the grammaring guide to english grammar grammar peter simmon.pdfintroduction what is this book and...

The GrammaringGuide to English

Grammar

Written by Péter Simon

Proofread by Thomas A.Williams

ContentsIntroductionAcknowledgementsAbout the authorAbout the proofreaderPretestChapter 1: Time, tense and aspectChapter 2: ModalsChapter 3: Conditionals and unrealtensesChapter 4: Indirect speechChapter 5: Passive voice andcausative structuresChapter 6: Non-finite verb formsChapter 7: Relative clausesChapter 8: Inversion

Chapter 9: ArticlesChapter 10: Countable anduncountable nounsChapter 11: The subjunctiveAppendixList of quotesGlossarySymbols used in this bookBibliographyCopyrightAfterword

IntroductionWhat is this book and whois it for?The Grammaring Guide to EnglishGrammar by Péter Simon is a resourcebook on the grammar of Standard BritishEnglish. It is intended for intermediate toadvanced students of English as asecond or foreign language who havealready studied the basic grammar ofEnglish as well as for their teachers. Itcovers the most important areas ofEnglish grammar and concentrates on

structures which may cause difficulty atan intermediate level or above.

How the book is organisedThe book starts with a pretest that helpsyou identify areas that you need to workon. This is followed by eleven chapters,broken down to a number of subchaptersthat each deal with a specific grammarpoint. The explanations are accompaniedby example sentences, diagrams andquotes. If a similar point or the samepoint is discussed in a different part ofthe book, you will find cross-referencesto that point. Where appropriate, thechapters are introduced with guidingquestions and concluded with revision

questions. At the end, there is anappendix that contains a list of the mostcommon irregular verb forms andspelling rules; a list of the quotes thatappear in the book; and a glossary thatexplains grammatical terms that arefrequently used in the explanations.

How to use this bookThe chapters in this book are notarranged in order of difficulty, so it canbe used for quick reference on specificpoints of interest, as well as forsystematic study, either as a self-studygrammar book or as additional materialin an ESL/EFL course. No matter whichway you use the book, it is

recommended that you follow the crossreferences, which will lead you tofurther discussion of a specific item.

What is "grammaring"?When I decided to create a websitebased on the first version of this book, Iwanted to find a unique domain namethat would make it different from thehundreds of other grammar sites. In amoment of inspiration, the word"grammaring" occurred to me. At thattime, I thought it was a non-existentterm: a play on the noun "grammar" usedas a verb. I felt the -ing form wouldreflect the idea that grammar should notmerely be considered as a field of study

but rather as an activity in whichlanguage learners are dynamicallyengaged. Thus, in 2009, I launchedwww.grammaring.com.

It was not until a few years later that,while browsing the Internet, I learnedthat "grammaring" was actually anexisting term coined by Diane Larsen-Freeman well before my discovery. Inher Teaching Language from Grammar toGrammaring, she defines it as the fifthskill (besides reading, writing, speakingand listening), something more than justan area of knowledge: "the ability to usegrammar structures accurately,meaningfully and appropriately".

http://www.grammaring.com

Although I did not have this exactdefinition in mind when I chose thedomain name for the site, I thought it wasvery close to my understanding ofgrammar and so I decided to keep thename and later adopt it for the title ofthis book.

AcknowledgementsI started writing the first version of thisbook while I was teaching Englishgrammar to English teacher trainees atthe Juhász Gyula Teacher TrainingFaculty of the University of Szeged inSzeged, Hungary. I would like to thankall my students who have studied fromthis book since then for their usefulfeedback on the material. I am alsograteful to my colleagues for their helpand encouragement.

Special thanks go to my colleague TiborBorbás, who worked with me in theinitial stage of the project and

contributed greatly to the first version ofthe text.

Finally, I would also like to thank theproofreader Thomas A. Williams for hismeticulous corrections and helpfuladvice.

About the authorPéter Simon is a teacher of English as aforeign language and the creator ofwww.grammaring.com. He has beeninvolved in the training of EFL teachersat the Juhász Gyula Teacher TrainingFaculty of the University of Szeged inHungary, where he has offered variouscourses ranging from General English toEnglish Grammar, Phonetics, ListeningSkills, Reading Skills and PresentationSkills to FCE and CPE ExamPreparation. He has also taught BusinessEnglish to students in a variety ofprofessional training courses and hasbeen an ERASMUS guest lecturer in

http://www.grammaring.com

Hamar (Norway), Istanbul (Turkey) andKlagenfurt (Austria). He is the co-authorof International BusinessCommunication, an online module inBusiness English developed at theJuhász Gyula Teacher Training Facultyof the University of Szeged. He is acertified TELC examiner in English,LCCI examiner in Business English, andCity & Guilds interlocutor in English.

About theproofreaderThomas A. Williams is an instructor atthe Department of English LanguageTeacher Education and AppliedLinguistics of the University of Szegedin Hungary, where he has taught coursesin grammar and the four language skillsas well as in translation, English forAcademic Purposes, Academic Writingand Business English. His areas ofinterest include the link betweenculture(s) and language teaching andlearning, task-based language teachingand learning, researching speaking and

postmethod pedagogies. He has alsoseen an English test prep book and otherwritings of his in print.

PretestThe following test contains 50 multiplechoice questions related to variousfields of English grammar covered inthis book. For each question, choose thebest answer from the three choices listedand note it down for yourself. Thequestions get harder as you progress,from beginner to advanced level. Don'tworry if you don't know all the answers.At the end of the test you will find ananswer key that also provides links tothe chapters that will explain eachanswer for you.

1. Mary is ... teacher.

1. -2. a3. an

2. ... go for a walk?1. Would you like to2. Would you like3. Do you like

3. I ... in the morning.1. drink a tea usually2. drink usually a tea3. usually drink a tea

4. My sister ... in Canada.1. live2. lives3. living

5. Where ...1. does Peter work?2. Peter does work?

3. works Peter?6. I don't have ... problems.

1. some2. any3. much

7. I like ... early in summer.1. get up2. getting up3. to getting up

8. Tom can ... the piano.1. play2. to play3. plays

9. Come on, I ... you with thosebags.

1. 'm going to help2. 'll help3. 'm helping

10. I ... for you all day yesterday.1. looking2. was looking3. have been looking

11. Let's take an umbrella. ...1. It rained.2. It rains.3. It's raining.

12. Sorry, I can't meet you tonight. I... out with some friends.

1. am going2. go3. will go

13. When I ... home, I ... to bedstraight away.

1. was getting / went2. got / went3. got / had gone

14. Last week, I stayed with mysister ... a few days.

1. during2. since3. for

15. I ... on the computer all day. Myeyes are sore.

1. been working2. was working3. have been working

16. If I ... in New York at that time, I... to the show.

1. were living / would go2. had been living / would have

gone3. lived / would have gone

17. Tim should spend ... time on thecomputer.

1. less2. fewer3. a few

18. He wanted to know ...1. who I was waiting for.2. who was I waiting for.3. for who I was waiting.

19. The question was ... to answer.1. enough difficult2. too difficult3. difficulty

20. There is something you want tosay, ...

1. isn't there?2. isn't it?3. doesn't it?

21. I really ... give up smoking.1. need

2. must3. ought

22. When I met Philip in 1980, he saidhe ... to Brunei.

1. had never been2. has never been3. never been

23. The wind was blowing throughthe ... living room window.

1. breaking2. broken3. broke

24. I regret to inform you that yourapplication ...

1. has been rejected.2. has rejected.3. rejected.

25. What's the last film ... you saw?

1. what2. who3. that

26. Have you ever ... China?1. been in2. been to3. gone to

27. Who ... to?1. belongs this bag2. this bag belongs3. does this bag belong

28. ... a lot of cheese.1. French eat2. The French eat3. The French eats

29. I wish ... nearer. Then we couldmeet more often.

1. living

2. I would live3. I lived

30. I'll never forget ... her for thefirst time.

1. to have met2. to meet3. meeting

31. The guide ... visiting the RoyalPalace.

1. suggested2. agreed3. promised

32. J. K. Rowling is rumoured ... anew book.

1. that she is writing2. to be writing3. writing

33. Smokers are more likely ... lung

cancer compared to non-smokers.1. to develop2. that they develop3. developing

34. Here ...1. the postman comes.2. comes she.3. comes the bus.

35. It ... have been Carla you saw thismorning. She is away on holiday.

1. mustn't2. can't3. needn't

36. ... as compensation.1. $500 was paid the customer2. The customer was paid for

$5003. The customer was paid $500

37. The student apologised ... theprofessor ... being late.

1. to / for2. to / of3. for / of

38. We haven't heard from him forten years. He ...

1. had to die.2. should have died.3. might have died.

39. ... this morning.1. My hair had cut2. I had cut my hair3. I had my hair cut

40. By next week, they ... paintingthe rooms.

1. have finished2. will finish

3. will have finished41. It's high time I ... a new pair of

jeans.1. buy2. bought3. had bought

42. I took the phone back to theshop, but they ... me areplacement.

1. wouldn't give2. shouldn't give3. can't have given

43. Mike insisted ... his new muffinrecipe.

1. trying2. on that I try3. that I should try

44. Mr Jones ... at the meeting, but

he had to cancel because of hisillness.

1. was speaking2. was to speak3. was to have spoken

45. Knowing a little Russian, I had nodifficulty ... myself understood.

1. to make2. making3. about making

46. If you ... smarter, you ... money inthe first place.

1. were / wouldn't haveborrowed

2. were / didn't borrow3. are / wouldn't borrow

47. Not only ... the speed limit, but hehad also consumed alcohol.

1. he exceeded2. did he exceed3. he did exceed

48. If only it ... snowing.1. would stop2. stopped3. stops

49. You ... that again.1. not do2. are not do3. are not to do

50. Where would you rather ...1. I'll sleep?2. I'd sleep?3. I slept?

Answer key1. Mary is ... teacher. (b) a (See

Articles)2. ... go for a walk? (a) Would you

like to (See Non-finite verb forms)3. I ... in the morning. (c) usually

drink a tea (See Present simple)4. My sister ... in Canada. (b) lives

(See Present simple)5. Where ... (a) does Peter work?

(See Present simple)6. I don't have ... problems. (b) any

(See Countable and uncountablenouns)

7. I like ... early in summer. (b)getting up (See Non-finite verb

forms)8. Tom can ... the piano. (a) play

(See Modals)9. Come on, I ... you with those

bags. (b) 'll help (See Future time)10. I ... for you all day yesterday. (b)

was looking (See Past continuous,Present perfect continuous)

11. Let's take an umbrella. ... (c) It'sraining. (See Past simple, Presentsimple, Present continuous)

12. Sorry, I can't meet you tonight. I... out with some friends. (a) amgoing (See Future time)

13. When I ... home, I ... to bedstraight away. (b) got / went (SeePast time)

14. Last week, I stayed with my

sister ... a few days. (c) for (SeePast simple)

15. I ... on the computer all day. Myeyes are sore. (c) have beenworking (See Past continuous,Present perfect continuous)

16. If I ... in New York at that time, I... to the show. (b) had been living/ would have gone (SeeConditionals)

17. Tim should spend ... time on thecomputer. (a) less (See Countableand uncountable nouns)

18. He wanted to know ... (a) who Iwas waiting for. (See Indirectspeech)

19. The question was ... to answer.(b) too difficult (See The use of the

infinitive)20. There is something you want to

say, ... (a) isn't there? (See Subject-auxiliary inversion)

21. I really ... give up smoking. (b)must (See Modals)

22. When I met Philip in 1980, he saidhe ... to Brunei. (a) had never been(See Indirect speech)

23. The wind was blowing throughthe ... living room window. (b)broken (See The use of theparticiple)

24. I regret to inform you that yourapplication ... (a) has beenrejected. (See Passive voice)

25. What's the last film ... you saw?(c) that (See Relative clauses)

26. Have you ever ... China? (b) beento (See Present perfect)

27. Who ... to? (c) does this bagbelong (See Present simple)

28. ... a lot of cheese. (b) The Frencheat (See The definite article(THE))

29. I wish ... nearer. Then we couldmeet more often. (c) I lived (SeeConditionals and unreal tenses)

30. I'll never forget ... her for thefirst time. (c) meeting (See Verbsfollowed by the TO-infinitive orgerund)

31. The guide ... visiting the RoyalPalace. (a) suggested (SeeCommon reporting verbs, The useof the gerund)

32. J. K. Rowling is rumoured ... anew book. (b) to be writing (SeePassive voice with reporting verbs)

33. Smokers are more likely ... lungcancer compared to non-smokers.(a) to develop (See Other modalexpressions)

34. Here ... (c) comes the bus. (SeeSubject-verb inversion)

35. It ... have been Carla you saw thismorning. She is away on holiday.(b) can't (See Categories ofmeaning expressed by modals)

36. ... as compensation. (c) Thecustomer was paid $500 (SeePassive voice)

37. The student apologised ... theprofessor ... being late. (a) to / for

(See Common reporting verbs, Theuse of the gerund)

38. We haven't heard from him forten years. He ... (c) might havedied. (See Categories of meaningexpressed by modals)

39. ... this morning. (c) I had my haircut (See Causative structures)

40. By next week, they ... paintingthe rooms. (c) will have finished(See Future time)

41. It's high time I ... a new pair ofjeans. (b) bought (See Conditionalsand unreal tenses)

42. I took the phone back to theshop, but they ... me areplacement. (a) wouldn't give

(See Categories of meaningexpressed by modals)

43. Mike insisted ... his new muffinrecipe. (c) that I should try (SeeCommon reporting verbs, The useof the gerund)

44. Mr Jones ... at the meeting, buthe had to cancel because of hisillness. (c) was to have spoken(See Other modal expressions)

45. Knowing a little Russian, I had nodifficulty ... myself understood.(b) making (See The use of theparticiple)

46. If you ... smarter, you ... money inthe first place. (a) were / wouldn'thave borrowed (See Conditionals)

47. Not only ... the speed limit, but he

had also consumed alcohol. (b)did he exceed (See Subject-auxiliary inversion)

48. If only it ... snowing. (a) wouldstop (See Conditionals and unrealtenses)

49. You ... that again. (c) are not to do(See Other modal expressions)

50. Where would you rather ... (c) Islept? (See Conditionals and unrealtenses)

Chapter 1: Time,tense and aspect

Guiding questions: time, tense andaspectThe difference between times andtensesAspectsState verbs and action verbsPast timePresent timeFuture timeTenses in indirect speech

Guiding questions:time, tense andaspect

How many tenses are there inEnglish?How many aspects are there inEnglish?Can a present tense refer to past orfuture time?What kind of verbs can not be usedin continuous tenses?

The differencebetween times andtensesTime is a concept which is related to ourperception of reality. There are threetimes: past, present and future. Tense is agrammatical category which is markedby verb inflection and expresses whenan event or action happens in the flow oftime.

Strictly speaking, only two Englishtenses are marked by the inflection of theverb:

past (talked)present (talks)

Other tenses are marked by auxiliaries(be, have):

past continuous (was/were talking)past perfect (had talked)past perfect continuous (had beentalking)present continuous (am/are/istalking)present perfect (have/has talked)present perfect continuous(have/has been talking)

As future time is expressed with themodal will + infinitive and not withinflection, the forms with will (will talk,

will be talking, will have talked, willhave been talking) are not considered tobe tenses. However, for the sake ofconvenience, we refer to them as suchthroughout this book.

Therefore, the twelve basic tenses ofEnglish are:

Past Present Future

Simple Pastsimple

Presentsimple

Futuresimple

Continuous Pastcontinuous

Presentcontinuous

Futurecontinuous

Perfect Pastperfect

Presentperfect

Futureperfect

Perfectcontinuous

Pastperfect

Presentperfect

Futureperfect

continuous continuous continuous

Note that certain tenses in English mayrefer to a different time than thatexpressed by their names. For example,the present continuous tense may refer toeither present or future time:

"What are you doing?" "I'mreading." (present reference)"What are you doing on Wednesdayevening?" "I'm visiting mygrandma." (future reference)

AspectsThe aspect of a verb does not indicatewhen an action takes place in time; itrather shows the relationship betweenthe action and the passage of time asseen from the speaker's point of view.

There are two aspects in English: thecontinuous (also called progressive)aspect expresses duration; the perfectaspect expresses completion. Thecombination of these two aspects makesthe perfect continuous.

The continuous aspectThe perfect aspectThe perfect continuous aspect

The continuous aspectBE + PRESENT PARTICIPLE (VERB-ING)

The continuous aspect is expressed withthe auxiliary be and the presentparticiple -ing form of the verb.Depending on the time of the action, weuse the past (was, were), present (am,are, is) or modal + infinitive (e.g. willbe) form of be.

The continuous aspect focuses on theduration of an event. It expresses that theaction was, is or will be in progress at aspecific point of time or over a period oftime. The point of time may be definedby a time expression (now, at 5 o'clock

yesterday, this time tomorrow) or aclause (when I came home, when I comehome). For the period of time, we canalso use a time expression (all dayyesterday) or a clause (while she wasreading).

Examples of the continuous aspect:

Are you enjoying yourself? (now)At 9 o'clock, I was sitting on thetrain.When I came home, he wassleeping.She must be waiting for me. (now)Rob was hiking all day yesterday.While she was reading, Bill wasworking on the computer.

In January, I'll be living at mybrother's.

Quotes:

Success usually comes to thosewho are too busy to be looking forit. - Henry David ThoreauWe are all in the gutter, but some ofus are looking at the stars. - OscarWilde

Related topics:

The present participle used to form

the continuous aspectPast continuousPresent continuousFuture continuousThe forms of the infinitiveThe forms of the participle

The perfect aspectHAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE

The perfect aspect is expressed with theauxiliary have and the past participleform of the verb. Depending on the timeof the action, we use the past (had),present (have, has), modal + infinitive(e.g. will have) or -ing (having) form ofhave.

The perfect aspect focuses on thecompletion of an event. It expresses thatthe action had, has or will have beencompleted by a specific point of time.This point of time may be defined by atime expression (by 5 o'clock) or a

clause (by the time you get home, when Iarrived).

Examples of the perfect aspect:

I've lived here for ten years. (from10 years ago until now)By 5 o'clock, he had finished theletter. (at some time before 5o'clock)When I arrived, they had alreadyleft. (at some time before I arrived)Have you seen my new bike? (atany time up to now)I will have done the ironing by thetime you get home. (between nowand when you get home)He might have missed the train. (at

some time before now)Having taken the wrong turn, heended up in a dangerousneighbourhood. (he turned beforehe found himself in a dangerousneighbourhood)

Quotes:

I have not failed. I've just found10,000 ways that won't work. -Thomas Edison

Related topics:

The past participle used to form theperfect aspectPast perfectPresent perfectFuture perfectThe forms of the infinitiveThe forms of the gerundThe forms of the participle

The perfect continuousaspectHAVE + BEEN + VERB-ING

The perfect continuous is not consideredas an aspect in itself; it is rather thecombination of the perfect andcontinuous aspects.

It is expressed with the auxiliaries haveand been (the third form of be) and the(present participle) -ing form of theverb. Depending on the time of theaction, we use the past (had), present(have, has) or modal + infinitive (e.g.will have) form of have.

The perfect continuous expresses that theaction had, has or will have been inprogress for some time at a specificpoint of time. This point of time may bedefined by a time expression (at 5o'clock) or a clause (when she getshome).

Examples of the perfect continuous:

I've been waiting for this momentall my life. (from when I was bornuntil now)He's been ironing his shirts. (fromsome time in the past until now)By 2005, George had been livingin Scotland for 20 years. (from1985 to 2005)

When Mary gets home, Kevin willhave been sleeping for hours.(Kevin's sleep lasting from somepoint of time before Mary getshome until she gets home)I wouldn't have been sitting thereif I hadn't had to. (from some timein the past until a later time in thepast)

Related topics:

The present participle used to formthe continuous aspectPast perfect continuousPresent perfect continuousFuture perfect continuousThe forms of the infinitiveThe forms of the participle

State verbs andaction verbsState verbs

State verbs express states or conditionswhich are relatively static. They includeverbs of perception, cognition, thesenses, emotion and state of being.

Examples of state verbs:

appear, believe, belong, consider,consist, contain, cost, doubt,exist, fit, hate, hear, have, know,like, love, matter, mean, need,

owe, own, prefer, remember,resemble, seem, suppose, suspect,understand, want, wish

State verbs are not normally used incontinuous forms:

I am needing a new phone. I need anew phone.Who is this bag belonging to? Whodoes this bag belong to?They are seeming tired. They seemtired.

Action verbs

Action verbs (also called dynamicverbs) express activities, processes,

momentary actions or physicalconditions.

Examples of action verbs:

ache, arrive, ask, call, change,cook, dance, eat, fall, feel, go,grow, have, help, hit, hurt, itch,kick, knock, leave, melt, read,say, shrink, sing, speak, talk,throw, travel, watch

Action verbs may be used in continuousforms:

Who was he dancing with?Someone's knocking at the door.

I've been reading this book forweeks.

State verbs in the continuous form

Some state verbs may be used in thecontinuous form if they refer to atemporary action or an action inprogress at a certain moment, rather thana permanent attitude:

I'm having second thoughts aboutmoving abroad.Jones is appearing in Hamlet thisevening.You're looking great in those jeans.

There are also state verbs which may be

used in the continuous form, but with adifferent, active meaning:

Do you have a car? (own)They are having dinner at themoment. (eating)

You are my best friend. (it's a fact)She's being silly again. (behavingin a silly way)

That soup smells good. (has a goodsmell)He is smelling the soup. (sniffingat)

This milk tastes sour. (has a sourtaste)

I was just tasting the food. (testing)

You look great! (your currentappearance)He was looking out the windowwhen I saw him. (directing his eyestowards)

What do you see? (notice witheyes)I'm seeing my dentist thisafternoon. (visiting)

I don't hear well. (pick up withears)The judge will be hearing theevidence later this week. (listeningto)

I expect that you are tired.(assume)Are you expecting visitors thisevening? (waiting for them toarrive)

I feel that you are wrong. (think)How have you been feeling?(asking about physical state)

This melon weighs 2 kg. (its weightis 2 kg)He is weighing the melon.(measuring its weight)

Naturally, we can use the verbs with theactive meaning in the simple form, too:

How often do you see your dentist?They usually have dinner at 6.

But we cannot use the verbs with thestative meaning in the continuous form:

This melon is weighing 2 kilos. The soup was smelling good.

Quotes:

I don't know the key to success, butthe key to failure is trying to pleaseeverybody. - Bill CosbyIf you don't know where you'regoing, you might never get there. -Yogi Berra

Related topics:

Modals to express habits: WILL,WOULD, USED TOVerbs which cannot be used in thepassive voiceThe passive with GET

Past timeGuiding questions: past timePast simplePast continuousThe difference between the pastsimple and the past continuousPast perfectThe difference between the pastsimple and the past perfectPast perfect continuousThe difference between the pastperfect and the past perfectcontinuousPresent simple to express pastUSED TO and WOULD for pasthabits

Revision questions: past time

Guiding questions: pasttime

How many past tenses are there?Which past tense is used to expressa point of time at which somethinghappened?Does the past perfect tense showhow long ago something happened?How can you express past habits?What is the difference between thepast perfect simple and the pastperfect continuous tenses?

Past simpleForm: past simplePast simple for completed actionsin the pastPast simple for past habits andstatesPast simple for actions happeningover a period of time in the pastPast simple to express a point in thepastThe auxiliary DID for emphasis

Form: past simple

VERB-ED

Affirmative

Subject Verb (past tense)

I

arrived yesterday.

YouHe/She/ItWeYouThey

In the case of regular verbs, the pastsimple is formed by adding -ed to the

base form of the verb for all persons.Note the changes in spelling:

look » lookedstay » stayedarrive » arrived (we only add -d ifthe verb ends in -e)try » tried (a final -y changes to -i-after a consonant)stop » stopped (we double the finalconsonant if the verb finishes witha consonant-vowel-consonant)

A number of verbs have irregular pastforms. A few examples are:

buy » boughtfly » flew

hit » hitshine » shoneswim » swam

See the Appendix for a list of the mostcommon irregular verbs in English.

Negative

In the negative, we use the auxiliary did+ not followed by the bare infinitive:

Subject Auxiliary notVerb(bare

infinitive)

I

did not arrive inYouHe/She/It

We time.

YouThey

The contracted form didn't is often usedinstead of did not in spoken and ininformal written language.

Interrogative

In the interrogative, we use the auxiliarydid followed by the subject and the bareinfinitive:

(Questionword) Auxiliary Subject

Verb(bare

infinitive)

I

(When) did

you

arrive?he/she/itweyouthey

The verb BE in the past simple

The verb be has irregular past tenseforms. In the past simple, the auxiliarydid is not used in the negative orinterrogative if the main verb is be:

Affirmative Negative Interrogative

I was athome.

I was not athome.

Was I athome?

You were at You were Were you at

home. not at home. home?He/She/Itwas at home.

He/She/Itwas not athome.

Was he/she/itat home?

We were athome.

We were notat home.

Were we athome?

You were athome.

You werenot at home.

Were you athome?

They were athome.

They werenot at home.

Were they athome?

The contracted forms wasn't and weren'tare often used instead of was not andwere not in spoken and in informalwritten language.

Related topics:

Subject-auxiliary inversion inquestionsThe auxiliary DID for emphasisAppendix: irregular verb forms

Past simple for completedactions in the past

The past simple tense is used for actionswhich were completed at a definite pointof time in the past. This point can beimplied or expressed with a timeexpression or a clause:

I bought a motorbike last week.She was born in 1990.Columbus discovered America.(i.e. in 1492) How did it happen? (i.e. when ithappened)When I got home, I went to bedstraight away.

Examples of time expressions that referto a definite time in the past:

a year/two months/a fewweeks/three days/etc. agoat 5 o'clockyesterdayearlier today/this week/this monthlast week/month/year

Quotes:

Millions saw the apple fall, butNewton asked why. - BernardBaruchI had been told that the trainingprocedure with cats was difficult.It's not. Mine had me trained in twodays. - Bill DanaWhat you have become is the priceyou paid to get what you used towant. - Mignon McLaughlin

Past simple for past habits andstates

The past simple is used to express habitsand states that existed during a period oftime in the past. This period can beimplied or expressed with a timeexpression or a clause:

When I was a child, I visited mygrandma every weekend. (habit)When my brother was young, heliked spinach. (state)Where did you go to primaryschool? (habit, where the impliedperiod of time is when you went toprimary school)

Quotes:

The fishing was good; it was thecatching that was bad. - A. K. BestI had been told that the trainingprocedure with cats was difficult.It's not. Mine had me trained in twodays. - Bill Dana

Related topics:

Modals to express habits: WILL,

WOULD, USED TOPast continuous for frequentlyrepeated actions in the pastPresent simple for present habitsand states

Past simple for actionshappening over a period oftime in the past

The past simple is used for actions thattook place over a complete period oftime in the past. This period isexpressed with a time expression;however, the exact time may or may notbe mentioned:

Pterodactyls existed between 1.5billion and 70 million years ago.From 1981 to 1984, he worked fora large multinational company.Last week, I stayed with my sisterfor a few days. (the exact time is

not mentioned)Joe lived in Boston for ten years.(the exact time is not mentioned)

Related topics:

Present perfect with FOR andSINCE

Past simple to express a pointin the past

The past simple is used to refer to apoint in the past at which another eventwas in progress, had been completed orhad been going on for some time. Thepast simple thus serves as a time markerin subordinate time clauses withincomplex sentences, where the mainclause is in the past continuous, pastperfect or past perfect continuous tense:

When I called her, she wasstudying.By the time we reached the top, ithad stopped raining.

When I got to her house, she hadbeen waiting for hours.

Related topics:

Past continuous for actions inprogress at a specific point in thepastPast perfect for actions completedbefore a point in the pastPresent perfect with FOR andSINCE

IT'S (BEEN) + DAYS / WEEKS /MONTHS / etc. + SINCE

The auxiliary DID for emphasis

In the past simple, the auxiliary didfollowed by the bare infinitive form ofthe main verb can be used in affirmativesentences to express emphasis. Inspeech, the auxiliary is stressed:

I did want to tell you, but I didn'tknow how.He did arrive late.She did go to a school, but she isnot nationally certified.

Related topics:

Form: past simpleDO, DOES, DID + bare infinitive

Past continuousForm: past continuousPast continuous for actions inprogress at a specific point in thepastPast continuous for actionshappening over a period of time inthe pastPast continuous for gradualdevelopmentPast continuous for frequentlyrepeated actions in the pastPast continuous for temporaryhabitual actions in the past

Form: past continuous

WAS/WERE + PRESENT PARTICIPLE(VERB-ING)

The past continuous (also called the pastprogressive) is formed with was/were(the past tense forms of be) + the presentparticiple -ing form of the verb.

Affirmative

Subject Auxiliary Verb (presentparticiple)

Iwas

sleeping.

He/She/ItYou

We wereYouThey

Negative

Subject Auxiliary not Verb (presentparticiple)

Iwas

not sleeping.

He/She/ItYou

wereWeYouThey

The contracted forms wasn't and weren'tare often used instead of was not and

were not in spoken and in informalwritten language.

Interrogative


Verb(present

participle)

(Where)

wasI

sleeping?

he/she/it

were

youweyouthey

Related topics:

The forms of the participleSubject-auxiliary inversion inquestions

Past continuous for actions inprogress at a specific point inthe past

The past continuous tense is used torefer to actions that were in progress ator around a specific point of time in thepast. This point can be implied orexpressed with a time expression or aclause with a verb in the past simpletense:

At 9 o'clock, I was sitting on thetrain.A few minutes ago, they were stilldancing.When I called her, she was

studying.What were you doing when youheard the explosion?Sorry, can you repeat that? I wasn'tlistening. (when you said that)

Related topics:

Present continuous for actions inprogress at the time of speakingFuture continuous for actions inprogress at a specific point in thefuturePast simple to express a point in thepast

Past continuous for actionshappening over a period oftime in the past

The past continuous is used to describeactions which continued over a period oftime in the past. This period can beexpressed with a time expression or aclause with a verb in the past continuoustense. In this case the two actions werehappening simultaneously:

I was looking for you all dayyesterday.He was staying in Rome thatsummer.Were you sleeping during the

speech?My friends were enjoyingthemselves playing cards while Iwas studying in my room.

Related topics:

Future continuous for actionshappening over a period of time inthe future

Past continuous for gradualdevelopment

Used without a time expression, the pastcontinuous can express change andgradual development in the past:

It was getting darker and darker.Our hopes were fading.

Related topics:

Present continuous for gradualdevelopment

Past continuous for frequentlyrepeated actions in the past

With time expressions such as always,constantly, continually and all the time,the past continuous can expressfrequently repeated past actions whichannoy(ed) the speaker:

She was always teasing me.They were constantly arguingabout money.He was continually interruptingthe speaker.I was getting into trouble all thetime.

He was always calling me at nightto ask me how I was.

These sentences imply that the actionshappened very often, but they are notmeant literally. To express the literalmeaning, the past simple is used:

He always called me at night to askme how I was. (He called me everynight to ask me how I was.)

Related topics:

Present continuous for frequentlyrepeated actions in the presentPast simple for past habits andstates

Past continuous for temporaryhabitual actions in the past

The past continuous is used to expressrepeated or habitual actions in the pastthat were temporary:

At that time, she was meeting himtwice a week.When I lived in London, I wasgetting up at 5 am to be able to getto work by 6.

Related topics:

Present continuous for temporaryhabitual actions in the presentFuture continuous for temporaryhabitual actions in the future

The difference between thepast simple and the pastcontinuous

Main events and backgroundevents in a story

In a story which is told in the past tense,the main events (the ones that happen inthe foreground and carry the storyforward) are expressed with the pastsimple, while the past continuous is usedfor background events:

Ten people were sitting around thetable. It was raining outside.Suddenly, the door opened and a

woman entered the room. She waswearing a black dress. Everyonestared at, her but she didn't sayanything. She slowly went to thetable and put an envelope on it.They were just staring at her asshe left the room.

Note the difference between these twosentences from the story:

Everyone stared at her.They were just staring at her.

The past simple in the first sentenceexpresses a momentary, completedaction, whereas the past continuous in

the second sentence expresses an actionin progress.

Here is another example for the samecontrast:

I went home at 7. (completedaction)At 7, I was going home. (action inprogress)

Related topics:

Past simple for completed actionsin the pastPast continuous for actions inprogress at a specific point in thepast

Past perfectForm: past perfectPast perfect for actions completedbefore a point in the pastPast perfect with FORPast perfect with superlative formsof adjectives

Form: past perfect

HAD + PAST PARTICIPLE

The past perfect is formed with had +the past participle form of the verb.

Affirmative

Subject Auxiliary Verb (pastparticiple)

I

had arrived bythen.


The following contracted forms are oftenused in spoken and in informal writtenlanguage:

I had » I'dyou had » you'dhe/she/it had » he'd/she'd/it'dwe had » we'dyou had » you'dthey had » they'd

Negative

Subject Auxiliary not Verb (pastparticiple)

IYou

He/She/It had not arrived bythen.We

YouThey

The contracted form hadn't is often usedinstead of had not in spoken and ininformal written language.

Interrogative

(Questionword) Auxiliary Subject Verb (past

participle)

(How) had

I

arrived

youhe/she/itwe

youthey

Related topics:

The forms of the participleSubject-auxiliary inversion inquestionsAppendix: irregular verb forms

Past perfect for actionscompleted before a point in thepast

The past perfect tense is used to expressthat an action was completed before apoint of time in the past. This point canbe implied or expressed with a timeexpression or a clause with a verb in thepast simple tense:

They had all arrived by 10 o'clock.When he tried to stand up, herealised he had broken his ankle.

Contrary to a common misunderstanding,the past perfect does not express thatsomething happened a very long timeago. What it expresses is not how longago an event happened but rather that ithappened earlier than something else:

Julius Caesar attacked Britain in54 BC. (This was quite a long timeago; still, the past simple tense isused here.)

When I got home, they had alreadyeaten everything in the house.(Maybe this only happenedyesterday, but the point is that theeating happened before my arrival.)

Expressions which are often used withthe past perfect tense: by, till, until,before, when, by the time, no sooner,hardly, scarcely, barely.

Danny had never seen a real cowtill I showed him one last Friday.He didn't leave until he had talkedwith the boss.By the time she got to the theatre,the play had already begun.I had no sooner got home than thetelephone rang.I had hardly/barely/scarcelyfallen asleep when there was anearthquake.

Quotes:

I had been told that the trainingprocedure with cats was difficult.It's not. Mine had me trained in twodays. - Bill Dana

Related topics:

Present perfect for past eventsFuture perfect for actionscompleted before a point in thefutureHARDLY, SCARCELY, BARELY,NO SOONER

Past perfect with FOR

The preposition for is used with the pastperfect tense to express that somethingstarted before a point of time in the pastand was still true at that point:

When they got married, they hadalready been together for threeyears.

Related topics:

Present perfect with FOR andSINCEFuture perfect with FOR

Past perfect with superlativeforms of adjectives

The past perfect is used with superlativeforms of adjectives to express emphasis:

It was the strangest piece of music Ihad ever heard.Jill was the most beautiful girl Johnhad ever met.

The second sentence above implies thatuntil that time John had never met such abeautiful girl, but since then perhaps hehas. If, however, John hasn't metanybody like Jill since then, the presentperfect is used instead of the pastperfect:

Jill was the most beautiful girl Johnhas ever met.

Related topics:

Present perfect with superlativeforms of adjectives

The difference between thepast simple and the pastperfectWhen the events of a story are told in theorder in which they occurred, the pastsimple tense is used:

I missed the last bus, so I only gothome at about 6 o'clock. I wasreally tired, so I took a hot bath.Then I made some dinner andwatched a film. At 10, I was inbed.

However, if the events are told in adifferent order or there are references to

an earlier time, the past perfect tense isused to express the earlier events:

I only got home at about 6 o'clockbecause I had missed the last bus. Iwas really tired, so I took a hotbath. Then I made some dinner andwatched a film I had borrowedfrom my friend Sheila earlier thatweek. At 10, I was in bed. It hadbeen a long day.

Related topics:

Past simple for completed actionsin the pastPast perfect for actions completedbefore a point in the past

Past perfect continuousForm: past perfect continuousPast perfect continuous forcontinuous events in the pastPast perfect continuous for habitualactions in the past

Form: past perfect continuous

HAD + BEEN + PRESENT PARTICIPLE(VERB-ING)

The past perfect continuous (also calledthe past perfect progressive) is formedwith had + been (the past participle formof be) + the present participle -ing formof the verb.

Affirmative

Subject AuxiliaryVerb

(presentparticiple)

IYou

He/She/Ithad been waiting for

hours.WeYouThey

Negative

Subject Auxiliary1 not Auxiliary

2

Verb(present

participle)

I

had not been waiting


The contracted form hadn't is often usedinstead of had not in spoken and ininformal written language.

