the five senses are rather like arrowswhich have been smeared with the poison of fancies,have cares for their feathers, and happiness for their

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points, and fly about in the space provided by therange of the sense-objects; shot off by Kama, theGod of Love, they hit men in their very hearts as ahunter hits a deer, and if men do not know how toward off these arrows, they will be their undoing;when they come near us we should stand firm inself-control, be agile and steadfast, and ward themoff with the great armor of mindfulness. As a manwho has subdued his enemies can everywhere liveand sleep at ease and free from care, so can he whohas pacified his senses. For the senses constantlyask for more by way of worldly objects, and normallybehave like voracious dogs who can never haveenough. This disorderly mob of the senses can neverreach satiety, not by any amount of sense-objects;they are rather like the sea, which one can go onindefinitely replenishing with water.

In this world the senses cannot be prevented frombeing active, each in its own sphere. But they shouldnot be allowed to grasp either the general featuresof an object, or its particularities. When you havebeheld a sight-object with your eyes, you mustmerely determine the basic element (which itrepresents, e.g., it is a sight-object), and should notunder any circumstances fancy it as, say, a "woman"or a "man." But if now and then you haveinadvertently grasped something as a "woman" or a"man," you should not follow that up by determiningthe hairs, teeth, etc., as lovely. Nothing should besubtracted from the datum, nothing added to it; itshould be seen as it really is, as what it is like in realtruth.

If you thus try to look continually for the true realityin that which the senses present to you,covetousness and aversion will soon be left without afoothold. Coveting ruins those living beings who arebent on sensuous enjoyment by means of pleasingforms, like an enemy with a friendly face who speaksloving words, but plans dark deeds. But what iscalled "aversion" is a kind of anger directed towardscertain objects, and anyone who is deluded enoughto pursue it is bound to suffer for it either in this or afuture life. Afflicted by their likes and dislikes, as byexcessive heat or cold, men will never find eitherhappiness or the highest good as long as they puttheir trust in the unsteady senses.

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— Saundaranandakavya, xiii, 30-56; translated byEdward Conze

(B) FROM THE PRAJNAPARAMITA

The Lord: When he practices the perfection ofmeditation for the sake of other beings his mindbecomes undistracted. For he reflects that "evenworldly meditation is hard to accomplish withdistracted thoughts, how much more so is fullenlightenment. Therefore, I must remainundistracted until I have won full enlightenment."...

Moreover, Subhuti, a Bodhisattva, beginning withthe first thought of enlightenment, practices theperfection of meditation. His mental activities areassociated with the knowledge of all modes when heenters into meditation. When he has seen forms withhis eye, he does not seize upon them as signs ofrealities which concern him, nor is he interested inthe accessory details. He sets himself to restrainthat which, if he does not restrain his organ of sight,might give him occasion for covetousness, sadnessor other evil and unwholesome dharmas to reach hisheart. He watches over the organ of sight. And thesame with the other five sense-organs — ear, nose,tongue, body and mind.

Whether he walks or stands, sits or lies down, talksor remains silent, his concentration does not leavehim. He does not fidget with his hands or feet, ortwitch his face; he is not incoherent in his speech,confused in his senses, exalted or uplifted, fickle oridle, agitated in body or mind. Calm is his body,calm is his voice, calm is his mind. His demeanorshows contentment, both in private and public... Heis frugal, easy to feed, easy to serve, of good life andhabits; though in a crowd he dwells apart; even andunchanged, in gain and loss; not elated, not castdown. Thus in happiness and suffering, in praise andblame, in fame and disrepute, in life or death, he isthe same unchanged, neither elated nor cast down.And so with foe or friend, with what is pleasant orunpleasant, with holy or unholy men, with noises ormusic, with forms that are dear or undear, heremains the same, unchanged, neither elated norcast down, neither gratified nor thwarted. And why?Because he sees all dharmas as empty of marks of

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their own, without true reality, incomplete anduncreated.

— Prajnaparamita, ch. 68; translated by EdwardConze

(C) FROM THE VISUDDHIMAGGA

This is the morality which consists in the restraint ofthe senses: "Here someone: (1) having seen a formwith his eye, does not seize on its generalappearance, or the (accessory) details of it. Thatwhich might, so long as he dwells unrestrained as tothe (controlling) force of the eye, give occasion forcovetous, sad, evil and unwholesome dharmas toflood him, that he sets himself to restrain; he guardsthe controlling force of the eye, and brings about itsrestraint. And likewise (2) when he has heardsounds with the ear, (3) smelled smells with thenose, (4) tasted tastes with the tongue, (5) touchedtouchables with the body, (6) cognized mind-objects(dharmas) with the mind." (M.i,180).

