INTRODUCTION

Literature can be defined as a work of art in which words or language is

employed in an imaginative manner to create events or stories that are fictitious for

the purpose of achieving aesthetic pleasure, to instruct and to please. Literature is

divided into three genres: drama, prose and poetry. However, due to the scope of

this discourse, emphasis will be on modern African drama with our primary focus

on Southern African region.

Modern African drama can be defined according to Ademola Dasylva as

''contemporary African drama,'' that is, modern African drama, according to him, is

absolutely concerned with African plays written by Africans on particularly

colonial and post colonial African experiences. it can also be defined as a body of

creative or imaginative works(drama) written by Africans in indigenous or foreign

langauges with themes that focus on the African experiences.

Despite the fact that modern African drama is centered around the four

regions of Africa, our focus here will be on the Southern region with regards the

various generations of playwrights using the thematic preoccupations attainable in

their works(plays).

The countries in Southern African region includes: Angola, Botswana,

Comoros, Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Re'union,

Namibia, SouthAfrica, Swaziland, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Seychilles. Each

country in the Southern region has similar thematic preoccupations that cut across

their works. These preoccupations will be discussed according to how it applies to

the different countries in Southern African region.

Using the thematic preoccupations as the basis for classification, emphasis

will be on these thematic preoccupation and how they apply to the various

countries showcasing their socio-political experiences as regards modern African

drama.

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APARTHEID/FIRST GENERATION

According to the Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary, the term ‘apartheid

refers to a political system in which people of different races are separated.’

Apartheid is a system of racial segregation enforced through legislation by the

colonial government or white supremacists or imperialists who were the ruling

parties against the colonised black majority. This phenomenon cuts across the

various countries in Southern African region especially South Africa. Drama, as we

know, is a mirror of the society, it is meant to observe and change some certain

facets in the society. In reaction to this apartheid movement, playwrights started

writing to counter the erroneous segregation imposed upon the black masses by the

white supremacists. Apartheid is co-indexed with colonialism as one cannot

remove one from the other. Apartheid drama comprises themes that sought to fight

colonialism, imperialism, white supremacy, segregation, etc. What negritude did in

francophone countries was also what anti-apartheid movement did to Southern

Africa. African playwrights who wrote about this apartheid ideology either in

reaction or in expostulation can also be regarded as the first generation of Southern

African playwrights. Before this first generation, indigenous playwrights re-enacted

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dramatic events that centred on the conquest of the Southern African region by

white supremacists.

Beginning with SouthAfrica, before this first generation of apartheid writers,

drama in this country was restricted to cultural values, norms and folkloric

traditions prevalent at that time. However, focus will be on the first recognised

generation of playwrights in SouthAfrica. That is the generation of apartheid

playwrights. Such writers include:

1. Steven Black, who wrote Love and the Hyphen(1908), Helena’s Hope(1910),

Uitlanders (1911), The Boers Honour(1912), The Flapper.

2. GuybonSinxoInfenekaDebeza(1925).

3. H.I.E. DhlomoThe Girl Who Killed to Save(1925)

4. Gibson KenteHow Long Our Belief(1973), Too Late(1974), Can you take it?,

Hard Road, How Long?, I Believe, Life, Lobola, Mama and the Load,

Manana the Jazz Prophet, Sikalo, Zuwi.

5. Nimrod N.T. NdebeliUgubudeleNamazimuzimu(1941)

6. K.E. MasingaIntombiYasegdi E Thekwini

7. Athol FulgardValley Song, The Captain’s Tiger, The Cell(1957), No Good

Friday(1958),Nongogo(1959), The Blood Knot(1961), Hello and

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Goodbye(1965),The Coat(1966),People are Living There(1968), The Last

Bus(1969), Friday’s Bread on Monday(1970), SizweBansiIs Dead(1972), The

Island(1972), Statements After an Arrest under the Immortality Act(1972),

Dimetos(1975), Blood Knot(1987).

8. Ronald Harwood The Ordeal of Gilbert Pinfold(1983), After the Lions(1983),

Tramway Road(1984), The Deliberate Death of a Polish Priest(1985),

Interpreters(1986), Another Time(1989), The Dresser(1989).

9. H. Bloom King Kong

10. Geina Mnope Have You Seen Zamdile?, Zakes Mda And the Girls in their

Sunday Dresses

11. Mbogeni Ngema Woza Albert(1981), Asinamali(1983), Mama! The Musical

of Freedom(1983).

Other playwrights include Dennis Brutus, Breyten Breytenbach, Sembene

Ousmane, A.C.T. Mayekiso, Nadine Godimer,etc. The list is inexhaustible but

with reference to this discourse, a short survey has been carried out.

In Lesotho, farming was the major occupation of the citizens therefore the

colonialists majorly exploited the agricultural produce of the Lesotho farmers. In

reaction to this, the Lesotho playwrights countered this exploitation by writing on

issues related to it, either to teach them how to preserve, sell or cultivate their

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produce or to attack the seeming exploitation. However, these first generation

playwrights wrote in their indigenous languages, such works include:

1. IsokoloMuso(IjotelaMor’aMoshpela) TapolaThala(Highlands Potato),

KopandeeaBoijarokaKhobeeaTapelaThaba(Cooperative Efforts to Grow

Highlands Potato), PolonelaeaLihlaIsoa(Storage of Horticultural Products),

KatulaPola u Thothe(Transportation of Harvest),

KopandaeaKaosbokaLiekekisie le Limoa(Commodification of Beans and

Peas), KopaneloeaKhoebokaLithdona(Commodification of Fruits),

MokopuMaphutseng(Increased Production, easily grown, easily transported,

easily preserved).