Interrogative

(Questionword)

Auxiliary1 Subject Auxiliary

2

How long had

I

been

youhe/she/itweyouthey

Related topics:

Past perfect continuous forcontinuous events in the past

The past perfect continuous tense is usedto express that an action started before apoint of time in the past and that it wasstill in progress or it had just stopped.This point can be implied or expressedwith a time expression or a clause with averb in the past simple tense:

It had been snowing all night.By 2005, George had been livingin Scotland for 20 years.When I got to her house, she hadbeen waiting for hours.

Related topics:

Present perfect continuous withFOR and SINCEPresent perfect continuous for

continuous events that have justfinishedFuture perfect continuous forcontinuous events in the future

Past perfect continuous forhabitual actions in the past

The past perfect continuous is used toexpress repeated or habitual actionshappening over a period of time before apoint of time in the past:

I had been getting up at fiveo'clock all week, so on Friday Iwas completely exhausted.

Related topics:

Present perfect continuous forhabitual actions

The difference between thepast perfect and the pastperfect continuousIn contrast with the past perfect simpletense, which emphasises the result of acompleted action, the past perfectcontinuous focuses on the duration or theactivity itself:

By then, he had eaten all the food.(there was nothing left)He put down the fork he had beeneating with and left the table.

Present simple to expresspast

Headlines

In news headlines, the present simpletense refers to past time:

WAR CRIMINAL ESCAPESFROM COURTROOM (A warcriminal has escaped from acourtroom.)REAL MADRID WINS AGAINSTMANCHESTER UNITED (RealMadrid won against ManchesterUnited yesterday.)

Historical present

The present simple tense is used innarratives for purposes of dramatizationto express past events. This use of thepresent simple is called the historicalpresent.

Summaries of historical events:

1945: the war in Europecomes to an end.

Jokes:

Sherlock Holmes and DoctorWatson go camping. In themorning, as they are lying intheir sleeping bags, Holmes

says, 'Watson, look up at thesky and tell me what youdeduce.' So Watson says,'Well, the sky is salmon pink,so we're going to have a clearday. The moon is just setting,so it must be about 5 am.There are no clouds, so itprobably won't rain.' Holmesbursts out, 'Watson, you idiot!Someone has stolen our tent.'

Plot summaries (real stories,books, films etc.):

So I walk into this shop, and Isee this man with a gun in his

hand. And like... everybody'slooking at him. Then he says...

At the end of the story, Lukebecomes a Jedi and defeatsDarth Vader.

In such narratives, we use the presentsimple for main events and the presentcontinuous for background events.

USED TO and WOULDfor past habitsThis topic is discussed under Modals »Categories of meaning expressed bymodals » Modals to express habits:WILL, WOULD, USED TO.

Revision questions: pasttime

Which past tense expresses a pointof time at which somethinghappened, was happening or hadbeen happening for some time?Is the auxiliary did used inaffirmative sentences in the simplepast?Which past tenses can be used toexpress repeated, habitual actionsin the past?What is the difference betweenused to and would with regard topast habits?What is the historical present?

Present timeGuiding questions: present timePresent simplePresent continuousPresent perfectPresent perfect continuousRevision questions: present time

Guiding questions: presenttime

What adverbs of frequency do youknow?What is a general truth?Which two times does the presentperfect tense connect?What is the difference between thepresent perfect and the presentperfect continuous tenses?When do we use for with thepresent perfect tense and when dowe use since?

Present simpleForm: present simplePresent simple for present habitsand statesPresent simple for general truthsPresent simple in instructionsPresent simple in commentariesThe auxiliaries DO and DOES foremphasisPresent simple with SINCE WHEN

Form: present simple

VERB/VERB-S

Affirmative

Subject Verb (present tense)

I

work.YouWeYouTheyHe/She/It works.

The present simple form of the verb isidentical to the base form in all persons

except the third person singular. Thethird person singular is formed byadding -s to the base form. Note thechanges in spelling:

work » workslive » livesstay » staystry » tries (a final -y changes to -ie-after a consonant)wash » washes; kiss » kisses;watch » watches; box » boxes (weadd -es after -sh, -s, -ch and -x)go » goes (we add -es)do » does (we add -es)have » has

Negative

In the negative, we use the auxiliary do +not followed by the bare infinitive in allpersons except the third person singular.In the third person singular we use does+ not:

Subject Auxiliary not Verb (bareinfinitive)

I

donot work.

YouWeYouTheyHe/She/It does

The contracted forms don't and doesn'tare often used instead of do not and does

not in spoken and in informal writtenlanguage.

Interrogative

In the interrogative, we use the auxiliarydo followed by the subject and the bareinfinitive in all persons except the thirdperson singular. In the third personsingular, we use does:


Verb(bare

infinitive)

(How)do

I

work?

youweyou

theydoes he/she/it

The verb BE in the present simple

The verb be has irregular present tenseforms. In the present simple, theauxiliaries do and does are not used inthe negative and interrogative if the mainverb is be:

Affirmative Negative Interrogative

I am athome.

I am not athome.

Am I at home?

You are athome.

You are notat home.

Are you athome?

He/She/It isat home.

He/She/It isnot at home.

Is he/she/it athome?

We are athome.

We are notat home.

Are we athome?

You are athome.

You are notat home.

Are you athome?

They are athome.

They are notat home.

Are they athome?


I am » I'myou are » you'rehe/she/it is » he's/she's/it'swe are » we'reyou are » you'rethey are » they're

are not » aren'tis not » isn't

Related topics:

The auxiliaries DO and DOES foremphasisSubject-auxiliary inversion inquestions

Present simple for presenthabits and states

The present simple tense is used toexpress repeated, habitual actions in thepresent. Adverbs of frequency, such asalways, usually, regularly, frequently,often, sometimes, rarely, seldom,occasionally and never, and adverbphrases, for example, every year, once ina blue moon and three times a day, areoften used with this tense:

What's the first thing you usually dowhen you get up in the morning?I go to the gym twice a week.Every 15 minutes, someone dies

as a result of an alcohol-relatedcollision.

The present simple is also used to referto states that exist at the time ofspeaking:

My sister lives in Canada.George likes pudding.This house is really beautiful.

Quotes:

I had been told that the trainingprocedure with cats was difficult.It's not. Mine had me trained in twodays. - Bill DanaParents often talk about the youngergeneration as if they didn't haveanything to do with it. - HaimGinottWe are all in the gutter, but some of

us are looking at the stars. - OscarWildeI am an optimist. It does not seemtoo much use being anything else. -Winston Churchill

Related topics:

Past simple for past habits andstates

Present simple for generaltruths

The present simple is used to expressfacts that are always true or events thatalways happen. This use is oftendescribed with the term "general truth":

A magnet attracts iron.The sun rises in the east.Water boils at 100 degrees Celsius.

Quotes:

Not everything that can be countedcounts, and not everything thatcounts can be counted. - AlbertEinsteinMost of us spend our lives as if wehad another one in the bank. - BenIrwinLost time is never found again. -Benjamin Franklin

Christmas is a time when you gethomesick - even when you're home.- Carol NelsonGrowing old is mandatory; growingup is optional. - Chili DavisIt is impossible to keep a straightface in the presence of one or morekittens. - Cynthia E. VarnadoAttitudes are contagious. Are yoursworth catching? - Dennis andWendy ManneringSaying nothing sometimes says themost. - Emily DickinsonThe greatest weariness comes fromwork not done. - Eric HofferNo winter lasts forever; no springskips its turn. - Hal BorlandSuccess usually comes to those

who are too busy to be looking forit. - Henry David ThoreauMotivation is what gets you started.Habit is what keeps you going. -Jim RohnNature does not hurry, yeteverything is accomplished. - LaoTseWhat is not good for the swarm isnot good for the bee. - MarcusAureliusMen for the sake of getting a livingforget to live. - Margaret FullerEvery child is an artist. Theproblem is how to remain an artistonce we grow up. - Pablo PicassoThe best way to predict the future isto create it. - Peter Drucker

Small deeds done are better thangreat deeds planned. - PeterMarshallWise men speak because they havesomething to say; fools becausethey have to say something. - PlatoEach day is an opportunity to travelback into tomorrow's past andchange it. - Robert BraultFreedom lies in being bold. -Robert FrostFate leads the willing, and dragsalong the reluctant. - SenecaIt is terrible to speak well and bewrong. - SophoclesThose who wish to sing alwaysfind a song. - Swedish proverbLife is a shipwreck but we must not

forget to sing in the lifeboats. -VoltaireA barking dog is often more usefulthan a sleeping lion. - WashingtonIrvingIt is the familiar that usually eludesus in life. What is before our noseis what we see last. - WilliamBarretIn summer, the song sings itself. -William Carlos WilliamsA pessimist sees the difficulty inevery opportunity; an optimist seesthe opportunity in every difficulty. -Winston Churchill

Related topics:

Zero conditional

Present simple in instructions

The present simple tense is used ininstructions as an alternative to theimperative. This use implies that theactions are or should always beperformed in the same way or order:

First you roll out the pastry, thenyou cut circles with a cup or aglass.You go down this street to thesupermarket, then you turn left.I've pressed Ctrl+Alt+Del. What doI do now?

Present simple incommentaries

The present simple is used incommentaries on events happening at thepresent moment to describe actions thatare completed at the time of speaking:

Torres passes to Fabregas...Fabregas to Iniesta...Then the curtain drops and thelights go out.

The auxiliaries DO and DOESfor emphasis

In the present simple, the auxiliaries doand does (in the third person singular)followed by the bare infinitive form ofthe main verb can be used in affirmativesentences to express emphasis. Inspeech, the auxiliary is stressed:

We do want to help you.Diego does work hard.But I really do love you, baby!

Quotes:

Flowers really do intoxicate me. -Vita Sackville-West

Related topics:

Form: present simpleDO, DOES, DID + bare infinitive

Present simple with SINCEWHEN

Since when? with the present simple isused to indicate doubt or sarcasm:

Since when are people likeGeoffrey allowed to join this club?!(How can he join this club?!)Since when do you speak Russian?(I don't believe you speak Russian.)

Related topics:


Present continuousForm: present continuousPresent continuous for actions inprogress at the time of speakingPresent continuous for gradualdevelopmentPresent continuous for frequentlyrepeated actions in the presentPresent continuous for temporaryhabitual actions in the presentPresent continuous for habitualactions in the present

Form: present continuous

AM/IS/ARE + PRESENT PARTICIPLE(VERB-ING)

The present continuous (also called thepresent progressive) is formed witham/is/are (the present tense forms of be)+ the present participle -ing form of theverb.

Affirmative

Subject Auxiliary Verb (presentparticiple)

I am

He/She/It is

Youare

sleeping.WeYouThey

Negative

Subject Auxiliary not Verb (presentparticiple)

I am

not sleeping.

He/She/It isYou

areWeYouThey

Interrogative


Verb(present

participle)

(Where)

am I

sleeping?

is he/she/it

are

youweyouthey


I am » I'm

you are » you'rehe/she/it is » he's/she's/it'swe are » we'reyou are » you'rethey are » they're

are not » aren'tis not » isn't

Related topics:


Present continuous for actionsin progress at the time ofspeaking

The present continuous tense is used torefer to actions that are in progress at oraround the time of speaking:

"What are you doing?" "I amreading a book."New York police are investigatingthe case.Let's take an umbrella. It's raining.I'm staying at the Hotel Royal.

Quotes:

We are all in the gutter, but some ofus are looking at the stars. - OscarWilde

Related topics:

Past continuous for actions inprogress at a specific point in thepastFuture continuous for actions inprogress at a specific point in thefuture

Present continuous for gradualdevelopment

The present continuous can expresschange and gradual development in thepresent:

I feel that things are getting better.More and more people are givingup smoking.

Related topics:

Past continuous for gradualdevelopment

Present continuous forfrequently repeated actions inthe present

With time expressions such as always,constantly, continually and all the time,the present continuous can expressfrequently repeated actions which annoythe speaker:

Adults are always asking littlekids what they want to be.Her mother is constantly checkingup on her.Why are you continuallycriticising me?

Quotes:

Some people are always grumblingbecause roses have thorns; I amthankful that thorns have roses. -Alphonse Karr

Related topics:

Past continuous for frequentlyrepeated actions in the past

Present continuous fortemporary habitual actions inthe present

The present continuous is used toexpress repeated or habitual actions inthe present that are temporary and mayor may not actually be happening at thetime of speaking:

Lucy is taking piano lessons thesedays.Are you still seeing that guy fromthe hiking club?

Related topics:

Past continuous for temporaryhabitual actions in the pastFuture continuous for temporaryhabitual actions in the future

Present continuous for habitualactions in the present

The present continuous tense is used todescribe repeated, habitual actions thatbegin before a specific point of time (notnecessarily the time of speaking) andfinish after it. This point can beexpressed with a time expression or aclause with a verb in the present simpletense:

At 7.15, I'm having breakfast.Whenever I get home, my dog issleeping in the armchair.

The present continuous is also used forrepeated, habitual actions that continuefor a period of time. This period of timecan be expressed with a time expressionor a clause with a verb in the presentcontinuous tense:

I'm having breakfast between 7 and7.30.While I'm walking the dog, mywife is making dinner.

Related topics:

Present simple for present habitsand states

Present perfectForm: present perfectPresent perfect for past eventsPresent perfect for recent eventswith a result in the presentPresent perfect with an incompleteperiodPresent perfect with FOR andSINCEPresent perfect with JUSTPresent perfect with YET andALREADYIT'S (BEEN) + DAYS / WEEKS /MONTHS / etc. + SINCEPresent perfect with quantitiesPresent perfect with superlativeforms of adjectives

Present perfect with WHEN

Form: present perfect

HAVE/HAS + PAST PARTICIPLE

The present perfect is formed withhave/has (the present tense forms ofhave) + the past participle form of theverb.

Affirmative

Subject Auxiliary Verb (pastparticiple)

I

haveseen

thisfilmbefore.

YouWeYou

TheyHe/She/It has


I have » I'veyou have » you'vehe/she/it has » he's/she's/it'swe have » we'veyou have » you'vethey have » they've

Negative

Subject Auxiliary not Verb (pastparticiple)

I

havenot seen

thisfilmyet.

YouWeYouTheyHe/She/It has

The contracted forms haven't and hasn'tare often used instead of have not andhas not in spoken and in informal writtenlanguage.

Interrogative

(Questionword) Auxiliary Subject Verb (past

participle)

I

(Howmanytimes)

haveyou

seenweyouthey

has he/she/it

Related topics:

The forms of the participleSubject-auxiliary inversion inquestionsAppendix: irregular verb forms

Present perfect for past events

The present perfect tense is used for pastevents when the exact time is notmentioned either because it is not knownor it is not important. The emphasis is onthe fact that the events happened beforethe time of speaking:

I've been to China.I've seen that film before.

But if we say when something happened,we use the past simple:

I went to China in 2011.I already saw that film last week.

We also use the past simple if we askwhen something happened in the past:

"Have you ever been to China?""Yes, I have.""When did you go there?"

"Have you seen that film before?""Yes, I have.""When did you see it?"

Quotes:

Education is what remains after onehas forgotten what one has learnedin school. - Albert EinsteinI have never met a man so ignorantthat I couldn't learn something fromhim. - Galileo GalileiWhat you have become is the priceyou paid to get what you used towant. - Mignon McLaughlinI have not failed. I've just found10,000 ways that won't work. -Thomas Edison

Related topics:

Past simple for completed actionsin the pastPast perfect for actions completedbefore a point in the pastFuture perfect for actionscompleted before a point in thefuture

Present perfect for recentevents with a result in thepresent

The present perfect tense is used forrecent events that have a result in or aneffect on the present moment:

Someone has opened the window.(the window is open, and it is coldinside)Tom has broken his leg. (his leg isbroken, and he can't walk)

If there is no connection between theaction and the present moment, the pastsimple is used:

Someone opened the window to letin some fresh air. (the window isnow closed, or we don't knowwhether it is closed or not)On the day before the match, Tombroke his leg. (his leg is not brokenany more)

Present perfect with anincomplete period

The present perfect tense is used toexpress actions happening in anincomplete period of time. Anincomplete period is one that includesthe present moment, that is, the time ofspeaking. This period can be implied orexpressed with a time expression (today,this week, this year, ever, never etc.):

I haven't smoked today.I've lived here all my life.Have you ever been to China? (inyour life)My uncle has written several

plays. (in his life, supposing he isstill alive)He has never worked as a waiter.(in his life)

If the action happened in a completedperiod of time (one that does not includethe time of speaking), the past simpletense is used. This period can beimplied or expressed with a timeexpression (yesterday, last week, lastyear, between 1905 and 1910 etc.) or aclause:

I didn't smoke yesterday.I lived in this house when I was achild. (I am not a child any more)Did you go to China when you were

working as a flight attendant?Shakespeare wrote numerousplays. (in his life, he is dead now)He worked in this café between1905 and 1910.

Note that some time expressions (e.g.this morning, recently and lately) mayrefer to either a completed or anincomplete period of time depending onthe context and whether or not the timeof speaking is included in the givenperiod:

I have seen him this morning. (it isstill morning)

I saw him this morning. (it is laterduring the day)

He has put on some weightrecently. (in the past fewdays/weeks/months etc.)He put on some weight recently.(some time ago)

Reference to an incomplete period oftime, however, does not always involvethe use of the present perfect tense:

Have you been to Lake Balatonthis year? (any time this year)Did you go to Lake Balaton thisyear? (at the time when you gothere every year)

Although both actions are related to an

incomplete period, the present perfect inthe first sentence refers to an indefinitetime; meanwhile, the past simple in thesecond sentence implies a definite time(supposing the recipient of the questionalways visits Lake Balaton at the sametime every year).

Quotes:

I have never met a man so ignorantthat I couldn't learn something fromhim. - Galileo Galilei


The question words how long? and sincewhen?, and the prepositions for andsince are used with the present perfecttense to express that something started inthe past and is still true. How long? andfor refer to an incomplete period of time,while since when? and since refer to apoint of time:

I have lived here for two months.I have lived here since January."How long have you known José?""For ten years."

"Since when have you knownJosé?" "Since the early 1990s."

The point of time after since can also beexpressed with a clause containing a

verb in the past simple:

I have lived here since I was born.I've known José since we wereyoung.

Related topics:

IT'S (BEEN) + DAYS / WEEKS /MONTHS / etc. + SINCEPresent perfect continuous withFOR and SINCEPast simple to express a point in thepastPast simple for actions happeningover a period of time in the pastPast perfect with FORFuture perfect with FOR

Present perfect with JUST

The present perfect tense is used forrecently completed actions, usually withthe word just:

I have just started a typing course.

If the exact time is mentioned, the pastsimple is used:

I started a typing course a fewweeks ago.

Just now also requires the past simpletense and means "a moment ago":

I spoke to him just now. He sayshi.

Present perfect with YET andALREADY

The time expressions yet and already areoften used with the present perfect tense.Yet is used in negative and interrogativesentences:

I haven't finished yet.Have you talked to him yet?

Already is usually used in affirmativesentences:

I've already told you more than Ishould.

IT'S (BEEN) + DAYS /WEEKS / MONTHS / etc. +SINCE

The structure it's (been) + days / weeks /months / etc. + since is used toemphasise the length of time that haspassed since a past event:

It's been weeks since his last blogpost.It's been a long time since I methim.How long has it been since theymoved away?

In the sentences above, it's been stands

for it has been (present perfect);however, in everyday speech, it is morecommon to use the present simpleinstead of the present perfect:

It's weeks since his last blog post.It's a long time since I met him.How long is it since they movedaway?

Related topics:

Present perfect with FOR andSINCEPast simple to express a point in thepast

Present perfect with quantities

The present perfect tense is used toexpress quantities: how much we havedone of something or how often we havedone something in an incomplete periodof time:

I've written two letters today.How much alcohol have youconsumed in the past 24 hours?I've been to the cinema three timesthis month.

Present perfect withsuperlative forms of adjectives

The present perfect is used withsuperlative forms of adjectives toexpress emphasis:

This is the first time I have beento the Philippines.This is the worst film I have everseen.

Related topics:

Past perfect with superlative formsof adjectives

Present perfect with WHEN

When with present perfect refers to anindefinite time in an incomplete periodof time and is used to indicate criticism:

When have you ever done thedishes? (any time in your life orsince we met)

Related topics:

Present perfect for past events

Present perfect continuousForm: present perfect continuousPresent perfect continuous withFOR and SINCEPresent perfect continuous forcontinuous events that have justfinishedPresent perfect continuous forhabitual actions

Form: present perfectcontinuous

HAVE/HAS + BEEN + PRESENTPARTICIPLE (VERB-ING)

The present perfect continuous (alsocalled the present perfect progressive) isformed with have/has (the present tenseforms of have) + been (the pastparticiple form of be) + the presentparticiple -ing form of the verb.

Affirmative


(presentparticiple)

I

havebeen working all

week.



I have » I'veyou have » you'vehe/she/it has » he's/she's/it'swe have » we'veyou have » you'vethey have » they've

Negative

Subject Auxiliary1 not Auxiliary

2

Verb(present

participle)

I

havenot been working


The contracted forms haven't and hasn'tare often used instead of have not andhas not in spoken and in informal writtenlanguage.

Interrogative

(Questionword)

Auxiliary1 Subject Auxiliary

2

(Why)have

I

been

youweyouthey

has he/she/it

Related topics:


Present perfect continuouswith FOR and SINCE

The question words how long? and sincewhen?, and the prepositions for andsince are used with the present perfectcontinuous tense to express events thatstarted in the past and are still inprogress in the present. How long? andfor refer to an incomplete period of time,while since when? and since refer to apoint of time:

I've been waiting for you for ages.He has been living here since lastweek."How long have you been learning

Spanish?" "For two months.""Since when have they beendating?" "Since October."

The point of time after since can also beexpressed with a clause containing averb in the past simple:

He has been living here since hestarted school.

They have been dating since theyfirst met last May.

Related topics:

Present perfect with FOR andSINCEPast perfect continuous forcontinuous events in the pastFuture perfect continuous forcontinuous events in the future

Present perfect continuous forcontinuous events that havejust finished

The present perfect continuous tense isused to refer to continuous events thatstarted in the past and have just finishedbut have a result in or an effect on thepresent moment. A time expression is notnecessary:

I've been working on the computerall day. My eyes are sore.Your clothes are filthy! What haveyou been doing?I've been writing this letter allweek.

Present perfect continuous forhabitual actions

The present perfect continuous is used toexpress repeated or habitual actionshappening in an incomplete period oftime. A time expression is usuallynecessary:

She has been getting up at 6 forthe last two weeks.I've been coughing all day.

Related topics:

Past perfect continuous for habitualactions in the past

Revision questions:present time

Can we use the auxiliary do in thepresent simple tense in affirmativesentences?What is the difference in meaningbetween the following sentences?

He always speaks very loudly.He is always speaking veryloudly.

What is the difference in meaningbetween the following sentences?

I work as a waiter.I am working as a waiter.

Can action verbs be used in thepresent simple tense?Is this sentence correct: What areyou thinking about his plans?What is the difference in meaningbetween the following sentences?

He wrote ten novels.He has written ten novels.

What do we mean by an incompleteperiod of time?Can we use the past simple for anaction happening in an incompleteperiod of time?Which tense is used with the timeexpression just now?What is the difference in meaning

between the following sentences?

I have called him today.I've been calling him all day.

Future timeGuiding questions: future timeFuture simpleFuture continuousFuture perfectFuture perfect continuousBE GOING TOPresent simple for fixed futureevents (schedules, timetables anditineraries)Present continuous for fixed futurearrangementsThe difference between WILL, BEGOING TO and the presentcontinuous for future eventsOther expressions referring to

future timeFuture time clausesRevision questions: future time

Guiding questions: futuretime

Which tenses can be used toexpress future time?What kinds of future events can beexpressed with the presentcontinuous tense?What do be going to and the futuresimple tense have in common?What is the difference between thefuture perfect and the future perfectcontinuous tenses?What is the difference between thefuture continuous and the futureperfect continuous tenses?Besides tenses what other

structures can be used to refer tofuture time?

Future simpleForm: future simpleFuture simple for intentions (offers,promises and decisions)Future simple for predictionsFuture simple in complex sentences

Form: future simple

WILL + VERB

The future simple is formed with themodal will + simple infinitive without toin all persons.

Affirmative

Subject Auxiliary Verb (simpleinfinitive)

I

will help.

YouHe/She/ItWeYou

They


I will » I'llyou will » you'llhe/she/it will » he'll/she'll/it'llwe will » we'llyou will » you'llthey will » they'll

Negative

Subject Auxiliary not Verb (simpleinfinitive)

I

You

will not help.He/She/ItWeYouThey

The contracted form won't is often usedinstead of will not in spoken and ininformal written language.

Interrogative


Verb(simple

infinitive)

Iyou

(When) will he/she/it help?weyouthey

In British English, shall is often usedinstead of will in the first person inaffirmative sentences with no change ofmeaning. Shall is more formal than will:

Well, we shall see tomorrow.

In first person interrogatives, shallexpresses offers:

Shall I open the window?

Related topics:

Types of modalsThe forms of the infinitiveSubject-auxiliary inversion inquestions

Future simple for intentions(offers, promises and decisions)

The future simple tense is used toexpress future intentions that are decidedat the time of speaking (spontaneousoffers, promises and decisions):

Come on, I'll help you with thosebags. (offer)I will always love you. (promise)I'll have a wiener schnitzel.(decision)

In the first person, shall can be usedinstead of will to announce intentions.Shall is more formal than will:

I shall definitely give up smokingthis year.

Related topics:

BE GOING TO for intentions

Future simple for predictions

The future simple is used to makepredictions that are based on personaljudgement, opinion or intuition, and noton present evidence. Whether or not theevent will happen is not certain. Suchpredictions are often introduced by Ithink / I don't think:

I don't think he'll come tonight.I predict that Congress will pass ananti-piracy law soon.If you ask him, he'll probably giveyou a lift.

In the first person, shall can be usedinstead of will in formal styles:

Whatever happens, we shall alwaysbe best friends.

The future simple is also used to makegeneral predictions about facts that arealways true or events that alwayshappen:

Salty water will freeze at a lowertemperature than pure water.A gentleman will hold the door for alady.

Quotes:

You will never find time foranything. If you want time, you mustmake it. - Charles BuxtonSome days there won't be a song in

your heart. Sing anyway. - EmoryAustinYou will never win if you neverbegin. - Helen RowlandIf you do not sow in the spring, youwill not reap in the autumn. - IrishproverbIf you're in a bad situation, don'tworry it'll change. If you're in agood situation, don't worry it'llchange. - John A. Simone, Sr.Whoever gossips to you will gossipabout you. - Spanish proverbAction will remove the doubts thattheory cannot solve. - Tehyi Hsieh

Related topics:

Modals to express assumption:WILL, SHOULD, OUGHT TOBE GOING TO for predictions

Future simple in complexsentences

The future simple tense is often used inthe main clause of complex sentencesthat refer to future time and containclauses of condition, time or purpose. Inthe subordinate clause (starting with if,when, as soon as, after, before, themoment etc.), we usually use a presenttense:

If you have completed the course,you will receive a certificate.(condition)As soon as I hear anything, I will letyou know. (time)

I'm taking a book with me so that I'llhave something to read on the train.(purpose)

Quotes:

Live as you will wish to have livedwhen you are dying. - ChristianFurchtegott GellertYou will never win if you neverbegin. - Helen Rowland

If you do not sow in the spring, youwill not reap in the autumn. - Irishproverb

Related topics:

Future time clauses

Future continuousForm: future continuousFuture continuous for actions inprogress at a specific point in thefutureFuture continuous for actionshappening over a period of time inthe futureFuture continuous for temporaryhabitual actions in the futureFuture continuous for futurearrangements

Form: future continuous

WILL + BE + PRESENT PARTICIPLE(VERB-ING)

The future continuous (also called thefuture progressive) is formed with themodal will + continuous infinitivewithout to (be + the present participle -ing form of the verb) in all persons.

Affirmative


(continuousinfinitive)

IYou

He/She/Itwill be coming back

soon.WeYouThey



Negative

Subject Auxiliary notVerb

(continuousinfinitive)

I

will not be coming backsoon.



Interrogative

(QuestionVerb

word) Auxiliary Subject (continuousinfinitive)

(When) will

I

be coming


Related topics:

The forms of the infinitiveThe forms of the participleSubject-auxiliary inversion inquestions

Future continuous for actionsin progress at a specific pointin the future

The future continuous tense is used torefer to actions that will be in progressat or around a specific point of time inthe future. This point can be implied orexpressed with a time expression or aclause with a verb in the present simpletense:

At seven? I'll be bathing the babythen.When you arrive, I'll be waiting foryou outside the station.

This time next year, he will beliving in India.

Related topics:

Past continuous for actions inprogress at a specific point in thepastPresent continuous for actions inprogress at the time of speaking

Future continuous for actionshappening over a period oftime in the future

The future continuous is used to describeactions which will continue over aperiod of time in the future. This periodcan be expressed with a time expressionor a clause with a verb in the presentcontinuous tense. In this case, the twoactions will be happeningsimultaneously:

Sorry, I can't go on the trip. I willbe working the whole weekend.While you're studying, I'll bepractising yoga.

Related topics:

Past continuous for actionshappening over a period of time inthe past

Future continuous fortemporary habitual actions inthe future

The future continuous is used to expressrepeated or habitual actions in the futurethat will be temporary:

I'm going on holiday tomorrow, butI'll be checking my e-mail at leastonce a day.Next week, I'll be going to adifferent concert every day.

Related topics:

Past continuous for temporaryhabitual actions in the pastPresent continuous for temporaryhabitual actions in the present

Future continuous for futurearrangements

The future continuous is used for futurearrangements and plans that are lessdefinite and formal:

The band will be performing liveat the end of March.We will be arriving in Prague soon.

Related topics:

Present continuous for fixed futurearrangements

Future perfectForm: future perfectFuture perfect for actionscompleted before a point in thefutureFuture perfect with FOR

Form: future perfect

WILL + HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE

The future perfect is formed with themodal will + perfect infinitive withoutto (have + the past participle form of theverb) in all persons.

Affirmative

Subject Auxiliary Verb (perfectinfinitive)

I

will have finishedbythen.

YouHe/She/ItWe

YouThey



Negative

Subject Auxiliary notVerb

(perfect

infinitive)

I

will not havefinished

bythen.



Interrogative


Verb(perfect

infinitive)

By whattime will

I

havefinished?


Related topics:

The forms of the infinitiveThe forms of the participleSubject-auxiliary inversion inquestionsAppendix: irregular verb forms

Future perfect for actionscompleted before a point in thefuture

The future perfect tense is used toexpress that an action will be completedbefore a point of time in the future (anytime up to that point). This point can beimplied or expressed with a timeexpression or a clause with a verb in thepresent simple tense:

It's no use calling him at work; he'llhave left.By next week, they'll have finishedpainting the rooms.

By the time we get home, the filmwill have started.

Related topics:

Past perfect for actions completedbefore a point in the pastPresent perfect for past events

Future perfect with FOR

The preposition for is used with thefuture perfect tense to express thatsomething will start before a point oftime in the future (or has already started)and that it will still be true at that point:

This time next week, I'll have livedin my new apartment for three days.In October, my parents will havebeen married for 50 years.

Related topics:

Past perfect with FORPresent perfect with FOR andSINCE

Future perfect continuousForm: future perfect continuousFuture perfect continuous forcontinuous events in the future

Form: future perfectcontinuous

WILL + HAVE + BEEN + PRESENTPARTICIPLE (VERB-ING)

The future perfect continuous (alsocalled the future perfect progressive) isformed with the modal will + perfectcontinuous infinitive without to (have +been + the present participle -ing formof the verb) in all persons.

Affirmative

Subject Auxiliary

Verb(perfect

continuous

infinitive)

I

will have beenliving

herefor fiveyearsbythen.



I will » I'llyou will » you'llhe/she/it will » he'll/she'll/it'llwe will » we'll

you will » you'llthey will » they'll

Negative

Subject Auxiliary not

Verb(perfect

continuousinfinitive)

I

will not have beenliving

hereforfiveyearsbythen.


The contracted form won't is often used

instead of will not in spoken and ininformal written language.

Interrogative


Verb(perfect

continuousinfinitive)

How long will

I

have beenliving


Related topics:

The forms of the infinitiveThe forms of the participleSubject-auxiliary inversion inquestions

Future perfect continuous forcontinuous events in the future

The future perfect continuous tense isused to express events that will startbefore a point of time in the future (orhave already started) and will still be inprogress at that point:

By tomorrow, it will have beenraining for four days.Soon, he'll have been running for 4hours.

Related topics:

Past perfect continuous forcontinuous events in the pastPresent perfect continuous withFOR and SINCE

BE GOING TO

BE GOING TO for intentions

Be going to is used to express futureintentions that, at the moment ofspeaking, have already been decided:

We are going to redecorate theliving room next week.Are you going to propose to her?Do you think Sam's going to applyfor the job?

Related topics:

Future simple for intentions (offers,

promises and decisions)

BE GOING TO for predictions

Be going to is used to predict futureevents that are very near (and can beseen) or seem sure to happen. Suchpredictions are based on presentevidence:

I'm going to faint.Look at the clouds; it's going torain.My sister is going to have a baby.

Quotes:

Live every day as if it were goingto be your last; for one day you'resure to be right. - Harry "Breaker"Harbord Morant

Related topics:


Present simple for fixedfuture events (schedules,timetables and itineraries)When talking about schedules,timetables and itineraries, the presentsimple tense is used to refer to a futureevent that is planned and is not likely tochange:

I have a meeting on the 15th, butI'm free on the following day.What time is your flight?The last train to Rome leaves at22.30.On day 6, we visit the pyramids.His father retires in two years.

Christmas Eve is on a Tuesday thisyear.

Present continuous forfixed future arrangementsUsed with a time expression, the presentcontinuous tense can express fixedsocial or travel arrangements for thefuture:

"What are you doing tonight?" "I'mgoing out with some friends." (it issettled)They are getting married nextmonth. (they have madearrangements)I'm flying to Istanbul on the 15th. (Ihave booked my ticket)

Related topics:

Future continuous for futurearrangements

The difference betweenWILL, BE GOING TOand the present continuousfor future events

WILL and BE GOING TO forfuture intentions

Will (future simple) is used to expressfuture intentions that are decided at thetime of speaking (spontaneous offers,promises and decisions):

Come on, I'll help you with thosebags. (seeing that someone isstruggling with their shopping bags)

Be going to is used to express futureintentions that have already beendecided before the time of speaking:

I can't make it on Saturday. I'mgoing to help my parents aroundthe house. (referring to a decisionthat the speaker has made in thepast)

WILL and BE GOING TO forpredictions

Will (future simple) is used to makepredictions that are based on personaljudgement, opinion or intuition:

I'm sure you'll have a lovely time in

Italy. (opinion)

Be going to is used to make predictionsthat are based on present evidence. Thepredicted event is either very near (andcan be seen) or seems sure to happen:

My sister's going to have a baby.(we can see that she is pregnant)

BE GOING TO and presentcontinuous for future plans

Be going to refers to future intentionsthat have been decided but have not beenfully planned:

We're going to get married.

(referring to a past decision)

The present continuous tense refers tofixed future events and emphasises thatplans or arrangements have already beenmade:

We are getting married next month.(the wedding has already beenarranged)

Related topics:

Future simple for intentions (offers,promises and decisions)Future simple for predictionsBE GOING TO for intentionsBE GOING TO for predictionsPresent continuous for fixed future

arrangements

Other expressionsreferring to future timeThis topic is discussed under Modals »Other modal expressions.

Future time clausesIn time clauses that refer to future time(clauses with if, when, after, before, assoon as, once, until, while etc.) we usethe present tenses:

Say hi from me if you see him.(present simple)Will you wait for me until I getback? (present simple)As soon as I arrive, I'll give you acall. (present simple) You can play in the garden whenyou have finished yourhomework. (present perfect)I'll be waiting outside while you

are speaking to the doctor.(present continuous)

Quotes:

Live as you will wish to have livedwhen you are dying. - ChristianFurchtegott GellertEvery child is an artist. Theproblem is how to remain an artistonce we grow up. - Pablo PicassoWhen you get to the top of a

mountain, keep climbing. - Zensaying

Related topics:

Future simple in complex sentencesFirst conditional

Revision questions: futuretime

Which present tenses can expressfuture events?What is the difference between begoing to and the present continuoustense when used to refer to futuretime?Which structure or tense can beused to express a plan that hasalready been decided before thetime of speaking?What kind of predictions can bemade by using the future simpletense?For what meaning can we use both

the present continuous and thefuture continuous tenses?

Tenses in indirectspeechThis topic is discussed under Indirectspeech » Changes in indirect speech »Tense changes in indirect speech.

Chapter 2:Modals

Guiding questions: modalsTypes of modalsCategories of meaning expressedby modalsOther modal expressionsOverview of modalsModals and adverbsModals in indirect speechRevision questions: modals

Guiding questions:modals

Which form of the main verb isused after modal verbs?Can a modal follow another modal?Does a modal have only onemeaning?Can the same meaning be expressedwith different modals?How do we use modals to refer topast, present and future times?