Having seen a form with his eye: when he has seena form with the visual consciousness which iscapable of seeing forms, and which in normallanguage is usually called the "eye," though itactually is its tool. For the Ancients have said: "Theeye cannot see forms because it is without thought;thought cannot see forms because it is without eye.When the object knocks against the door (of sight)one sees with the thought which has eye-sensibilityfor its basis." In the expression "one sees with theeye," only accessory equipment is indicated, just asone may say, "one shoots with a bow" (and not "withan arrow"). Therefore, the meaning here is: "havingseen form with visual consciousness."

He does not seize on its general appearance (lit. "thesign"): he does not seize on its appearance as manor woman, or its appearance as attractive, etc.,which makes it into a basis for the defiling passions.But he stops at what is actually seen. He does notseize on the details of it: he does not seize on thevariety of its accessory features, like the hands orfeet, the smile, the laughter, the talk, the lookinghere, the looking away, etc., which are in commonparlance called "details" (anubyanjana) because they

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manifest the defiling passions, by again and again(anu anu) tainting with them (byanjanato). But heseizes only on that which is really there, i.e., theimpurity of the 32 parts of the body) like Mahatissa,the Elder, who lived on Mount Cetiya. Once thatElder went from Mount Cetiya to Anuradhapura, togather alms. In a certain family the daughter-in-lawhad quarreled with her husband, and adorned andbeautified like a heavenly maiden, she leftAnuradhapura early in the morning, and went awayto stay with some relatives. On the way she saw theElder, and, as her mind was perverted, she gave aloud laugh. The Elder looked to see what was thematter; he acquired, at the sight of her teeth(-bones), the notion of repulsiveness (impurity), andthereby reached Arahatship... The husband who ranafter her on same road, saw the Elder, and askedhim whether he had by any chance seen a woman.The Elder replied:

"Whether what went along hereWas a man or a woman, I do not know.But a collection of bones is movingNow along this main road."

[That which might, etc.: that which might be thereason, or that non-restraint of the faculty of the eyewhich might be the cause, why in this person, whenhe dwells without having restrained the faculty of theeye with the gate of mindfulness, i.e., when he hasleft the door of the eye open, such dharmas ascovetousness, etc., flood him, i.e., pursue andsubmerge him.

That he sets himself to restrain:] he sets himself toclose this faculty of the eye with the gate ofmindfulness. And one who sets himself to do that, ofhim it is said that he guards the controlling force ofthe eye, and brings about its restraint.

But it is not with reference to the faculty of the eyeitself that there is restraint or non-restraint (i.e., itdoes not apply to the initial stage of the impact ofstimulus on the eye), and it is not concerning theeye considered as a sensitive organ that mindfulnessarises, or the lack of it. But it is at (the stage of theapperception of the object, with such and such ameaning and significance, and the volitional reaction

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to it, which is technically known as) the "impulsivemoment," that there is lack of restraint, if and whenimmorality arises then, or lack of mindfulness, orlack of cognition, lack of patience or laziness.Nevertheless one speaks of the non-restraint of thesense of sight. And why? Because when the mind isin that condition, also the door (of the eye) isunguarded. The situation can be compared with thatof a city: when its four gates are unguarded, then,although in the interior of the city the doors of thehouses, the storerooms and private rooms are wellguarded, nevertheless all the property in the city isactually unguarded and unprotected, and robberscan, once they have entered through the city gates,do whatever they like. In the same sense also thedoor (of the eye) is unguarded when, in consequenceof the arising of immorality, etc., there is lack ofrestraint at the "impulsive moment."

But when morality, etc., arise at that moment, thenthe door (of sight) also is guarded. Just again aswith the city: When the city-gates are well guarded,then, although in the interior the doors of thehouses, etc., are unguarded, nevertheless all theproperty in the city is actually well guarded and wellprotected; for the city-gates being closed, robberscannot enter. Just so also the door (of the eye) isguarded when morality, etc., arise at the "impulsivemoment." The same explanation applies to: when hehas heard sounds with the ear, etc. The restraint ofthe senses thus consists, in short, in the avoiding ofthe seizing of the general appearance, etc., of sight-objects, etc., which lead to one's being pursued bythe defiling passions.

