the gene revolution: gm crops and unequal development ...the gene revolution: gm crops and unequal...
TRANSCRIPT
The Gene Revolution: GM Crops and Unequal Development
Sakiko Fukuda-Parr
The New School [email protected]
Selected tables and graphs
Table 2.1 Commercial production of GM Crops worldwide, 1996-2005: Total areas by country (million ha)
Country 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005% of Total
USA (soy, maize, cotton, canola, squash, papaya) 1.5 7.2 20.8 28.6 30.3 35.7 39.0 42.8 47.6 49.8 55%Argentina (soy, maize, cotton) <0.1 1.5 3.5 5.8 10.0 11.8 13.5 13.9 16.2 17.1 19%Brazil (soy) 0 0 0 1.2 0 0 0 3.0 5.0 9.4 10%Canada (canola, maize, soy) 0.1 1.7 2.8 4.0 3.0 3.2 3.5 4.4 5.4 5.8 6%China (cotton) 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.3 0.5 1.5 2.1 2.8 3.7 3.3 4%
Paraguay (soy) 0
0
0
0 0 0 0 0 1.2 1.8 2%
India (cotton) 0
0
0
0 0 0 <0.1 0.1 0.5 1.3 1%
South Africa (maize, soy, cotton) 0 0 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.6%Uruguay (soy, maize)
0
0
0
0 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 0.3 0.3 0.3%
Australia (cotton) 0 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.3%Mexico (cotton, soy) 0 0 0.1 0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1%Romania (soy) 0 0 0 0 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1%
Philippines (maize) 0
0
0
0 0 0 0 <0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1%
Spain (maize) 0 0 0 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1%* Total 2.57 11.51 28.62 41.49 44.2 52.6 58.7 67.7 81.0 90.0
*Less than 50,000 ha grown in Colombia, Iran, Honduras, Portugal, Germany, France and Czech Republic in 2005, and in Bulgaria, Indonesia, Romania, Mexico and Ukraine in earlier years. Source: James, Global Status of Commercialized Biotech/GM Crops, 2005 and earlier years. International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-Biotech Applications (ISAAA), Manila, Philippines
2
.
Table 2.2 Commercial production of GM crops worldwide, 1996, 2005: main crops
Total areas (million ha) GM varieties as % of total for crop
1996 2005 % total 2005 1996 2005
Soy .5 54.4 60% <1 60
Maize .3 21.2 24% <1 14
Cotton .8 9.8 11% 2 28
Canola .1 4.6 5% <1 18
Source: James, Global Status of Commercialized Biotech/GM Crops, 2005 and earlier years.
ISAAA, Philippines.
3
Table 2.3 Commercial production of GM crops worldwide, 1996 – 2005: main traits
Traits Crops Area under cultivation (million ha)
Proportion of total area under
cultivation (%)
Herbicide tolerance
Soy, maize, canola, cotton
63 70%
Insect resistance Cotton, maize 18 20%
Stacked Cotton, maize 9 10%
Source: James, Global Status of Commercialized Biotech/GM Crops, 2005 and earlier years. ISAAA, Philippines
4
Table 2.4 Top producing countries of GM and conventional soy, maize, cotton and canola, 2005 (country and million tons produced) Soy Maize Cotton* Canola Global production
209.5
692
202
45
1 U.S. (82.8) U.S. (280) China (50.9)
China (11.3)
2 Brazil (50.2) China (131) U.S. (36.4) Canada (8.4) 3 Argentina
(38.3) Brazil (34.9) India (26.4) India (6.2)
4
China (16.9) Mexico (20.5)
Pakistan (18.9)
Germany (4.7)b
5 India (6)
Argentina (19.5)
Uzbekistan (10.3) France (4.4)
6 India(14.5) Turkey (9.5) U.K. (1.9) 7 France
(13.2) Brazil (8.0) Poland (1.4)
8 Indonesia (12.0)
Australia (5.9)
Australia (1.1)
9 South Africa (12) Greece (3.4) Austria (0.9)
10
Italy (10.6) Egypt (2.8)
Czech Republic (0.8)
11 Romania (10) Syria (2.50) U.S. (0.7)
12 Hungary (9) Mali (2.2) 13
Canada (8.3) Turkmenistan (2.0)
14 Ukraine (7.2)
Côte d’Ivoire (1.7)
15 Egypt (6.8) Benin (1.5) 16 Serbia and
Montenegro (6.3)
Burkina Faso (1.5)
17 Philippines (5.2)