Types of modalsModals include modal verbs, semi-modal verbs (also called marginalmodals) and other modal expressions.They combine with main verbs andmodify their meanings. A modal mayhave several different meanings, whilesimilar meanings may be expressed byusing different modals:

He can't be at home; I've just methim. (deduction)Unless you finish your homework,you can't go to the cinema.(prohibition)

Can I help you? (offer)

May I help you? (offer)

Modal verbs

The modal verbs (or modal auxiliaryverbs) are: can, could, may, might, will,shall, would, should and must.

Modal verbs always come first in averb phrase and are followed by abare infinitive. When used with aperfect infinitive, modal verbsusually refer to past time:

I could hear the dog barkingoutside. (modal + simple bareinfinitive)You must be joking. (modal +

continuous bare infinitive)He may have caught the train.(modal + perfect bareinfinitive)You must have been waitingfor hours. (modal + perfectcontinuous bare infinitive)

Contracted forms of will and wouldare often used in spoken and ininformal written language ('ll and'd):

I'd tell you if I knew.They'll be here soon.

Modal verbs take no -s in the thirdperson singular:

He might be at the office.

Modal verbs form their negativeand interrogative like otherauxiliaries and not with do:

I can't swim.Can you swim?

The following contracted negativeforms are often used in spoken andin informal written language:

cannot » can'tcould not » couldn'tmight not » mightn'twill not » won'tshall not » shan't

would not » wouldn'tshould not » shouldn'tmust not » mustn't

Modal verbs have no proper pasttense; however, could, would,might and should may be used torefer to past time:

I could swim when I was five.

Modal verbs have no infinitive, -ing or past participle forms andcannot be followed by other modalverbs. When necessary, modalidioms or other expressions areused instead of them:

If you want to be a sailor, you

must can swim.If you want to be a sailor, youmust be able to swim.

I have canned swim since theage of five.I have been able to swimsince the age of five.

Semi-modal verbs

The semi-modal verbs (or marginalmodals) are: dare, need, used to andought to. They behave similarly to modalverbs but also share somecharacteristics with main verbs:

How dare she criticise us? (as a

modal verb, the interrogativeformed without do)He didn't dare to look back. (as amain verb, followed by a to-infinitive and the negative formedwith do)

Need you make so much noise? (asa modal verb, the interrogativeformed without do)You needn't have been so rude.(as a modal verb, the perfectinfinitive used to refer to past time)Do you need to use the hairdryer?(as a main verb, followed by a to-infinitive and the interrogativeformed with do)

They used to live by the sea.(unlike a modal verb, followed bya to-infinitive)

You ought to know that by now.(unlike a modal verb, followed bya to-infinitive)

Other modal expressions

Besides modal verbs and semi-modalverbs, there are other expressions whichcan express modal meanings. Some ofthese are formed with be:

be able tobe allowed tobe about to

be bound tobe going tobe likely tobe obliged tobe supposed toetc.

Other expressions that carry modalmeanings are: be to, had better, have(got) to, would rather.

Modal verbs, semi-modal verbs andother modal expressions are discussedin detail on the following pages.

Related topics:

The forms of the infinitiveThe infinitive after modals

Form: future simpleForm: future continuousForm: future perfectForm: future perfect continuousSubject-auxiliary inversion inquestions

Categories ofmeaning expressedby modals

Modals to express ability: CAN,COULD, BE ABLE TOModals to express advice:SHOULD, OUGHT TO, HADBETTERModals to express assumption:WILL, SHOULD, OUGHT TOModals to express criticism: CAN,COULD, MIGHT, SHOULDThe semi-modal DAREModals to express deduction:MUST, CAN'T, COULDN'T

Modals to express habits: WILL,WOULD, USED TOModals to express intentions: BEGOING TO, WILLModals to express necessity /obligation: MUST, HAVE (GOT)TO, NEED, SHOULD, OUGHTTO, SHALLModals to express offers: CAN,COULD, WILL, SHALL, MAYModals to express permission /prohibition: CAN, COULD, MAY,MIGHT, BE ALLOWED TO,MUSTN'T, BE TOModals to express possibility:MAY, MIGHT, CAN, COULDModals to express predictions: BEGOING TO, WILL

Modals to express requests: CAN,COULD, WILL, WOULDModals to express suggestions:SHOULD, COULD, MIGHT,SHALLThe modal SHOULD to expresssurpriseThe modal WOULD to expressunreal situationsModals to express willingness /unwillingness: WILL, WOULD

Modals to express ability:CAN, COULD, BE ABLETO

Present and future

Can and be able to can express presentand future ability:

Tom can play the piano.We can't enter this street becauseit's blocked.I am not able to help you at themoment.If you ask him, he can probablyhelp you.

I will probably be able to get thereby 9.

Past

Could and was/were able to can expressgeneral past ability:

I could swim when I was five.I was able to swim when I wasfive.

But the past ability to perform aparticular action on one occasion isexpressed with was/were able to:

Although the current was strong, Iwas able to swim to the other bank.

(I managed to swim to the otherbank)

In the sentence above could is notpossible. However, this rule is relaxedin the negative and with verbs of thesenses:

I read it but I couldn't understand /wasn't able to understand it.I could see / was able to see himthrough the window.I couldn't walk / wasn't able towalk any further.

Be able to is used to express past abilitywhen could is grammatically notpossible:

I have been able to swim since Iwas five.

Quotes:

Not everything that can be countedcounts, and not everything thatcounts can be counted. - AlbertEinsteinIf one cannot invent a reallyconvincing lie, it is often better tostick to the truth. - Angela ThirkellIt is the mark of an educated mindto be able to entertain a thoughtwithout accepting it. - AristotleNo one can make you feel inferiorwithout your consent. - EleanorRoosevelt

If you can find a path with noobstacles, it probably doesn't leadanywhere. - Frank A. ClarkI have never met a man so ignorantthat I couldn't learn something fromhim. - Galileo GalileiThere is no man living that cannotdo more than he thinks he can. -Henry FordA coach is someone who can givecorrection without causingresentment. - John WoodenIt is the friends you can call up at 4a.m. that matter. - Marlene DietrichIf you don't like something changeit; if you can't change it, change theway you think about it. - MaryEngelbreit

No river can return to its source,yet all rivers must have abeginning. - Native AmericanproverbYou must learn from the mistakes ofothers. You can't possibly live longenough to make them all yourself. -Samuel LevensonAction will remove the doubts thattheory cannot solve. - Tehyi HsiehOnly in grammar can you be morethan perfect. - William Safire

Modals to express advice:SHOULD, OUGHT TO,HAD BETTERShould, ought to and had better canexpress advice:

You should smoke less.We'd better leave soon.You ought to thank her.

Ought to is less frequently used and ismore formal.

Modals to expressassumption: WILL,SHOULD, OUGHT TO

Present and future

Will and should + infinitive are used toexpress assumptions with reference topresent and future time. Assumptionswith will are more probable:

"The phone's ringing." "That'll befor me." There's no point in speaking louder.He won't understand.I should get back before 9."Is it far from here?" "I should

think so.""We're going to the Swiss Alps nextweek." "That should be nice."I have never tried to set up awebsite, but it shouldn't be toodifficult.

Ought to can be used instead of should,but it is less common:

Anne ought to be at home by now.

Past

Will, should and ought to + perfectinfinitive are used to expressassumptions about past events:

Some of you will have met mebefore.The plane should have landed bynow.

Related topics:


Modals to expresscriticism: CAN, COULD,MIGHT, SHOULD

Present and future

Can, could, might and should/shouldn't +infinitive are used to express criticismor disapproval with reference to presentor future time:

You can be really annoying, youknow!You shouldn't be sitting here justdoing nothing!You might be more polite.George could really help you!

Past

Could, might and should/shouldn't +perfect infinitive are used to expresscriticism or disapproval with referenceto past time:

I should have booked a table inadvance.Of course, you feel sick. Youshouldn't have eaten so muchchocolate.You might have told me youweren't coming!George could really have helpedyou!

Quotes:

No city should be too large for aman to walk out of in a morning. -Cyril Connolly

The semi-modal DAREDare means "have the courage to dosomething" and can behave either as amodal verb or as a main verb:

As a modal verb, dare is used innegative and interrogativesentences; it is followed by a bareinfinitive:

I daren't think how manyvictims there are.How dare she criticise us?

Dare as a main verb can befollowed by a bare infinitive or ato-infinitive:

Do you dare (to) tell himwhat happened to his bike?Who dares (to) argue withme?He didn't dare (to) look back.No one would have dared(to) think about it.

But in the expression Don't youdare..., it is always followed by abare infinitive:

Don't you dare interrupt me!

Related topics:

The semi-modal NEED

Modals to expressdeduction: MUST, CAN'T,COULDN'T

Present

Must, can't and couldn't + infinitive areused to express deductions about presentevents:

That child is really talented. Hisparents must be proud of him.It's only 10 o'clock. Hecan't/couldn't be at home.

Past

Must, can't and couldn't + perfectinfinitive are used to express deductionsabout past events:

That dress looks expensive. It musthave cost a fortune.It can't/couldn't have been Carlayou saw this morning. She is awayon holiday.

Related topics:

Modals to express possibility:MAY, MIGHT, CAN, COULD

Modals to express habits:WILL, WOULD, USEDTO

Present

Would can express annoying habitswhich are typical of a person:

Tom would do something like that,wouldn't he? It's so typical of him!

Will is used to emphasise thecharacteristics of a person rather thandescribing the person himself or herself:

A friend will always help you. (this

is one of the characteristics of afriend)

Past

USED TO

Used to refers to past habits and stateswhich were true in the past but are nottrue any more. It can be used with bothaction verbs and state verbs:

On Sundays, my parents used totake me to dance school. (habit,action verb)I used to hate dancing in thosedays. (state, state verb)

The negative and interrogative forms ofused to are:

I didn't use to like dancing in thosedays.Why did you use to hate dancing?

Used to + infinitive should not beconfused with be/get used to + gerund(verb-ing):

She used to live alone in a smallapartment. (it was true in the past,but not any more)She was used to living alone in asmall apartment. (she wasaccustomed to it)She got used to living alone in a

small apartment. (she becameaccustomed to it)

WOULD

Would describes repeated past actionsbut not states. It can only be used withaction verbs:

From time to time, he would callher to ask if she wanted to meet forlunch.

USED TO or WOULD?

With action verbs, often either used to orwould is possible:

On Sundays, my parents used to

take me to dance school.On Sundays, my parents wouldtake me to dance school.

With state verbs, however, only used tois possible:

I used to hate dancing in thosedays.I would hate dancing in those days.

Quotes:

What you have become is the priceyou paid to get what you used towant. - Mignon McLaughlin

Modals to expressintentions: BE GOINGTO, WILLThis topic is discussed under Futuretime » BE GOING TO » BE GOINGTO for intentions and Future time »Future simple » Future simple forintentions (offers, promises,decisions).

Modals to expressnecessity / obligation:MUST, HAVE (GOT) TO,NEED, SHOULD,OUGHT TO, SHALL

Modals to express obligation:MUST, HAVE (GOT) TOThe semi-modal NEEDModals to express obligation:SHOULD, OUGHT TOThe modal SHALL to expressobligation

Modals to express obligation:MUST, HAVE (GOT) TO

Present and future

Must refers to obligations which comefrom the speaker and may be directed atthe speaker or the listener:

I really must give up smoking.(directed at the speaker)You must keep this secret.(directed at the listener)

Have to expresses external obligations,which come from outside of the speaker.

These may be rules and regulationsimposed by an external authority:

I have to get to work by 9 everyday.Do you have to wear a uniform atyour school?

Absence of obligation is expressed withthe negative form of have to, not withmustn't. Mustn't is used to express that itis necessary not to do something:

I don't have to get up earlytomorrow. It's a holiday. (I can getup late.)You mustn't tell anyone. It's asecret. (Don't tell anyone.)

Have got to has the same meaning ashave to, but it is more common ininformal, spoken language. Theaffirmative, negative and interrogativeforms of have to and have got to are:

have to have got to

I/you/we/they haveto go.

I/you/we/they havegot to go.

I/you/we/they don'thave to go.

I/you/we/theyhaven't got to go.

Do I/you/we/theyhave to go?

Have I/you/we/theygot to go?

He has to go. He has got to go.He doesn't have togo.

He hasn't got to go.

Does he have to go? Has he got to go?

Must and will have to can be used torefer to future obligations:

You must be home by 10 o'clock.I'll have to pay my bills next week.

Past

Must has no past form. Instead, we usehad to to express past obligations:

When I was at primary school, Ihad to wear a uniform.We had to start all over again.

Quotes:

Life is like riding a bicycle - in

order to keep your balance, youmust keep moving. - Albert EinsteinA journey of a thousand miles mustbegin with a single step. - Lao TseIf you tell the truth, you don't haveto remember anything. - MarkTwainWise men speak because they havesomething to say; fools becausethey have to say something. - PlatoSome things have to be believed tobe seen. - Ralph HodgsonYou must learn from the mistakes ofothers. You can't possibly live longenough to make them all yourself. -Samuel LevensonTo be successful, you have to haveyour heart in your business, and

your business in your heart. -Thomas Watson, Sr.Life is a shipwreck but we must notforget to sing in the lifeboats. -VoltaireA man must be master of his hoursand days, not their servant. -William Frederick Book

The semi-modal NEED

Present and future

Need can behave either as a modal verbor as a main verb:

As a modal verb, need is mosttypically used in negative sentencesor in affirmative sentences with anegative meaning. It expressesabsence of obligation or necessity,and it is followed by a bareinfinitive:

You needn't worry about that.No one need be surprised atwhat happened.

You need only just ask.I doubt whether I need helpyou.

Need as a modal verb also occursin interrogative sentences, but thisuse is much more formal:

Need you make so muchnoise?

Need as a main verb is followed bya to-infinitive and expresses thatsomething is necessary. It can beused in affirmative, negative andinterrogative sentences:

Do you have a minute? I needto talk to you about

something.I don't need to be told that Ishould lose weight.Do you need to use thehairdryer?If you want good results, youwill need to work harder.

Past

The past tense of the main verbneed to is needed to:

I needed to have my hair cut.Why did they need to changethe lock?

The negative form didn't need + to-

infinitive normally refers to actionswhich were unnecessary and werenot performed:

We didn't need to buy anymilk. We had plenty at home.(we didn't have to buy anymilk, and we didn't buy any)

Need as a modal does not have apast tense form. Needn't + perfectbare infinitive (have + pastparticiple), however, is used foractions which were performed butwere unnecessary:

We needn't have bought anymilk. We still have plenty at

home. (we bought some milk,but it wasn't necessary)

Quotes:

Gossip needn't be false to be evil -there's a lot of truth that shouldn'tbe passed around. - Frank A. Clark

Related topics:

The semi-modal DARE

Modals to express obligation:SHOULD, OUGHT TO

Present and future

Should and ought to + infinitive expressobligation and duty. Should is used whenwe offer a subjective opinion, whileought to has a more general and moreobjective meaning:

I think you should leave.We ought to protect theenvironment.

Past

Should and ought to + perfect infinitiveexpress that an action which wasdesirable was not performed:

You should have consulted adoctor.You ought to have told me earlier.Why didn't you tell me?

Quotes:

Gossip needn't be false to be evil -there's a lot of truth that shouldn'tbe passed around. - Frank A. ClarkWe should read to give our souls achance to luxuriate. - Henry MillerEvery English poet should masterthe rules of grammar before he

attempts to bend or break them. -Robert Graves

The modal SHALL to expressobligation

Shall is used to express formal rules andregulations or commands in an archaicstyle:

Visitors shall be accompanied atall times by a security guard.You shall not kill.

Modals to express offers:CAN, COULD, WILL,SHALL, MAYCan, could, will, shall and may are usedto express offers:

Can I help you?May I carry your suitcase,Madam? (only in first-personquestions)I could give you a lift.Shall I copy this document for you?(only in first-person questions)I will make you a coffee.

Modals to expresspermission / prohibition:CAN, COULD, MAY,MIGHT, BE ALLOWEDTO, MUSTN'T, BE TO

Present and future

Can and may are used to givepermission. May is more formal and lesscommon in everyday contexts:

You can borrow my car if youwant.Children may use the pool withadult supervision.

The negative forms cannot/can't, mustn'tand may not (more formal) are used toexpress prohibitions:

I'm sorry, but you can't stay here.You mustn't touch that Ming vase. Non-committee members may notvote on committee issues.

Used in the negative, be to can alsoexpress prohibitions:

You are not to do that again!

Can, could and may are used to ask forpermission. Can is the most direct of thethree, could is more formal andtentative, and may is the most formal:

Can I use your phone?Could I have a glass of water?May I start my presentation?

Might, which has a more tentativemeaning, is very formal and is rarelyused:

Might I ask you a question?

When we talk about permission but weare not actually giving, refusing orasking for it, we can use can/can't or beallowed to:

Students can choose any topic fortheir project.We can't eat in the library.

Are we allowed to smoke in thisrestaurant?Will journalists be allowed to askquestions?

Past

Could can be used to express generalpermission in the past:

When I was a child, I could dobasically anything that I wanted todo.

But when we talk about a particularaction which was permitted andperformed, we use was/were allowedto:

Although I was underage, I wasallowed to enter the race.

Modals to expresspossibility: MAY, MIGHT,CAN, COULD

Present and future

May and might + infinitive are used toexpress present or future possibility.May expresses a greater degree ofcertainty:

You should ask him. He may/mightknow Susan's telephone number.(Perhaps he knows her number.)I may/might see you later.(Perhaps I will see you later.)You should introduce yourself; he

may/might not remember you.(Perhaps she doesn't/won'tremember you.)

May and might are usually not used tointroduce a question. Instead, we can useDo you think? or be likely to / be likelythat:

Do you think he may/might knowSusan's telephone number?Are you likely to get here before8?Is it likely that you will get herebefore 8?

Could can be used instead of may andmight with the verb be:

You could be right.They could still be waiting for us.

The negative form couldn't is often usedwith comparative adjectives:

The food is delicious, and the staffcouldn't be more polite. (they arevery polite)

Except for this use, couldn't expressesnegative deduction, not possibility:

It's only 10 o'clock. He couldn't beat home. (He is usually at work atthis time of the day.)

Can may express general possibility:

Winters in Minnesota can be reallycold.

Past

May, might and could + perfect infinitiveexpress uncertainty with reference topast actions:

We haven't heard from him for tenyears. He may/might/could havedied. (Perhaps he has died, but wedon't know.)

But when we want to say that somethingwas possible but did not happen, we usemight or could:

He was very careless whencrossing the road. He might/couldhave died. (He didn't die.)I could have caught the bus if I hadhurried. (I didn't hurry, so I didn'tcatch the bus.)

Couldn't + perfect infinitive is often usedwith comparative adjectives:

It was a great year, and I couldn'thave been happier. (I was veryhappy)

May/might not + perfect infinitive isused for uncertainty, but could not +perfect infinitive (except for the caseabove) expresses deduction:

I had better call Anne. Shemay/might not have read my e-mail. (uncertainty)It couldn't have been John yousaw this morning. He is away onholiday. (deduction)

Quotes:

It is never too late to be who youmight have been. - George EliotIf you don't know where you'regoing, you might never get there. -Yogi Berra

Related topics:

Modals to express deduction:MUST, CAN'T, COULDN'T

Modals to expresspredictions: BE GOINGTO, WILLThis topic is discussed under Futuretime » BE GOING TO » BE GOINGTO for predictions and Future time »Future simple » Future simple forpredictions.

Modals to expressrequests: CAN, COULD,WILL, WOULDCan, could, will and would are used toexpress requests:

Can you lend me $10?Can I borrow your car?Could you tell me where the trainstation is?Could I have a cigarette? Will you turn off your mobilephone, please?Would you open the door for me?Would you mind stepping outsidefor a moment?

Modals to expresssuggestions: SHOULD,COULD, MIGHT, SHALLShould, could, might and shall are usedto express suggestions:

Shouldn't we have a pizza instead?You could talk to your parents andask them.You might consider taking upmeditation.Shall we throw a party sometimenext week?

Might is often used with want or like toadd politeness:

I thought you might want/like toread this.

May/might as well is often used ineveryday conversation to suggestsomething when you can't think ofanything better to do:

We may as well call it off.You might just as well order it onthe internet.

Quotes:

No city should be too large for aman to walk out of in a morning. -Cyril Connolly

The modal SHOULD toexpress surpriseShould in that-clauses is used as analternative to present or past tenses toexpress surprise or disbelief:

I'm sorry that he should feel thatway.It's funny that we should be livingin the same block of flats.It's surprising that she should havesaid that.

The modal WOULD toexpress unreal situations

Present and future

Would + infinitive can refer to unrealsituations in the present or future. Anunreal situation is one which is not truein the present or one which may or maynot happen in the future:

It would be nice to live by the sea.(I don't live by the sea)It would be great to go hiking in theAppalachians again. (I may or maynot go)

Would is often used in the main clause ofa sentence in the second conditional:

I wouldn't do that if I were you. (Iam not you)I would help you if you asked meto. (you may or may not ask me)

Past

Would + perfect infinitive refers tounreal situations in the past. We imaginea hypothetical past situation which didnot happen. We often use an if-clause todescribe the situation:

It would have been wonderful tomeet you in person.

I would have helped you if you hadasked me to. (you didn't ask me)

Quotes:

What would I do if I had only sixmonths left to live? I'd type faster. -Isaac AsimovIf it weren't for the fact that the TVset and the refrigerator are so farapart, some of us wouldn't get anyexercise at all. - Joey AdamsIf people behaved likegovernments, you'd call the cops. -Kelvin ThroopThe soul would have no rainbow ifthe eyes had no tears. - NativeAmerican proverb

How old would you be if you didn'tknow how old you were? - SatchelPaigeWe would accomplish many morethings if we did not think of them asimpossible. - Vince Lombardi

Related topics:

Second conditionalThird conditional

Modals to expresswillingness /unwillingness: WILL,WOULD

Present

Will can express willingness in thepresent:

I will take you to the airport. I havenothing to do tomorrow.If you will wait for a moment, I'llsee if Mr Hawking is available.

Won't can express unwillingness orrefusal:

My bank won't allow me to makeinternational transactions.Greg just won't answer the phone.The door won't open.

Past

Wouldn't can express unwillingness orrefusal in the past:

I took the phone back to the shop,but they wouldn't give me areplacement.Try as I might, the door wouldn'topen.

Quotes:

If cats could talk, they wouldn't. -Nan PorterI have not failed. I've just found10,000 ways that won't work. -Thomas Edison

Other modalexpressions

BE ABOUT + TO-infinitiveBE BOUND + TO-infinitiveBE DUE + TO-infinitiveBE LIKELY + TO-infinitive / IT ISLIKELY + THAT-clauseBE ON THE EDGE / POINT /VERGE OF (doing) somethingBE + TO-infinitive

BE ABOUT + TO-infinitiveBe about + to-infinitive refers toarranged actions that happen in theimmediate future. It is often used withjust:

Hurry up! The ceremony is aboutto begin!"Do you have a minute?" "I'm sorry,I'm just about to leave."

BE BOUND + TO-infinitiveBe bound + to-infinitive is used to referto future events which are certain orvery likely to happen:

Kevin is stuck in a traffic jam, sohe is bound to be late.

Quotes:

April is a promise that May isbound to keep. - Hal Borland

BE DUE + TO-infinitiveBe due + to-infinitive is used to refer tofixed events happening at or within aspecific time:

The film is due to start at 8 pm.Half of our employees are due toretire in five years.Negotiations were due to takeplace later that week.

BE LIKELY + TO-infinitive / IT IS LIKELY+ THAT-clauseBe likely + to-infinitive and it is likely +that-clause are used for future eventswhich are probably going to happen:

Smokers are more likely todevelop lung cancer compared tonon-smokers.It is likely that he will win therace.

BE ON THE EDGE /POINT / VERGE OF(doing) somethingThe expressions be on the edge / point /verge of (doing) something refer toactions that happen in the near future andhave a meaning similar to be about to:

She is on the point of bursting intotears.Researchers are on the verge of abreakthrough.

BE + TO-infinitiveBe + to-infinitive is used to express:

official arrangements:

The Prime Minister is to visitIndia next month.

official orders:

At the end of the course, allstudents are to take a writtenexam.

things that should be done:

What am I to do?

a possible aim when saying whatshould be done to reach it:

If you are to work here formore than three months, youmust have a residence permit.

prohibition (only in the negative):

You are not to do that again.

Be + to-infinitive can also be used in thepast:

Mr Jones was to speak at themeeting. (it was arranged and hedid)

But was/were + to + perfect infinitive

means that the arranged event did notactually happen:

Mr Jones was to have spoken atthe meeting, but he had to cancelbecause of his illness.

Quotes:

Nothing in life is to be feared. It isonly to be understood. - MarieCurie

Overview of modalsModal verbs, semi-modal verbs (alsocalled marginal modals) and othermodal expressions are listed inalphabetical order on the followingpages. For a detailed discussion of eachmeaning click on the links.

BE ABLE TO

General ability

I am not able to help you atthe moment.I will probably be able to getthere by nine.

I was able to swim when Iwas 5.

"Manage to"

Although the current wasstrong, I was able to swim tothe other bank.

BE ALLOWED TO

General permission

Are we allowed to smoke inthis restaurant?Will journalists be allowed toask questions?

Permission + action performed

Although I was underage, Iwas allowed to enter therace.

BE BOUND TO

Probability, certainty

Kevin is stuck in a traffic jam,so he is bound to be late.

BE DUE TO

Arrangements

The film is due to start at 8pm.Negotiations were due totake place later that week.

BE GOING TO

Intention

Do you think Sam's going toapply for the job?I was going to call you, butmy battery died.

Prediction

My sister is going to have ababy.The sky was dark; it wasgoing to rain.

BE LIKELY TO

Probability

Smokers are more likely todevelop lung cancer comparedto non-smokers.He knew that he was likely tobe promoted.

BE LIKELY THAT

Probability

It is likely that he will winthe race.It was likely that MrsHancock would becomepresident.

BE TO

Arrangements + action performed

Mr Jones was to speak at themeeting.

Arrangements + action notperformed

Mr Jones was to have spokenat the meeting, but he had tocancel because of his illness.

Obligation

What am I to do?

Official arrangements

The Prime Minister is to visitIndia next month.

Official orders

At the end of the course, allstudents are to take a writtenexam.

Prohibition

You are not to do that again!

CAN

Ability

Tom can play the piano.If you ask him, he canprobably help you.

Criticism

You can be really annoying,you know!

Offers

Can I help you?

Permission

You can borrow my car if youwant.Can I use your phone?Students can choose any topicfor their project.

Possibility

Winters in Minnesota can bereally cold.

Requests

Can you lend me $10?Can I borrow your car?

CAN'T

Ability

We can't enter this streetbecause it's blocked.

Deduction

It's only 10 o'clock. He can'tbe at home.It can't have been Carla yousaw this morning. She is awayon holiday.

Prohibition

I'm sorry, but you can't stay

here.We can't eat in the library.

COULD

Ability

I could see him through thewindow.

Criticism

George could really help you!George could really havehelped you!

Offers

I could give you a lift.

General permission

When I was a child, I could dobasically anything that Iwanted to do.

Asking for permission

Could I have a glass ofwater?

Possibility

You could be right.I could have caught the bus ifI had hurried.

Suggestions

You could talk to your parentsand ask them.

Requests

Could you tell me where thetrain station is?

Uncertainty

We haven't heard from him for10 years. He could have died.

COULDN'T

Ability

She couldn't speak Germanthen.I couldn't walk any further.

Deduction

It's only 10 o'clock. Hecouldn't be at home.It couldn't have been Carlayou saw this morning. She isaway on holiday.

Possibility

The food is delicious and thestaff couldn't be more polite.It was a great year, and Icouldn't have been happier.

DARE

"Have the courage to do something"

How dare she criticise us?I daren't think how manyvictims there are.

DARE (TO)

"Have the courage to do something"

Do you dare (to) tell himwhat happened to his bike?Don't you dare interrupt me!Who dares (to) argue withme?He didn't dare (to) look back.

HAD BETTER

Advice

We'd better leave soon.

HAVE TO

Necessity, obligation

I have to get to work by 9every day.You don't have to answerthat question.Do you have to wear auniform at your school?We had to start all overagain.I didn't have to wait long.What did you have to do thatfor?

HAVE GOT TO


I've got to be home soon.You haven't got to goalready, have you?Has he got to pay inadvance?

MAY

Offers

May I carry your suitcase,Madam?

Permission

Children may use the poolwith adult supervision.May I start my presentation?

Possibility, uncertainty

You should ask him. He mayknow Susan's telephonenumber.

I may have told you thisbefore.

MAY NOT


You should introduce yourself;he may not remember you.I had better call Anne. Shemay not have read my e-mail.

Prohibition

Non-committee members maynot vote on committee issues.

MIGHT

Criticism

You might be more polite.You might have told me youweren't coming!

Permission

Might I ask you a question?


I might see you later.I should call Anne. She mightnot have read my e-mail.

Suggestions

You might consider taking upmeditation.I thought you might want toread this.You might just as well orderit on the internet.

MUST

Deduction

That child is really talented.His parents must be proud ofhim.That dress looks expensive. Itmust have cost a fortune.

Obligation

I really must give up smoking.You must keep this secret.

MUSTN'T

Prohibition

You mustn't touch that Mingvase.

NEED


You needn't worry about that.You need only just ask.Need you make so muchnoise?We needn't have bought anymilk. We still have plenty athome.

NEED TO


Do you have a minute? I needto talk to you aboutsomething.I don't need to be told that Ishould lose weight.Do you need to use thehairdryer?If you want good results, youwill need to work harder.I needed to have my hair cut.Why did they need to changethe lock?

We didn't need to buy anymilk. We had plenty at home.

OUGHT TO

Advice

You ought to thank her.

Assumption

Anne ought to be at home bynow.

Obligation

We ought to protect theenvironment.You ought to have told meearlier. Why didn't you tellme?

SHALL

Formal rules and regulations,commands

Visitors shall be accompaniedat all times by a securityguard.You shall not kill.

Offers

Shall I copy this document foryou?

Suggestions

Shall we throw a party

sometime next week?

SHOULD

Advice

You should smoke less.

Assumption

I should get back before 9.I have never tried setting up awebsite, but it shouldn't betoo difficult.The plane should have landedby now.

Criticism

You shouldn't be sitting here

just doing nothing!I should have booked a tablein advance.

Obligation

I think you should leave.You should have consulted adoctor.

Suggestions

Shouldn't we have a pizzainstead?

Surprise

I'm sorry that he should feelthat way.

It's surprising that she shouldhave said that.

USED TO

Past habits and states

On Sundays, my parents usedto take me to dance school.I didn't use to like dancing inthose days.

WILL

Assumption

"The phone's ringing." "That'llbe for me."There's no point in speakinglouder. He won't understand.Some of you will have met mebefore.

Habits

A friend will always help you.

Intentions (spontaneous offers,promises, decisions)

Come on, I'll help you withthose bags.I will always love you.I'll have a wiener schnitzel.

Prediction

If you ask him, he'll probablygive you a lift.Salty water will freeze at alower temperature than purewater.

Requests

Will you turn off your mobilephone, please?

Willingness

I will take you to the airport. Ihave nothing to do tomorrow.If you will wait for a moment,I'll see if Mr Hawking isavailable.

WON'T

Unwillingness, refusal

My bank won't allow me tomake internationaltransactions.Greg just won't answer thephone.The door won't open.

WOULD

Habitual, repeated actions

From time to time, he wouldcall her to ask if she wanted tomeet for lunch.

Annoying habits

Tom would do something likethat, wouldn't he? It's sotypical of him!

Requests

Would you open the door forme?

Would you mind steppingoutside for a moment?

Unreal situations

It would be nice to live by thesea.It would be great to go hikingin the Appalachians again.I would help you if you askedme to.It would have been wonderfulto meet you in person.I would have helped you ifyou had asked me to.

WOULDN'T

Unwillingness

I took the phone back to theshop, but they wouldn't giveme a replacement.Try as I might, the doorwouldn't open.

Modals and adverbsAdverbs are often used with modals toadd to their meaning:

Surely you can't have said that toher!I might just tell you all about it.I could easily have been hurt.You really shouldn't have gone toso much trouble.I will definitely call you tomorrow.You can't possibly be serious.She obviously must have forgottenit.He could probably help us a lot.I can't exactly remember when I

first met her.You should absolutely take up thatcourse.

Modals in indirectspeechThis topic is discussed under Indirectspeech » Changes in indirect speech »Modal changes in indirect speech.

Revision questions:modals

What is the past equivalent of Imust give up smoking: I had to giveup smoking or I must have given upsmoking?What time does It was going to rainrefer to?Can we use a perfect infinitive aftera modal verb that refers to pasttime?What does He might have diedmean?What is the difference between Ididn't need to worry, I needn't have

worried and I shouldn't haveworried?What does can't in You can't beserious express: ability, deductionor prohibition?Which modals can be used toexpress suggestions, offers andrequests?What is the difference in usagebetween can and may forpermission?What is the difference in usagebetween used to and would for pasthabits?Can will be used to refer to pasttime?

Chapter 3:Conditionals andunreal tenses

Guiding questions: conditionals andunreal tensesUnreal tensesConditionalsWISH / IF ONLYIT'S (HIGH) TIMEAS IF / AS THOUGHWOULD RATHER / WOULDSOONERConditionals in indirect speechRevision questions: conditionals

and unreal tenses

Guiding questions:conditionals andunreal tenses

What are the types of conditionals?What are unreal tenses?Which conditionals can be mixed?Which modals can be used inconditionals?What is the similarity betweenconditionals and sentences startingwith I wish... / If only...?

Unreal tensesUnreal tenses are verb forms used insubordinate clauses that express unrealor hypothetical situations:

The past subjunctive, which has thesame form as the past simple tense,is used to refer to present or futuretime:

I wish you were here. (you arenot here)What would you do if you wonthe lottery? (you probablywon't win the lottery)

The past perfect subjunctive, which

has the same form as the pastperfect tense, is used to refer topast time:

If I had gone to bed earlier, Iwouldn't have overslept. (Ididn't go to bed earlier)He seems as if he hadn't sleptfor days. (it seems that hehasn't slept for days, butactually he has)

Unreal tenses are used in second andthird conditionals and after wish / ifonly, as if / as though, it's (high) time andwould rather / would sooner.

Related topics:

Past subjunctivePast perfect subjunctive

ConditionalsConditional sentences usually consist ofa subordinate if-clause and a mainclause. The order of the clauses isoptional, but if the if-clause is first, acomma is used to separate the twoclauses:

You might have been accepted ifyou had applied earlier.If you had applied earlier, youmight have been accepted.

If the if-clause is first, we can use thenin the main clause:

If you had applied earlier, then you

might have been accepted.

The different types of conditionals,which are discussed on the followingpages, may refer to different times(future, present, past) and expressdifferent degrees of reality. The choiceof verb forms used in conditionalsdepends on whether the condition is true,probable or unreal.

If the condition is true or probable, weuse real tenses:

If you missed the 6 o'clock train,you won't get here before 7. (thecondition is true: you missed thetrain; here missed refers to the pastand won't get to future time)

If you miss the 6 o'clock train, youwon't get here before 7. (thecondition is probable: you maymiss the train; here miss and won'tget refer to future time)

If the condition is unreal, we use unrealtenses:

If you missed the 6 o'clock train,you wouldn't get here before 7.(the condition is unreal orimprobable: you probably won'tmiss the train; here the pastsubjunctive form missed andwouldn't get refer to future time)

If you had missed the 6 o'clock

train, you wouldn't have got herebefore 7. (the condition is unreal:you didn't miss the train; here thepast perfect subjunctive form hadmissed and wouldn't have got referto past time)

Zero conditionalFirst conditionalSecond conditionalThird conditionalMixed conditionalsIF, EVEN IF, ONLY IF, AS LONGAS, PROVIDED, SUPPOSING,UNLESS, BUT FOR, IFNECESSARY, IF SO, IN CASEetc.Less likely conditions

Conditionals and inversion

Zero conditionalIF + PRESENT TENSE | PRESENTTENSEIF + PAST TENSE | PAST TENSE

The zero conditional expresses thatsomething is (or was) always true or thatone action is (or was) always followedby another:

If you heat water to 100 degreesCelsius, it boils.If John is cursing, it means that heis very angry.

If I got home late, my mom scoldedme.

If she was sad, she just stared intothe distance without saying a word.

In this type of conditional, we can usewhen instead of if:

If/When John is cursing, it meansthat he is very angry.

Quotes:

If one cannot invent a reallyconvincing lie, it is often better tostick to the truth. - Angela ThirkellIf you can find a path with noobstacles, it probably doesn't leadanywhere. - Frank A. ClarkThe trouble with the rat race is thateven if you win, you are still a rat. -

Lily TomlinIf you tell the truth, you don't haveto remember anything. - MarkTwainIf you don't know where you'regoing, you might never get there. -Yogi Berra

Related topics:

Present simple for general truths

First conditionalIF + PRESENT TENSE | WILL +INFINITIVE

The first conditional describes aprobable future situation. If the conditionis fulfilled, the action in the main clauseis likely to happen:

If we don't leave soon, we willmiss the train.If you ask him, he will probablyhelp you.