And it should be achieved through mindfulness. Forit is effected by mindfulness, in so far as the sense-organs when they are governed by mindfulness, canno longer be influenced by convetousness, etc.Therefore, we should remember the "Fire Sermon"(S.iv,168) which says: "It were better, monks, if theeye were stroked with a heated iron bar, afire,ablaze, aflame, than that one should seize on eitherthe general appearance or the details of the forms ofwhich the eye is aware." The disciple should achievea thorough restraint of the senses, in that, byunimpaired mindfulness, he prevents that seizing onthe general appearance, etc., which makes the

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consciousness which proceeds through the door ofthe eye, etc., with forms, etc., for its range(province), liable to be flooded (influenced) bycovetousness, etc.

And one should become like Cittagutta, the Elder,who lived in the great Kurandaka Cave. In that cavethere was a delightful painting which showed theseven Buddhas leaving for the homeless life. Oneday numerous monks were wandering about in thecave, going from lodging to lodging. They noticedthe painting and said: "What a delightful painting,Venerable Bhikkhu!" The Elder replied: "For morethan sixty years, brethren, I have lived in this cave,and I have never known whether there is a paintinghere or whether there is not. Today only I havelearned it from you people, who use your eyes." Forall that time during which the Elder had lived there,he had never lifted up his eyes and looked moreclosely at the cave. At the entrance to the cave therewas a large ironwood tree. To that also the Elder hadnever looked up; but he knew that it was in flowerwhen each year he saw the filaments which hadfallen down on the ground.

All the sons of good family who have their ownwelfare at heart should, therefore, remember:

"Let not the eye wander like forest ape,Or trembling wood deer, or affrighted child.The eyes should be cast downwards; they should lookThe distance of a yoke; he shall not serveHis thought's dominion, like a restless ape."

Visuddhimagga, I, 42, 53-59, 100, 104-5, 109;translated by Edward Conze

3. The Control of the Mind

THE SUTTA ON THE COMPOSITION OF IDEAS: [2 7 ]

[If, whilst attending to a certain sign, there arise,with reference to it, in the disciple evil andunwholesome ideas, connected with greed, hate ordelusion, then the disciple:]

I. should, by means of this sign (= cause, occasion)attend to another sign which is more wholesome;

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II. or he should investigate the peril of these ideas:"Unwholesome truly are these ideas! Blameworthyare these ideas! Of painful result are these ideas!";

III. or he should pay no attention to these ideas;

IV. or he should attend to the composition of thefactors which effect these ideas;

V. or, with teeth clenched and tongue pressedagainst the gums, he should by means of sheermental effort hold back, crush and burn out the(offending) thought.

In doing so, these evil and unwholesome ideas,bound up with greed, hate or delusion, will beforsaken and disappear; from their forsaking thoughtwill become inwardly settled and calm, composedand concentrated. This is called the effort toovercome.

THE COMMENTARY SAYS:

I. Unwholesome ideas may arise with reference tobeings — be they desirable, undesirable, orunconsidered — or to things, such as one'spossessions, or things which annoy, like stumps orthorns. The wholesome counter-ideas which drivethem out arise from the following practices, whichare directly opposed to them:

Greed about beings: Meditation about therepulsiveness of the body.

Greed about things: Attention to theirimpermanence.

Hate for beings: The development of friendliness.

Hate for things: Attention to the elements: which ofthe physical elements composing the thing am Iangry with?

Delusion about beings and things:

When he has, in his general bewilderment,neglected his duties to a teacher, he wakeshimself up by doing some tiresome work, such

1.

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as carrying water.

When he has been hazy in attending to theteacher's explanation of the doctrine, he wakeshimself up by doing some tiresome work.

2.

He removes his doubts by questioningauthorities.

3.

At the right time he listens respectfully to theDharma.

4.

He acquires the skill in distinguishing betweencorrect and faulty conclusions, and knows that"this is the reason for that, this is not thereason."

5.

These are the direct and correct antidotes to thefaulty ideas.