Tajikistan (1.2)
18 Nigeria (4.8) 19 Thailand
(4.2)
20 Spain (4.0) 21 Germany
(3.8)
22 Russian Federation (3.7)
5
23 Viet Nam (3.5)
% of total world production
93% in 5 countries 90% in 23
countries
91% in 17 countries 92% in 11
countries
*data for 2003 Source: FAOSTAT Agricultural Production tables (http://faostat.fao.org); Cotton data from Bulletin of International Cotton Advisory Committee (www.icac.org)
6
Table 12.1 Importance of global maize, cotton and soy markets for Argentina, Brazil, China and India (exports of crop as % of agricultural exports and total exports, average 2002-2004) Maize
Cotton Soy
% ag exports
% total exports
% ag exports
% total exports
% ag exports
% total exports
Argentina 8.5 3.8 0.2 0.1 62.7 28.5 Brazil 2.0 0.6 1.8 0.5 42.4 12.0 China 7.1 0.3 40.0 1.5 2.3 0.1 India 1.8 0.2 22.6 2.2 9.5 0.9 South Africa*
5.7 0.5 1.0 0.1 0.2 <0.1
U.S.A. 9.8 0.8 3.5 0.3 15.4 1.26 *South Africa average 2003-2004
7
Table 12.2. Comparing crop yields, 2004 (Tons per ha)
Country Maize yield Soy yield Canola yield Cotton yield Argentina 6.4 2.2 1.3 0.4 Benin 1.1 0.5 NA 0.4 Brazil 3.4 2.3 1.7 1.0 China 5.1 1.8 1.8 1.0 France 9.0 2.5 3.5 NA Germany 9.1 1.0 4.1 NA Greece 10.1 2.1 NA 1.0 India 2.0 1.1 1.2 0.3 Mali 1.1 NA NA 0.4 South Africa 3.1 1.6 NA 0.4 U.S.A. 10.1 2.8 1.8 0.7
Source: FAOSTAT (http://faostat.fao.org) and Bulletin of the International Cotton Advisory Committee
8
Box 2.2 Institutional approaches to development of GM crop varieties U.S. model Possible alternatives Investing in GM varieties R & D – upstream biotechnology research: finance
Public sector Private corporate sector Venture capital
Public Private corporate Venture capital Global public or non profit (development aid)?*
R & D – GM crop variety development: biotechnology step
Public sector Private corporate sector Biotech start ups
Public NARs? Private multinational? Biotech startups Global public or non profit (CGIAR)? Public private partnerships?
R & D– GM crop variety development: plant breeding step
Large multinationals Joint venture multinational/local National private seed companies Public NARs? Public/private partnerships?
Commercialization – approval process, IPRs
Large multinationals Joint venture PPPs National private seed companies? National NARs
Financing R & D for commercial product development
Patent protection and collection of technology fee
Govt. budget allocation for national priority International budget allocation for global public good?
IPRs Strong IPR protection on genetic resources – license required for use in research and for product development. Costs of licensing reflected in higher costs of seeds.
Breeders’ rights No IPR on genes and plant varieties
Regulated seed market for GM varieties
Seed - Biosafety approval Permissive Range of choice from permissive to precautionary
Enforcement of biosafety approval
No active monitoring by government. But all farmers buy in commercial seed market.
Government monitoring of farms Civil society watch dogs Incentives for informal seed
9
supplies to go through process
Seed supplier – licensed Large seed companies (seed companies merged with agro-chemical companies).
Multinationals in partnership with local seed company. Informal sector suppliers: farmer saved, farmer to farmer, small private entrepreneurs, small state enterprises.
Enforcement No active monitoring by government. Farmers contract not to save seeds. Legal suits by IP owner in case of infringement.
Monitoring by government Farmers contract not to save seeds? Civil society watch dogs
Collecting the technology fee
In price of seed In price of seed At sale of crop? At export of crop? No collection?