In this type of conditional, the presenttenses in the if-clause usually refer tofuture time and their use is similar to thatin future time clauses. Sometimes,

however, a present tense in the if-clausecan refer to present time:

If you are hungry, you'll find somesandwiches in the fridge.

Compare the zero and the firstconditionals:

If I drink too much, I usually get ahangover the following day. (zeroconditional to refer to a generalsituation; one action is alwaysfollowed by another)

If I drink too much, I will get ahangover tomorrow. (firstconditional to refer to one specificfuture situation)

Quotes:

If you want to lift yourself up, liftup someone else. - Booker T.WashingtonYou will never find time foranything. If you want time, you mustmake it. - Charles BuxtonYou will never win if you neverbegin. - Helen RowlandIf you do not sow in the spring, youwill not reap in the autumn. - IrishproverbIf you're in a bad situation, don'tworry it'll change. If you're in agood situation, don't worry it'llchange. - John A. Simone, Sr.

Related topics:

Third conditional

WOULD RATHER /WOULD SOONER +clauseWould rather/sooner is followed by aclause if the subject of wouldrather/sooner is different from the doerof the action expressed by the followingverb.

WOULD RATHER / WOULDSOONER + clause with thepast subjunctive

Would rather/sooner + clause with thepast subjunctive expresses that we

would like someone else to dosomething.

I'd rather you didn't smoke inhere. (I'd prefer you not to smoke inhere.)Tim would sooner I returned hiscamera. (Tim would like me toreturn his camera.)Where would you rather I slept?(Where would you prefer me tosleep?)

This pattern can be rephrased by using asecond conditional with prefer:

I would prefer it if you didn'tsmoke in here.

Related topics:


WOULD RATHER / WOULDSOONER + clause with thepast perfect subjunctive

Would rather/sooner + clause with thepast perfect subjunctive expressespreferences or wishes about the past.The subject of would rather/sooner andthe subject of the subjunctive aredifferent:

I'd rather this whole thing had

never happened. (I wish it hadnever happened.)What would you rather I haddone? (What would you havepreferred me to do?)

This pattern can be rephrased by using athird conditional with prefer:

I'd prefer it if this whole thing hadnever happened.

Related topics:

Past perfect subjunctiveThird conditional

Conditionals inindirect speechThis topic is discussed under Indirectspeech » Changes in indirect speech »Conditionals and unreal tenses inindirect speech.

Revision questions:conditionals andunreal tenses

When can if be replaced with whenin conditional sentences?What is the difference between areal and an unreal situation?What is the difference between realand unreal tenses?Which modals can we use in themain clauses of sentences in thedifferent types of conditionals?Can we use the modals will orwould in the if-clause?Why is the sentence If I lied to my

parents, they would punish meambiguous?Which types of conditionals can bemixed?What is the difference between ifand in case?Which modals can we use in thedifferent types of conditionals toexpress that a condition is lesslikely?When can we invert the subject andauxiliary in the if-clause?What is common in sentencesintroduced with I wish... and thesecond and third conditionals?What does wish + would express?When is as if / as though followedby a real tense?

Chapter 4:Indirect speech

Guiding questions: indirect speechThe difference between direct andindirect speechPunctuation in direct speechChanges in indirect speechReporting questionsReporting statementsReporting imperativesCommon reporting verbsImpersonal reportingRevision questions: indirect speech

Guiding questions:indirect speech

What is direct speech and what isindirect speech?What is the word order in indirectquestions?When do tenses change in indirectspeech?What other changes are there inindirect speech?Besides say, tell and ask, whatother reporting verbs can be used inindirect speech?

The differencebetween direct andindirect speechDirect speech is when we report whatsomeone says by repeating the exactwords. In writing, we use invertedcommas:

David: I have to talk to you aboutsomething. (original statement)"I have to talk to you aboutsomething," said David. (directspeech)

Michelle: I'll call them tomorrow.

(original statement)Michelle said, "I'll call themtomorrow." (direct speech)

Indirect speech (also called reportedspeech) is when we give the samemeaning of what someone says withoutrepeating the exact words. In this case,we do not use inverted commas andcertain changes may be necessary:

David: I have to talk to you aboutsomething. (original statement)David said he had to talk to meabout something. (indirect speech)

Michelle: I'll call them tomorrow.(original statement)

Michelle promised she would callthem the next day. (indirect speech)

We also use indirect speech when wereport inner thoughts:

I had no idea where my keys were.(Where are my keys?)She knew that the lock had beenchanged. (The lock has beenchanged.)

Punctuation in directspeechWe use inverted commas (also calledquotation marks, quotes or speechmarks) to indicate direct speech. Doublequotes (") are preferred in AmericanEnglish, while single quotes (') are morecommon in British English:

"I'm coming home late tonight," shesaid. (American English)'I'm coming home late tonight,' shesaid. (British English)

If we quote within direct speech, we usethe other style for the embedded

quotation:

"She said, 'I'm coming home latetonight'," recalled Jim. (AmericanEnglish)'She said, "I'm coming home latetonight",' recalled Jim. (BritishEnglish)

As can be seen in the examples above, acomma (,) is used at the end of thequotation, before the closing speechmark.

A comma is also used before thequotation if we start the sentence withthe reporting clause. In this case the

terminal full stop (.) comes before theclosing speech mark:

She added, "Don't expect me before11."

If the quotation is a question orexclamation, the terminal marks (? and !)also come before the closing speechmarks:

"Hurry up!" he shouted.She asked, "Am I late?"

The quotation normally begins with acapital letter, except if it is interruptedby a reporting clause, in which case thefirst letter of the continuation is notcapitalised:

"I'm coming home late tonight," shesaid and added, "don't expect mebefore 11."

Related topics:

Subject-verb inversion in directspeech

Changes in indirectspeechIn order to understand changes inindirect speech, we must bear in mindthat words are always spoken in context:somebody says something to someone ata specific place and time. When wereport something, changes are made tothe original words if there are changes inthe context (people, place or time).

Changes in place, time and personin indirect speechTense changes in indirect speechModal changes in indirect speechConditionals and unreal tenses in

indirect speech

Changes in place, time andperson in indirect speechNo changes are made to words referringto place, time or person if we reportsomething at the same place, around thesame time, or involving the samepeople:

Dimitrios: I'll meet you here.Dimitrios said he would meet mehere. (reported at the same place)

Cara: My train leaves at 9.30tomorrow.Cara says her train leaves at 9.30

tomorrow. (reported on the sameday)

Richard: I can help you, Stephanie.I told you I could help you.(reported by Richard to Stephanie)I told Stephanie I could help her.(reported by Richard to a thirdperson)

Changes are made if there are changes inplace, time or people:

Dimitrios: I'll meet you here.Dimitrios said he would meet meat the café. (reported at a differentplace)

Cara: My train leaves at 9.30tomorrow.Cara said her train leaves at 9.30today. (reported on the next day)

Richard: I can help you, Stephanie.Richard told me he could help me.(reported by Stephanie)Richard told Stephanie he couldhelp her. (reported by a thirdperson)I told Stephanie I could help her.(reported by Richard to a thirdperson)

The following list shows some typicalchanges of time expressions in indirectspeech. Bear in mind that the changes

are not automatic; they depend on thecontext:

Direct speech » Indirect speech

now » then / at that timetonight » last night, that night, onMonday nighttoday » yesterday, that day, onMondayyesterday » the day before / theprevious day, on Sundaylast night » the previous night / thenight before, on Sunday nighttomorrow » today, the followingday, on Tuesdaythis week » last week, that weeklast month » the previous month /

the month before, in Junenext year » this year, the followingyear / the year after, in 1996five minutes ago » five minutesbeforein two hours' time » two hourslater

Tense changes in indirectspeech

No tense changes

There are no tense changes in indirectspeech if:

the reporting verb is in a presenttense; this is often the case withsimultaneous reporting or when theoriginal words were spoken a shorttime ago and are still relevant:

Joanna: I have just arrived inHanoi.Joanna says she has just

arrived in Hanoi. (reporting arecent telephone conversation;the reporting verb say is inpresent simple)

the reported words are true at thetime of reporting:

George: I'm meeting Karentomorrow.George said he is meetingKaren tomorrow. (reported onthe same day, tomorrow stillrefers to tomorrow)

Compare:

George said he was meetingKaren the following day.

(reported days later, themeeting has already happened)

the reported words express ageneral truth:

Copernicus: The planetsrevolve around the sun.Copernicus stated that theplanets revolve around thesun. (it is a general truth)

Compare:

Once, people believed that theearth was flat. (the reportedwords are no longer true;people do not believe that theearth is flat)

the reported words refer to anunreal situation:

Mike: I wish I was a yearolder; then I could enter the

race.Mike wished he was a yearolder, so he could enter therace. (he is not older)

Tense changes

Tenses change in indirect speech if:

the reported words are no longertrue or are out-of-date; this is oftenthe case when we report somethingafter the reference point of theoriginal statement and the reportingverb is in a past tense:

Philip in 1980: I have neverbeen to Brunei, but I'm

thinking about going there.(the reference point of thepresent perfect and the presentcontinuous is 1980)When I met Philip in 1980, hesaid he had never been toBrunei, but he was thinkingabout going there. (reportedyears later; the reported wordsare out of date)

we want to report objectively;when we do not know whether thereported words are true, and we donot want to suggest that they are:

Tim: Sorry, I can't go to workthis week. I'm ill.Tim isn't coming to work thisweek. He said that he was ill.

Tense backshift

As can be seen in the examples above,the verbs in the present perfect, presentcontinuous and present simple tenses inthe original statements changed into theircorresponding past equivalents (pastperfect, past continuous and past simple)in indirect speech. This process iscalled tense backshift. Note that tensebackshift is based on how tenses relateto each other in general:

When I met Philip in 1980, he saidhe had never been to Brunei.When I arrived at work, Iremembered that I hadn't lockedthe door to my apartment.(two consecutive actions and anearlier action)

When I met Philip in 1980, he saidhe was thinking about going toBrunei.When I entered the room, I sawthat she was studying.(two consecutive actions and abackground action in progress)

Tim said that he was ill.I went outside. It was a warm day.(a past action and a past state)

Tense backshift:

Direct speech Indirect speech

present simple past simplepresent continuous past continuouspresent perfect past perfect

present perfectcontinuous

past perfectcontinuous

past simple past perfectpast continuous past perfect

continuous

The past perfect and past perfectcontinuous tenses do not change.

In complex sentences, the past simpleand past continuous may remainunchanged if the temporal relationshipbetween the events in the clauses isclear from the context:

John: When I got home, I went tobed straight away.

John told me that when he got homehe went to bed straight away.

Bill: I was reading a book when Iheard the crash.Bill said that he was reading abook when he heard the crash.

Helen: When I was writing mythesis, I spent a lot of time at thelibrary.Helen recalled that when she waswriting her thesis she spent a lot oftime at the library.

Tim: My friends were enjoyingthemselves playing cards while Iwas studying in my room.

Tim grumbled that his friends wereenjoying themselves playing cardswhile he was studying in his room.

Chris: When I got to her house, shehad been waiting for hours.Chris said that when he got to herhouse she had been waiting forhours.

Quotes:

I had been told that the trainingprocedure with cats was difficult.It's not. Mine had me trained in twodays. - Bill Dana

Modal changes in indirectspeechSimilarly to tenses, modals change inindirect speech if the reported words areno longer true or are out-of-date:

Direct speech » Indirect speech

can (ability, present) » couldcan (ability, future) » would beable tomay (possibility) » mightmay (permission, present) » couldmay (permission, future) » wouldbe allowed tomust (obligation, present) » must /

had tomust (obligation, future) » must /would have toneedn't (necessity, present) »didn't have to / didn't need toneedn't (necessity, future) »wouldn't have toshall (future time) » wouldshall (offers, suggestions) » shouldwill » would

The following modals do not change:

couldwouldmightmust (deduction)mustn't

had bettershouldought toused to

Conditionals and unrealtenses in indirect speechWhen we report conditionals andstatements that refer to unreal situations,some tenses and modals may change ifthe reported words are no longer true orare out-of-date.

Zero conditional in indirect speechFirst conditional in indirect speechSecond conditional in indirectspeechThird conditional in indirect speechWISH / IF ONLY, WOULDRATHER / WOULD SOONER,IT'S (HIGH) TIME, AS IF / ASTHOUGH in indirect speech

Zero conditional in indirectspeech

When we report zero conditionals, thefollowing tense changes may occur:

Present time

Anne: If John is cursing, it meansthat he is very angry.Anne said that if John is cursing, itmeans that he is very angry. (it isstill true)Anne said that if John was cursing,it meant that he was very angry.(referring to a past habit)

Past time

Jenny: If I got home late, my momscolded me.Jenny recalled that if she got homelate, her mother used to scold /would scold her.

Note that past tenses in the if-clause donot normally change.

First conditional in indirectspeech

When we report first conditionals, thefollowing changes may occur:

Mark: If we leave now, we cancatch the train.Mark said that if we leave now, wecan catch the train. (reportedsimultaneously; we can still catchthe train)Mark said that if we left, we couldcatch the train. (the reported wordsare out-of-date; the train hasalready left)

Second conditional in indirectspeech

When we report second conditionals, thefollowing changes may occur:

Future time

Catherine: If I lost my job, I wouldbe in serious trouble. (referring to apossible future situation)Catherine said that if she lost herjob, she would be in serioustrouble. (the reported words aretrue; she might still lose her job)Catherine said that if she had losther job, she would have been in

serious trouble. (the reportedwords are out-of-date; it's notpossible that she will lose her job)

Present time

Paul: If I knew the answer, I'd tellyou. (referring to an unreal presentsituation)Paul said that if he knew theanswer, he'd tell us.

Third conditional in indirectspeech

When we report third conditionals, thereare no changes in the verb forms:

Tom: If we had booked our flightearlier, it would have beencheaper. (referring to an unreal pastsituation)Tom remarked that if they hadbooked their flight earlier, it wouldhave been cheaper.

WISH / IF ONLY, WOULDRATHER / WOULD SOONER,IT'S (HIGH) TIME, AS IF / ASTHOUGH in indirect speech

Unreal tenses after wish / if only, wouldrather / would sooner, it's (high) timeand as if / as though do not change inindirect speech:

Susan: I wish I lived in themountains.Susan said she wished she lived inthe mountains.

Charles: If only we hadn't missedthe train.

Charles wished they hadn't missedthe train.

Carol: I'd rather go by bike thanwalk.Carol said that she would rather goby bike than walk.

Mr Wilkins: I would rather youdidn't smoke in here.Mr Wilkins said he would rather Ididn't smoke in his office.

Newspaper article: It's high timethe government did something aboutthis problem.The article said that it was high

time the government did somethingabout the problem.

Jane: He looks as if he knew theanswer.Jane said that he looked as if heknew the answer.

Reporting questionsWhen we report questions, there is noinversion of the subject and auxiliary inthe reported clause (the word order isthe same as in statements) and we do notuse a question mark.

Yes/no questions

REPORTING CLAUSE + IF/WHETHER-CLAUSE (WITH NO INVERSION)

When reporting a yes/no question, weuse if or whether:

Alex: Have you booked ticketsfor the concert?

Alex was wondering if/whether Ihad booked tickets for theconcert.

Jasmine: Is there a wirelessnetwork available in the library?Jasmine inquired if/whether therewas a wireless network availablein the library.

Peter: Is it cold outside?Peter wants to know if/whether itis cold outside or not.Peter wants to know whether ornot it is cold outside.

Wh-questions

REPORTING CLAUSE + WH-CLAUSE(WITH NO INVERSION)

When we report a wh-question, werepeat the original question word (who,what, when, where, how etc.) in thereported clause:

Rebecca: Where do you live?Rebecca asked me where I lived.

Tim: Who are you waiting for?Tim wanted to know who I waswaiting for.

A wh-clause can be used to reportexclamations:

Ivan: How funny!

Ivan exclaimed how funny it was.

Examples of reporting verbs used toreport questions:

ask, inquire, know, remember,want to know, wonder

We can use an indirect question afterother reporting verbs when we are notreporting a question but we are talkingabout the answer to a question:

I've told you before why I don'tlike shopping malls.She didn't say what time shewould be back.

When we want to make a question more

polite, we often introduce the sentencewith expressions such as Could you tellme...?, Do you know...? etc. and continuewith an indirect question:

Could you tell me how I can get tothe railway station?Do you know if this shop sellssecond-hand records?Can you remember what time theplay starts?

Related topics:

SAY, TELL and ASKQuestion word + TO-infinitive

ReportingstatementsREPORTING CLAUSE + THAT-CLAUSE

When we report a statement, we oftenuse a that-clause after the reportingclause:

Tom: I don't know her.Tom told me that he didn't knowher.

That is often omitted after certainreporting verbs in informal styles:

Tom told me he didn't know her.

Examples of reporting verbs used toreport statements:

add, admit, agree, announce,answer, argue, boast, claim,comment, complain, confirm,deny, doubt, estimate, exclaim,explain, fear, insist, mention,observe, promise, propose,remark, repeat, reply, report,reveal, be rumoured, say, state,suggest, suppose, tell, warn

Related topics:

SAY, TELL and ASK

ReportingimperativesREPORTING VERB + SOMEBODY + TO-INFINITIVE

When we report an imperative sentenceor a request, we usually use a to-infinitive structure:

Mother: Put away your toys,Johnny.Johnny's mother told him to putaway his toys.

Teacher: Everybody, please standup.

The teacher asked the class tostand up.

Examiner: Could you speak a bitlouder?The examiner asked me to speaklouder.

Examples of reporting verbs used toreport imperatives and requests:

ask, beg, command, forbid,instruct, order, remind, request,tell, urge, warn, want

Related topics:

SAY, TELL and ASK

Common reportingverbsOn the following pages, you will findreporting verbs which can be used inindirect speech to express variousmeanings.

Reporting verb + THAT-clauseReporting verb + THAT-clausewith SHOULD + infinitiveReporting verb + THAT-clausewith the present subjunctiveReporting verb + gerundReporting verb + TO-infinitiveReporting verb + object + TO-infinitive

SAY, TELL and ASK

Reporting verb + THAT-clauseVERB + THAT-CLAUSE

Examples of reporting verbs used with athat-clause:

add, admit, agree, answer,believe, claim, complain, confess,confirm, decide, deny, doubt,explain, feel, hope, insist,mention, promise, repeat, reply,say, suggest

Employee: ... and so far I haven'treceived a negative response to mywork.

The employee added that up to thatpoint he hadn't received a negativeresponse to his work.

George: Well, I had difficultyanswering some of the questions.George admitted that he had haddifficulty answering some of thequestions.

Chris: Yes, it was a great film.Chris agreed that the film wasgreat.

Matthew: Do you want to have acup of coffee sometime?Joanna: Sorry, but you're not mytype.

When Matthew asked her out,Joanna answered/replied that hewas not her type.

Rev. Johansson: All humans areborn equal.Reverend Johansson believes thatall humans are born equal.

Julie to her neighbour's wife: Youmay not believe me, but I saw yourhusband with a blonde girl in thedisco on Saturday.Julie claimed that she had seen herneighbour with a blonde girl in thedisco on Saturday.

Student to his friend: I hate having

to write tons of essays everysemester.The student complained that he hadto write a lot of essays.

Julie to her neighbour: Yes, it wasme who started that ugly rumourabout you. I'm sorry.Julie confessed that she had startedan ugly rumour about her neighbour.

Secretary to a colleague: That'sright, the meeting is on Tuesday.The secretary confirmed that themeeting was on Tuesday.

Customer: I don't think I'll buy thisnotebook after all.

The customer decided that hewouldn't buy the notebook.

Francesco: No, I didn't bump yourcar.Francesco denied that he hadbumped my car.

Student: I don't think that we couldconvince the professor that this isnot plagiarism.The student doubted that they couldconvince the professor that it wasnot plagiarism.

Jill: I can make fire with a stick.You know, my father taught me howto do it when I was a child.

Jill explained that her father hadtaught her how to make fire with astick when she was a child.

Alex: Well, I think we should backher up in this terrible situation.Alex felt that they should back herup in that terrible situation.

Chef: I hope nobody will noticethat this is not turkey but pork.The chef was hoping that nobodywould notice that it was not turkeybut pork.

Secretary to boss: I'm absolutelysure that I shredded thosedocuments.

The secretary insisted that she hadshredded the documents.

Tom: Once I get back to school, I'mgoing to take up swimming again.Tom mentioned that he was goingto take up swimming again.

David: I will be on time, I promise.David promised that he would beon time.

Wife to husband: As I've told youbefore, I'd like to invite Dan andMargaret as well.The wife repeated that she wantedto invite Dan and Margaret as well.

Camila: It may have been Mario

who bumped your car.Camila suggested that it mighthave been Mario who had bumpedmy car.

Reporting verb + THAT-clause with SHOULD +infinitiveVERB + THAT-CLAUSE WITH SHOULD +INFINITIVE

Examples of reporting verbs used with athat-clause with should:

advise, agree, demand, insist,prefer, propose, recommend,request, suggest, urge

Carlos: I think you should visit aspecialist.Carlos advised that I should visit aspecialist.

Susan: Yes, you are right, Harry.You'd better accept that offer.Susan agreed that Harry shouldaccept the offer.

Customer: I want you to give me afull refund.The customer demanded that thecompany should give him a fullrefund.

Mike: You really must try my newmuffin recipe.Mike insisted that I should try hisnew muffin recipe.

Howard: I'd rather you came to myparty, and not to Ryan's.

Howard preferred that I should goto his party.

Jill: How about going to the saunatonight?Jill proposed / recommended /suggested that we should go to thesauna.

Employees: Could we have thestaff meeting on Tuesday instead?The employees requested that thestaff meeting should be on Tuesday.

Green activists: The nuclear plantmust immediately be shut down.Green activists urged that thenuclear plant should be shut down.

The present subjunctive can replaceshould + infinitive in a that-clause informal and literary styles:

Carlos: I think you should visit aspecialist.Carlos advised that I visit aspecialist.

Reporting verb + THAT-clause with the presentsubjunctiveVERB + THAT-CLAUSE WITH PRESENTSUBJUNCTIVE

The present subjunctive can be used in athat-clause instead of should + infinitivein formal and literary styles.

Examples of reporting verbs used with athat-clause with the present subjunctive:

advise, agree, demand, insist,prefer, propose, recommend,request, suggest, urge

Carlos: I think you should visit aspecialist.Carlos advised that I visit aspecialist.

Susan: Yes, you are right, Harry.You'd better accept that offer.Susan agreed that Harry accept theoffer.

Customer: I want you to give me afull refund.The customer demanded that thecompany give him a full refund.

Mike: You really must try my newmuffin recipe.

Mike insisted that I try his newmuffin recipe.

Howard: I'd rather you came to myparty, and not to Ryan's.Howard preferred that I go to hisparty.

Jill: How about going to the saunatonight?Jill proposed / recommended /suggested that we go to the sauna.

Employees: Could we have thestaff meeting on Tuesday instead?The employees requested that thestaff meeting be on Tuesday.

Green activists: The nuclear plant

must immediately be shut down.Green activists urged that thenuclear plant be shut down.

Related topics:

Present subjunctive

Reporting verb + gerundVERB (+ PREPOSITION) + GERUND

Examples of reporting verbs used with agerund:

accuse somebody of, admit (to),apologise for, confess (to),complain about, deny, insist on,prohibit, suggest

Angela: I think it was you who toldmy secret.Angela accused me of telling hersecret.

Mario: Yes, I bumped your car.

Mario admitted (to) bumping mycar.

Student to professor: I am sorry forbeing late.The student apologised (to theprofessor) for being late.

Julie to her neighbour: Yes, it wasme who started that ugly rumourabout you. I'm sorry.Julie confessed (to) starting anugly rumour about her neighbour.

Student to his friend: I hate havingto write tons of essays everysemester.The student complained (to his

friend) about having to write a lotof essays.

Francesco: No, I didn't bump yourcar.Francesco denied bumping my car.

Wife to husband: I do want to inviteDan and Margaret as well.The wife insisted on inviting Danand Margaret as well.

Museum sign: No smokingThey prohibit smoking in themuseum.

Jill: What about going to the saunatonight?Jill suggested going to the sauna.

Related topics:

The forms of the gerundVerb + gerundPreposition + gerund

Reporting verb + TO-infinitiveVERB + TO-INFINITIVE

Examples of reporting verbs used withthe to-infinitive:

agree, claim, decide, demand,hope, offer, prefer, promise,refuse, threaten

Jim: All right, I'll do it.Jim agreed to do it.

Al-Qaida: We have captured twoUS marines.

Al-Qaida claims to have capturedtwo US marines.

Customer: I don't think I'll buy thisnotebook after all.The customer decided not to buythe notebook.

Judge: I want to see the documents.The judge demanded to see thedocuments.

Susan: I hope I'll get to the airportin time.Susan was hoping to get to theairport in time.

Ben: I can take you home if youwant.

Ben offered to take me home.

Spokesman: Well, I would rathernot say anything at this point.The spokesman preferred not tosay anything.

Jill: I will be on time, I promise.Jill promised to be on time.

Sportsman: No, I won't answer anyquestions about my private life.The sportsman refused to answerquestions concerning his privatelife.

Young man on the bridge: Don'tcome any closer or I'll jump.

The disturbed young manthreatened to jump off the bridge.

Related topics:

The forms of the infinitiveVerb + TO-infinitive

Reporting verb + object +TO-infinitiveVERB + OBJECT + TO-INFINITIVE

Examples of reporting verbs used withan object and the to-infinitive:

ask, advise, allow, beg, command,encourage, forbid, instruct, invite,order, permit, persuade, prefer,recommend, remind, request, tell,urge, warn, want

Customs officer: Please empty yourpockets, madam.The officer asked the woman toempty her pockets.

Carlos: I think you should visit aspecialist.Carlos advised me to visit aspecialist.

Professor: You mustn't use adictionary while writing the test.The professor did not allow us touse a dictionary while writing thetest.

Chris: Please tell me what reallyhappened.Chris begged her to tell him whathad happened.

Sergeant: Fire!The sergeant commanded the firing

squad to shoot.

Uncle Joe: Have you ever thoughtof starting scuba diving? I guessyou'd love it.My uncle Joe encouraged me totake up scuba diving.

Mother to Luke: You must not talkto Ellie again.Luke's mother forbade him to talkto Ellie again.

Doctor to patient: You mustexercise at least 30 minutes a day.The doctor instructed the patient toexercise at least 30 minutes a day.

I: Why don't you come in for a

coffee?I invited him to come inside andhave a cup of coffee.

Police to photographers at anaccident scene: No pictures!The police ordered thephotographers not to take anypictures of the accident scene.

School regulation: Teachers are notto use corporal punishment in theclassroom.The rules don't permit teachers tobeat students at this school.

Matt: Be a vegetarian; it's better foryour health.

Victoria: But I like bacon!Matt: You don't know what thosepigs have been eating.Victoria: Yuck! You're right. I'venever thought about it that way. Iwon't eat meat any more.Matt persuaded Victoria to becomea vegetarian.

Health specialist: I think it wouldbe better if people consumed muchless fat and sugar.The health specialist would preferpeople not to consume so much fatand sugar.

Thesis consultant to student: Youshould read the Thesis Guide

before you start your research.The thesis consultantrecommended the student to readthe Thesis Guide before starting theresearch. (the to-infinitive afterrecommend is less common ineveryday contexts)

David: Don't forget to buy somemilk.David reminded me to buy somemilk.

Sign: Do not take photographs,pleaseVisitors are requested not to takephotographs.

Teacher to pupils: Open your booksto page 10.The teacher told the pupils to opentheir books to page 10.

Mother to child: Don't tease thatdog! It will bite you!The mother warned her child not totease the dog.

Green activists: The nuclear plantmust be shut down immediately.Green activists urged thegovernment to shut down thenuclear plant.

Boss to secretary: Will you rewritethis letter, please? There are far too

many mistakes in it.The boss wanted her secretary torewrite the letter.

Related topics:

Verb + object + TO-infinitive

SAY, TELL and ASK

SAY SOMETHING

The direct object of say can be a noun, athat-clause (that can be omitted ininformal styles) or an indirect question(in negatives and questions when theinformation is not actually reported):

Laura never says anything whenasked.Can you say your name again?David says he's exhausted.They said that they would wait forme.She didn't say what time shewould be back.

SAY SOMETHING TOSOMEONE

When we use to + indirect object aftersay, we do not normally use a that-clause:

He didn't say anything to meabout the job."See you soon," Linda said tohim.

TELL SOMEONE SOMETHING

Tell is usually followed by an indirectobject and a direct object:

Has he told you the news?

Could you tell me your name,please?They told me that they would waitfor me.She didn't tell me what time shewould be back.

Phrases with TELL

In some of the phrases below, an indirectobject is optional:

My father told (us) a veryinteresting story.You must always tell (me) thetruth.John told (you) a lie.

No one can tell the future.Can you tell the time in English?

ASK (SOMEONE) + indirectquestion

We can use ask to report questions:

Rebecca asked (me) where Ilived.The guide asked (us) if we hadvisited the museum before.

ASK/TELL SOMEONE + TO-infinitive

We can use ask or tell to reportimperatives or requests:

Johnny's mother told him to putaway his toys.The examiner asked me to speaklouder.

Quotes:

Wise men speak because they havesomething to say; fools becausethey have to say something. - Plato

Related topics:

Reporting statementsReporting questionsReporting imperatives

ImpersonalreportingSome reporting verbs can be madeimpersonal with the personal pronoun itand the passive voice when the agent(the doer) of the action is unimportant,unknown or obvious.

Examples of such verbs are: agree,announce, believe, claim, confirm,consider, decide, estimate, expect, fear,feel, hope, imply, know, predict, reckon,recommend, report, rumour, say, state,suggest, suppose, think etc.:

It has been agreed to prohibit

smoking in public places.It is rumoured that the governmentwill implement new taxes.

Related topics:

Passive voice with reporting verbs

Revision questions:indirect speech

How do we punctuate the followingsentence?

I have never been to MexicoJoe said and added but I'd liketo go one day

When do words that refer to place,time or person change in indirectspeech?When do tenses not change inindirect speech even if thereporting verb is in the past tense?What was the original statement?

(There are three possible answers.)

He said he had eaten toomuch.

How do we report a yes/noquestion?What is the word order after theexpression Could you tell me...?Which reporting verbs can we useto report imperatives?Which of the following sentencesare incorrect and why?

He suggested me to have ahaircut.I demand to know the truth.The boy admitted to steal thecomputer.

They insisted that I should payin advance.He said me to go homeimmediately.

Chapter 5:Passive voice andcausativestructures

Guiding questions: passive voiceand causative structuresPassive voiceCausative structuresRevision questions: passive voiceand causative structures

Guiding questions:passive voice andcausative structures

How do we form the passivevoice? Which other verb can weuse instead of be?What verbs cannot be passive?When and why is the passive voicepreferred over the active voice?What is the agent of an action?When is it not mentioned in apassive sentence?When and how can the passivevoice be used with reportingverbs?

What is a causative structure?

Passive voiceThe difference between the activeand passive voiceForm: passive voiceVerbs which cannot be used in thepassive voiceDitransitive verbs in the passivevoiceThe agent with the passive voiceThe use of the passive voiceThe passive with GETPassive voice with reporting verbs

The difference between theactive and passive voiceVoice shows the relation of the subjectof the sentence to the action of the verb.

In the active voice, the subject is theagent (or doer) of the action:

Alexander Fleming discoveredpenicillin in 1928.

With the passive voice, the subject is therecipient of the action. It is the person orthing that the action is directed at:

Penicillin was discovered byAlexander Fleming in 1928.

The starting point of a sentence isusually the subject. It provides the themeof the message, which is oldinformation, while new information issupplied near the end of the sentence.

With the active voice, the theme is theagent. We say something about the doerof the action, who or which is thesubject of the sentence:

Alexander Fleming was a Scottishbiologist, pharmacologist andbotanist. He discovered penicillinin 1928.

With the passive voice, the theme, or oldinformation, is the recipient of theaction. We say something about the

recipient, who or which is the subject ofthe sentence:

Penicillin is an antibiotic that killsmost bacteria. It was discoveredby Alexander Fleming in 1928.

Form: passive voiceBE + PAST PARTICIPLE

The passive is formed by making theobject of the active sentence the subjectof the new sentence and using theappropriate form of be + the pastparticiple form of the verb. Be is in thesame tense as the verb in the activesentence.

Active sentence:

SUBJECT + VERB + OBJECT

Alexander Fleming discoveredpenicillin in 1928.

Passive sentence:

SUBJECT + BE + PAST PARTICIPLE(+ AGENT)

Penicillin was discovered byAlexander Fleming in 1928.

Passive forms

The following list shows examples ofpassive forms in different tenses andmodal constructions. The correspondingactive sentences are given inparentheses:

Present simple

The book is published. (They

publish the book.)

Present continuous

The book is being published.(They are publishing thebook.)

Present perfect

The book has been published.(They have published thebook.)

Past simple

The book was published.(They published the book.)

Past continuous

The book was beingpublished. (They werepublishing the book.)

Past perfect

The book had been published.(They had published thebook.)

Future simple

The book will be published.(They will publish the book.)

Future continuous

The book will be beingpublished. (They will bepublishing the book.)

Future perfect

The book will have beenpublished. (They will havepublished the book.)

Modal simple

The book is going to bepublished. (They are going topublish the book.)

Modal simple

The book can be published.

(They can publish the book.)

Modal continuous

The book might be beingpublished. (They might bepublishing the book.)

Modal perfect

The book should have beenpublished. (They should havepublished the book.)

Perfect continuous forms are alsopossible in the passive voice; however,they are less common:

His novels have been being

published since the 1960s. (Theyhave been publishing his novelssince the 1960s.)His novels might have been beingpublished at that time. (They mighthave been publishing his novels atthat time.)

Questions and negatives are formed thesame way as in active sentences:

Was the book published?Will the book be published?The book hasn't been published.The book shouldn't have beenpublished.

In the case of verb + preposition, in the

passive sentence the preposition comesafter the verb:

My house was broken into lastweek. (Someone broke into myhouse last week.)He is often laughed at. (Peopleoften laugh at him.)The ship has been lost sight of.(They have lost sight of the ship.)

Infinitives, gerunds and participles canalso have passive forms:

Josh always needs to be told whatto do. (Other people always need totell Josh what to do.)I hate being lied to. (I hate people

lying to me.)Authorities refused to reveal anyinformation about the case beinginvestigated. (Authorities refusedto reveal any information about thecase which they wereinvestigating.)

Quotes:

Not everything that can be countedcounts, and not everything thatcounts can be counted. - AlbertEinsteinLost time is never found again. -Benjamin FranklinI had been told that the trainingprocedure with cats was difficult.

It's not. Mine had me trained in twodays. - Bill DanaTo be wronged is nothing unlessyou continue to remember it. -ConfuciusPeople are not disturbed by things,but by the view they take of them. -EpictetusIf the Romans had been obliged tolearn Latin, they would never havefound time to conquer the world. -Heinrich HeineNature does not hurry, yeteverything is accomplished. - LaoTseNothing in life is to be feared. It isonly to be understood. - MarieCurie

Some things have to be believed tobe seen. - Ralph HodgsonYou live longer once you realizethat any time spent being unhappy iswasted. - Ruth E. Renkl

Related topics:

The passive with GETThe forms of the infinitiveThe forms of the gerundThe forms of the participleSubject-auxiliary inversion inquestionsAppendix: irregular verb forms

Verbs which cannot beused in the passive voice

Intransitive verbs

Intransitive verbs (verbs that do not takean object) cannot be passive. For thisreason, the following sentences have nopassive equivalents:

We arrived home late at night.Did you sleep well?He was running too fast.

Certain state verbs

Certain state verbs are not used in the

passive even if they are transitive.Examples of such verbs are: belong,have (own), lack, resemble, suit etc. Thefollowing sentences cannot be madepassive:

Joanne has two brothers.Does this bag belong to you?Unfortunately, Friday doesn't suitme.

Remember that some state verbs alsohave active meanings (e.g. measure, fitand weigh). If these verbs are used withthe active meaning, they can be passive:

The truck weighed 2.5 tons. (Itsweight was 2.5 tons.) (active

sentence, stative meaning, cannotbe made passive)

They weighed the truck before andafter loading the cargo. (Theymeasured its weight.) (activesentence, active meaning, can bemade passive)The truck was weighed before andafter loading the cargo. (passivesentence)

There are state verbs which cannormally be passive:

Nothing is known about the thief.She is loved by all her friends.

I have the feeling I've beenmisunderstood.