II. He investigates them with the power of wisdom,and rejects them like a snake's carcass.

III. He should not remember those ideas, not attendto them, but become one who is otherwise engaged.He should be like someone who, not wanting to see acertain sight-object, just closes his eyes; when theseideas arise in his mind, he should take hold of hisbasic subject of meditation, and become engaged inthat. It may help him to break the spell of intrudingthoughts and to occupy his mind otherwise, if herecites with great faith a passage from theScriptures, or reads out a passage in praise of theBuddha or Dharma; or he may sort out hisbelongings, and enumerate them one by one: "theseare the scissors," "this is the needle," etc.; or heshould do some sewing; or he should do some goodwork for a given period of time. And after that heshould return to his basic subject of meditation.

IV. He should analyze the conditions for these ideasand ask himself: "What is their cause, what theircondition, what the reason for their having arisen?"

V. He should put forth great vigor, and with awholesome thought he should hold back anunwholesome one.

— Majjhima Nikaya, No. 20, and Papañcasudani(Summary); translated by Edward Conze

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4. The Buddha's Sayings on theFaculties

FROM THE SAMYUTTA NIKAYA (INDRIYASAMYUTTA)

(A) AT THEIR BEST

There are these five faculties, monks: the faculty offaith, the faculty of vigor, the faculty of mindfulness,the faculty of concentration and the faculty ofwisdom.

Where can the faculty of faith be seen (at its best)?In the four characteristic qualities of a stream-winner.[28]

Where can the faculty of vigor be seen (at its best)?In the four right efforts.[29]

Where can the faculty of mindfulness be seen (at itsbest)? In the four foundations of mindfulness.[30]

Where can the faculty of concentration be seen (atits best)? In the four meditative absorptions.[31]

Where can the faculty of wisdom be seen (at itsbest)? In the Four Noble Truths.[32]

— Sutta 8 (PTS, iv,196); translated by NyanaponikaMahathera

(B) THE MEASURE OF ACHIEVEMENT

By accomplishment and perfection in the fivefaculties one is an arahant. If the faculties areweaker, one is a non-returner; if they are stillweaker, one is a once-returner, or a stream-winner,or a Dhamma-devotee (dhammanusarin), or a faith-devotee (saddhanusarin).

Thus, monks, through the difference of faculties,there is difference of result; and the difference ofresults makes for the difference of individuals.

— Sutta 13; translated by Nyanaponika Mahathera

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Thus, monks, he who practices the five faculties totheir perfection, wins to perfection (of arahantship).He who practices them partially, wins a partialresult. Not barren (of results), I say, are the fivefaculties.

— Sutta 14; translated by Nyanaponika Mahathera

But he who is entirely, in any degree and respect,without these five faculties, stands outside, in theclass of ordinary men (puthujjana).

— Sutta 18 (iv,200-202); translated byNyanaponika Mahathera

(C) ROOTED IN EXPERIENCE

Thus I have heard. On one occasion when theExalted One lived in the Eastern Cottage at Savatthi,he addressed the Venerable Sariputta as follows:

"Do you believe, Sariputta, that the faculty of faith,if cultivated and regularly practiced, leads to theDeathless, is bound for the Deathless, ends in theDeathless; that the faculty of vigor... the faculty ofmindfulness... the faculty of concentration... thefaculty of wisdom, if cultivated and regularlypracticed, leads to the Deathless, is bound for theDeathless, ends in the Deathless?"

"Herein, O Lord, I do not follow the Exalted One outof faith. Those by whom this is unknown, unseen,uncognized, unrealized and unexperienced bywisdom, they will herein follow others out of faith.But those by whom this is known, seen, cognized,realized and experienced by wisdom, they have nouncertainty, no doubt about it that these fivefaculties, if cultivated and regularly practiced, leadto the Deathless, are bound for the Deathless, end inthe Deathless. By me, O Lord, it has been known,seen, cognized, realized and experienced by wisdomand I have no uncertainty, no doubt about it that thefaculty of faith... the faculty of vigor... the faculty ofmindfulness... the faculty of concentration... thefaculty of wisdom, if cultivated and regularlypracticed, leads to the Deathless, is bound for theDeathless, ends in the Deathless."

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"Well said, Sariputta, well said," spoke the Lord (andhe repeated in approval the words of the VenerableSariputta).

— Sutta 44 (iv,220); translated by NyanaponikaMahathera

(D) WISDOM, THE CROWNING VIRTUE — 1

It is through cultivating and regularly practicing onefaculty that a canker-free bhikkhu makes known hisknowledge (of final attainment):[33] "Ceased hasrebirth, fulfilled is the holy life, the task is done,nothing further remains after this." Which is the onefaculty? The faculty of wisdom.