*Italicized approaches are not currently implemented and may not be feasible or justifiable.
10
Table 12.3 – Comparing policy approaches
USA Argentina Brazil China India South Africa
Gov’t. support to biotechnology R & D (budget allocations )
Strong (increase)
Weak (decline)
Medium (stable)
Strong (increase)
Medium (increase)
Medium (stable
Locus of R & D: i) upstream biotechnology;
ii)biotech step of commercial product devt iii)plant breeding step of commercial product devt
i) Public and private (universities, research institutes, multinational, biotech start ups) ii)Multinationals (with some exceptions) Multinationals
i) Public national ii) Private multinat iii) Private multinational/local seed companies
i) Public national ii) Public, private, partnerships iii) Private, public, partnerships
i) Public ii) Public iii) Public, private multinat and local
i) Public ii) Public iii) Private multinat and local seed companies
i Public te
ii) Public, private iii) Private
Biosafety legislation – precautionary or permissivei
Non-precautionary,
Non-precautionary
Precautionary Non-precautionary
Precautionary
Non-precautionary
Biosafety legislation – predictable implementation
Strong Strong Weak Strong Weak Strong
Patents – UPOV signatory recognizing farmers right to save seeds
No
Farmers rights
Farmers rights Farmers rights
Farmers rights
Farmers rights
Patents – genes and plants
Yes No No Yes No No
Patents – enforcement
Strong Weak Weak Weak Weak Strong
11
Table 11.2 – Performance advantage of Bt cotton over conventional varieties (%)
Argentina China India Mexico South Africa
Yield 33 19 34 11 65
Revenue 34 23 33 9 65
Pesticide
costs
-47 -67 -41 -77 -58
Seed costs 530 95 17 165 89
Profit 31 340 69 12 299
Source: Raney (2006) ‘Economic impact of transgenic crops in developing countries’ Current Opinion in Biotechnology 2006, 17 pp1-5 www.sciencedirect.com
12
Table 11.3 Varieties approved for commercialization and associated transformation event. Country Crop Year approved for
commercializationEvent Trait Seed
Company Argentina Soy 1996 “40-3-2” Herbicide
tolerance Nidera S. A. (Monsanto?)
Maize 1998 “176” Insect resistance
Ciba-Geigy (Syngenta)
Maize 1998 “T25” Herbicide tolerance
AgrEvo S. A. (Bayer, Aventis)
Cotton 1998 “MON 531” Insect resistance
Monsanto Argentina S.A.I.C.
Maize 1998 “MON 810” Insect resistance
Monsanto Argentina S.A.I.C.
Cotton 2001 “MON 1445”
Herbicide tolerance
Monsanto Argentina S.A.I.C.
Maize 2001 “Bt 11” Insect resistance
Novartis Agrosem S.A. (Syngenta)
Maize 2004 “NK 603” Herbicide tolerance
Monsanto Argentina S.A.I.C.
Maize 2005 “TC 1507” Stacked: insect resistance, herbicide tolerance
Dow Agrosciences Argentina S.A Pioneer Argentina S.A.
Maize 2005 “GA21” Herbicide tolerance
Syngenta
Brazil Soy 1996* "40-3-2" Herbicide
tolerance Monsanto
Cotton 2005 "MON 531" Insect resistance Monsanto
*Subsequently, legal decisions imposed restriction on growing of all GM varieties until 2005 China Cotton 1997 Insect
resistance Monsanto (two joint venture seed companies - with Jidai and Andai )
13
Cotton 1997 Insect resistance
4 varieties CAAS
Cotton* 1998 to present *numerous Insect resistance
Mostly CAAS
Tomato, sweet pepper and petunia*
1998 to present *numerous Mostly CAAS
*China approved 40 events of Bt cotton for Bt cotton commercialization and about 10 or more events for tomato, sweet pepper and petunia in 1997-2003. In 2004, there were about 130 events approved (in that one year), most Bt cotton, and most from CAAS and a few from Monsanto. Total number of varieties approved for commercialization reached about 50 by 2004. India
Cotton 2002 “MON 531” Insect
resistance Bt
Mahyco Monsanto Biotech
Cotton 2004
“MON 531” Bt
Raasi Seeds (Monsanto jv?)