Verbs which are always passive

Some verbs are used almost exclusivelyin the passive voice:

He was born into a wealthy family.When your order is shipped, wewill send you a confirmation e-mail.The victims were hospitalisedimmediately.The room was strewn with booksand magazines.The area is mainly populated byfamilies with small children.

Active verbs with a passivemeaning

Some verbs are used in the active formwith a passive meaning:

The company's new phone doesn'tsell as well as the last one. (Fewerpeople buy it.)The sign on the door read "Noentry". (That is what you read onit.)The trousers have been mended,and now the hole doesn't show. (Itcan't be seen.)

Active gerunds after need, require andwant also have passive meanings:

The walls need painting. (Theyshould be painted.)Liquid nitrogen requires carefulhandling. (It should be handledcarefully.)The dog wants feeding. (It shouldbe fed.)

Passive verbs with an activemeaning

Some verbs can be used in the passiveform with an active meaning:

My parents are retired now. (Myparents have retired.)Are you finished yet? (Have youfinished yet?)

Those days are gone. (Those dayshave gone.)

Related topics:

State verbs and action verbs

Ditransitive verbs in thepassive voiceDitransitive verbs have both a directobject and an indirect object. If thedirect object is not a personal pronoun,the order of the objects is optional, but ifthe direct object comes first, theindirect object is preceded by apreposition, usually to:

The company paid the customer$500 as compensation.The company paid $500 to thecustomer as compensation.

If the direct object is a personalpronoun, it always comes before the

indirect object:

The compensation was $500, andthe company paid it to the customerwithout delay.

In the passive voice, either of the twoobjects can be the subject of thesentence. If the direct object is thesubject of the passive sentence, theindirect object is preceded by apreposition:

The customer was paid $500 ascompensation.$500 was paid to the customer ascompensation.

Examples of ditransitive verbs:

allow, ask, award, bake, bring,build, buy, charge, cook, forgive,give, grant, hand, leave, make,offer, order, owe, pass, pay,promise, read, save, sell, send,show, teach, tell, throw, write

The agent with the passivevoiceThe agent is the person or thing thatperforms the action and is the subject ofthe active sentence. In most passivesentences, the agent is not mentioned. Ifit is mentioned, however, it is usuallypreceded by the preposition by:

The pigeons were dispersed by atourist walking past. (A touristwalking past dispersed thepigeons.)He was hit by a falling branchwhile walking in the woods. (A

falling branch hit him while he waswalking in the woods.)

The instrument is an object that is not thedoer of the action but something that thedoer uses in performing the action. If itis mentioned in the passive sentence, itis preceded by the preposition with:

The crowds were dispersed withtear gas. (The police dispersed thecrowds with tear gas.)He was hit with a branch whilewalking in the woods. (Someone hithim with a branch while he waswalking in the woods.)

(In the two passive sentences above, the

agent is not mentioned. In the firstsentence the identity of the agent isobvious, while in the second one it isunknown.)

With is also often used with the verbsfill, crowd, cram and pack:

The bottle was filled with whiskey.The hall was crowded with peoplestanding and lying on the floor.Our room is crammed withfurniture.

The preposition in is often used withcover:

When I looked out the window inthe morning, I saw that the streets

were covered in snow.

The use of the passivevoiceThe passive voice is more common informal written English. It is often used innewspapers, academic and scientificwriting and reports, which try to be lesspersonal. Most passive sentences do nothave an agent, as the focus of thesentence is not on the doer of the actionbut on its recipient. As a rule, the agentis only mentioned in the passivesentence if it is important newinformation which cannot be omitted:

The Lord Of The Rings was writtenby J. R. R. Tolkien.While Tony was walking home last

night, he was mugged by a group ofyoung men, who stole his mobilephone and wallet.

The passive voice is preferred over theactive in the following cases:

Change of focus

We use the passive voice when we wantto shift the focus of attention from theagent to the recipient of the action. If theagent is not important information, it isusually omitted in the passive sentence:

The flood killed 24 people. (focuson the flood, the agent)

24 people were killed by the flood.(focus on 24 people, the recipient)

The water in the nearby poolreflected her figure. (focus on thewater in the nearby pool, the agent)Her figure was reflected in thenearby pool. (focus on her figure,the recipient)

Unknown or unimportant agent

We use the passive voice when we donot know who is performing the actionor if the identity of the agent is notimportant. In this case the agent isomitted in the passive sentence:

Tom's bike has been stolen.(unknown agent)I was advised to apply for a visa inadvance. (unimportant agent)

Generalised agent

We use the passive voice with ageneralised agent, i.e. when the subjectof the active sentence is you, one, we,people, everybody etc.:

The Venus de Milo can be seen atthe Louvre. (You can see the Venusde Milo at the Louvre.)Smart phones are used for manydifferent things. (We/People use

smart phones for many differentthings.)

Obvious agent

We use the passive voice when theidentity of the agent is obvious. In thiscase the agent is usually omitted in thepassive sentence:

The murderer has been arrested.(The police have arrested themurderer.)

Impersonality

We use the passive voice when we donot want to mention the agent because:

we want to avoid naming thespecific person responsible for theaction,we want to sound objective ortactful without revealing the sourceof information orit would be inappropriate orembarrassing to mention the agent:

It has been decided to cancel nextweek's meeting.I regret to inform you that yourapplication has been rejected.Mistakes have been made.

Description of processes

We often use the passive voice in

describing processes, when theemphasis is on the actions and not on thepeople who perform them. The agent isusually omitted:

Then the pig is disembowelled andcut into two.After they had been picked, thegrapes were crushed with bare feet.

The passive with GETGET + PAST PARTICIPLE

Get is often used instead of be in thepassive voice in informal spokenEnglish to refer to an action that happensby accident or unexpectedly:

Their car got stolen in front oftheir house last night.Jerry got fired because he wasalways late for work.

Get expresses action and change and isonly used with action verbs, not stateverbs:

Jerry was fired because he was

always late for work.Jerry got fired because he wasalways late for work. (fire is anaction verb)

Nothing is known about the thief.Nothing gets known about the thief.(know is a state verb)

As get in the passive voice expressesaction, it makes it possible todifferentiate between an action and astate if it is not otherwise clear:

The living room window wasbroken. (state or action)The living room window gotbroken. (action)

The passive with be and the agentmentioned also makes the distinctionclear:

The living room window wasbroken by the burglar. (action)

A reflexive pronoun after get indicatesthat the recipient of the action is in someway involved in or responsible for whathappened:

He got injured while playingfootball. (it was an accident)He got himself injured whiletrying bike stunts. (it was partly hisfault)

The get passive is also used in certain

idiomatic expressions:

get dressed, get washed, getengaged, get married, getdivorced, get lost, get mixed up,get started

I took a shower and got dressed.When did they get married?Have you ever got lost whiletravelling?

Quotes:

The secret of getting ahead isgetting started. - Mark Twain

Related topics:

Form: passive voiceState verbs and action verbs

Passive voice withreporting verbsIf we want to avoid mentioning thegeneralised agents we, they, people,everybody, one etc. with reportingverbs, we can use the following passivepatterns:

1. it + passive reporting verb + that-clause

In this pattern, the generalised agent+ active reporting verb is replacedwith it + passive reporting verb:

Everybody knows that mygrandfather likes red wine.

It is known that mygrandfather likes red wine.

2. subject + passive reporting verb +to-infinitive

In this pattern we start with thesubject of the reported clause,which is followed by the passivereporting verb and the to-infinitiveform of the verb in the reportedclause:

Everybody knows that mygrandfather likes red wine.My grandfather is known tolike red wine.

The reporting verb (is known) is in

the same tense as it was in theactive sentence (knows). The typeof to-infinitive we use (to like)corresponds to the temporalrelationship between the action ofreporting and the reported event.This temporal relationship can beof two basic types:

The reporting and the reportedevent happen simultaneously(as in the example above).The reported event happensbefore the reporting.

Examples of reporting verbs which canbe used with the patterns above:

allege, assume, believe, claim,

consider, declare, discover,estimate, expect, feel, find,intend, know, observe, presume,prove, report, reveal, say, see,show, suppose, think, understand

Reporting a simultaneous eventin the passive voice

SUBJECT + PASSIVE REPORTING VERB+ TO-INFINITIVE (SIMPLE ORCONTINUOUS)

If the reporting and the reported eventhappen simultaneously, in the same timeframe, we use simple or continuousinfinitives, depending on whether the

verb in the reported clause was simpleor continuous.

If the time frame is the present:

My son's football coach is said tobe very strict. (They say my son'sfootball coach is very strict.)

J. K. Rowling is rumoured to bewriting a new book. (Rumour has itthat J. K. Rowling is writing a newbook.)

If the time frame is the past:

Paul was thought to be in thehouse. (Everybody thought Paul

was in the house.)

Vincent was reported to bestaying in Paris at that time. (Theyreported Vincent was staying inParis at that time.

In the following examples, the verb inthe reported clause of the originalsentence was passive, so we use passiveinfinitives in the new sentence.

If the time frame is the present:

The manuscript is believed to beowned by Mr Wilkins. (Theybelieve the manuscript is owned by

Mr Wilkins. / They believe MrWilkins owns the manuscript.)

The painting is said to be beingrestored. (rarely used) (They saythe painting is being restored. /They say that some experts arerestoring the painting.)

If the time frame is the past:

The money was thought to beprovided by a private foundation.(They thought the money wasprovided by a private foundation. /They thought a private foundationprovided the money.)

The spy's phone was believed tobe being tapped. (rarely used)(The CIA believed that the spy'sphone was being tapped. / TheCIA believed that someone wastapping the spy's phone.)

Reporting an earlier event inthe passive voice

SUBJECT + PASSIVE REPORTING VERB+ TO-INFINITIVE (PERFECT ORPERFECT CONTINUOUS)

If the reported event happens before thereporting, we use perfect or perfectcontinuous infinitives, depending on

whether the verb in the reported clausewas simple or continuous.

If the reporting happens in the presentand the reported event in the past:

He is believed never to havesmiled at anyone. (They believe henever smiled / has never smiled atanyone.)

She is known to have been writingsongs for years. (They know shehas been writing / was writingsongs for years.)

If the reporting happens in the past andthe reported event in an earlier past:

Lucy was assumed to have left theday before. (They assumed Lucyhad left the day before.)

The organisers were thought tohave been preparing for days.(Everybody thought the organisershad been preparing for days.)

In the following examples, the verb inthe reported clause of the originalsentence was passive, so we use passiveinfinitives in the new sentence.

If the reporting happens in the presentand the reported event in the past:

The picture is known to have beenpainted by Caspar DavidFriedrich. (They know that the

picture was painted / has beenpainted by Caspar DavidFriedrich. / They know that CasparDavid Friedrich painted / haspainted the picture.)

The picture is believed to havebeen being painted for years.(rarely used) (They believe that thepicture was being painted / hasbeen being painted for years. /They believe that the artist waspainting / has been painting thepicture for years.)

If the reporting happens in the past andthe reported event in an earlier past:

The documents were claimed tohave been signed by the CEO.(They claimed that the documentshad been signed by the CEO. /They claimed that the CEO hadsigned the documents.)

The tree was reported to havebeen being chopped when theaccident happened. (rarely used)(The investigators reported that thetree had been being chopped whenthe accident happened. / Theinvestigators reported that thewoodcutters had been choppingthe tree when the accidenthappened.)

Related topics:

Indirect speechThe forms of the infinitive

Causative structuresCausative sentences are similar topassive sentences in that the agent (thedoer of the action) is not the grammaticalsubject of the sentence. Depending onwhether the agent is mentioned or not,causative structures can be of two maintypes.

Causative structures without anagentCausative structures with an agent

Causative structureswithout an agentIn these causative structures, the agent isusually not mentioned.

HAVE + object + pastparticiple

This structure is usually used when wetalk about professional servicesprovided for a customer. It means thatwe do not do something ourselves butarrange for someone to do it for us:

I had my hair cut this morning. (A

hairdresser cut my hair.)I'm going to have my apartmentpainted. (I'm going to ask someoneto paint my apartment.)

Compare:

I cut my hair this morning. (I did itmyself.)I'm going to paint my apartment.(I'm going to do it myself.)

Have + object + past participle isdifferent from have/has + past participle(present perfect tense) and had + pastparticiple (past perfect tense):

I had my hair cut. (causative: have+ object + past participle)

I had cut my hair. (past perfecttense: had + past participle)

In this structure, have is not an auxiliarybut a main verb and can be used in thesame way as ordinary verbs:

I'd like to have my photo taken.Could you have this jacketcleaned?When are you having the heaterinstalled?Have you ever had your earspierced?

Have + object + past participle can alsohave the non-causative meaning"experience something unpleasant". In

this case, the subject of the sentence didnot initiate the action:

I had my bike stolen. (My bikewas stolen.)He had his leg broken in a carcrash. (His leg was broken in a carcrash.)

GET + object + past participle

This structure has the same meaning ashave + object + past participle, but get ismore informal:

I got my hair cut this morning.Could you get this jacket

cleaned?They finally got the car serviced.

It can also be used to express accidentsor misfortunes happening to someone inthe same way as have + object + pastparticiple can:

I got my bike stolen. (My bike wasstolen.)He got his leg broken in a carcrash. (His leg was broken in a carcrash.)

Causative structures withan agentIn the following causative structures, theagent is the object of the main clause.

MAKE + object + bareinfinitive

This structure means "force someone todo something they do not want to do":

The teacher made Jack rewrite thecomposition.His mom made him clean his roomagain.

Make + object + bare infinitive can alsomean "cause someone to do something":

Don't make me laugh.The film made me cry.

In the passive voice, make takes a to-infinitive:

Jack was made to rewrite thecomposition.

Quotes:

No one can make you feel inferiorwithout your consent. - EleanorRooseveltChildren make you want to start lifeover. - Muhammad Ali

HAVE + object + bareinfinitive

This structure has a meaning similar to"make someone do something":

I'll have her copy the documentright away. (I'll ask/tell her to copythe document right away.)The teacher had me stay after classto discuss my essay. (The teachermade me stay after class to discussmy essay.)

GET + object + TO-infinitive

This structure means "persuade someoneto do something". It is similar in meaningto have + object + bare infinitive but ismore informal:

Finally, we got a mechanic torepair the elevator.I couldn't get her to understandthe problem.

HAVE, GET + object + presentparticiple

Have/get + object + present participlecan mean "persuade someone to dosomething":

The teacher had the whole classsinging Mary Had a Little Lamb.The boss got the staff workingovertime.

It can also mean "experience somethinghappening to you as a result ofsomething":

We'll have my brother stayingwith us for a little while until hefinds a new apartment.His problems got him going tohospital for years.

Here, the present participle expressesrepeated action, or something happeningover a period of time.

Revision questions:passive voice andcausative structures

What is the theme of the message ina passive sentence: the agent or therecipient of the action?Can we form the passive voice inany tense?Do infinitives and gerunds havepassive forms?Can you think of verbs which arealways passive?What is a ditransitive verb? Howdo we use ditransitive verbs in thepassive?

What is the difference between anagent and an instrument?In which of the following sentencescan the agent phrase be omitted?

Ulysses was written by JamesJoyce.My car was stolen bysomeone yesterday.Brown was elected presidenttwice by the people of hiscountry.The bomb was found bychildren playing football.At the trial, Jones was foundguilty by the jury.

When is get used instead of be in

the passive voice?Which reporting verbs are oftenused in the passive voice?In which causative structure(s) canwe use get instead of have?Which causative structure(s) canexpress accidents or misfortunes?How do we form the passive ofmake + object + bare infinitive?

Chapter 6: Non-finite verb forms

Guiding questions: non-finite verbformsThe difference between finite andnon-finite verb formsThe infinitiveThe gerundVerbs followed by the TO-infinitive or gerundThe participleThe difference between the gerundand the present participleRevision questions: non-finite verbforms

Guiding questions:non-finite verb forms

What is the difference betweenfinite and non-finite verb forms?What do we mean when we say thatthe infinitive, gerund or participledoes not indicate tense?Is the doer of the action expressedby a non-finite verb form alwaysthe subject of the sentence?What are some verbs that take a to-infinitive?What are some verbs that take agerund?What are some verbs that can take ato-infinitive or a gerund?

Which tenses are formed with thepresent participle?Which tenses are formed with thepast participle?What is the connection betweenparticiples and relative clauses?What is the difference between agerund and a present participle?

The differencebetween finite andnon-finite verb formsFinite verb forms

Finite verb forms are marked byinflection and indicate person, numberand tense. A finite verb can be the singlemain verb in a sentence.

The finite forms of, for example, theverb go are:

go (present tense in all personsexcept the third person singular)

I go to school in the afternoon.

goes (present tense in the thirdperson singular)

Mia goes to school by busevery day.

went (past tense)

Yesterday, we went to schoolat 9 am.

Non-finite verb forms

Non-finite verb forms do not indicateperson, number or tense.

The non-finite forms of the verb go are:

go (infinitive)

I can't go with you.Unfortunately, she had to go.Do you really go out with her?I didn't go to work today.I want to go home.

going (gerund)

I like going to the cinema.Carol suggested going for awalk.Going faster would have beenreally dangerous.

gone (past participle)

Jack has gone away onholiday.By the time Sue returned, theothers had gone back to theircars.I wish I had gone touniversity.

going (present participle)

I'm going to a concert tonight.I heard my dad going up thestairs.Going across the bridge lastnight, I saw someoneswimming in the river.

The infinitive, the gerund and the

participle have other forms, which arediscussed in detail in the followingchapters.

The infinitiveThe forms of the infinitiveThe "subject" of the infinitiveThe use of the infinitive

The forms of the infinitiveAn infinitive can be a to-infinitive or abare infinitive (without to). There is nodifference in meaning between them;some structures require a to-infinitive,while others call for a bare infinitive:

I ought to call them. (to-infinitive)I had better call them. (bareinfinitive)

In the negative, not usually comes beforethe infinitive:

I ought not to call them.I had better not call them.

In some cases, the verb in the mainclause is negative, not the infinitive:

I want to call them. I don't want to call them.

As the infinitive has no tense, it does notin itself indicate the time of the actionthat it refers to. However, it can haveaspect, which shows the temporalrelationship between the actionexpressed by the infinitive and the timeof the preceding verb. There are fourtypes of infinitive, each of which has anactive and passive form:

Active Passive

Simple (to) write (to) be written

infinitiveContinuousinfinitive

(to) bewriting

(to) be beingwritten

Perfectinfinitive

(to) havewritten

(to) have beenwritten

Perfectcontinuousinfinitive

(to) havebeenwriting

(to) have beenbeing written

Simple infinitive

The simple infinitive refers to the sametime as that of the preceding verb:

I was glad to see her.He must be very happy.I'll arrange a meeting with themanager.

My son's football coach is said tobe very strict.

Continuous infinitive

The continuous infinitive refers to thesame time as that of the preceding verband expresses an action in progress orhappening over a period of time:

I'm glad to be sitting here.

You must be joking.This time next week, I'll be lyingon the beach in Croatia.Vincent was reported to be stayingin Paris at that time.

Perfect infinitive

The perfect infinitive refers to a timebefore that of the preceding verb:

I'm glad to have studied at thatschool.They must have forgotten aboutthe deadline.By next week, they'll have finishedpainting the rooms.Lucy was assumed to have left theday before.

Perfect continuous infinitive

The perfect continuous infinitive refersto a time before that of the precedingverb and expresses an action in progressor happening over a period of time:

I'm glad to have been living inBarcelona for the last ten years.He must have been waiting forages.Soon, he'll have been running forfour hours.The organisers were thought tohave been preparing for days.

Passive infinitives

Passive forms are also possible:

Your composition has to be typed.(passive simple infinitive)The spy's phone was believed tobe being tapped. (passivecontinuous infinitive, rarely used)This sonnet must have beenwritten by Shakespeare. (passive

perfect infinitive)The picture is believed to havebeen being painted for years.(passive perfect continuousinfinitive, rarely used)

Quotes:

Live as you will wish to have livedwhen you are dying. - ChristianFurchtegott GellertTo be wronged is nothing unlessyou continue to remember it. -ConfuciusSuccess usually comes to thosewho are too busy to be looking forit. - Henry David ThoreauNothing in life is to be feared. It is

only to be understood. - MarieCurieSome things have to be believed tobe seen. - Ralph Hodgson

Related topics:

The continuous aspectThe perfect aspectThe perfect continuous aspectTypes of modalsForm: passive voiceAppendix: irregular verb forms

The "subject" of theinfinitiveThe doer of the action expressed by theinfinitive can be:

the subject of the sentence:

I was glad to see her.You must be joking.Lucy was assumed to haveleft the day before.I want to go.I've come here to help you.

the direct object of the verb in themain clause:

I want you to go.They told us to fill in aregistration form.The teacher made Jackrewrite the composition.I'll have her copy thedocument right away.I couldn't get her tounderstand the problem.I saw him cross the street.

the object of the prepositions of orfor:

It's very kind of you to comewith me to the embassy.We were waiting for the rainto stop.

It's easy for an outsider tosay what should be done insuch a situation.

an indefinite or generalised subject(you, one, we, people etc.):

It is sometimes difficult toaccept the truth.The rules didn't specify whoto talk to in case of anemergency.

unexpressed and understood onlyfrom the context:

It must have been funny to seeher in a tuxedo.

Nice to meet you.It would be a mistake to hirehim.

Related topics:

The infinitive of purposeThe "subject" of the gerundThe "subject" of the participle

The use of the infinitiveThe infinitive can be used on its own orwith an object or adverbial:

We decided to leave.They told us to fill in aregistration form.I'm glad to have studied at thatschool.

The TO-infinitive as subjectThe TO-infinitive as a subjectcomplementThe TO-infinitive to replace arelative clauseThe TO-infinitive after passivereporting verbs

The infinitive after modalsDO, DOES, DID + bare infinitiveSEE, WATCH, HEAR, LISTEN,FEEL, SMELL, NOTICE,OBSERVE + object + bareinfinitiveAPPEAR, HAPPEN, PROVE,SEEM, TEND, TURN OUT + TO-infinitiveHAVE, GET, LET, MAKE + object+ infinitiveVerb + TO-infinitiveVerb + object + TO-infinitiveAdjective + TO-infinitiveNoun phrase + TO-infinitiveThe infinitive of purposeThe infinitive of resultQuestion word + TO-infinitive

Introductory infinitive clauses

The TO-infinitive as subject

A to-infinitive clause can be the subjectof a sentence:

To tell the truth is always right.To complain would seemungrateful.

But it is more common to start with theintroductory it and place the to-infinitiveclause at the end of the sentence:

It is always right to tell the truth.It would seem ungrateful tocomplain.

Quotes:

To read a book for the first time isto make an acquaintance with a newfriend; to read it for a second timeis to meet an old one. - ChineseproverbTo be wronged is nothing unlessyou continue to remember it. -ConfuciusTo be interested in the changingseasons is a happier state of mindthan to be hopelessly in love withspring. - George SantayanaTo be natural is such a verydifficult pose to keep up. - OscarWilde

Related topics:

The gerund as subject

The TO-infinitive as a subjectcomplement

A to-infinitive clause can be a subjectcomplement after be:

My advice is to file a complaint atonce.What is essential is to maintain ahealthy diet.The decision was to extend thedeadline by three months.

Quotes:

To read a book for the first time isto make an acquaintance with a new

friend; to read it for a second timeis to meet an old one. - ChineseproverbTo be wronged is nothing unlessyou continue to remember it. -ConfuciusTo be interested in the changingseasons is a happier state of mindthan to be hopelessly in love withspring. - George SantayanaTo be natural is such a verydifficult pose to keep up. - OscarWilde

Related topics:

The gerund as a subjectcomplement

The TO-infinitive to replace arelative clause

A to-infinitive clause can replace adefining relative clause after ordinalnumbers (the first, the second etc.), aftersuperlatives (the best, the most beautifuletc.) and after next, last and only:

Ethan is usually the last person tounderstand the joke. (Ethan isusually the last person whounderstands the joke.)

His office was the next room toclean. (His office was the nextroom that they had to clean.)

Passive infinitives are also possible:

His was the last composition to bemarked. (His was the lastcomposition which was marked.)

Related topics:

Relative clauses

The TO-infinitive after passivereporting verbs

If we want to avoid mentioning thegeneralised agents we, they, people,everybody, one etc. with reportingverbs, we can use a passive reportingverb and the to-infinitive form of theverb in the reported clause. Dependingon the temporal relationship between theaction of reporting and the reportedevent, we use different types of to-infinitive (simple, continuous, perfectand perfect continuous):

My son's football coach is said tobe very strict. (They say my son's

football coach is very strict.)Vincent was reported to bestaying in Paris at that time. (Theyreported Vincent was staying inParis at that time.He is believed never to havesmiled at anyone. (They believe henever smiled / has never smiled atanyone.)The organisers were thought tohave been preparing for days.(Everybody thought the organisershad been preparing for days.)

This topic is discussed in detail underPassive voice and causative structures» Passive voice » Passive voice withreporting verbs.

The infinitive after modals

The infinitive is used after modal verbs,semi-modal verbs (also called marginalmodals) and other modal expressions.

Modal verbs

Modal verbs (can, could, may, might,will, shall, would, should and must) arefollowed by a bare infinitive:

I could hear the dog barkingoutside.You must be joking.He may have caught the train.You should have told me earlier.

Semi-modal verbs (marginalmodals)

Used is followed by a to-infinitive:

They used to live by the sea.

Ought is followed by a to-infinitive:

You ought to know that by now.They ought to have insisted onsome compensation.

When used as modal verbs, dare andneed are followed by a bare infinitive:

Need you make so much noise?You needn't have been so rude.

How dare she criticise us?

When used as a main verb, need isfollowed by a to-infinitive:

Do you need to use the hairdryer?

Dare as a main verb can take a bareinfinitive or a to-infinitive:

He didn't dare (to) look back.

But in the expression Don't you dare..., italways takes a bare infinitive:

Don't you dare interrupt me!

Other modal expressions

Other modal expressions are usuallyfollowed by a to-infinitive, with theexception of had better and wouldrather, which are followed by a bareinfinitive:

Although the current was strong, Iwas able to swim to the other bank.Will journalists be allowed to askquestions?Hurry up! The ceremony is aboutto begin!Kevin is stuck in a traffic jam, sohe is bound to be late.Negotiations were due to takeplace later that week.Smokers are more likely todevelop lung cancer compared to

non-smokers.You are not to do that again.

We had better leave soon.I'd rather go by bike than walk.

Related topics:

Types of modals

DO, DOES, DID + bareinfinitive

The auxiliary verbs do, does and did arefollowed by the bare infinitive to formnegative and interrogative sentences inthe past simple and present simpletenses:

Do you take any vitamins?He doesn't live here any more.Did you ask the shop assistant?

Do, does and did can also be used inaffirmative sentences to expressemphasis:

I do know what you mean.

He does travel a lot.I did want to write, but I forgot.

Quotes:

Flowers really do intoxicate me. -Vita Sackville-West

Related topics:

The auxiliary DID for emphasisThe auxiliaries DO and DOES foremphasis

SEE, WATCH, HEAR,LISTEN, FEEL, SMELL,NOTICE, OBSERVE + object+ bare infinitive

After verbs of perception (see, watch,hear, listen, feel, smell, notice, observeetc.), the infinitive expresses acompleted action:

I felt the ground shake once. (I feltit as the ground shook once.)I saw the burglar climb over thefence and break into the house. (Isaw that the burglar climbed overthe fence and broke into the house.)I have never heard them play that

song before. (I have never heardthat song played by them before.)

In the passive voice, we use a to-infinitive:

The burglar was seen to climb overthe fence.

A present participle after these verbsrefers to an action continuing over aperiod of time:

I felt the ground shaking for abouthalf a minute. (I felt that the groundwas shaking.)

Quotes:

Millions saw the apple fall, butNewton asked why. - BernardBaruch

Related topics:

SEE, WATCH, HEAR, LISTEN,FEEL, SMELL, NOTICE,OBSERVE + object + presentparticiple

APPEAR, HAPPEN, PROVE,SEEM, TEND, TURN OUT +TO-infinitive

These verbs are followed by a to-infinitive:

I appear to have lost my keys.I happened to be passing yourhouse, and I saw that the door wasopen.Our predictions proved to beaccurate.She seems to understand most ofwhat we say.The library tends to be crowdedduring the exam period.

The concert turned out to be muchbetter than we had expected.

HAVE, GET, LET, MAKE +object + infinitive

Have, let and make are followed by anobject + bare infinitive:

I'll have her copy the documentright away. (I'll ask/tell her to copythe document right away.)In the end, the terrorists let thehostages go. (The terroristsallowed the hostages to go.)The teacher made Jack rewrite thecomposition. (The teacher forcedJack to rewrite the composition.)

Get is followed by a to-infinitive:

Finally, we got a mechanic torepair the elevator.

In the passive, make takes a to-infinitive:

Jack was made to rewrite thecomposition.

But let takes a bare infinitive:

In the end, the hostages were letgo.

Quotes:

No one can make you feel inferiorwithout your consent. - EleanorRooseveltLet your food be your medicine and

your medicine be your food. -HippocratesChildren make you want to start lifeover. - Muhammad Ali

Related topics:

HAVE + object + bare infinitiveMAKE + object + bare infinitiveGET + object + TO-infinitive

Verb + TO-infinitive

Examples of verbs followed by the to-infinitive:

afford, agree, aim, appear,arrange, ask, attempt, be, bedying, beg, begin, can't bear,can't stand, can't wait, care,cease, choose, claim, come,continue, dare, decide, demand,deserve, dread, expect, fail,forget, grow, guarantee, happen,hate, have, hesitate, hope, intend,learn, like, long, love, manage,need, neglect, offer, omit, plan,prefer, prepare, pretend, promise,

propose, refuse, regret,remember, seek, seem, start,swear, tend, threaten, train, try,turn, out, used, vow, wait, want,wish, would like, yearn

I can't afford to own a car.We all agreed to cancel nextweek's meeting.He will attempt to break thenational record for the 1,500metres.Why did you choose to study arts?In a recent poll, 31% of the femaleworkers claimed to have beenharassed at work.She decided to set out at once.I demand to know the truth.

Tony has failed to show up at workon time again.I hope to see you soon.We managed to cross the valley.Ben offered to take me home.Preparing to die is present in mostspiritual paths and traditions.He promised to change hisbehaviour, but I knew he wouldn't.Jack refused to fight in such animmoral war.The owner threatened to sue usfor trespassing.I can't wait to be with you again.

Quotes:

Live as you will wish to have lived

when you are dying. - ChristianFurchtegott GellertChildren make you want to start lifeover. - Muhammad AliThe true meaning of life is to planttrees, under whose shade you donot expect to sit. - NelsonHendersonEvery English poet should masterthe rules of grammar before heattempts to bend or break them. -Robert GravesThose who wish to sing alwaysfind a song. - Swedish proverb

Related topics:

Reporting verb + TO-infinitive

Verb + gerundVerbs followed by the TO-infinitive or gerund

Verb + object + TO-infinitive

Examples of verbs followed by anobject and the to-infinitive:

advise, allow, ask, beg, cause,choose, command, convince,enable, encourage, expect, force,hire, instruct, invite, need, order,permit, persuade, prepare,promise, remind, require, tell,threaten, urge, want, warn, wish,would like

My GP advised me to see aspecialist.Could you ask her to copy this

letter for me?She begged him not to leave her.The colonel commanded his mento charge.How can we encourage a baby touse the toilet rather than his potty?Do you expect me to believe you?The teacher instructed thestudents to line up in pairs.I've invited Jill to come to dinneron Saturday.After days of pointless fighting, thegeneral ordered the marines towithdraw.I tried to persuade them to stay,but they said they were too tired.I reminded Andy to bring a bottleof wine and some snacks.

The doctor told me to give upsmoking.The opposition urged thegovernment to take actionimmediately.The professor warned us to bediligent with our weeklyassignments.

Verbs followed by an object and a to-infinitive can also be passive:

The students were instructed toline up in pairs.After days of pointless fighting, themarines were ordered towithdraw.I was told to give up smoking.

Related topics:

Reporting verb + object + TO-infinitive

Adjective + TO-infinitive

There are various structures withadjectives and the to-infinitive:

IT + linking verb + adjective +TO-infinitive

It was difficult to answer thequestion.It would seem awkward to call heragain.

Noun + linking verb + adjective +TO-infinitive

Here the noun is the object of the

infinitive:

The question was difficult toanswer.A good translator is hard to find.

IT + linking verb + adjective +noun + TO-infinitive

It was a difficult question toanswer.It's a big house to clean.

IT + linking verb + adjective +FOR something/somebody + TO-infinitive

It looked impossible for me to

finish on time.It is necessary for this door to belocked.

IT + linking verb + adjective +OF somebody + TO-infinitive

It is very kind of you to come withme to the embassy.It was stupid of him to press theemergency button.

TOO, ENOUGH + TO-infinitive

Too comes before an adjective oradverb. Enough follows an adjective oradverb but comes before a noun:

It was too difficult (for me) toanswer the question.The question was too difficult toanswer.It was too difficult a question toanswer.It was a difficult enough questionto answer even for a nativespeaker.

Manuela got to the station too lateto catch the train.Manuela did not get to the stationearly enough to catch the train.

I didn't have enough money to buythat beautiful sweater.

Noun + linking verb + adjective +TO-infinitive

Here the noun is the doer of the actionexpressed by the infinitive:

The little boy was afraid to jump.He was ashamed to speak to heragain.We were happy to see you.I am glad to have helped you.Our company is pleased to offeryou a job as a financial riskmanager.I am proud to announce this year'swinner.Aren't you sad to hear that?I'm sorry to disturb you.

Examples of adjectives that can be usedwith this pattern:

amazed, anxious, ashamed,bound, careful, certain, content,delighted, determined, eager,eligible, fortunate, glad, happy,hesitant, liable, likely, lucky,pleased, proud, ready, reluctant,sad, shocked, sorry, surprised

Quotes:

It is easy to be brave from a safedistance. - AesopIf one cannot invent a reallyconvincing lie, it is often better tostick to the truth. - Angela Thirkell

The best way to gain self-confidence is to do what you areafraid to do. - Author unknownIt is impossible to keep a straightface in the presence of one or morekittens. - Cynthia E. VarnadoNo city should be too large for aman to walk out of in a morning. -Cyril ConnollyCourage is doing what you're afraidto do. There can be no courageunless you're scared. - EdwardVernon RickenbackerIt is never too late to be who youmight have been. - George EliotSuccess usually comes to thosewho are too busy to be looking forit. - Henry David Thoreau

To be natural is such a verydifficult pose to keep up. - OscarWildeYou must learn from the mistakes ofothers. You can't possibly live longenough to make them all yourself. -Samuel LevensonIt is terrible to speak well and bewrong. - Sophocles

Noun phrase + TO-infinitive

There are various structures with nounphrases and the to-infinitive:

Noun phrase + TO-infinitive

Some nouns can be followed by a to-infinitive. Many of these nouns havebeen formed from adjectives or verbsnormally followed by a to-infinitive:

The ability to cooperate withothers is as important as managingon our own.Our decision to close the firm wasa difficult one to make.We were surprised at his offer to

take us home.As a result of his failure to pay themortgage, his house wasforeclosed.She showed no willingness to help.

Examples of nouns followed by the to-infinitive:

ability, advice, agreement,ambition, anxiety, appeal,arrangement, attempt, chance,choice, decision, demand, desire,determination, dream, eagerness,failure, goal, intention,motivation, need, offer,opportunity, order, permission,plan, preparation, promise,

proposal, recommendation,refusal, reluctance, reminder,request, requirement, suggestion,tendency, way, willingness, wish

IT + linking verb + noun phrase(+ FOR + somebody) + TO-infinitive

It's a pity (for them) to lose such agood player.It's a privilege (for me) to beinvited to this conference.It would be a mistake (for you) tohire him. It's a pleasure (for us) to have youhere.

Noun phrase + TO-infinitive toexpress necessity or possibility

There is a lot of work to do aroundthe farm. (There is a lot of workthat we need to do around thefarm.)I have some e-mails to write. (Ihave some e-mails that I have towrite.)She had two more clients to callthat afternoon. (She had two moreclients that she had to call thatafternoon.)Let's get something to eat. (Let'sget something that we can eat.)

Quotes:

It is the mark of an educated mindto be able to entertain a thoughtwithout accepting it. - AristotleThe hardest thing to learn in life iswhich bridge to cross and which toburn. - David RussellWise men speak because they havesomething to say; fools becausethey have to say something. - PlatoEach day is an opportunity to travelback into tomorrow's past andchange it. - Robert Brault

The infinitive of purpose

A to-infinitive can be used to expresspurpose:

I'm calling to place an order fordelivery.Diya went to the door to open it.To pass this test, you need toachieve a score of 60% or more.

In order and so as can be used before ato-infinitive for emphasis in more formalstyles:

He took a book with him in orderto have something to read on thetrain.

The parties started negotiations soas to reach an agreement as soonas possible.In order to attract a wideraudience, we need to rethink ourmarketing strategy.

The negative is always in order not + to-infinitive or so as not + to-infinitive:

He tiptoed through the hall so asnot to be heard.In order not to lose time, we mustact at once.