The plays above are aimed at the farming communities and they are

simple with few characters.

2. Sonny Sampson Akpan(a Nigerian-born Lesotho playwright) Basotho Plays,

Money Palava,Img, Ekaete, Asabo Tail, Found and Lost, A Son in Search of

A Mother, A Festival of Dances,Mfon(1987), The Old Woman of

Itambo(1990), Comments(1992).

Also in Namibia, we have a prolific apartheid playwright known as

Frederick Philander. Some of his plays include King of the Dump (1986), The

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Railway Man, The Beauty Contest-An Adult Play, The Curse, Two Men and a

Baby, The Porridge Queen.

In the triad of Swaziland, Zimbabwe and Mozambique, we have few

playwrights, whose plays are aimed at challenging colonial ideology,

emphasizing the renewal of African culture, and to promote the concept and

spirit of the African Renaissance.

1. LindoLhongoOsNoivosouOnferenciaDramaticaSobre o Lobolo, As

TrintaMulheres de Muzelini.

2. Olando Mendes One Minute of Silence.

After a panoramic overview of these apartheid playwrights, one can see that

African writers reflected the socio-political dynamics of their individual societies at

the colonial period.

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POST APARTHEID/SECOND GENERATION/ CONTEMPORARY

DRAMA IN SOUTHERN AFRICA

Post-apartheid drama is a body of creative writings that react to the discourse

of colonization. Post-apartheid drama often deals with the issues of decolonization

or the political and cultural independence of people formerly subjugated to colonial

rule or apartheid regime. It is a literary critique to texts that carry racist or colonial

undertone. In post-colonial Southern African region, literary themes prominent

include African culture, contemporary issues and social inequality. African

playwrights incorporate oral forms such as spirituality, culturality, music, etc.

Southern African drama has been influenced by the great African heritage and

refined it in many countries. Other common themes include: social and cultural

change or eradication, misuse of power and exploitation amongst others. Some of

the post-apartheid playwrights in South Africa, include:MthaliKaSheli, Steven

Black, Gibson Kente, GuybonSinxo, Nimrod N.T. Ndebele, A.C.T. Mayekiso, H.

Bloom,GeinaMhlope, ZakesMda, etc.

In Botswana we have Dr. FaniKayodeOsazuwaOmoregie, a Nigerian-born

lecturer in English and Drama based at the University of Botswana. He has written

thirteen plays amongst which include: Hallucinations, The Mother of All Dinners,

Foreign Affairs, Infidel, From Whom Things Do Not Change, Ashes to Ashes,

Double Take, etc.

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In Zambia, such authors include: Masiye who wrote The Land of Kazembe.

Kasuma’sThe Poisoned Cultural Meat,Chifuayise’sBlood, The District Governor.

In Malawi, such writers include:

1. Desmond DudwaPhiri’sThe Chief’s Bride.

2. Du ChisizaThe Deceased Attack(1982), Fragments(1987), Me Nobody

Knows, Tears of Blood(Late Eighties), Papa’s Empire(1990), Educating

Mwalimu(1991), Barefoot in the Heart(1992), Democracy Boulevard(1993),

De Summer Blow(1994).

3. Michael UsiDr. Manga, Mengaya in Action, Living on Perfume(2009),

International Cook, Watchout!( 2010).

4. Chimombo’sThe Rainmaker.

5. Ngombe’sThe Banana Tree, The King’s Pillow.

6. Kambongera’sShauta’s Wrath, The Love Potion.

7. TimpuzaMvula’sThe Lizard’s Tail.

8. Innocent Banda’s Cracks.

9. Ng’ombe’sThe Echoing House.

10. Chichewa’s MchirawaBuluzi.

From the short survey of post-apartheid dramatic works listed above, one can

see how Southern African writers change their recurrent themes with recluse to the

prevailing socio economic and political changes within the society.

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CONCLUSION

Without doubt, modern African drama is one aspect of modern African

literature that has awakened literary consciousness in Africa. The playwrights

classified in this genre have used the thematic preoccupations espoused in their

works to reflect the socio economic, political conditions prevalent in their societies.

This work has succinctly taken a regional overview of modern African drama using

the foci of Southern Region as a deliberate case study.

In Southern Africa, modern African drama started with the insurgence of

apartheid and its movement. This racial consciousness and fight for colour equality

progressed into a struggle for nationalism and the attainment of independence from

the colonial masters. Dramatic works were written with relevant themes of

oppression, exploration and exploitation in its relative theme of corruption. These

writing went further into post-colonial Africa where dramatists buttressed the

debilitating effects of colonialism and its corresponding proffered solutions.

Conclusively, modern African drama as a form of African literature is a

starting point for the African consciousness, the world over. The writings of

Southern African dramatists espouse the African experience to the world thereby

stimulating intellects on the presence of Africa, according to Arjun, ‘in the global

village’ and also engendering internal creativity within the African continent.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Anari, Agoro. Topics in Modern African Drama,Ibadun: Caltop, 1981.

2. Dathorne, O.R. African Literature in the Twentieth Century, London:

Hienemann, 1975.

3. Litkie, C.A. 2003. Selected Black African Dramatists South of the Zambezi.

Ph.D thesis. University Stellenbosch.

4. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. 14, May, 2012. <www.en.wikipedia.com>

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