Cotton 2005
“MON 531” Bt
Rasi Seeds (Monsanto jt v?
Cotton 2005
“MON 531” Bt
Mahyco Monsanto Biotech
Cotton 2005 “MON 531” Ankur Seeds Cotton 2005 “MON 531” Bt Nuziveedu
Seeds
Cotton 2005 “MON 531”
Bt Mahyco Monsanto Biotech
Cotton 2005 “MON 531” Bt Nuziveedu Seeds
Cotton 2006 “MON 531” Bt Ganga Kaveri
Cotton 2006 “MON 531”
Bt Ajeet Seeds
Cotton 2006
“MON 15985”
Bt Ajeet Seeds
Cotton 2006 “MON 531” Bt Rasi Seeds Cotton 2006 “MON 531” Bt Emergent
Seeds Cotton 2006 “MON 531” Bt Nuziveedu
Seeds Cotton 2006 “MON 531” Bt Pravardhan
Seeds
14
Cotton 2006 “MON 531” Bt Prabhat Seeds
Cotton 2006 “MON 531” Bt Krishidhan Seeds
Cotton 2006
“MON 15985”
Bt Krishidhan Seeds
Cotton 2006
“MON 15985”
Bt Mahyco Monsanto Biotech
Cotton 2006
(Cry 1 Ab + Cry Ac)’GFM
Bt and RR
Nath Seeds
Cotton 2006
Event 1 (cry 1 AC)
Bt JK Seeds
Cotton 2006 Bt Numerous* *June 2006, 59 Bt hybrids were approved of which 52 use Monsanto genes under license; others use genes from China and India. South Africa
Cotton 1997 “MON 531/757/1076”
Insect resistance
Monsanto (Delta & Pineland)
Maize 1997 (white and yellow)
“MON 810” Insect resistance
Monsanto
Soy 2001 "40-3-2" Herbicide tolerance Monsanto
Cotton 2001 “MON 1445” Herbicide tolerance
Monsanto (Delta & Pineland)
Cotton 2002 Line 531 Insect resistance
Delta & PinelandCommercial release for seed multiplication (but not general commercial release) so maybe it should not be in table
15
Maize 2003 “Bt 11” Insect resistance
Novartis Agrosem S.A. (Syngenta)
Maize 2003 “NK 603” Herbicide tolerance
Monsanto
Maize 2002
“TC 1507”
Stacked: insect resistance, herbicide tolerance
Pioneer Commodity clearance (imports/exports) but not for commercial production yet, so maybe should not be in table
Cotton 2005 Bt, RR stacked
Monsanto (Delta & PineLand)
EU Maize 1997 Bt-176 Insect
resistance Ciba-Geigy (Syngenta)
Canola 1997 MS1, RF2 Stacked: herbicide tolerant & pollination control
Aventis
Maize 1998 T25 Herbicide tolerance
AgrEvo
1998 MON 810 Insect resistance
Monsanto
Maize 2004 Bt11 Insect resistance
Syngenta
Maize 2006 DAS1507 Stacked; insect resistant & herbicide tolerant
Mycogen (Dow, Pioneer)
16
U.S.A. Tomato 1992 FLAVR SAVR Fruit ripening
altered Calgene
Squash 1992 ZW-20 Virus resistant Upjohn Cotton 1993 BXN Herbicide
tolerant Calgene
Soybean 1993 40-3-2 Herbicide tolerant Monsanto
Canola
1994 pCGN3828-212/86- 18 & 23
Oil profile altered Calgene
Tomato 1994 Line N73 1436-111
Fruit ripening altered Calgene
Tomato 1994 1345-4 Fruit ripening altered
DNA Plant Tech
Tomato
1994 9 additional FLAVRSAVR lines
Fruit ripening altered Calgene
Potato
1994 BT6, BT10, BT12, BT16, BT17, BT18, BT23
Insect resistant Monsanto
Tomato 1994 B, Da, F Fruit ripening altered
Zeneca & Petoseed
Cotton 1994 531, 757, 1076 Insect resistant Monsanto
Maize 1994 Event 176 Insect resistant Ciba Seeds
Maize 1994 T14, T25 Herbicide tolerant AgrEvo
Tomato
1995 20 additional FLAVRSAVR lines
Fruit ripening altered Calgene
Cotton 1995 1445, 1698 Herbicide tolerant Monsanto
Tomato 1995 8338 Fruit ripening altered Monsanto
Maize 1995 MON 80100 Insect resistant Monsanto
Maize 1995 B16 Herbicide tolerant DeKalb