The infinitive of purpose can only beused if the doer of the action expressedby the infinitive is the same as the

subject of the main clause. If the subjectsare different, we can use so + that-clausewith the present simple tense or with themodal verbs may, can, will, might, couldor would:

Jerry works hard so that his familyhas everything they need.I'll leave the door open so that youcan come in.Tina gave me a shopping list sothat I wouldn't forget anything.

In order + that-clause is also possible inthis case; however, it is more formal andless common. In the that-clause, we canuse the modal verbs may, shall, might orshould:

Our company does everything inorder that all complaints may bedealt with fairly and effectively.

With the verbs come and go, we can usethe infinitive of purpose in any presentor past tense or if these verbs are usedas gerunds:

I'm just coming to help.We went to talk to a lawyer.Have you thought of going to see adoctor?

But if come and go are used asinfinitives or as imperatives, we use andinstead of to:

I must go and check the heater.He will come and dance with you.Go and fetch a glass.

Quotes:

Life is like riding a bicycle - inorder to keep your balance, youmust keep moving. - Albert EinsteinTo avoid mistakes and regrets,always consult your wife beforeengaging in a flirtation. - E. W.HoweGossip needn't be false to be evil -there's a lot of truth that shouldn'tbe passed around. - Frank A. ClarkWe should read to give our souls achance to luxuriate. - Henry Miller

What you have become is the priceyou paid to get what you used towant. - Mignon McLaughlinYou must learn from the mistakes ofothers. You can't possibly live longenough to make them all yourself. -Samuel LevensonTo be successful, you have to haveyour heart in your business, andyour business in your heart. -Thomas Watson, Sr.

Related topics:

The "subject" of the infinitive

The infinitive of result

A to-infinitive can be used to expressresult, however, this use is morecommon in literary styles:

Do you want to live to be ahundred?She arrived home to receive aletter from her bank.

Only + to-infinitive can express adisappointing result of an action:

I went back to the shop only to findthat it had closed for good.He got his car fixed only todamage it again.

Question word + TO-infinitive

A question word can be used before ato-infinitive to express an indirectquestion about what should be done:

We don't know where to put thesofa. (where we should put thesofa)No one could tell me how to startthe engine. (how I should start theengine)The rules didn't specify who tospeak to in case of an emergency.(who you should speak to)I had no idea what to write my

home paper about. (what I shouldwrite my home paper about)

Why cannot be used in this way.

If the original question was a yes/noquestion, we use whether (but not if):

I didn't know whether to laugh orcry. (whether I should laugh or cry)He couldn't decide whether toaccept the job or not. (whether Ishould accept the job or not)

Quotes:

The hardest thing to learn in life iswhich bridge to cross and which toburn. - David Russell

Every child is an artist. Theproblem is how to remain an artistonce we grow up. - Pablo Picasso

Related topics:

Reporting questions

Introductory infinitive clauses

An infinitive clause placed at thebeginning of a sentence can express acomment on the speaker's own words:

To be perfectly honest, I've neverreally liked him.To tell you the truth, I'm quiteexhausted.To make a long story short, weended up sleeping on a park bench.

The gerundThe forms of the gerundThe "subject" of the gerundThe use of the gerund

The forms of the gerundThe gerund is an -ing form. It can besimple or perfect, active or passive:

Active Passive

Simplegerund

writing being written

Perfectgerund

havingwritten

having beenwritten

Note the changes in spelling whenforming the simple gerund:

read » reading study » studying grow » growingrelax » relaxing

answer » answering write » writing; argue » arguing (afinal -e is omitted) agree » agreeing (a final -ee doesnot change) lie » lying (a final -ie changes to -y-) put » putting; regret » regretting;readmit » readmitting (we doublethe final consonant if the verb endswith consonant-vowel-consonant,with the exception of w, x and yand only has one syllable or has thestress on the last syllable)

In the negative, not usually comes beforethe gerund:

There is no point in applying forthe grant. There is no point in not applyingfor the grant.

In some cases, the verb in the mainclause is negative, not the gerund:

I like getting up early. I don't like getting up early.

As the gerund has no tense, it does not initself indicate the time of the action thatit refers to. However, it can showwhether this time is the same as orearlier than the time of the verb in themain clause.

Simple gerund

The simple gerund can refer to the sametime as that of the verb in the mainclause:

I hate arguing with you. (arguingrefers to the same time as hate: Ihate when we argue.) Tom suggested going back to ourtents. (going refers to the same timeas suggested: Tom suggested thatwe should go back to our tents.)

The simple gerund can also refer to atime before that of the verb in the mainclause:

I don't remember saying anythinglike that. (saying refers to a timebefore don't remember: I don'tremember that I said anything likethat.) She regretted not studying harderwhen she was at school. (not

studying refers to a time beforeregretted: She regretted that shehadn't studied harder when he wasat school.)

Perfect gerund

The perfect gerund refers to a timebefore that of the verb in the mainclause. However, it is only used if the

time of the action expressed by thegerund is not obvious from the context:

He denied being married. (thesimple gerund being refers to thesame time as denied: He deniedthat he was married.)

He denied having been married.(the perfect gerund having beenrefers to a time before denied: Hedenied that he had been married.)

If it is clear that an earlier time is meant,we use the simple gerund:

He denied stealing the car. (Hedenied that he had stolen the car.)

Passive gerunds

Passive forms are also possible:

I hate being lied to. (passivesimple gerund: I hate it whenpeople lie to me.)He complained of having beenunjustly accused. (passive perfectgerund: He complained that theyhad unjustly accused him.)

Related topics:

The perfect aspectForm: passive voice

The "subject" of thegerundThe doer of the action expressed by thegerund can be:

the subject of the sentence:

I like getting up early insummer.He apologised for not writingfor so long.I am looking forward tohearing from you.My mom insisted on tidyingmy room.

Would you mind opening thewindow?

the noun/pronoun or possessivepreceding the gerund:

Irina doesn't like peopletelling her what to do.Sally's constant arguing isgetting on my nerves.I objected to him/his callingme a liar.My mom insisted on me/mytidying my room.Would you mind me/myopening the window?

(The possessive is more formal,

and it is less common in everydayconversation.)

an indefinite or generalised subject(you, one, we, people etc.):

In those days, being a studentmeant spending long hours inthe library.

unexpressed and understood onlyfrom the context:

Going home seemed to be thebest idea.

Related topics:

The "subject" of the infinitive

The "subject" of the participle

The use of the gerundThe gerund always serves as a noun. Itcan be used on its own or with an objector adverbial:

Dancing is fun.He denied stealing the car.I like getting up early.

The gerund as subjectThe gerund as a subjectcomplementThe gerund as the object of a verbVerb + gerundPreposition + gerundVerb + preposition + gerundThe gerund used in compound

nounsOther expressions followed by thegerund

The gerund as subject

A gerund clause can be the subject of asentence:

Hiking can be a relaxing andrewarding activity.Swimming in the winter can boostyour immune system.Learning a foreign language iseasier at a young age.

The use of the gerund as subject is morecommon than that of the to-infinitive.

Quotes:

The fishing was good; it was the

catching that was bad. - A. K. BestGrowing old is mandatory; growingup is optional. - Chili DavisSaying nothing sometimes says themost. - Emily Dickinson

Related topics:

The TO-infinitive as subject

The gerund as a subjectcomplement

A gerund clause can be a subjectcomplement after be:

What I really like is travelling toother countries.Seeing is believing.

Quotes:

I don't know the key to success, butthe key to failure is trying to pleaseeverybody. - Bill CosbyCourage is doing what you're afraidto do. There can be no courage

unless you're scared. - EdwardVernon RickenbackerKnowledge is learning somethingevery day. Wisdom is letting go ofsomething every day. - Zen saying

Related topics:

The TO-infinitive as a subjectcomplement

The gerund as the object of averb

A gerund clause can be the object of averb:

I really enjoy swimming in the sea.Jill suggested going for a drink.The car managed to avoid hittingany other vehicles.

Verb + gerund

Examples of verbs followed by agerund:

admit, advise, allow, anticipate,appreciate, avoid, begin, can'tbear, can't help, can't stand,cease, consider, continue, defend,delay, deny, despise, discuss,dislike, don't mind, dread,encourage, enjoy, escape, excuse,fancy, finish, forget, forgive,hate, imagine, involve, justify,keep, like, love, mean, mention,mind, miss, need, neglect, permit,postpone, practice, prefer,

prevent, propose, quit, recall,recollect, recommend, regret,remember, report, require,resent, resist, risk, save, start,stop, suggest, tolerate, try,understand, urge

After being stopped by the police,George admitted having drunktwo pints of beer.We anticipated having difficulty infinding candidates with the rightqualifications.We do appreciate your taking timefrom your busy schedule to come toBerlin.He tried to avoid meeting her eyes.How can you stand living so far

away from your home country?The next morning I was really tired,so I delayed getting up as long aspossible.The man denied stealing thecamera.We have already discussed movingto the countryside.I dislike being treated like a child.The two sons left the country toescape being conscripted into thearmy.What do you fancy eating?Finish washing up and then you canuse the computer.Forgive my saying so, but yourattitude to work has changed for theworse.

Leadership involves setting anexample that others want to follow.Why do you keep teasing me?You mentioned going to Italy lastsummer. How was it?Take your time, I don't mindwaiting.I really miss taking photos with ananalogue camera.We had to postpone flying toThailand.In this course, we will practisewriting formal letters, among otherthings.I wanted to prevent ending up inthe same situation again.Why did she quit working as anurse?

The witness said he couldn't recallseeing that car before.Do you recollect borrowing moneyfrom her?One in five workers in the countryreported being very or extremelystressed by their work.Tim resented having been takenadvantage of.I couldn't resist eating anothercinnamon bun.So as not to risk being fired, theworkers ended the strike.Register your profile in ourcustomer database to save fillingout your shipping information eachtime you order.The guide suggested visiting the

Royal Palace.Could you tolerate being alone foran entire week?I can't understand peoplebehaving like that.

Related topics:

Reporting verb + gerundVerb + TO-infinitiveVerbs followed by the TO-infinitive or gerund

Preposition + gerund

As a gerund clause serves as a noun, itcan be used after prepositions:

After watching the movie, Iwanted to read the book. Andrey's parents were against hisjoining the water polo team.He stayed at home instead of goingto school. What about going out tonight? He rushed out of the room withoutsaying a word.

A gerund clause can also be the object ofa preposition after a verb, adjective ornoun:

Would you prefer eating out tostaying in?They charged him with exceedingthe speed limit.

I am sorry for being late.Sarah is very talented at playingthe piano.

Is there any other way of solvingthis problem?I had difficulty in understandingher accent.

When to is a preposition, it can befollowed by a noun or a gerund:

I'm looking forward to our trip.

I'm looking forward to hearingfrom you.

I'm used to cold showers.I'm used to walking longdistances.

But when to is part of a to-infinitive, it isfollowed by an infinitive:

I wish to make a complaint.He used to smoke.

Quotes:

Life is like riding a bicycle - inorder to keep your balance, youmust keep moving. - Albert EinsteinIt is the mark of an educated mind

to be able to entertain a thoughtwithout accepting it. - AristotleTo avoid mistakes and regrets,always consult your wife beforeengaging in a flirtation. - E. W.HoweMen for the sake of getting a livingforget to live. - Margaret FullerThe secret of getting ahead isgetting started. - Mark TwainFreedom lies in being bold. -Robert Frost

Verb + preposition + gerund

Examples of verbs followed by apreposition and a gerund:

(dis)agree with, (dis)approve of,admit to, agree with, aim at,apologise for, believe in, benefitfrom, boast about, care for,complain about, concentrate on,confess to, cope with, count on,decide against, depend on, dreamabout/of, feel like, get on with,get used to, give up, insist on,laugh about, look forward to,object to, pay for, put off, put upwith, rely on, resort to, specialize

in, succeed in, talk about/of, thinkabout/of, vote for, worry about

After being stopped by the police,George admitted to having drunktwo pints of beer.She apologised for not introducingherself sooner.He is always boasting abouthaving met the president.The students complained aboutbeing made to wear a uniform toschool.The suspect never confessed tokilling his wife.Could you give up smoking?Nick insisted on calling anambulance.

We laughed about having to dosuch silly things.I objected to him calling me a liar.Do you put off going to the dentist?My sister is always talking abouthaving her hair dyed.Do you ever think about gettingmarried and having children?

Related topics:

Reporting verb + gerund

The gerund used in compoundnouns

In compound structures, a gerund is oftenused before a noun to modify it:

drinking water (water for drinking)a reading lamp (a lamp forreading)a swimming cap (a cap forswimming)

Other expressions followed bythe gerund

It's no use crying over spilt milk.It would be worth giving it a try.There's no point in arguing.

I had problems starting the car thismorning.You will have no problem findinga job.We all had a good time dancinglast night.She is having a hard/difficult timeadapting to her new circumstances.Mike was so tired that he haddifficulty staying awake.

I had no difficulty passing theexam.The children have a lot of funplaying together.

Quotes:

Attitudes are contagious. Are yoursworth catching? - Dennis andWendy ManneringI am an optimist. It does not seemtoo much use being anything else. -Winston Churchill

Verbs followed bythe TO-infinitive orgerundSome verbs are followed by a to-infinitive, and others are followed by agerund:

I wanted to ask you a question.I insisted on leaving at once.

There are verbs that can be followed byeither form with no difference inmeaning. With some other verbs, the to-infinitive and the gerund have differentmeanings.

Verbs followed by the TO-infinitive or gerund with nodifference in meaningVerbs followed by the TO-infinitive or gerund with adifference in meaning

Related topics:

Verb + TO-infinitiveVerb + gerund

Verbs followed by the TO-infinitive or gerund withno difference in meaning

TO-infinitive or gerund:BEGIN, START, CONTINUE,CEASE, DREAD, INTEND,LOVE

These verbs can be followed by either ato-infinitive or a gerund with almost nodifference in meaning:

I began to learn languages when Iwas ten.

He began using this software threeyears ago.

I started wondering what wouldhappen if I lost my job.After a while, I started to wonderwhy she'd said that.

Kate continued wearing herwedding ring after her husband'sdeath.You continue to surprise me!

Two days later, the screen ceasedto function.They ceased fighting when thecommander was killed.

I dread to think what could havehappened. (used exclusively in theexpression I dread to think/imaginewhen we don't want to think aboutsomething distressing orunpleasant)I dread asking you this question,but... (I'm afraid to ask you thisquestion, but...)

The list of things he intended to dowas getting longer and longer.We intend contacting the companybefore taking any action.

I love dancing.I love to dance.

Quotes:

To be wronged is nothing unlessyou continue to remember it. -Confucius

TO-infinitive or gerund:ADVISE, RECOMMEND,ALLOW, PERMIT, FORBID,REQUIRE

These verbs can be followed by either agerund, or a noun phrase or pronoun +to-infinitive, with almost no differencein meaning. Passive infinitives are alsocommon:

The help desk advised checkingthe "Advanced Settings" option.The help desk advised me tocheck the "Advanced Settings"option. (I was advised to check the"Advanced Settings" option.)

The plumber recommended buyinga new water heater.The plumber recommended me tobuy a new water heater. (I wasrecommended to buy a new waterheater.) (the to-infinitive afterrecommend is less common ineveryday contexts)

In many countries, they don't allowsmoking in public places. (In many

countries smoking is not allowed inpublic places.)In many countries, they don't allowpeople to smoke in public places.(In many countries people aren'tallowed to smoke in public places.)

The rules do not permit keepingpets on the premises. (Keeping petsis not permitted on the premises.)The rules do not permit tenants tokeep pets on the premises. (Tenantsare not permitted to keep pets onthe premises.)

The authorities forbade enteringthe park because of a bush fire.The authorities forbade everyone

to enter the park because of a bushfire. (It was forbidden to enter thepark because of a bush fire.)

The project required workingclosely with other schools.The project required us to workclosely with other schools. (Wewere required to work closely withother schools.)

Verbs followed by the TO-infinitive or gerund with adifference in meaning

TO-infinitive or gerund: FORGET,REMEMBER, REGRET, GO ON,STOP, TRYTO-infinitive or gerund: LIKE,HATE, PREFER, CAN'T BEARTO-infinitive or gerund:CONSIDER, IMAGINETO-infinitive or gerund: MEAN,HELPTO-infinitive or gerund: NEED,REQUIRE, WANT

TO-infinitive or gerund:FORGET, REMEMBER,REGRET, GO ON, STOP, TRY

After these verbs, a to-infinitive refersto the future, while a gerund expressesan earlier action, relative to the time ofthe verb in the main clause:

Don't forget to meet Mr Moriartyat 10 o'clock this morning. (Youshould meet Mr Moriarty at 10o'clock this morning.)I'll never forget meeting her forthe first time. (I'll never forgetwhen I met her for the first time.)

Did you remember to buy tea?(Did you remember that you shouldbuy tea?)I don't remember ever visiting thismuseum. (I don't remember that Ihave ever visited this museum.)

We regret to inform you that yourapplication has been rejected. (Weare sorry we have to inform youthat your application has beenrejected.)I regret spending so much moneylast night. (I am sorry that I spent somuch money last night.)

Whichever page you're on, go on toread the next chapter. (Continue

with the next chapter.)Go on reading the article.(Continue reading the article.)

We stopped to drink a cup ofcoffee. (We stopped in order todrink a cup of coffee.)I stopped smoking years ago. (Igave up smoking years ago.)

I tried to reach her at work, but theline was busy. (I made an attempt toreach her at work.)Why didn't you try calling her onher mobile? (Why didn't you callher on her mobile to see if youcould reach her?)

Quotes:

I don't know the key to success, butthe key to failure is trying to pleaseeverybody. - Bill CosbyIf you don't think every day is agood day, just try missing one. -Cavett RobertMen for the sake of getting a livingforget to live. - Margaret FullerLife is a shipwreck but we must notforget to sing in the lifeboats. -Voltaire

TO-infinitive or gerund: LIKE,HATE, PREFER, CAN'TBEAR

The verbs like and hate express liking ifthey are followed by a gerund:

I like getting up early in summer.(I enjoy getting up early insummer.)I hate dancing, so don't ask me to.(I don't like dancing.)

But if these verbs are followed by a to-infinitive, they express habitualpreference, something that we do not

necessarily like or enjoy but consider asuseful, right or wise:

I like to be punctual. (It's importantto be punctual and I am.)I hate to lie, but sometimes I do.(It's not right to lie but sometimes Ido.)

If like is in the negative, a gerund refersto an action that we do but don't enjoydoing, while a to-infinitive means thatwe don't do something because we don'tthink it right to do:

I could tell that Sandra didn't likebeing photographed though shedidn't say a word. (Sandra was

photographed, which she didn'tlike.)Sandra didn't like to bephotographed, so she turned herback to the camera. (Sandra didn'twant to be photographed, and shewasn't.)

Prefer and can't bear can also take agerund or a to-infinitive:

I prefer walking to taking the bus.(I like walking better than taking thebus.)If you prefer to walk, it will takeyou 30 minutes to school. (If youwant to walk, it will take you 30minutes to school.)

I can't bear seeing people beinghumiliated. (I don't like it when Isee people being humiliated.)I couldn't bear to see thoseanimals suffer, so I looked away. (Ididn't want to see them suffer, so Ilooked away.)

TO-infinitive or gerund:CONSIDER, IMAGINE

Consider and imagine can be followedby either a gerund, or a noun phrase orpronoun + to-infinitive but with differentmeanings:

I am considering working abroad.(I am thinking of working abroad.)Everybody considers him to be thebest person for the job. (Everybodythinks that he is the best person forthe job.)

Imagine living at 2,000 metresabove sea level! (Imagine what itwould be like to live at 2,000

metres above sea level.)I imagined him to be much taller. (Iexpected that he would be muchtaller.)

TO-infinitive or gerund:MEAN, HELP

Mean and help can be followed by eithera gerund or a to-infinitive but withdifferent meanings:

In those days, being a studentmeant spending long hours in thelibrary. (In those days if you were astudent, it meant that you spent longhours in the library.)I didn't mean to hurt your feelings.(I didn't intend to hurt yourfeelings.)

I can't help thinking that you arehiding something. (only in the

negative: I have to think that youare hiding something.)Could you help me (to) undo myshoelaces? My fingers are frozen.(Could you undo my shoelaces?)

Help can be followed by a bareinfinitive or a to-infinitive.

TO-infinitive or gerund:NEED, REQUIRE, WANT

Need, require and want can be followedby the active or passive to-infinitives toexpress active or passive meanings,respectively:

I need to make a phone call.Sometimes, people need to be toldthe truth.

My job requires me to handlemany letters from abroad.They required the information tobe sent as soon as possible.

I wanted to stay for a few more

days.It was obvious that he wanted tobe invited.

But active gerunds after these verbsexpress passive meanings:

Your hair needs cutting. (It shouldbe cut.)These photos require carefulhandling. (They should be handledcarefully.)The windows want cleaning.(They should be cleaned.)

The participleThe forms of the participleThe "subject" of the participleThe use of the participle

The forms of the participle Active Passive

Presentparticiple

writing being written

Perfectparticiple

havingwritten

having beenwritten

Pastparticiple

written written

Present participle

The present participle is formed byadding -ing to the base form of the verb.Note the changes in spelling:

read » reading

study » studying grow » growingrelax » relaxinganswer » answering write » writing; argue » arguing (afinal -e is omitted) agree » agreeing (a final -ee doesnot change) lie » lying (a final -ie changes to -y-) put » putting; regret » regretting;readmit » readmitting (we doublethe final consonant if the verb endswith consonant-vowel-consonant,with the exception of w, x and yand only has one syllable or has thestress on the last syllable)

The present participle does not in itselfindicate the time of the action that itrefers to. However, it does show thatthis time is the same as the time of thepreceding verb or the verb in the mainclause:

I watched the storm approaching.(approaching refers to the sametime as watched: I watched as thestorm was approaching.)Having nowhere to sit, she stood inthe back of the lecture hall. (havingrefers to the same time as stood: Asshe had nowhere to sit, she stood inthe back of the lecture hall.)Are you waiting for the bus?(waiting refers to the same time as

are: present)We will be arriving in Praguesoon. (arriving refers to the sametime as will be: future)

Perfect participle

The perfect participle indicates that thetime of the action that it refers to isbefore that of the verb in the mainclause:

Having taken the wrong turn, heended up in a dangerousneighbourhood. (having taken refersto a time before ended up: After hehad taken the wrong turn, he endedup in a dangerous neighbourhood.)

Past participle

The past participle is also called thethird form of the verb. With regular

verbs, the past participle is formed byadding -ed to the base form. Note thechanges in spelling:

look » lookedstay » stayedarrive » arrived (we only add -d ifthe verb ends in -e)try » tried (a final -y changes to -i-after a consonant)stop » stopped (we double the finalconsonant if the verb ends withconsonant-vowel-consonant)

A number of verbs have irregular pastparticiple forms. A few examples are:

bite » bitten

fly » flownhit » hitleave » leftswim » swum

See the Appendix for a list of the mostcommon irregular verbs in English.

The past participle can refer to the sametime as the verb in the main clause or toa time before that:

Sue has all the qualificationsrequired for the job. (requiredrefers to the same time as has: Suehas all the qualifications that arerequired for the job.)

Damaged badly by the flood, theschool had to be rebuilt. (damagedrefers to a time before had to: Asthe school had been badly damagedby the flood, it had to be rebuilt.)

If we want to emphasise an earlier time,we use the passive perfect participle:

Having been nominated threetimes for an Oscar, he is one oftoday's most acclaimed filmdirectors. (He has been nominatedthree times for an Oscar, and he isone of today's most acclaimed filmdirectors.)

The past participle can have an active ora passive meaning. When used with apassive meaning, it is sometimes calledthe passive participle:

The fallen leaves covered thegarden path. (the leaves that hadfallen, active meaning)This is the first time I've been here.(present perfect tense in activevoice, active meaning)

There was a handwritten note onthe table. (a note that had beenwritten by hand, passive meaning)When was the last time the lawnwas mowed? (past simple tense inpassive voice, passive meaning)

Related topics:

The perfect aspectForm: passive voiceAppendix: irregular verb forms

The "subject" of theparticipleThe doer of the action expressed by theparticiple is usually the subject of thesentence or the main clause:

A dog was barking in the distance.How often do you go swimming?Grumbling to himself, Ted left theroom.Having seen the film before, Ididn't feel like going to the cinema.The car was parked outside thebuilding.Taken daily, these pills can be

highly effective.Have you ever tried skiing?

In participle clauses, it can lead toconfusion if the understood subject of theparticiple is not the subject of the mainclause. This is called a misrelatedparticiple:

?While going home, a bus almostran over me.

This suggests that the bus was goinghome. If we mean that I was going home,we have to make the first person singularpronoun I the subject of the main clause:

While going home, I got almost runover by a bus.

In some cases, however, the subjects canbe different without the chance ofmisunderstanding:

Considering what she has beenthrough, she is doing well. (If weconsider what she has beenthrough...)Judging from his accent, he is fromNew York. (As I judge from hisaccent...)

The doer of the action expressed by theparticiple can also be the noun orpronoun preceding it:

I heard him singing in thebathroom.

Who is the girl sitting next to youin class?Our car having broken down, wehad to take a taxi home.

Related topics:

The "subject" of the infinitiveThe "subject" of the gerund

The use of the participleThe present participle used to formthe continuous aspectThe past participle used to form theperfect aspectThe past participle used to form thepassive voiceThe present and past participlesused as adjectivesSEE, WATCH, HEAR, LISTEN,FEEL, SMELL, NOTICE,OBSERVE + object + presentparticipleCATCH, FIND, LEAVE, HAVE,GET + object + present participleCOME, GO + present participleSPEND, WASTE + object +

present participleHAVE, GET + object + pastparticipleParticiple clauses

The present participle used toform the continuous aspect

The present participle is used to formthe continuous aspect (be + presentparticiple) in continuous and perfectcontinuous tenses and infinitives:

Sorry, can you repeat that? I wasn'tlistening. (past continuous tense)Your clothes are filthy! What haveyou been doing? (present perfectcontinuous tense)You must be joking. (modalcontinuous)If the kids weren't shouting all thetime, perhaps I wouldn't feel so

stressed. (past continuoussubjunctive)I happened to be passing yourhouse, and I saw that the door wasopen. (continuous infinitive)She is known to have been writingsongs for years. (perfect continuousinfinitive)

Related topics:

The continuous aspectThe perfect continuous aspect

The past participle used toform the perfect aspect

The past participle is used to form theperfect aspect (have + past participle) inperfect tenses, infinitives, gerunds andthe perfect participle:

He didn't leave until he had talkedwith the boss. (past perfect tense)I haven't smoked today. (presentperfect tense)He may have caught the train.(modal perfect)You needn't have been so rude.(modal perfect)If we had booked our flight earlier,

it would have been cheaper. (pastperfect subjunctive, modal perfect)Lucy was assumed to have left theday before. (perfect infinitive)I am glad to have helped you.(perfect infinitive)After being stopped by the police,George admitted having drunk twopints of beer. (perfect gerund)Having taken the wrong turn, heended up in a dangerousneighbourhood. (perfect participle)

Related topics:

The perfect aspect

The past participle used toform the passive voice

The past participle is used to form thepassive voice (be + past participle) aswell as the passive forms of infinitives,gerunds and the present and perfectparticiples. When used in this way, it issometimes called the passive participle:

Penicillin was discovered byAlexander Fleming in 1928. (pastsimple passive)I have the feeling I've beenmisunderstood. (present perfectpassive)Josh always needs to be told what

to do. (passive simple infinitive)I hate being lied to. (passivesimple gerund)Authorities refused to reveal anyinformation about the case beinginvestigated. (passive presentparticiple)Having been nominated threetimes for an Oscar, he is one oftoday's most acclaimed filmdirectors. (passive perfectparticiple)

The past participle can in itself have apassive meaning:

There was a handwritten note onthe table.

Damaged badly by the flood, theschool had to be rebuilt.

Related topics:

Form: passive voice

The present and pastparticiples used as adjectives

The present and past participles can beused as adjectives. When used in thisway, they are sometimes calledparticipial adjectives and the presentparticiple has an active meaning, whilethe past participle usually has a passivemeaning. They can occur:

in an attributive position beforenouns:

The survey revealed someworrying results. (presentparticiple)The wind was blowing

through the broken livingroom window. (pastparticiple)

in a predicative position after alinking verb:

The results of the surveywere/seemed worrying.The living room windowwas/looked broken.

In the second case above the present andpast participles function as adjectivesthat express states and describe thesubject of the sentence. But if they comeafter be and are followed by an object or

an adjunct, they function as part of averb phrase and express actions:

The results of the survey wereworrying the authorities. (pastcontinuous active)The living room window wasbroken by the burglar. (past simplepassive)

When used as adjectives, some pastparticiples have an active meaning:

The fallen leaves covered the path.(The leaves that had fallen coveredthe path.) My parents are retired now. (Myparents have retired.)

Quotes:

Lost time is never found again. -Benjamin FranklinCourage is doing what you're afraidto do. There can be no courageunless you're scared. - EdwardVernon RickenbackerFriendship is a sheltering tree. -Samuel Taylor ColeridgeA barking dog is often more usefulthan a sleeping lion. - WashingtonIrving

SEE, WATCH, HEAR,LISTEN, FEEL, SMELL,NOTICE, OBSERVE + object+ present participle

After verbs of perception (see, watch,hear, listen, feel, smell, notice, observeetc.), the present participle expresses anaction that continues over a period oftime, regardless of whether we perceivethe whole action or only part of it:

I felt the ground shaking for abouthalf a minute. (I felt that the groundwas shaking.)I saw the burglar climbing over thefence. (I saw it as the burglar was

climbing over the fence.)I heard my brother singing in thebathroom. (I heard my brother as hewas singing in the bathroom.)

If we want to emphasise that the actionis completed, we use the bare infinitive:

I felt the ground shake once. (I feltit as the ground shook once.)

Related topics:

SEE, WATCH, HEAR, LISTEN,FEEL, SMELL, NOTICE,OBSERVE + object + bareinfinitive

CATCH, FIND, LEAVE,HAVE, GET + object + presentparticiple

After these verbs, the present participlerefers to an action that happens over aperiod of time:

He caught some students playingtruant at the mall. (He caught somestudents who were playing truant atthe mall.)I found him sitting on a park benchreading a book. (When I arrived, hewas sitting on a park bench readinga book.)We left the others smoking

outside the bar. (When we left, theothers were smoking outside thebar.)The teacher had the whole classsinging Mary Had a Little Lamb.(The teacher persuaded the wholeclass to sing Mary Had a LittleLamb.)His problems got him going tohospital for years. (As a result ofhis problems, he had to go tohospital for years.)

Related topics:

HAVE, GET + object + presentparticiple

COME, GO + presentparticiple

The verbs come and go are often usedwith the present participle to talk aboutsports or other physical activities:

How often do you go fishing?Do you want to come dancing withus?I went swimming this morning.We like to go walking a lot.Let's go shopping.

SPEND, WASTE + object +present participle

The verbs spend and waste can befollowed by an expression of time ormoney and the present participle:

I've spent the whole weekendrevising for my exam.Did you spend a lot of moneyredecorating your apartment?We wasted two hours waiting forthe pizza, which never arrived.Carol shouldn't have wasted allthat money trying to keep herbusiness alive.

Quotes:

You live longer once you realizethat any time spent being unhappy iswasted. - Ruth E. Renkl

HAVE, GET + object + pastparticiple

Have/get + object + past participlemeans "cause something to be done". Weuse this structure when we arrange for aprofessional to do something for us. Getis more informal:

Did you have your computerfixed?I need to get my suit cleaned.

This structure can also mean "experiencesomething unpleasant":

They had their house destroyedby a hurricane.

He got his arm bruised in theaccident.

Related topics:

HAVE + object + past participleGET + object + past participle

Participle clauses

Present participle clauses

A present participle clause can express:

an action that happens at the sametime as the action in the mainclause:

Tom lost his keys (while)walking through the park.(Tom lost his keys while hewas walking through the park.)She left the room singinghappily. (She left the room asshe was singing happily.)

The participle clause can come firstin literary styles:

(While) walking through thepark, Tom lost his keys.

an action that happens just beforeanother action:

Opening the envelope, I foundtwo concert tickets. (I opened

the envelope and I found twoconcert tickets.)

an action that is the result ofanother action:

Moments later a bombexploded, leaving threepeople dead and twelveothers injured.When I entered they all lookedat me, making me feeluncomfortable.

a reason for the action in the mainclause:

Having nothing left to do,

Paula went home. (SincePaula had nothing left to do,she went home.)Knowing a little Russian, Ihad no difficulty makingmyself understood. (As I knewa little Russian, I had nodifficulty making myselfunderstood.)Working as a sales rep, I getto travel a lot. (I travel a lotbecause I work as a salesrep.)

Here the subjects of the two actionscan be different:

The weather being nice, we

decided to go for a picnic. (Asthe weather was nice, wedecided to go for a picnic.)

Perfect participle clauses

If we want to make it clear that an actionhappens before another one, we use aperfect participle for the earlier action:

Having washed the car, I noticeda small scratch on the front rightfender. (After I washed the car, Inoticed a small scratch on the frontright fender.)

Here the present participle (washing thecar) would mean "while I was washing

the car".

If the two actions do not follow eachother immediately or if the first actionhappens over a period of time, we use aperfect participle instead of a presentparticiple for the earlier action:

Having seen the film before, Ididn't want to go to the cinema.Mark knew the town well, havinglived there all his life.

Past participle clauses

Past participle clauses replace passivevoice finite clauses:

Shocked by the explosion, thepeople ran for shelter. (The peoplewere shocked by the explosion andran for shelter.)The musicians stood up,surrounded by thunderous

applause. (The musicians stood upwhile they were surrounded bythunderous applause.)

If we want to emphasise that an actionhappens before another one, we use apassive perfect participle:

Having been nominated threetimes for an Oscar, he is one of

today's most acclaimed filmdirectors.

Participle clauses replacing arelative clause

A present participle clause can replacean active voice finite relative clause.The noun before the participle is thedoer of the action:

The man driving the car was notinjured. (The man who was drivingthe car was not injured.)

Present participle clauses are possibleeven with verbs which are not normally

used in the continuous form (stateverbs):

If you think you have received an e-mail containing a virus, you shoulddelete it immediately. (If you thinkyou have received an e-mail whichcontains a virus, delete itimmediately.)

A past participle clause can replace apassive voice finite relative clause. Thenoun before the participle is its object:

This is the last photograph taken ofmy grandmother. (This is the lastphotograph that was taken of mygrandmother.)

Quotes:

A book is like a garden carried inthe pocket. - Chinese proverbThe greatest weariness comes fromwork not done. - Eric HofferThere is no man living that cannotdo more than he thinks he can. -Henry FordSmall deeds done are better thangreat deeds planned. - PeterMarshallYou live longer once you realizethat any time spent being unhappy iswasted. - Ruth E. Renkl

Related topics:

Relative clauses

The differencebetween the gerundand the presentparticipleSince the simple gerund and the presentparticiple have the same form (verb-ing), sometimes it can be difficult todecide whether an -ing form is a gerundor a present participle.

It may be worth remembering that agerund always functions as a noun:

Function Example sentence

Subject Hiking can be a relaxingand rewarding activity.

Complement What I really like istravelling to othercountries.

Object of averb

Jill suggested going for adrink.

Object of apreposition

He rushed out of the roomwithout saying a word.

Object of aprepositionalverb

Could you give upsmoking?

Part of acompound noun

We had no drinking waterleft.

The present participle has the followingfunctions:

Function Example sentence

Continuousaspect

I wasn't listening.What have you been doing?You must be joking.I happened to be passing yourhouse.

Adjective The survey revealed someworrying results.The results of the surveywere/seemed worrying.

Participleclauses

The man driving the car wasnot injured.Tom lost his keys (while)walking through the park.Opening the envelope, I foundtwo concert tickets.Having nothing left to do,Paula went home.

Sometimes it is a matter of interpretationwhether an -ing form is a gerund or apresent participle:

Hunting lions can be dangerous.

Hunting as a present participle functionsas an adjective and describes lions. Thesentence means:

Lions that hunt can be dangerous.

If hunting is a gerund, lions is its objectand the sentence means:

It can be dangerous to hunt lions.

Revision questions:non-finite verb forms

Which of the following verb formsare finite: stolen, is, to have eaten,flew, smiling, having arrived, put?What are the four basic types ofinfinitive?What does a continuous infinitiveexpress?What are the four basic types ofgerund?Why can a possessive adjective(my, your etc.) be used before agerund?What does a perfect gerundexpress?

What are the types of participle?Does the perfect participle have apassive form?What is a misrelated participle?Can the present participle be thesubject of a sentence?What is the difference in meaningbetween the sentences in each ofthe following groups?

He heard someone shout athim.He heard someone shouting athim.

I got my hair cut.I had Carol cut my hair.I made Carol cut my hair.

The little girl started to cry.The little girl started crying.