In a noble disciple endowed with wisdom, faith thatgoes along with it, is firmly established; vigor thatgoes along with it, is firmly established; mindfulnessthat goes along with it, is firmly established;concentration that goes along with it, is firmlyestablished. This, monks, is the one faculty throughthe cultivating and regularly practicing of which, acanker-free bhikkhu makes known his knowledge (offinal attainment): "Ceased has rebirth, fulfilled is theholy life, the task is done, nothing further remainsafter this."

— Sutta 45 (iv,222); translated by NyanaponikaMahathera

(E) WISDOM, THE CROWNING VIRTUE — II

Just as among all heartwood fragrances that of thered sandalwood is deemed best, so, monks, amongstates that partake of enlightenment the faculty ofwisdom is deemed best, namely, for the purpose ofenlightenment.

Which, monks, are the states partaking ofenlightenment? The faculty of faith is a statepartaking of enlightenment and it leads toenlightenment. The faculty of vigor... the faculty ofmindfulness... the faculty of concentration... thefaculty of wisdom is a state partaking ofenlightenment and it leads to enlightenment.

And among them, the faculty of wisdom is deemed

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best, namely, for the purpose of enlightenment.

— Sutta 55 (iv,231); translated by NyanaponikaMahathera

(F) THE ACME OF FAITH

Thus I have heard. On one occasion, the Exalted Onedwelt among the Anga people, at Apana, a town ofthe Angas. There the Exalted One addressed theVenerable Sariputta as follows:

"A noble disciple, Sariputta, who has single-mindedconfidence in the Perfect One, can he haveuncertainty or doubt concerning the Perfect One'sdispensation?"

"A noble disciple, Lord, who has single-mindedconfidence in the Perfect One, cannot haveuncertainty or doubt concerning the Perfect One'sdispensation.

"Of a noble disciple endowed with faith it can beexpected, Lord, that he will live employing his vigorto the overcoming of unsalutary states and theacquisition of salutary states, energetic, withstrenuous exertion, unremittingly applying himself tothings salutary. This vigor of his, O Lord, is hisfaculty of vigor.

"Of a noble disciple who is endowed with faith andemploys his vigor, it can be expected, Lord, that hewill be mindful, equipped with the highestmindfulness and circumspection, and that heremembers well and keeps in mind what has beendone and said long ago. This mindfulness of his,Lord, is his faculty of mindfulness.

"Of a noble disciple who is endowed with faith,employing his vigor, keeping his mindfulness alert, itcan be expected, Lord, that making the highestrelinquishment (Nibbana) his object, he will obtainconcentration, will obtain unification of mind. Thisconcentration of his, Lord, is his faculty ofconcentration.

"Of a noble disciple endowed with faith, vigor andmindfulness, and whose mind is concentrated, it can

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be expected, Lord, that he will know this: 'Without aconceivable beginning and end is this round ofexistence; no first beginning can be perceived ofbeings hastening and hurrying on (through thisround of rebirths), enveloped in ignorance andensnared by craving. The entire fading away andcessation of this very ignorance which is a mass ofdarkness, this is the state of peace, this is the statesublime, namely, the quiescence of all formations,the relinquishment of all substrata of existence, theextinction of craving, dispassion, cessation,Nibbana.' This wisdom of his, Lord, is the faculty ofwisdom.

"The noble disciple who has faith, after thus strivingagain and again, after thus applying mindfulnessagain and again, after thus concentrating his mindagain and again, is now fully convinced: 'Theseteachings which before I had only heard, I now dwellin their personal experience, and having penetratedthem with wisdom, I now see them (myself).' Thisfaith of his, Lord, is his faculty of faith."

"Well said, Sariputta, well said," spoke the ExaltedOne (and he repeated in approval the words of theVenerable Sariputta).

Sutta 50 (iv,225ff.); translated by NyanaponikaMahathera

5. The Balance of the Faculties

[According to the Visuddhimagga, the balance of thefaculties (indriya-samatta) is one of the ten kinds of skill inabsorption (appana-kosalla), and it is one of the seventhings that lead to the arising of the enlightenment factor"investigation of (material and mental) phenomena"(dhammavicaya-sambojjhanga).]