Tomato
1995 2 additional FLAVRSAVR lines
Fruit ripening altered Calgene
Maize 1995 Bt11 Insect resistant Northrup King
Maize 1995 MS3 Male sterile Plant Genetic
17
Systems Cotton 1995 19-51a Herbicide
tolerant Du Pont
Tomato 1995 35 1 N Fruit ripening altered Agritope
Potato
1995 SBT02-5 & -7, ATBT04-6 &-27, -30, -31, -36
insect resistant Monsanto
Squash 1995 CZW-3 virus resistant Asgrow Maize 1996 MON809 &
MON810 Insect resistant Monsanto
Papaya 1996 55-1, 63-1 Virus resistant Cornell U
Soybean
1996 W62, W98, A2704- 12, A2704-21, A5547-35
herbicide tolerant AgrEvo
Tomato
1996 1 additional FLAVRSAVR line
Fruit ripening altered Calgene
Maize 1996 DBT418 Insect resistant DeKalb
Maize
1996
MON802
Stacked: herbicide tolerant & insect resistant
Monsanto
Soybean 1997 G94-1, G94-19, G-168
Oil profile altered Du Pont
Cotton
1997
Events 31807 & 31808
Stacked herbicide tolerant & insect resistant
Calgene
Maize 1997 GA21 Herbicide tolerant Monsanto
Cichorium intybus
1997 RM3-3, RM3-4, RM3-6 Male sterile Bejo
Potato
1997 RBMT21-129 & RBMT21-350
Stacked: insect and virus resistant
Monsanto
Canola 1997 T45 Herbicide tolerant AgrEvo
Maize
1997
CBH-351
Stacked: herbicide tolerant & insect resistant
AgrEvo
Tomato 1997 5345 Insect Monsanto
18
resistant Beet 1997 T-120-7 Herbicide
tolerant AgrEvo
Potato
1997 RBMT15-101, SEMT15-02, SEMT15-15
Stacked: insect resistant, virus resistant
Monsanto
Maize
1997
676, 678, 680
Stacked: Male sterile & herbicide tolerant
Pioneer
Soybean 1998 A5547-127 herbicide tolerant AgrEvo
Beet 1998 GTSB77 herbicide tolerant
Novartis Seeds & Monsanto
Canola 1998 RT73 herbicide tolerant Monsanto
Soybean 1998 GU262 herbicide tolerant AgrEvo
Canola
1998
MS8 & RF3
Stacked: herbicide tolerant & Pollination control
AgrEvo
Rice 1998 LLRICE06, LLRICE62
Herbicide tolerant AgrEvo
Flax
1998
CDC Triffid
Tolerant to soil residues of sulfonyl urea herbicide
U. of Saskatchewan
Maize
1998
MS6
Staked: herbicide tolerant and Male sterile
AgrEvo
Potato
1999 RBMT22-82
Stacked: virus and insect resistant
Monsanto
Maize 2000 NK603 Herbicide tolerant Monsanto
Maize
2000
Line 1507
Stacked; insect resistant & herbicide tolerant
Mycogen c/o Dow & Pioneer
Cotton 2000
Cotton Event 15985
Insect resistant Monsanto
Tobacco 2001 Vector 21-41 Reduced nicotine Vector
19
Maize
2001 MON 863 Insect
Resistant Monsanto
Canola
2001
MS1 & RF1/RF2
Stacked: herbicide tolerant & pollination control
Aventis
Canola 2001 Topas 19/2 Herbicide tolerant Aventis
Canola 2001 RT200 Herbicide tolerant Monsanto
Cotton 2002 LLCotton25 Herbicide tolerant Aventis
Cotton 2003 281-24-236 Insect Resistant Mycogen/Dow
Cotton 2003 3006-210-23 Insect Resistant Mycogen/Dow
Cotton 2003 COT 102 Insect Resistant Syngenta
Maize
2003
TC-6275
Stacked: Insect Resistant herbicide Tolerant
Dow
Sugar Beet
2003 H7-1 Glyphosate Tolerant Monsanto
Maize
2003 59122
Maize Rootworm Resistant
Dow
Cotton 2004 MON 88913 Herbicide Tolerant Monsanto
Alfalfa
2004 J101, J163 Herbicide
Tolerant
Monsanto & Forage Genetics
Maize 2004 88017 Insect Resistant Monsanto
Maize 2004 LY038 High Lysine Monsanto
20
Table 11.4 Organization of research, development and commercialization