I didn't remember to callMike.I don't remember calling Mike.

He went on to talk about hissummer plans.He went on talking about hissummer plans.

What is the difference between agerund and a present participle?

Chapter 7:Relative clauses

Guiding questions: relative clausesWhat is a relative clause?Types of relative clausesRelative pronouns: WHO, WHOM,WHOSE, WHICH, THATRelative adverbs: WHERE,WHEN, WHYPrepositions in relative clausesNon-finite relative clausesWHAT and WHATEVEREmphasis and relative clausesRevision questions: relativeclauses

Guiding questions:relative clauses

What is a relative clause?What are the types of relativeclause?When do we use commas with arelative clause?Can we use what instead of that orwhich in a relative clause?When can a preposition appear atthe end of a relative clause?

What is a relativeclause?Defining and non-defining relativeclauses refer to preceding nouns and areintroduced by the pronouns who, whom,whose, which or that. Relative clausesusually come after the nouns that theydescribe:

The woman who answered thedoor was about forty years old.Warsaw, which is the capital ofPoland, lies on the Vistula River.

Sentential relative clauses do not referto preceding nouns but comment on what

has been said before:

I didn't take any waterproofclothing with me, which was amistake.

In relative clauses, we do not usepersonal pronouns to refer to the nounsdescribed:

The woman who she answered thedoor was about forty years old.Warsaw, which it is the capital ofPoland, lies on the Vistula River.

Types of relativeclauses

Defining relative clauseNon-defining relative clauseThe difference between definingand non-defining relative clausesSentential relative clause

Defining relative clauseA noun can be modified in differentways: by an adjective, a noun or aphrase:

the best-selling book, a beautifulphoto (adjective)the history book, an art photo(noun)the book with the most votes, aphoto by Robert Capa (phrase)

Another way of modifying a noun is witha defining (also called a restrictive)relative clause:

the book I told you about last

weeka photo which was taken byRobert Capa

This type of relative clause identifies orclassifies the noun that it refers to.

An identifying clause defines who orwhat we are talking about and refers to anoun which is preceded by the definitearticle the:

This is the book I told you aboutlast week. Remember?Do you know the guy who istalking to Will over there?

A classifying clause describes what kind

of person(s) or thing(s) we are talkingabout. It refers to a singular uncountableor plural countable noun without anarticle or a singular countable nounpreceded by the indefinite article a oran:

I wrote my essay on a photo whichwas taken by Robert Capa.Sometimes, I like listening to musicthat makes me sad.I don't know any people who speakEsperanto.

Quotes:

The fishing was good; it was thecatching that was bad. - A. K. Best

Not everything that can be countedcounts, and not everything thatcounts can be counted. - AlbertEinsteinChristmas is a time when you gethomesick - even when you're home.- Carol NelsonThe only place where successcomes before work is in thedictionary. - Donald KendallPeople are not disturbed by things,but by the view they take of them. -EpictetusGossip needn't be false to be evil -there's a lot of truth that shouldn'tbe passed around. - Frank A. ClarkApril is a promise that May isbound to keep. - Hal Borland

It's not who you are that holds youback, it's who you think you're not.- Hanoch McCartySuccess usually comes to thosewho are too busy to be looking forit. - Henry David ThoreauThere is no man living that cannotdo more than he thinks he can. -Henry FordA city is a large community wherepeople are lonesome together. -Herbert ProchnowA coach is someone who can givecorrection without causingresentment. - John WoodenIt is the friends you can call up at 4a.m. that matter. - Marlene DietrichWhat you have become is the price

you paid to get what you used towant. - Mignon McLaughlinThose who wish to sing alwaysfind a song. - Swedish proverbAction will remove the doubts thattheory cannot solve. - Tehyi HsiehIt is the familiar that usually eludesus in life. What is before our noseis what we see last. - WilliamBarret

Related topics:

Cleft sentences

Non-defining relativeclauseA non-defining relative clause describesa preceding noun by adding extrainformation about it. The noun has aclear reference (it is clear who or whatwe are talking about) even without theclause:

The Mona Lisa was painted byLeonardo da Vinci, who was also aprolific engineer and inventor.The human heart, which has a massof about 300 grams, pumps bloodthroughout the body.

A non-defining relative clause can also

continue a story by saying whathappened next:

I called my mother, who becamevery upset. (I called my mother,and she became very upset.)

The non-defining relative clause isseparated from the rest of the sentenceby commas (,). In speech, we make ashort pause before and after the clause.

Quotes:

The true meaning of life is to planttrees, under whose shade you donot expect to sit. - NelsonHenderson

The difference betweendefining and non-definingrelative clausesA defining relative clause identifies orclassifies a noun:

Do you know the guy who istalking to Will over there?I wrote my essay on a photo whichwas taken by Robert Capa.

If we omit this type of clause, thesentence does not make sense or has adifferent meaning:

Do you know the guy? (which

guy?)I wrote my essay on a photo. (whatkind of photo?)

A non-defining relative clause addsextra information about a noun whichalready has a clear reference:

The Mona Lisa was painted byLeonardo da Vinci, who was also aprolific engineer and inventor.

If we leave out this type of clause, thesentence still makes sense:

The Mona Lisa was painted byLeonardo da Vinci. (we know whoLeonardo da Vinci was)

Sometimes, the use of commas marks adifference in meaning:

The athletes who failed the drugtest were disqualified. (defining) The athletes, who failed the drugtest, were disqualified. (non-defining)

The defining relative clause tells us thatonly those athletes who failed the drugtest were disqualified. The sentenceimplies that there were other athleteswho did not fail the drug test and thatthey were not disqualified:

The non-defining relative clause tells usthat all the athletes (mentioned earlier inthe context) failed the drug test and thatall of them were disqualified:

Sentential relative clauseA sentential (also called connective)relative clause does not refer to apreceding noun; it rather comments onthe whole preceding clause or sentence:

The streets were empty, which wasunusual for this time of day. (Thefact that the streets were empty wasunusual.)

In conversation, a sentential relativeclause may also be interjected byanother speaker:

"Then he goes on to say how muchhe appreciates all the effort we've

put into it." "Which is strangebecause he never seemed to caremuch about what we do."

Relative pronouns:WHO, WHOM,WHOSE, WHICH,THATThe relative pronouns are who, whom,whose, which and that. The choice ofwhich pronoun we use in a relativeclause depends on:

the type of clause (defining or non-defining),the function of the pronoun in theclause (subject, object, possessive

determiner or object of apreposition),the style (formal or informal).

Pronouns used in definingrelative clausesThe columns in the following table showthe function of the relative pronoun,while the rows indicate whether thepronoun refers to a person or non-personin the defining relative clause. Thepronouns that refer to persons aresometimes also used for animals,especially pets.

The pronoun that is used in informalstyles and in spoken language.

In the defining relative clause, thepronoun can be omitted if it stands forthe object of the clause. We use thephrase zero pronoun (-) to indicate sucha case.

Whom is used instead of who as theobject of the relative clause in formalstyles, especially in writing.

Subject Object Possessive

Person whom whose ...who whothat that

(-)Non-person which which ... of which

that that

(-)

The woman who/that answered thedoor was about forty years old.He's the reporterwhom/who/that/(-) I saw on TVlast night.The engineer whose design isselected will be offered a contract.

Do you know a shop which/thatsells antique furniture?What was the last filmwhich/that/(-) you saw?Police have found the car theowner of which was reportedmissing 3 weeks ago.

Quotes:

The fishing was good; it was thecatching that was bad. - A. K. BestPeople are not disturbed by things,but by the view they take of them. -EpictetusGossip needn't be false to be evil -there's a lot of truth that shouldn'tbe passed around. - Frank A. ClarkApril is a promise that May isbound to keep. - Hal BorlandIt's not who you are that holds youback, it's who you think you're not.- Hanoch McCartySuccess usually comes to thosewho are too busy to be looking forit. - Henry David Thoreau

There is no man living that cannotdo more than he thinks he can. -Henry FordA coach is someone who can givecorrection without causingresentment. - John WoodenIt is the friends you can call up at 4a.m. that matter. - Marlene DietrichWhat you have become is the priceyou paid to get what you used towant. - Mignon McLaughlinThose who wish to sing alwaysfind a song. - Swedish proverbAction will remove the doubts thattheory cannot solve. - Tehyi HsiehIt is the familiar that usually eludesus in life. What is before our nose

is what we see last. - WilliamBarret

Related topics:

Defining relative clause

Pronouns used in non-defining relative clausesThe columns in the following table showthe function of the relative pronoun,while the rows indicate whether thepronoun refers to a person or non-personin the non-defining relative clause. Thepronouns that refer to persons aresometimes also used for animals,especially pets.

Whom is used instead of who as theobject of the relative clause in formalstyles, especially in writing.

In non-defining relative clauses, we can'tomit the relative pronoun and we can'tuse that.

Subject Object Possessive

Person whom whose ...who who

Non-person which which ... of which

Epictetus, who is one of the mostwell-known Stoic philosophers,was born a slave.Mr Kowalski, whom/who you allknow, will take over the Marketing

Department from next month.Van Gogh, whose paintings arepopular today, was not appreciatedduring his life.

Warsaw, which is the capital ofPoland, lies on the Vistula River.Then they played "My FavouriteThings", which I recognisedimmediately from "The Sound ofMusic".The cupboard was full of glassesand cups, many of which werebroken.

Quotes:

The true meaning of life is to plant

trees, under whose shade you donot expect to sit. - NelsonHenderson

Related topics:

Non-defining relative clause

Relative adverbs:WHERE, WHEN,WHYThe relative adverb where is used afternouns that refer to places:

The house where Mozart was bornis now a museum. (defining relativeclause)I flew to Munich, where I had tocatch another plane to Oslo. (non-defining relative clause)

The relative adverb when is used afternouns that refer to times and dates:

I can't remember a time when I wasso happy. (defining relative clause) The most stressful day of the weekis Monday, when people go back towork. (non-defining relativeclause)

The relative adverb why is used afterreason:

The reason why I didn't call you isthat I've lost your phone number.(only in defining relative clauses)

Quotes:

Christmas is a time when you gethomesick - even when you're home.- Carol Nelson

The only place where successcomes before work is in thedictionary. - Donald KendallA city is a large community wherepeople are lonesome together. -Herbert Prochnow

Related topics:

Defining relative clauseNon-defining relative clause

Prepositions inrelative clausesThe relative pronoun can also refer tothe object of a preposition. In informalstyles, the preposition comes after theverb:

The house which Mozart was bornin is now a museum. (definingrelative clause)The house that Mozart was born inis now a museum. (defining relativeclause)The house Mozart was born in isnow a museum. (defining relativeclause)

Mr Pierce, who I talked to justnow, sends you his regards. (non-defining relative clause)

In formal styles, the preposition isplaced before the pronouns whom orwhich:

The house in which Mozart wasborn is now a museum. (definingrelative clause)

Mr Pierce, to whom I talked justnow, sends you his regards. (non-defining relative clause)

Related topics:


Non-defining relative clause

Non-finite relativeclausesDefining and non-defining relativeclauses have their non-finite equivalents.In non-finite relative clauses, we usenon-finite verb forms (the presentparticiple, past participle or to-infinitive) but no relative pronouns.

Participles in non-finite relativeclausesThe TO-infinitive in non-finiterelative clauses

Participles in non-finiterelative clausesThe present participle in a non-finiterelative clause can occur if thepreceding noun is the subject of theparticiple. Present participle clausescorrespond to finite relative clauses inthe active voice:

Who is the girl sitting next to youin class? (Who is the girl that sitsnext to you in class?) (definingrelative clause)

Bill, waiting outside in the rain,was getting more and moreannoyed. (Bill, who was waiting

outside in the rain, was gettingmore and more annoyed.) (non-defining relative clause)

The past participle in a non-finiterelative clause can occur if thepreceding noun is the object of theparticiple. Past participle clausescorrespond to finite relative clauses inthe passive voice:

Martina was the only one notinformed about the room change.(Martina was the only one who wasnot informed / who had not beeninformed about the room change.)(defining relative clause)

Romeo and Juliet, first published in1597, has become one ofShakespeare's most popular plays.(Romeo and Juliet, which was firstpublished in 1597, has become oneof Shakespeare's most popularplays.) (non-defining relativeclause)

Quotes:

A book is like a garden carried inthe pocket. - Chinese proverbThe greatest weariness comes fromwork not done. - Eric HofferThere is no man living that cannotdo more than he thinks he can. -Henry Ford

Small deeds done are better thangreat deeds planned. - PeterMarshallYou live longer once you realizethat any time spent being unhappy iswasted. - Ruth E. Renkl

Related topics:

Defining relative clauseNon-defining relative clauseParticiple clauses

The TO-infinitive in non-finite relative clausesThe to-infinitive is often used in non-finite defining relative clauses afterordinal numbers (the first, the secondetc.), superlatives (the best, the mostbeautiful etc.) and after next, last andonly:

Neil Armstrong was the firstperson to land on the moon. (NeilArmstrong was the first person wholanded on the moon.)

The last person to leave shouldturn off the lights. (The last person

who leaves should turn off thelights.)

Mike was the only one to help me.(Mike was the only one whohelped me.)

Passive infinitives are also possible:

His was the last composition to bemarked. (His was the lastcomposition which was marked.)

Related topics:

Defining relative clauseCleft sentences

WHAT andWHATEVERWHAT (the thing(s)that/which)What stands for the thing(s) that/which:

I didn't understand what he wassaying. (the things that he wassaying)Is this what you want? (the thingthat you want)

What is different from the other relativepronouns in that it does not refer back toa noun:

I wrote my essay on a photo whichwas taken by Robert Capa. (whichrefers to a photo)That's not what we agreed on.(what does not refer to a noun)

For this reason, what can't be usedinstead of who, whom, whose, which orthat in relative clauses:

I wrote my essay on a photo whatwhich was taken by Robert Capa.

When in doubt, replace what with thething(s) that/which and see if thesentence is still grammatically correct.

Quotes:

Education is what remains after onehas forgotten what one has learnedin school. - Albert EinsteinThe best way to gain self-confidence is to do what you areafraid to do. - Author unknownCourage is doing what you're afraidto do. There can be no courageunless you're scared. - EdwardVernon RickenbackerAdvice is what we ask for whenwe already know the answer butwish we didn't. - Erica JongMotivation is what gets you started.Habit is what keeps you going. -Jim RohnWhat is not good for the swarm isnot good for the bee. - Marcus

AureliusWhat you have become is the priceyou paid to get what you used towant. - Mignon McLaughlinWhat we call results arebeginnings. - Ralph Waldo EmersonIt is the familiar that usually eludesus in life. What is before our noseis what we see last. - WilliamBarret

Related topics:

Defining relative clausePseudo-cleft sentences

WHATEVER,WHOEVER,

WHICHEVER,WHEREVER,WHENEVER

whatever » anything thatwhoever » anyone whowhichever » any ... whichwherever » at any placewhenever » at any time

You can do whatever you want to. Whoever leaves last should turnoff the lights.Choose whichever pencil you like.Wherever I looked there wassomething interesting to see.

Whenever I go abroad, I take asmany pictures as possible.

It is possible to use what instead ofwhatever in the first sentence above, butit is not possible to use who instead ofwhoever in the second sentence:

You can do what you want to.Who leaves last should turn off thelights.

Quotes:

Whoever gossips to you will gossipabout you. - Spanish proverb

Related topics:

Emphasis andrelative clauses

Cleft sentencesPseudo-cleft sentences

Cleft sentencesIT + BE + PHRASE + DEFININGRELATIVE CLAUSE

Cleft sentences (also called it-clefts) arethe result of changing the normalsentence pattern to emphasise aparticular piece of information. Theemphasis in the resulting cleft sentenceis on the phrase after it + be.

Look at the following example:

János Irinyi invented the non-explosive match in 1836.

We can transform this sentence indifferent ways depending on which part

of it we want to bring into focus:

It was János Irinyi who/thatinvented the non-explosive match in1836.It was the non-explosive matchwhich/that/(-) János Irinyiinvented in 1836.It was 1836 when János Irinyiinvented the non-explosive match.

In the clauses that follow it + be +phrase, we can use the same relativepronouns (who, whom, whose, which,that) and relative adverbs (where, when,why) that we normally use in definingrelative clauses.

However, if we bring a whole adverbialphrase into focus, we use that:

It was in 1836 that János Irinyiinvented the non-explosive match.

If we use a personal pronoun after it +be, it will be in the object form:

It was him who invented the non-explosive match in 1836.

It is also possible to expand the phrasein focus with a non-defining relativeclause:

It was János Irinyi, who was aHungarian chemist, that inventedthe non-explosive match in 1836.

Quotes:

The fishing was good; it was thecatching that was bad. - A. K. BestIt's not who you are that holds youback, it's who you think you're not.- Hanoch McCartyIt is the friends you can call up at 4a.m. that matter. - Marlene DietrichIt is the familiar that usually eludesus in life. What is before our noseis what we see last. - WilliamBarret

Related topics:


Pseudo-cleft sentencesWHAT-CLAUSE + BE + PHRASE

Pseudo-cleft sentences (also called wh-clefts) are similar in function to cleftsentences, but they are formed with thepronoun what (= the thing(s) that/which).The emphasis in a pseudo-cleft sentenceis on the phrase after what-clause + be:

What you need is a good sleep.What I didn't like was the end ofthe movie.What changed his mind was a bookhe'd read.

If we want to refer to a person, we say

The person/people who/that:

The people who/that I met were themembers of the delegation.

If we want to emphasise an action, theverb after be usually takes the form thatcorresponds to the form used in thewhat-clause:

What you should do is write aletter to the manager.What I need to do is get some rest.What they were doing was arguingabout which train to take.What I can do is call for a taxi.

In the following examples, the verb after

be takes the form that the verb in thewhat-clause is normally followed by:

What I want is to sleep. What he can't stand is getting upearly.

In the past simple and present perfect,we can use the following patterns:

What I did in the end was (to) gohome.What I have done is (to) write aletter to the editor.

Quotes:

It is the familiar that usually eludesus in life. What is before our nose

is what we see last. - WilliamBarret

Related topics:

WHAT (the thing(s) that/which)

Revision questions:relative clauses

What is the difference betweendefining and non-defining relativeclauses?What is a sentential relativeclause?Do we use a comma before therelative pronoun that?Which one is the most formal:whom, who or that?When can we not use that instead ofwhich in a relative clause?When do we use a past participle(the third form of the verb) in anon-finite relative clause?

When do we use a presentparticiple (the -ing form of theverb) in a non-finite relative clauseWhat does what stand for in I don'tunderstand what you mean?Do we use a comma in a cleftsentence?

Chapter 8:Inversion

Guiding questions: inversionWhat is inversion?Subject-verb inversionSubject-auxiliary inversionRevision questions: inversion

Guiding questions:inversion

What is inversion?Which parts of the sentence can beinverted?What is the main function ofinversion?What are the two types ofinversion?What do questions and inversionhave in common?When do we use inversion withnegative adverbials?When do we use inversion inconditionals?

What is inversion?Inversion is the reversal of the normalword order in a sentence or phrase.There are two types of inversion:

1. Subject-verb inversion, where thesubject and the main verb switchpositions and the word orderbecomes verb + subject:

On the top of the hill stood anold oak tree.

2. Subject-auxiliary inversion, wherethe subject and the auxiliary switchpositions and the word order

becomes auxiliary + subject (+verb):

Hardly had I arrived homewhen my phone rang.When does the bus leave?You're hungry, aren't you?

Subject-verbinversionIn this type of inversion, the subject andthe main verb switch positions, so theverb comes before the subject.

Subject-verb inversion after placeadverbialsSubject-verb inversion in directspeechSubject-verb inversion in newsheadlines

Subject-verb inversionafter place adverbialsWhen an adverb or an adverbialexpression of place comes in the initialposition (at the beginning of thesentence), the subject and verb areinverted:

Down the hill rolled the children.Round the corner was a nice café.

This is a rhetorical device used mainlyin formal and literary styles; however, itmay also occur in everydayconversation:

Here comes the bus.

There goes Sally.Here's my number.

But if the subject is a personal pronoun,there is no inversion:

Here it comes.There she goes.Here it is.

Subject-verb inversion indirect speechIn direct speech, if the quotationprecedes the reporting verb, the subjectand the reporting verb can be inverted:

"I'm so sorry," Maria said / saidMaria.

If the subject is long, usually there isinversion:

"Good morning," said the strangerin the black jacket.

But if the subject is a personal pronoun,there is no inversion:

"Good morning," he said.

Related topics:

Punctuation in direct speech

Subject-verb inversion innews headlinesIn news headlines, if the reporting verbis in the final position, the subject andthe reporting verb may be inverted:

AROMATHERAPY HAS NOTHERAPEUTIC EFFECT, SAYBRITISH SCIENTISTS

Subject-auxiliaryinversionIn this type of inversion, the subject andthe auxiliary switch positions. In thepresent and past simple, the auxiliariesdo/does and did come before thesubject, which is followed by the bareinfinitive. The word order is the same asin questions.

Subject-auxiliary inversion afternegative adverbialsSubject-auxiliary inversion afterSO + adverb / adjective and SUCHSubject-auxiliary inversion inquestions

Subject-auxiliary inversion inquestion tagsSubject-auxiliary inversion in echotagsSubject-auxiliary inversion withSO and NEITHER / NOR toexpress agreement

Subject-auxiliaryinversion after negativeadverbialsIn formal and literary styles, the subjectand auxiliary are inverted when negativeadverbials are placed at the beginning ofthe sentence for rhetorical effect.

HARDLY, SCARCELY, BARELY,NO SOONERNEVER, RARELY, LITTLE, IN /UNDER NO CIRCUMSTANCES,ON NO CONDITION, IN NOWAY, NOT ONLY ... BUT ALSOetc.ONLY AFTER, ONLY IF, ONLY IN

THIS WAY etc., NOT UNTIL

HARDLY, SCARCELY,BARELY, NO SOONER

HARDLY/SCARCELY/BARELY ... WHENNO SOONER ... THAN

When a story is told in the past tense, theadverbials hardly, scarcely, barely andno sooner are often used to emphasisethat one event quickly followed another.The verb describing the earlier event isusually in the past perfect tense. Ifhardly, scarcely, barely and no soonerare in the initial position, the subject andauxiliary are inverted:

Hardly had I arrived home whenmy phone rang. (I had hardly

arrived home when my phone rang.)

Scarcely had she finished readingwhen she fell asleep. (She hadscarcely finished reading when shefell asleep.)

Barely had they won the matchwhen the coach had a heart attack.(They had barely won the matchwhen the coach had a heart attack.)

No sooner had the companylaunched its new product than itwent bankrupt. (The company hadno sooner launched its new productthan it went bankrupt.)

Note that hardly, scarcely and barely are

followed by when, while no sooner isfollowed by than. (Sooner is thecomparative form of soon.)

Related topics:

Past perfect for actions completedbefore a point in the past

NEVER, RARELY, LITTLE,IN / UNDER NOCIRCUMSTANCES, ON NOCONDITION, IN NO WAY,NOT ONLY ... BUT ALSO etc.

When never, rarely, little etc. are placedat the beginning of the sentence forrhetorical effect, the subject andauxiliary are inverted:

Never (before) have we facedsuch a challenge! (We have neverfaced such a challenge!)

Rarely has there been so muchspeculation about the future of the

company. (There has rarely been somuch speculation about the future ofthe company.)

Little did she understand what theconversation was about. (She didn'treally understand what theconversation was about.)

Under no circumstances are youallowed to disturb the pilots. (Youare not allowed to disturb the pilotsunder any circumstances.)

On no condition will the companybear responsibility for lostproperty. (The company will not

bear responsibility for lost propertyon any condition.)

In no way am I related to thesuspect. (I am in no way related tothe suspect. )

Not only did he exceed the speedlimit, but he had also consumedalcohol. (He not only exceeded thespeed limit, but he had alsoconsumed alcohol.)

Not only were you late, but youdidn't even have a good excuse.(You were not only late, but youdidn't have a good excuse either.)

ONLY AFTER, ONLY IF,ONLY IN THIS WAY etc., NOTUNTIL

When only after, only if, only in this wayetc. are placed at the beginning of thesentence for rhetorical effect, the subjectand auxiliary are inverted:

Only after lunch can you play. (Youcan only play after lunch.)

Only after finishing your homeworkcan you play. (You can only playafter you finish your homework.)

Only after you have finished your

homework can you play. (You canonly play after you have finishedyour homework.)

Only by guessing can you solvethis puzzle. (You can only solve thispuzzle by guessing.)

Only if everybody agreed would Iaccept this position. (I would onlyaccept this position if everybodyagreed.)

Only in this way does this machinework. (This machine only works inthis way.)

Only then did they discover his

secret. (They only discovered hissecret then.)

Only when he needed some helpdid he call me. (He only called mewhen he needed some help.)

Only when I filled my glass did Inotice that it was broken. (I onlynoticed that my glass was brokenwhen I filled it.)

The last sentence can be rephrased as:

Not until I filled my glass did Inotice that it was broken. (I didn'tnotice that my glass was brokenuntil I filled it.)

If only is followed by the subject at thebeginning of the sentence, there is noinversion:

Only you can understand. (No oneelse can understand.)

Quotes:

Only in grammar can you be morethan perfect. - William Safire

Subject-auxiliaryinversion after SO +adverb / adjective andSUCHWhen adverbial or adjectival phrasesstarting with so are placed at thebeginning of the sentence for emphaticeffect, the subject and auxiliary areinverted:

So quickly did he run that theothers couldn't catch up with him.(He ran so quickly that the otherscouldn't catch up with him.)

So strong was the wind that we

couldn't open the window. (Thewind was so strong that we couldn'topen the window.)

So + adjective can be replaced withsuch:

Such was the wind that we couldn'topen the window. (The wind wassuch that we couldn't open thewindow.)

Subject-auxiliaryinversion in questionsQuestions are formed from statements byinverting the subject and auxiliary. In thepresent and past simple, the auxiliariesdo/does and did come before thesubject, which is followed by the bareinfinitive. Be as a main verb can alsocome before the subject:

You can help me.Can you help me?

You have lived here for some time.How long have you lived here?

You would have done the same.

Would you have done the same?

You are staying at this hotel.Are you staying at this hotel?

She likes skating.Does she like skating?

They arrived yesterday.When did they arrive?

I am late.Am I late?

Related topics:

Form: past simpleForm: past continuousForm: past perfect

Form: past perfect continuousForm: present simpleForm: present continuousForm: present perfectForm: present perfect continuousForm: future simpleForm: future continuousForm: future perfectForm: future perfect continuousTypes of modalsForm: passive voice

Subject-auxiliaryinversion in question tagsQuestion tags are placed afterdeclarative sentences and are usuallyused in spoken language to keep up theflow of conversation. Affirmativesentences are usually followed bynegative tags and expect the answer yes:

"You are hungry, aren't you?""Yes, I am."

Negative sentences are usually followedby affirmative tags and expect theanswer no:

"You cannot stay longer, can you?"

"No, I really can't."

We use rising intonation in the tag to askfor information. But if we don't reallyexpect an answer because the statementis obviously true, we use fallingintonation:

You are hungry, aren't you? (withrising intonation = Are youhungry?)You are hungry, aren't you? (withfalling intonation = I know you arehungry.)

Sometimes we use affirmative tags afteraffirmative sentences to express interestor concern or to ask for confirmation:

So you've inherited a mansion,have you? (interest)I must get there by ten, must I?(asking for confirmation)

A negative statement with an affirmativetag can also express disapproval:

You don't really think I'll let you getaway with it, do you? (I hope youdon't think I'll let you get away withit.)

In negative tags, not can come after thepronoun in formal styles or foremphasis:

I am right, am I not?That's my pen, is it not?

They placed an order, did theynot?

Imperatives

Open the door, will you?Don't speak like that, will you?

Suggestions

Let's dance, shall we?

THIS, THAT, THESE, THOSE

This is great, isn't it?That's a nice dress, isn't it?These pancakes are delicious,

aren't they?Those are quite fresh, aren't they?

EVERYBODY, SOMEBODY,NOBODY, ANYBODY

Everybody likes her, don't they?Nobody knew the answer, didthey? (negative statement withaffirmative tag)Anybody could do that, couldn'tthey?Somebody should do somethingabout this, shouldn't they?

EVERYTHING, SOMETHING,NOTHING, ANYTHING

Nothing could disturb her, could it?

AREN'T I?

I'm late, aren't I?

THERE IS / THERE ARE

There is something you want to say,isn't there?There weren't any policemen at thedemonstration, were there?

Subject-auxiliaryinversion in echo tagsEcho tags are said in reaction to anaffirmative or negative statement. Theyare formed in the same way as questiontags (with the inversion of the subjectand auxiliary), but an affirmativestatement is followed by an affirmativetag and a negative statement is followedby a negative tag:

"I'm so hungry!" "Oh, are you?""I'm sorry, I can't stay any longer.""Can't you?""They always have lunch at 12.""Do they really?"

"My sister has just passed herdriving test." "Has she?"

Rising intonation in the tag can expressinterest, while falling intonation canshow indifference.

Subject-auxiliaryinversion with SO andNEITHER / NOR toexpress agreementSo + auxiliary + subject is added to apositive statement to express agreement,and neither/nor + auxiliary + subject isadded to a negative statement for thesame purpose:

I suggested that he should take thejob, and so did all his friends. (hisfriends also suggested that heshould take the job)Everybody knows that, and soshould you. (you should know that,

too)"I love South Korean films.""Really? So do I." (I also loveSouth Korean films)"I am not going to Andy's partytonight." "Neither/nor is Susan."(Susan isn't going either)"My family have never been on aholiday abroad." "Neither/norhave mine." (my family haven'tbeen either)

If we want to express disagreement,there is no inversion:

"I love South Korean films." "Idon't."

"I am not going to Andy's partytonight." "Susan is."

Revision questions:inversion

What is the difference betweensubject-verb and subject-auxiliaryinversion?Why is the following sentenceincorrect? There goes she.Why do we use the past perfecttense with hardly, barely, scarcelyand no sooner?Is no sooner followed by when,then or than? Why?When is there no inversion in asentence starting with only?Which type of inversion is used inquestions?

Chapter 9:ArticlesArticles precede nouns and modify them.There are three types of article: theindefinite article (a, an), the definitearticle (the) and the zero article (-).

The indefinite article (A, AN)The definite article (THE)The zero article (-)

The indefinite article(A, AN)The indefinite article is generally usedbefore a singular countable noun when ithas not been mentioned before and doesnot represent a unique thing or person:

A man and a woman came in.

When the noun is mentioned again, thedefinite article the is used:

A man and a woman came in. Theman was about 40 years old.

A is used before a word beginning with

a consonant sound, but if the followingword starts with a vowel sound, we usean:

Regina was wearing a dark skirtand an orange blouse.My uncle is a university lecturer.(university starts with the vowel ubut the consonant sound /j/)He is an honest man. (honest startswith the consonant h but it is silenthere)

The indefinite article with amember of a classThe indefinite article inexpressions of quantityThe indefinite article with certain

numbers and fractionsThe indefinite article instead ofPERThe indefinite article to describeand classify somethingThe indefinite article with certainillnessesThe indefinite article with propernames

The indefinite article witha member of a classThe indefinite article is used before anoun when it refers to any member of aclass of things:

A real friend is always by yourside. (Real friends are always byyour side.)

Quotes:

A book is like a garden carried inthe pocket. - Chinese proverbA city is a large community wherepeople are lonesome together. -Herbert Prochnow

A coach is someone who can givecorrection without causingresentment. - John WoodenA journey of a thousand miles mustbegin with a single step. - Lao TseA barking dog is often more usefulthan a sleeping lion. - WashingtonIrvingA man must be master of his hoursand days, not their servant. -William Frederick BookA pessimist sees the difficulty inevery opportunity; an optimist seesthe opportunity in every difficulty. -Winston Churchill

Related topics:

The definite article with a wholeclass

The indefinite article inexpressions of quantityThe indefinite article is used in certainexpressions of quantity:

I'm having a lot of problems withMichael.I think a great many people willagree with me on that.

The indefinite article withcertain numbers andfractionsThe indefinite article is used withcertain numbers and fractions:

a/one hundred, a/one thousand,a/one millionone and a half kilos / a kilo and ahalfa/one thirda/one quartera dozena quarter of an hourhalf a minute

The indefinite articleinstead of PERIn expressions of measurement, theindefinite article can replace the moreformal per:

He was driving at 80 miles an hourwhen the car skidded. "How much are those tomatoes?""Three euros a kilo."I go to the sauna twice a month.

The indefinite article todescribe and classifysomethingThe indefinite article is used before anoun which describes or classifiessomething:

That was a lovely dinner!Mary is a teacher.The koala is a marsupial.

Quotes:

Christmas is a time when you gethomesick - even when you're home.- Carol Nelson

April is a promise that May isbound to keep. - Hal BorlandEvery child is an artist. Theproblem is how to remain an artistonce we grow up. - Pablo PicassoI am an optimist. It does not seemtoo much use being anything else. -Winston Churchill

The indefinite article withcertain illnessesThe indefinite article is used with namesof certain illnesses:

Is it a cold or just an allergy? I have a splitting headache.

But:

The flu is a virus that can make yousick for a week or longer.(The) measles is best known for itscharacteristic skin rash.

The indefinite article withproper namesThe indefinite article can be used with aproper name to express uncertainty aboutthe person's identity or that the speakerdoes not know the person:

A Mr Smith was looking for youthis morning. (Someone called MrSmith was looking for you thismorning.)

The indefinite article can also be usedbefore a proper name to refer to thecharacteristic features of the person:

He was an Einstein of his time.

A proper name with an indefinite articlecan refer to a work of art created by theperson:

He bought a Picasso at Sotheby's in1970. (He bought a painting byPicasso.)

Related topics:

The definite article with propernamesThe zero article with proper names

The definite article(THE)The definite article is generally usedbefore a noun which has a clearreference. This means that it is clearwho or what we are talking aboutbecause:

the noun represents a unique thingor person in the context:

The president has resigned.(there is only one president inthe country)The earth is growing warmer

and warmer. (there is only oneplanet Earth)

the noun has been mentionedbefore:

A man and a woman came in.The man was about 50 yearsold.

a phrase or a clause after the nounmakes it clear:

Do you know the boy talkingto Sally?This is the book that I toldyou about last week.

The photo on the left wastaken by my father.

The definite article with a wholeclassThe definite article with ordinalnumbers, superlative adjectives,ONLY, NEXT, LAST, SAME,RIGHT and WRONGThe definite article with adjectivesThe definite article withgeographical namesThe definite article with historicalreferencesThe definite article with musicalinstruments and dancesThe definite article with names offamilies

The definite article with names ofplaces and institutionsThe definite article with propernamesThe definite article with titles andpositionsThe definite article with titles ofbooks, newspapers etc.The definite article with uniqueobjects

The definite article with awhole classThe definite article is used before a nounwhen it represents a whole class ofthings:

The computer has made textediting easier.The polar bear is threatened withextinction.

In less formal styles, the + noun can bereplaced by a plural form without anarticle:

Computers have made text editingeasier.

Polar bears are threatened withextinction.

The indefinite article is not possible inthis sense as it would refer to one or anymember of the class but not the class asa whole:

A polar bear is threatened withextinction. A computer has made text editingeasier.

Man or mankind can be used to representthe human race and has no article:

Man will eventually destroyhimself.

However, the more gender-neutral termhumankind is preferable to man ormankind:

Humankind will eventually destroyitself.

Related topics:

The indefinite article with amember of a class

The definite article withordinal numbers,superlative adjectives,ONLY, NEXT, LAST,SAME, RIGHT andWRONGThe definite article is used beforeordinal numbers and superlativeadjectives:

This is the first time I've ridden ahorse.The 20th century has seen thebloodiest wars in the history ofhumankind.

Jill is the most intelligent girl inthe class.

Most has meanings which do not take thedefinite article the:

That was most kind of you. (verykind)Most people who lose weightregain it in a very short time. (themajority of people)

The definite article is also used beforeonly, next, last, same, right and wrong +noun:

You are the only person I can tell.When is the next train toCambridge?

They have the same surname, butthey are not relatives.What is the right answer?

The definite article withadjectivesThe definite article can be used beforean adjective to refer to all the peopledescribed by it. If the + adjective isfollowed by a verb, it will take a pluralform:

The rich get rich, and the poor staypoor.Only the brave are free.

Many adjectives that describe anationality behave in the same wayunless they end in -an:

The English are famous for being

very polite.The French eat a lot of cheese.

But:

Canadians play a lot of hockey.