Imparting balance to the faculties is the equalizing ofthe controlling faculties of faith, vigor, mindfulness,concentration and wisdom. For if the faith faculty isstrong and the others weak, then the vigor facultycannot perform its function of exerting, themindfulness faculty its function of attending to theobject, the concentration faculty its function ofexcluding distraction, the wisdom faculty its functionof seeing. So the (excessive) strength of the faith

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faculty should be reduced by reflecting on thephenomenal nature (of faith and its objects), and bynot paying attention to what has caused theexcessive strength of the faith faculty. Then if thevigor faculty is too strong, the faith faculty cannotperform its function of convincing, nor can the restof the faculties perform their several functions. So inthat case the excessive strength of the vigor facultyshould be reduced by cultivating (the enlightenmentfactors of) tranquillity, concentration andequanimity. So, too, with the other factors, for itshould be understood that when any one of them istoo strong the others cannot perform their severalfunctions.

However, what is particularly recommended is thebalancing of faith with wisdom, and concentrationwith vigor. For one who is strong in faith and weak inwisdom places his confidence foolishly in anunworthy object. One strong in wisdom and weak infaith errs on the side of cunning and is as hard tocure as a sickness caused by medicine. But with thebalancing of the two, faith and wisdom, a man hasconfidence only in a deserving object.

If there is too much of concentration and too little ofvigor, the mind will be overpowered by indolence towhich concentration inclines. But if vigor is toostrong and concentration too weak, the mind will beoverpowered by agitation to which vigor inclines. Butconcentration coupled with vigor cannot lapse intoindolence, and vigor coupled with concentrationcannot lapse into agitation. So these two should bebalanced; for absorption comes with the balancing ofthe two.

Again (concentration and faith should be balanced).One working on concentration needs strong faith,since it is with such faith and confidence that hereaches absorption.

As to (the balancing of) concentration and wisdom,one working on concentration (i.e., who practicestranquillity; samatha) needs strong one-pointednessof mind, since that is how he reaches full absorption;and one working on insight (vipassana) needs strongwisdom, since that is how he reaches penetration of(the phenomena's) characteristics; but with the

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1.

2.3.

4.5.6.7.

balancing of the two he reaches full absorption aswell.

Strong mindfulness, however, is needed in allinstances; for mindfulness protects the mind fromlapsing into agitation through faith, vigor andwisdom, which tend to agitation, and from lapsinginto indolence through concentration, which tends toindolence. So it is as desirable in all instances as aseasoning of salt in all curries, as a prime minister inall the king's business. Hence it is said (in thecommentaries): "It was declared by the Exalted Onethat 'mindfulness, indeed, is of universal use.' Why?Because the mind has mindfulness as its refuge, andmindfulness is manifested as protection, and there isno exertion and restraint of the mind withoutmindfulness."

— Visuddhimagga, (pp.129-30), Adapted fromBhikkhu Ñanamoli's translation: The Path ofPurification, pp.135-36

Notes

The word indriya is derived from the Vedic godIndra, the ruler of the gods in the ancient pantheon.Hence the word suggests the idea of dominance orcontrol.See Selected Texts below, Section 5.Don Quixote fights "commending himself to God andhis mistress" and he feels himself as an instrumentof Dulcinea who infuses valor into his arms. "Shefights in me, she is victorious in me and I live andbreathe in her, receive life and being itself from her."He thus belongs to the large band of those whosustain their faith by the love of a feminine being andhis Dulcinea corresponds to the Virgin Mary of theCatholics and to the Tara and Prajnaparamita ofMahayana Buddhism.Zen in English Literature, 1948, p.199.Ibid., p.201.See Visuddhimagga, IV,45-49.Faith lends itself to emotional excitement; vigor tothe excitement of doing things and wanting to do

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8.9.10.

11.12.13.14.

15.

16.

17.18.

19.20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

more; wisdom to the excitement of discovery.Visuddhimagga, IV,49Majjhima Nikaya, i,57.The commentary to this passage should be

consulted. It has been translated in Bhikkhu Soma,The Way of Mindfulness, 1949, pp.18-31.

Samyutta Nikaya, iii,13; Visuddhimagga, XIV,7.E.g., Abhidharmakosha, vi, pp.142-144.Trimshika by Vasubandhu, ed. S. Levi, 1925-26.Sec. 16; commentary in Atthasalini, PTS, 1897

(=Asl.), pp.147-49.Indriya. Asl. 122: "Through overwhelming

ignorance it is a 'dominant' in the sense of 'dominantinfluence'; or it is a 'dominant' because by exercisingdiscernment (dassana) it dominates (associateddharmas)."