Public/non profit (research institutes, universities)
Private (Multinational corporations, biotech start ups, local seed companies)
Public-Private Partnerships
Upstream biotechnology research
U.S. Argentina Brazil China India South Africa
U.S. (MNC, BSU) South Africa
Biotechnology step in GM crop development – to ‘event’
Brazil China India
U.S. (MNC)
Brazil
Plant breeding step in GM crop development – to GM variety
China India
U.S. (MNC) Argentina (Local) China (MNC/JV) Brazil (JV/Local) South Africa
Brazil
Seed multiplication and marketing
China (informal sector)
U.S. (MNC) China (Local) Brazil (Local) India (JV/local)
21
Figure 2.1 Leading multinationals – R & D spending in agricultural biotechnology (Euros millions)
Note: Spending on agricultural biotechnology only. Corresponding figures for total R & D spending in 2004, in US $millions were as follows Company R&D 2004 Syngenta $809m Bayer CropScience
$845m
Monsanto $509m DuPont $1333m Dow Chemical
$1,022m
Delta & Pineland
$18.4m
*DuPont acquired Pioneer. Rhone-Poulenc Agro and AgrEvo merged in 2000 to form Aventis CropScience. Bayer acquired Aventis in 2002, creating Bayer CropScience. Ciba-Geigy and Sandoz merged into Novartis in 1996. Novartis Seeds merged with AstraZeneca’s agribusiness section in 2000 to form Syngenta.
22
Monsanto acquired Seminis as subsidiary in 2005. Seminis had earlier acquired Asgrow, Petoseed, Royal Sluis, Horticeres.
23
Transformation event
Genetic Resources
Plant Breeding
Adapted Transgenic
Variety Farmers
Step 2. Plant breeding Research
Step 1: Biotechnology Research
Regulatory/Biosafety Approval
$$$
IP negotiation
Seed Industry(Royalty
collection)
$$$
Figure 2.2. The two step scientific process for producing GMOs
24
Figure 3.4. Number of cotton varieties available in the US, 1996-2004 (Number of non-GM not available for 1996,1997)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
Year
Num
ber
of V
arie
ties
GMNon-GMTotal
Source: USDA/AMS "Cotton Varieties Planted"
25
Figure 6.1 Economic liberalisation and agricultural expansion in the 1990s: Grains and soy production
0.00
10.00
20.00
30.00
40.00
50.00
60.00
70.00
80.00
1990/91 1991/92 1992/93 1993/94 1994/95 1995/96 1996/97 1997/98 1998/99 1999/00 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04
Years
Mill
ions
tons
GrainsSoy
Source: Secretariat for Agriculture, Livestock, Fisheries and Food
26
Figure 6.2 Economic liberalisation and rapid expansion of soy exports
Figure 6.2 Economic liberalisation, GM soy and expansion of exports
0.00
2000.00
4000.00
6000.00
8000.00
10000.00
12000.00
14000.00
16000.00
18000.00
1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
Year
Mill
ions
tons
SoybeansOilFlour
Source: Data from Secretariat for Agriculture, Livestock, Fisheries and Food, and CIAR
27
Figure 11.1 Commercial production of GM crops 1996-2005
0.00
10.00
20.00
30.00
40.00
50.00
60.00
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Year
Mill
ion
Hec
tare
s USAArgentina (soy, maize, cotton)Brazil (soy)China (cotton)India (cotton)South Africa (maize, soy, cotton)
Source: James, 2005
28