Asl. 123: "As a clever surgeon knows which foodsare suitable and which are not, so wisdom, when itarises, understands dharmas as wholesome orunwholesome, serviceable or unserviceable, low orexalted, dark or bright, similar or dissimilar."Similarly Abhidharmakosha, I,3; II,154.

Dharma: the four holy Truths (Asl.).Vebhabya; aniccadinam vibhavana-bhava-vasena.

Or "a critical attitude"?Or "examination."Or "breadth." Wisdom is rich and abundant, or

massive.Medha; also "mental power." "As lightning destroys

even stone-pillars, so wisdom smashes thedefilements; alternatively, it is able to grasp andbear in mind."

Milindapañha, I,61: "It is like a lamp which a manwould take into a dark house. It would dispel thedarkness, would illuminate, shed light, and make theforms in the house stand out clearly."

Because it gives delight, is worthy of respect (or"variegated"), hard to get and hard to manifest,incomparable and a source of enjoyment toillustrious beings.

Milindapañha, as translated in my BuddhistScriptures, 151-52 (see Appendix, Ia).

Asl. 123: "This penetration is unfaltering(akkhalita), like the penetration of an arrow shot by

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26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.32.

33.

a skilled archer."Visuddhimagga, XIV, 7. Dhammasabhava-

pativedhalakkhana pañña; dhammanamsabhavapaticchadaka-mohandhakara-viddhamsanarasa.

A full translation of this text has been published, asWheel No. 21, under the title The Removal ofDistracting Thoughts (Vitakka-santhana Sutta). Withthe Commentary and Marginal Notes, translated bySoma Thera. Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy.

Sotapattiyangani: The four are: unshakable faith inthe Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha; and perfectmorality.

Sammappadhana: the effort of avoiding orovercoming evil and unsalutary states, and ofdeveloping and maintaining good and salutary states.

Satipatthana: mindfulness as to body, feelings,state of mind and mind-objects.

Jhana.The truths of suffering, its origin, its cessation and

the way to its cessation. The Commentary says that,in the field ascribed here to each faculty, therespective faculty is dominant at the height of itsparticular function, while the other four areconcomitant and are supporting the dominantfunction. But the faculty of wisdom is the highest inrank among the five.

That is, of his having attained arahantship.

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Publisher 's note

The Buddhist Publication Society is an approved charity dedicated tomaking known the Teaching of the Buddha, which has a vital messagefor people of all creeds.

Founded in 1958, the BPS has published a wide variety of books andbooklets covering a great range of topics. Its publications includeaccurate annotated translations of the Buddha's discourses, standardreference works, as well as original contemporary expositions ofBuddhist thought and practice. These works present Buddhism as it trulyis — a dynamic force which has influenced receptive minds for the past2500 years and is still as relevant today as it was when it first arose.

Buddhist Publication SocietyP.O. Box 6154, Sangharaja MawathaKandy, Sri Lanka

Provenance: ©1980 Buddhist Publication Society. The WheelPublication No. 65/66 (Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 1980).Transcribed from the print edition in 1993 under the auspices of the

DharmaNet Dharma Book Transcription Project, with the kind permission ofthe Buddhist Publication Society. This Access to Insight edition is©1993–2013.Terms of use: You may copy, reformat, reprint, republish, and redistributethis work in any medium whatsoever, provided that: (1) you only make suchcopies, etc. available free of charge and, in the case of reprinting, only inquantities of no more than 50 copies; (2) you clearly indicate that anyderivatives of this work (including translations) are derived from this sourcedocument; and (3) you include the full text of this license in any copies orderivatives of this work. Otherwise, all rights reserved. For additionalinformation about this license, see the FAQ.

How to cite this document (one suggested style): "The Way of Wisdom:The Five Spiritual Faculties", by Edward Conze. Access to Insight, 5 June2010, http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/conze/wheel065.html .Retrieved on 15 March 2013.

Editor's note: The text of this booklet was, with some modifications, firstpublished in 'The Middle Way', Vol. XXVIII (1953).

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The Way of Wisdom: The Five Spiritual Faculties http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/conze/wheel065.html

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