Quotes:

Fate leads the willing, and dragsalong the reluctant. - SenecaIt is the familiar that usually eludesus in life. What is before our noseis what we see last. - WilliamBarret

The definite article withgeographical namesThe definite article is used with certaingeographical names:

Countries

Names of countries which arecollective, plural or modified by anadjective or an of-construction take thedefinite article the:

the Czech Republicthe Netherlandsthe People's Republic of Chinathe Philippines

the United Kingdom (UK)the United States of America (USA)

Bodies of water

the Amazonthe Gangesthe (English) Channelthe Panama Canalthe Atlantic (Ocean)the Pacific (Ocean)

Deserts

the Gobi (Desert)the Kalahari Desertthe Mojave Desert

the Patagonian Desertthe Sahara (Desert)

Mountain ranges

the Alpsthe Andesthe Appalachiansthe Great Dividing Rangethe Himalayas

Points of the compass

the Norththe Souththe Eastthe Westthe South Pole

the North Polethe south of Italythe Far East

But:

North AmericaWe were travelling west.

Some constellations and otherheavenly bodies

the Big Dipper (AmE) / the Plough(BrE)the Pleiades the Cigar Galaxythe Crab Nebula

But:

OrionCassiopeia

Related topics:

The zero article with geographicalnames

The definite article withhistorical referencesThe definite article is often used withhistorical references:

The Iraq War has divided theinternational public.The Renaissance started in Italyand slowly spread throughoutEurope.

But:

This course surveys the secondwave of English Romanticism.

The definite article withmusical instruments anddancesThe definite article is used with musicalinstruments and dances:

I can't play the piano.Can you do the Fox Trot?

The definite article withnames of familiesThe definite article is used with theplural form of the name of a family torefer to all the members of the family:

The Parkers are coming for dinnertonight.Are you trying to keep up with theJoneses?

The definite article withnames of places andinstitutionsThe definite article is used before aplace name if it consists of an adjectivefollowed by a noun:

the National Gallerythe British Islesthe British Councilthe Royal Court

The definite article is also used if thename of a place or an institution containsthe possessive of-construction:

the University of Chicagothe Leaning Tower of Pisathe Tower of Londonthe Cape of Good Hopethe Island of Lesbosthe Isle of Manthe Gulf of Maine

The definite article withproper namesThe definite article is used with a propername if the reference is unclear withoutan additional phrase:

No, I mean the Mr Brown fromAustralia.

Related topics:

The indefinite article with propernamesThe zero article with proper names

The definite article withtitles and positionsThe definite article is used with titlesand positions which are unique.

Barthez has never been thegoalkeeper for Crystal PalaceFC.The head of department allowedme to retake the exam.The Queen will be opening a newmusic hall next month.The Pope is the head of the RomanCatholic Church.

The definite article withtitles of books, newspapersetc.The definite article is used with titles ofbooks, newspapers etc. if it is part of thetitle itself:

The Lord of the Rings was writtenby J. R. R. Tolkien.Do you ever read The Times?

The definite article withunique objectsThe definite article is used before a nounwhich refers to a specific, unique object:

The moon rises at 7.30 tomorrow.The earth revolves around the sun.I'd love to live by the sea.The captain checked the position ofthe Northern Star to determine thelocation of his ship.

Other examples are:

the skythe equatorthe North Pole

the Internetthe Matrixthe world

We should bear in mind, however, thatthere are other suns and moons in theuniverse, and when we refer to thesethey might not be considered as unique:

The planet Mars has two moons.Every solar system has a sun.

The zero article (-)We use the term zero article when a nounis not preceded by a definite (the) orindefinite (a, an) article.

The zero article with proper namesThe zero article with names ofplaces and institutionsThe zero article with mealsThe zero article with names ofdays, months, seasons, holidays andparts of the dayThe zero article with names ofpubs, restaurants etc. ending in 'SThe zero article with names ofsports, games and activitiesThe zero article with geographical

namesThe zero article with placesThe zero article with prepositionalphrases

The zero article withproper namesA proper name is normally not precededby an article:

Turner is my favourite painter.Where's Peter?Uncle Jerry visited us the otherday.

Quotes:

Millions saw the apple fall, butNewton asked why. - BernardBaruch

Related topics:

The indefinite article with propernamesThe definite article with propernames

The zero article withnames of places andinstitutionsNames of places and institutions whichconsist of a proper name and anothernoun do not take an article:

Johns Hopkins UniversityTrafalgar SquareVictoria StationGeorge Washington BridgeJFK Airport

The zero article with mealsNames of meals normally do not take anarticle:

Did you have breakfast thismorning?I'll have fruit for lunch.Let's go out for dinner tonight.

But if there is an adjective before thename of the meal or a phrase or clauseafter it, an article is used:

The breakfast that they servedwas fabulous.I had a quick lunch at Wendy's.

That was the most deliciousdinner I've had in a while.

The zero article withnames of days, months,seasons, holidays andparts of the dayNames of days, months, seasons andholidays are normally not preceded byan article:

on Mondayin Marchin summerat Christmas

The same is true for certain parts of theday (with the exception of in themorning/afternoon/evening):

at noonat nightat midnightbefore duskafter sunsetat sunrise

But if there is an adjective before thenoun or a phrase or clause after it, thenoun usually takes an article:

on the Monday of that weekthe summer I met my futurehusbandthe best Christmas I've ever hadit was a beautiful sunset

Quotes:

Christmas is a time when you gethomesick - even when you're home.- Carol NelsonTo be interested in the changingseasons is a happier state of mindthan to be hopelessly in love withspring. - George SantayanaApril is a promise that May isbound to keep. - Hal BorlandIn summer, the song sings itself. -William Carlos Williams

The zero article withnames of pubs, restaurantsetc. ending in 'SNames of pubs, restaurants etc. that usethe possessive 's construction do not takean article:

We went to Maggie's last night.Let's meet at Jack's Diner.

The zero article withnames of sports, gamesand activitiesNames of sports, games and activitiesare not preceded by an article:

I love swimming.Rummy is definitely much moredifficult than solitaire.She suggested playing Activity.

The zero article withgeographical namesCertain geographical names do not takean article:

Continents

AfricaAmericaAsiaAustraliaEurope

But:

the Americas (North and SouthAmerica)

the Antarcticthe Arctic

Names of countries

Most country names do not take anarticle:

ChileFranceKazakhstanNamibiaNew Zealand

But:

the Czech Republicthe Netherlandsthe People's Republic of China

the Philippinesthe United Kingdom (UK)the United States of America (USA)

Lakes

Lake GenevaLake LopnorLake MichiganLake VictoriaLoch Ness

Mountain peaks

Mawson PeakMont Blanc(Mount) Everest

Mount KenyaMount Washington

But:

the Matterhorn

Cities

BeijingBucharestNew YorkReykjavíkRio de Janeiro

But:

the Haguethe Vatican

Streets and roads

Downing StreetMichigan Avenue

But:

the High Streetthe Mallthe E5

Related topics:

The definite article withgeographical names

The zero article with placesNouns that refer to certain places andinstitutions do not take an article whenwe are talking about the purpose they areused for:

The children are at school.(studying)What time do you usually go tobed? (to sleep) The murderer was sentenced to 10years in prison. (as a punishment)

Other examples are:

churchclass

collegecourthospitalmarkettownuniversity

But if we mean the place (usually thebuilding) itself, the definite article the isused:

He went to the bed to check if thechildren were sleeping.In 1985, there was a fire in theschool.The prison is outside of the city.

The zero article withprepositional phrasesCertain prepositional phrases do nottake an article:

in chargein tearsin dangerat warby heartbeyond controlon timeby car

But if there is a word or phrase thatmodifies the noun, an article is used:

We drove in a red car.Hurricanes are beyond the controlof governments.He got wounded in the SecondWorld War.

Chapter 10:Countable anduncountablenouns

The difference between countableand uncountable nounsNouns with countable anduncountable meaningsDeterminers with countable anduncountable nouns (SOME, ANY,NO, MANY, MUCH, FEW,LITTLE etc.)

Partitive expressions withuncountable nounsNouns with a singular form and asingular or plural meaning(collective nouns)Nouns which are always pluralNouns with a plural form and asingular meaningNouns with the same singular andplural formsIrregular plural forms

The differencebetween countableand uncountablenounsCountable nouns can be counted (a/onebook, two books, a lot of books), whileuncountable nouns cannot (a/one news,two freedoms). Therefore, uncountablenouns only have singular forms and arefollowed by singular verbs. We shouldbear in mind that, even though a noun isuncountable in English, the word for it inanother language may well be countable,and vice versa. When in doubt, one

should always consult a dictionary.However, certain kinds of nouns areusually countable or uncountable inEnglish:

Countable nouns

people (a teacher, a child, agentleman)animals (a butterfly, an elephant, awhale)plants (a flower, a bush, a tree)physical objects (a bag, a pen, amountain)units (a litre (of), a kind of, a partof, a family, a village, a word)

Uncountable nouns

abstract ideas (love, death, beauty)gases (smoke, air, steam)liquids (water, milk, blood)substances and materials (wood,iron, fabric)other substances consisting of manysmall particles (sugar, rice, sand)

Quotes:

Life is like riding a bicycle - inorder to keep your balance, youmust keep moving. - Albert EinsteinThe best way to gain self-confidence is to do what you areafraid to do. - Author unknownI don't know the key to success, butthe key to failure is trying to please

everybody. - Bill CosbyThe only place where successcomes before work is in thedictionary. - Donald KendallCourage is doing what you're afraidto do. There can be no courageunless you're scared. - EdwardVernon RickenbackerThe greatest weariness comes fromwork not done. - Eric HofferGossip needn't be false to be evil -there's a lot of truth that shouldn'tbe passed around. - Frank A. ClarkSuccess usually comes to thosewho are too busy to be looking forit. - Henry David ThoreauMotivation is what gets you started.Habit is what keeps you going. -

Jim RohnFreedom lies in being bold. -Robert FrostFriendship is a sheltering tree. -Samuel Taylor ColeridgeFate leads the willing, and dragsalong the reluctant. - SenecaLife is a shipwreck but we must notforget to sing in the lifeboats. -VoltaireKnowledge is learning somethingevery day. Wisdom is letting go ofsomething every day. - Zen saying

Nouns withcountable anduncountablemeaningsSome nouns have both countable anduncountable meanings:

Substances

Countable meaning Uncountablemeaning

I need an iron topress my trousers.

Steel is made fromiron.

My grandma raiseschickens.

Would you preferchicken or turkey?

A rolling stonegathers no moss.

Different kinds ofstone can be used fordifferent purposes.

We found ourselvesin the middle of thewood.

All the desks in hereare made of wood.

A glass of beer,please.

Glass does notconduct electricitywell.

Would you like acoffee?

Would you like somecoffee?

Activities


I had an interestingthought yesterday.

Eastern thought ischaracterised by

dualism.Simon got abasketball forChristmas.

Basketball is playedby teams of five.

Mr Pit runs abusiness sellingrecyclable diapers.

Online business isthriving these days.

No war is a just war. I've just read War andPeace by Tolstoy.

My literatureprofessor's catsusually get theirnames fromShakespeare's works.

How was worktoday?

Abstract notions


This boy is a realhelp around thehouse.

I need some help tofinish this essay.

Languages canbecome extinct.

Language is a humaninstinct.

Those apples are realbeauties.

Beauty is in the eyeof the beholder.

It's always good to dosmall kindnesses foreach other.

I thanked her for herkindness.

The play was asuccess.

Success is often onlythe result of hardwork.

Emotions


And now, some of myworries about theproject.

Worry is usually adestructive emotion.

He was torn betweentwo loves.

All you need is love.

I have a fear ofheights.

Aristotle's definitionof catharsis is basedon experiencing pityand fear.

There are hopes offinding a remedy foryour disease.

Hope dies last.

It is a pleasure tohave met you.

Pat finds greatpleasure in nursing.

Quotes:

To be successful, you have to haveyour heart in your business, and

your business in your heart. -Thomas Watson, Sr.

Determiners withcountable anduncountable nouns(SOME, ANY, NO,MANY, MUCH,FEW, LITTLE etc.)Determiners precede and modify nouns.Some determiners can only be used withcountable or uncountable nouns, whileothers can be used with both. Countablenouns take a singular or plural form

depending on the determiner whichprecedes them.

A, AN

with singular countable nouns:

A man and a woman came in.I heard an interesting story atthe office yesterday.

THE

with singular or plural countablenouns:

He showed me around thehouse.

The apples were peeled andquartered.

with singular uncountable nouns:

She jumped into the water.

the zero article

with singular or plural countablenouns:

I'm going to go to bed early.Mondays are always busyhere.


A magnet attracts iron.

THIS, THAT


This film was good.I like that shirt.


Where did you buy this wine?That cheese smells delicious.

THESE, THOSE

with plural countable nouns:

Can I try on these jeans?How do you like those

cherries?

SOME, ANY, NO


I was just talking to some guyfrom school.Any sensible person wouldhave done the same.I am no scientist.


I have some problems.I don't have any problems.I have no problems.


I have some time.I don't have any time.I have no time.

EVERY


Every cloud has a silverlining.

FEW, A FEW, FEWER, THEFEWEST


There were few people at theconcert. (not many)There were a few people atthe concert. (some)We had fewer computers ayear ago.This medicine has the fewestside effects.

LITTLE, A LITTLE, LESS,THE LEAST


There is little hope that hewill survive. (not much)There is a little hope that hewill survive. (some)

Tim should spend less time onthe computer.This medicine does the leastharm.

MANY, MORE, (THE) MOST,MOST OF THE


There were not many peopleat the concert. (few)More people came to theconcert than expected.Most mammals live on land.Tom got the most votes.Most of the visitors were artstudents.

MUCH, MORE, (THE) MOST,MOST OF THE


There is not much hope thathe will survive. (little)There is more hope that hewill survive.Most furniture is made ofwood.Which candy bar has the mostsugar in it?Most of the time I'm not athome.

A LOT OF, LOTS OF, PLENTYOF


There are a lot of tables andchairs in the room.There are lots of tables andchairs in the room.There are plenty of tablesand chairs in the room.


We have a lot of space in thecar.We have lots of space in thecar.We have plenty of space inthe car.

A NUMBER OF


A number of questions aroseat the meeting.

AN AMOUNT OF


The word budget means anamount of money we haveavailable to spend.

ANOTHER


Can you think of anotherexample?

OTHER


Other boys would have donethe same.


Is there other softwareavailable?

THE OTHER

with singular or plural countable

nouns:

I'd prefer the other car.The other students wenthome.


The other news is that theyare getting married in June.

ENOUGH


Do you have enough pens foreveryone?


Is there enough milk in thefridge?

ALL, ALL THE


All students must take aplacement test at the beginningof the course.I couldn't answer all thequestions.


Not all coffee is bitter.The robber took all themoney.

BOTH


Both sides wanted peace.

EITHER, NEITHER


You can choose either way.Neither player has won thegame.

NONE OF THE


Luckily, none of the soldierswere killed.


None of the music theyplayed attracted me.

EACH


Each question carries onemark.

Quotes:

Some people are always grumblingbecause roses have thorns; I am

thankful that thorns have roses. -Alphonse KarrIf you don't think every day is agood day, just try missing one. -Cavett RobertSome days there won't be a song inyour heart. Sing anyway. - EmoryAustinLive every day as if it were goingto be your last; for one day you'resure to be right. - Harry "Breaker"Harbord MorantEvery child is an artist. Theproblem is how to remain an artistonce we grow up. - Pablo PicassoSome things have to be believed tobe seen. - Ralph HodgsonEvery English poet should master

the rules of grammar before heattempts to bend or break them. -Robert GravesA pessimist sees the difficulty inevery opportunity; an optimist seesthe opportunity in every difficulty. -Winston ChurchillKnowledge is learning somethingevery day. Wisdom is letting go ofsomething every day. - Zen saying

Partitive expressionswith uncountablenounsPartitive expressions make it possible tocount things expressed by uncountablenouns. The most common ones includebit, piece and item:

There was a bit of annoyance in hisvoice.Let me give you a piece of advice.Several items of jewellery werestolen.

Other examples of everyday partitive

expressions are:

I'd like a loaf of bread, two bars ofchocolate and a tube of toothpaste,please.Can I have another slice of cake?Mateusz drank a glass of beer.

Nouns with asingular form and asingular or pluralmeaning (collectivenouns)Collective nouns, such as family andaudience, have a singular form but canbe followed by a singular or a pluralverb, depending on whether we treat thegroup as a unit (singular) or as a numberof individuals (plural):

My family is big.

His family were against his plans.

The audience was captivated bythe performance.This channel's target audience areyoung adults.

Other examples of collective nouns are:

boardcommitteecommunitycrewcrowdgovernmentgroupjury

staffteam

Some collective nouns are often usedwith other countable nouns:

A team of researchers is workingon this project.A group of people were standing infront of the building.

A number of collective nouns are usedwith certain kinds of animals:

a colony of antsa flock of sheepa herd of cattlea pack of wolvesa swarm of bees

Nouns which arealways pluralCertain nouns only have plural forms:

These scissors are for cuttingpaper.Your clothes are dirty.Have you seen my glasses? I wantto read the newspaper.What kind of goods does yourcompany produce?The table of contents should notcontain any pictures.I ran up the stairs and tore the dooropen.

The police used firearms todisperse the crowd.I live on the outskirts of the city.

Some of these nouns are often used withthe expression a pair of, as they refer tothings made up of two parts:

a pair of trousersa pair of jeansa pair of shoesa pair of slippersa pair of glassesa pair of glovesa pair of earrings

The nouns people (meaning more thanone person) and police are alwaysplural:

People say that the police areinvestigating the case.

People can refer to the members of anation, religion or race, in which case itis considered as a singular noun and canbe used in a singular or plural form:

They are a welcoming andhospitable people.At college, he took a course on thehistory of the peoples of the BritishIsles.

Quotes:

Some people are always grumblingbecause roses have thorns; I am

thankful that thorns have roses. -Alphonse KarrPeople are not disturbed by things,but by the view they take of them. -EpictetusA city is a large community wherepeople are lonesome together. -Herbert Prochnow

Nouns with a pluralform and a singularmeaningCertain nouns have a plural form (endingin -s) but a singular meaning: news;shingles, mumps, rickets; dominoes,billiards, darts etc.:

What's the news?Shingles is caused by the samevirus as chicken pox.Billiards is a game which connectsmathematics and football.

Nouns ending in -ics can either take a

singular (if they are considered as thename of a science) or a plural verb (ifthey express a specific application of thescience):

Mathematics was never easy forTom.The teacher told him that hismathematics were well below thestandard. (his understanding ofmathematics or his results)

Rhetorics was one of the sevenfree arts.His rhetorics were doing moreharm to our case than any mistakewe had ever made. (his way ofexpressing ideas)

Acoustics is the study of sounds.Poor classroom acoustics create anegative learning environment formany students. (audibility in theclassroom)

Nouns with the samesingular and pluralformsCertain nouns have an identical singularand plural form. Some of these nounsend in -s: means, series, species.

The bicycle is a means oftransport.The five human senses are ourmeans of communication with thematerial world.

A series of burglaries has beengoing on around the neighbourhood.

What are your favourite TV series?

A new species of bird has beendiscovered in Indonesia recently.Since the 17th century, more than500 marine species have becomeextinct in the US.

Other examples are:

aircraftdeer, sheepfish, carp, pike, salmon, trout

Irregular pluralformsThe plural of a noun is usually formedby adding -s to the singular form:

mistake » mistakes

For certain nouns, it is true that if thesingular noun ends in -f or -fe, the pluralending is -ves:

elf » elvesknife » knivesthief » thieveshoof » hooves

But there are nouns which do not followthis rule:

cliff » cliffschief » chiefs cuff » cuffsroof » roofs

A number of nouns have irregular pluralforms:

child » childrenox » oxen

foot » feetgoose » geesetooth » teeth

mouse » micelouse » lice

man » menwoman » women

Nouns of Latin or Greek origin may keeptheir original plural forms:

crisis » crisesbacterium » bacteriaappendix » appendicesformula » formulae

Quotes:

Men for the sake of getting a livingforget to live. - Margaret Fuller

Children make you want to start lifeover. - Muhammad AliWise men speak because they havesomething to say; fools becausethey have to say something. - Plato

Chapter 11: ThesubjunctiveThe subjunctive is a mood used toexpress necessity, unreality, wishes orhopes. It is usually difficult to notice, asit has no distinctive forms in currentEnglish, only those that resemble otherverb forms (bare infinitive, past simpleand past perfect).

Past perfect subjunctivePast subjunctivePresent subjunctive

Past perfectsubjunctiveThe past perfect subjunctive has thesame form as the past perfect tense:

HAD + PAST PARTICIPLE

It is used in subordinate clauses andexpresses unreal past situations:

I wish they had arrived on time.(They didn't arrive on time.)I would've bought the dress if therehadn't been such a queue. (Therewas a long queue, so I didn't buythe dress.)

She would rather I had gone to bedearlier. (I didn't go to bed early.)He seems as if he hadn't slept fordays. (He seems not to have sleptfor days, but he has.)

Related topics:

The forms of the participleUnreal tensesThird conditionalWishes about the pastAS IF / AS THOUGHWOULD RATHER / WOULDSOONER + clause with the pastperfect subjunctiveAppendix: irregular verb forms

Past subjunctiveThe past subjunctive has the same formas the past simple tense except in thecase of the verb be. Traditionally, thepast subjunctive form of be is were forall persons, including the first and thirdperson singular. However, todayI/he/she/it was is more common whilewere is mainly used in formal styles andin the set phrase if I were you.

The past subjunctive is used insubordinate clauses and refers to unrealor improbable present or futuresituations:

If I were you, I would apply right

now. (I am not you.)What would you do if you won thelottery? (You probably won't winthe lottery.)It's time the kids were in bed. (Thekids are not in bed.)I wish you were here. (You are nothere.)I'd rather your boyfriend stoppedcalling you in the middle of thenight. (Your boyfriend keeps callingyou.)He looks as if he knew the answer.(He gives the impression that heknows the answer, but he probablydoesn't.)

Related topics:

Form: past simpleUnreal tensesSecond conditionalWishes about the presentIT'S (HIGH) TIMEAS IF / AS THOUGHWOULD RATHER / WOULDSOONER + clause with the pastsubjunctiveAppendix: irregular verb forms

Present subjunctiveThe present subjunctive is identical tothe bare infinitive form of the verb in allpersons, including the third personsingular (no final -s). It is usually usedin formal or literary styles:

In certain set phrases

I see what you mean. Be that as itmay, I can't agree with you. (evenso, still)Come what may, I will not resign!(whatever happens)"I am a Jedi. Like my father beforeme." "So be it... Jedi." (it's okay

with me, I accept this)I do not want to bore you; suffice itto say, we finally got a full refund.(it is sufficient to say)

In exclamations that express awish or hope

Rest in peace!Bless you!God save the King!

After adjectives such asIMPORTANT, ESSENTIAL,VITAL etc.

It is/it was + adjective + that can befollowed by a present subjunctive if the

adjective expresses importance ornecessity or that something should bedone:

It is vital that everybody get therebefore the examination begins.It is desirable that Mr Hanson handin his resignation.It is important that you be at homewhen the lawyers arrive.It is essential that the car bewaiting at the airport.It is imperative that products betested carefully.

In such sentences, the presentsubjunctive can be replaced with theless formal should + infinitive:

It is vital that everybody should getthere before the examinationbegins.

After verbs such as INSIST,SUGGEST, RECOMMEND etc.

Mike insisted that I try his newmuffin recipe.I suggest that your cousin apply atonce.Carl was injured last week, and thedoctor recommended that he notplay in the next match.

Again, the present subjunctive can bereplaced with should + infinitive in lessformal styles:

I suggest that your cousin shouldapply at once.

Related topics:

Reporting verb + THAT-clausewith the present subjunctive

AppendixAppendix: irregular verb formsAppendix: spelling rules

Appendix: irregularverb formsBase form » Past tense » Past participle

arise » arose » arisenawake » awoke » awokenbe » was, were » beenbear » bore » bornebeat » beat » beatenbecome » became » becomebefall » befell » befallenbegin » began » begunbehold » beheld » beheldbend » bent » bentbet » bet » bet

bid » bid » bidbind » bound » boundbite » bit » bittenbleed » bled » bledblow » blew » blownbreak » broke » brokenbreed » bred » bredbring » brought » broughtbroadcast » broadcast » broadcastbuild » built » builtburn » burnt/burned » burnt/burnedburst » burst » burstbuy » bought » boughtcast » cast » castcatch » caught » caughtchoose » chose » chosencling » clung » clung

come » came » comecost » cost » costcreep » crept » creptcut » cut » cutdeal » dealt » dealtdig » dug » dugdo » did » donedraw » drew » drawndream » dreamt/dreamed »dreamt/dreameddrink » drank » drunkdrive » drove » driveneat » ate » eatenfall » fell » fallenfeed » fed » fedfeel » felt » feltfight » fought » fought

find » found » foundfit » fit/fitted » fit/fittedflee » fled » fledfling » flung » flungfly » flew » flownforbid » forbade » forbiddenforecast » forecast » forecastforego » forewent » foregoneforesee » foresaw » foreseenforetell » foretold » foretoldforget » forgot » forgottenforgive » forgave » forgivenforsake » forsook » forsakenfreeze » froze » frozenget » got » gotgive » gave » givengo » went » gone

grind » ground » groundgrow » grew » grownhang » hung » hunghave » had » hadhear » heard » heardhide » hid » hiddenhit » hit » hithold » held » heldhurt » hurt » hurtkeep » kept » keptkneel » knelt/kneeled »knelt/kneeledknit » knit/knitted » knit/knittedknow » knew » knownlay » laid » laidlead » led » ledlean » leant/leaned » leant/leaned

leap » leapt/leaped » leapt/leapedlearn » learnt/learned »learnt/learnedleave » left » leftlend » lent » lentlet » let » letlie » lay » lainlight » lit/lighted » lit/lightedlose » lost » lostmake » made » mademean » meant » meantmeet » met » metmislay » mislaid » mislaidmislead » misled » misledmistake » mistook » mistakenmow » mowed » mown/mowedpay » paid » paid

prove » proved » proven/provedput » put » putquit » quit » quitread /ri:d/ » read /red/ » read /red/rid » rid » ridride » rode » riddenring » rang » rungrise » rose » risenrun » ran » runsay » said » saidsee » saw » seenseek » sought » soughtsell » sold » soldsend » sent » sentset » set » setsew » sewed » sewnshake » shook » shaken

shear » sheared » shorn/shearedshed » shed » shedshine » shone » shoneshoot » shot » shotshow » showed » shownshrink » shrank/shrunk » shrunkshut » shut » shutsing » sang » sungsit » sat » satslay » slew » slainsleep » slept » sleptslide » slid » slidsling » slung » slungslit » slit » slitsmell » smelt/smelled »smelt/smelledspeak » spoke » spoken

speed » sped/speeded »sped/speededspell » spelt/spelled » spelt/spelledspend » spent » spentspin » spun » spunspit » spat » spatsplit » split » splitspoil » spoilt/spoiled »spoilt/spoiledspread » spread » spreadspring » sprang » sprungstand » stood » stoodsteal » stole » stolenstick » stuck » stucksting » stung » stungstink » stank/stunk » stunkstride » strode » striddenstrike » struck » struck

string » strung » strungstrive » strove » strivenswear » swore » swornsweep » swept » sweptswell » swelled » swollenswim » swam » swumswing » swung » swungtake » took » takenteach » taught » taughttear » tore » torntell » told » toldthink » thought » thoughtthrow » threw » thrownthrust » thrust » thrusttread » trod » troddenunderstand » understood »understood

wake » woke » wokenwear » wore » wornweave » wove » wovenweep » wept » weptwet » wet/wetted » wet/wettedwin » won » wonwind » wound » woundwring » wrung » wrungwrite » wrote » written

Appendix: spellingrulesPresent simple -S

The present simple form of the verb isidentical to the base form in all personsexcept the third person singular. Thethird person singular is formed byadding -s to the base form:

work » workslive » livesstay » staystry » tries (a final -y changes to -ie-after a consonant)

wash » washes; kiss » kisses;watch » watches; box » boxes (weadd -es after -sh, -s, -ch and -x)go » goes (we add -es)do » does (we add -es)have » has

Past simple -ED

In the case of regular verbs, the pastsimple is formed by adding -ed to thebase form of the verb for all persons:

look » lookedstay » stayedarrive » arrived (we only add -d ifthe verb ends in -e)try » tried (a final -y changes to -i-

after a consonant)stop » stopped (we double the finalconsonant if the verb finishes witha consonant-vowel-consonant)

-ING (simple gerund and presentparticiple)

The simple gerund and the presentparticiple are formed by adding -ing tothe base form of the verb:

read » reading study » studying grow » growingrelax » relaxinganswer » answering write » writing; argue » arguing (a

final -e is omitted) agree » agreeing (a final -ee doesnot change) lie » lying (a final -ie changes to -y-) put » putting; regret » regretting;readmit » readmitting (we doublethe final consonant if the verb endswith consonant-vowel-consonant,with the exception of w, x and yand only has one syllable or has thestress on the last syllable)

List of quotesA. K. Best

The fishing was good; it was thecatching that was bad.

Related topics:

Cleft sentencesDefining relative clausePast simple for past habits andstatesPronouns used in defining relativeclausesThe gerund as subject

AesopIt is easy to be brave from a safedistance.

Related topics:

Adjective + TO-infinitive

Albert EinsteinNot everything that can be countedcounts, and not everything thatcounts can be counted.

Related topics:

Defining relative clauseForm: passive voiceModals to express ability: CAN,COULD, BE ABLE TOPresent simple for general truths

Albert EinsteinLife is like riding a bicycle - inorder to keep your balance, youmust keep moving.

Related topics:

Modals to express obligation:MUST, HAVE (GOT) TOPreposition + gerundThe difference between countableand uncountable nounsThe infinitive of purpose

Albert EinsteinEducation is what remains after onehas forgotten what one has learnedin school.

Related topics:

Present perfect for past eventsWHAT (the thing(s) that/which)

Alphonse KarrSome people are always grumblingbecause roses have thorns; I amthankful that thorns have roses.

Related topics:

Determiners with countable anduncountable nouns (SOME, ANY,NO, MANY, MUCH, FEW,LITTLE etc.)Nouns which are always pluralPresent continuous for frequentlyrepeated actions in the present

Angela ThirkellIf one cannot invent a reallyconvincing lie, it is often better tostick to the truth.

Related topics:

Modals to express ability: CAN,COULD, BE ABLE TOAdjective + TO-infinitiveZero conditional

AristotleIt is the mark of an educated mindto be able to entertain a thoughtwithout accepting it.

Related topics:

Modals to express ability: CAN,COULD, BE ABLE TONoun phrase + TO-infinitivePreposition + gerund

Author unknownThe best way to gain self-confidence is to do what you areafraid to do.

Related topics:

Adjective + TO-infinitiveThe difference between countableand uncountable nounsThe TO-infinitive as a subjectcomplementWHAT (the thing(s) that/which)

Ben IrwinMost of us spend our lives as if wehad another one in the bank.

Related topics:

AS IF / AS THOUGHPresent simple for general truths

Benjamin FranklinLost time is never found again.

Related topics:

Form: passive voicePresent simple for general truthsThe present and past participlesused as adjectives

Bernard BaruchMillions saw the apple fall, butNewton asked why.

Related topics:

Past simple for completed actionsin the pastSEE, WATCH, HEAR, LISTEN,FEEL, SMELL, NOTICE,OBSERVE + object + bareinfinitiveThe zero article with proper names

Bill CosbyI don't know the key to success, butthe key to failure is trying to pleaseeverybody.

Related topics:

State verbs and action verbsThe difference between countableand uncountable nounsThe gerund as a subjectcomplementTO-infinitive or gerund: FORGET,REMEMBER, REGRET, GO ON,STOP, TRY

Bill DanaI had been told that the trainingprocedure with cats was difficult.It's not. Mine had me trained in twodays.

Related topics:

Form: passive voicePast perfect for actions completedbefore a point in the pastPast simple for completed actionsin the pastPast simple for past habits andstatesPresent simple for present habitsand states

Tense changes in indirect speech

Booker T. WashingtonIf you want to lift yourself up, liftup someone else.

Related topics:

First conditionalImperatives in the first conditional

Carol NelsonChristmas is a time when you gethomesick - even when you're home.

Related topics:

Defining relative clausePresent simple for general truthsRelative adverbs: WHERE,WHEN, WHYThe indefinite article to describeand classify somethingThe zero article with names ofdays, months, seasons, holidays andparts of the day

Cavett RobertIf you don't think every day is agood day, just try missing one.

Related topics:

Determiners with countable anduncountable nouns (SOME, ANY,NO, MANY, MUCH, FEW,LITTLE etc.)Imperatives in the first conditionalTO-infinitive or gerund: FORGET,REMEMBER, REGRET, GO ON,STOP, TRY

Charles BuxtonYou will never find time foranything. If you want time, you mustmake it.

Related topics:

First conditionalFuture simple for predictionsModals in the first conditional

Chili DavisGrowing old is mandatory; growingup is optional.

Related topics:

Present simple for general truthsThe gerund as subject

Chinese proverbA book is like a garden carried inthe pocket.

Related topics:

Participle clausesParticiples in non-finite relativeclausesThe indefinite article with amember of a class

Chinese proverbTo read a book for the first time isto make an acquaintance with a newfriend; to read it for a second timeis to meet an old one.

Related topics:

The TO-infinitive as a subjectcomplementThe TO-infinitive as subject

Christian FurchtegottGellert

Live as you will wish to have livedwhen you are dying.

Related topics:

Future simple in complex sentencesFuture time clausesThe forms of the infinitiveVerb + TO-infinitive

ConfuciusTo be wronged is nothing unlessyou continue to remember it.

Related topics:

Form: passive voiceIF, EVEN IF, ONLY IF, AS LONGAS, PROVIDED, SUPPOSING,UNLESS, BUT FOR, IFNECESSARY, IF SO, IN CASEetc.The forms of the infinitiveThe TO-infinitive as subjectTO-infinitive or gerund: BEGIN,START, CONTINUE, CEASE,DREAD, INTEND, LOVE

Cynthia E. VarnadoIt is impossible to keep a straightface in the presence of one or morekittens.

Related topics:

Adjective + TO-infinitivePresent simple for general truths

Cyril ConnollyNo city should be too large for aman to walk out of in a morning.

Related topics:

Adjective + TO-infinitiveModals to express criticism: CAN,COULD, MIGHT, SHOULDModals to express suggestions:SHOULD, COULD, MIGHT,SHALL

David RussellThe hardest thing to learn in life iswhich bridge to cross and which toburn.

Related topics:

Noun phrase + TO-infinitiveQuestion word + TO-infinitive

Dennis and WendyMannering

Attitudes are contagious. Are yoursworth catching?

Related topics:

Other expressions followed by thegerundPresent simple for general truths

Donald KendallThe only place where successcomes before work is in thedictionary.

Related topics:

Defining relative clauseRelative adverbs: WHERE,WHEN, WHYThe difference between countableand uncountable nouns

E. W. HoweTo avoid mistakes and regrets,always consult your wife beforeengaging in a flirtation.

Related topics:

Preposition + gerundThe infinitive of purpose

Edward VernonRickenbacker

Courage is doing what you're afraidto do. There can be no courageunless you're scared.

Related topics:

Adjective + TO-infinitiveIF, EVEN IF, ONLY IF, AS LONGAS, PROVIDED, SUPPOSING,UNLESS, BUT FOR, IFNECESSARY, IF SO, IN CASEetc.The difference between countableand uncountable nounsThe gerund as a subject

complementThe present and past participlesused as adjectivesWHAT (the thing(s) that/which)

Eleanor RooseveltNo one can make you feel inferiorwithout your consent.

Related topics:

Modals to express ability: CAN,COULD, BE ABLE TOHAVE, GET, LET, MAKE + object+ infinitiveMAKE + object + bare infinitive

Emily DickinsonSaying nothing sometimes says themost.

Related topics:

Present simple for general truthsThe gerund as subject

Emma GoldmanI'd rather have roses on my tablethan diamonds on my neck.

Related topics:

WOULD RATHER / WOULDSOONER + simple or continuousinfinitive

Emory AustinSome days there won't be a song inyour heart. Sing anyway.

Related topics:

Determiners with countable anduncountable nouns (SOME, ANY,NO, MANY, MUCH, FEW,LITTLE etc.)Future simple for predictions

EpictetusPeople are not disturbed by things,but by the view they take of them.

Related topics:

Defining relative clauseForm: passive voiceNouns which are always pluralPronouns used in defining relativeclauses

Eric HofferThe greatest weariness comes fromwork not done.

Related topics:

Participle clausesParticiples in non-finite relativeclausesPresent simple for general truthsThe difference between countableand uncountable nouns

Erica JongAdvice is what we ask for whenwe already know the answer butwish we didn't.

Related topics:

WHAT (the thing(s) that/which)Wishes about the present

Frank A. ClarkIf you can find a path with noobstacles, it probably doesn't leadanywhere.

Related topics:

Modals to express ability: CAN,COULD, BE ABLE TOZero conditional

Frank A. ClarkGossip needn't be false to be evil -there's a lot of truth that shouldn'tbe passed around.

Related topics:

Defining relative clauseModals to express obligation:SHOULD, OUGHT TOPronouns used in defining relativeclausesThe difference between countableand uncountable nounsThe infinitive of purposeThe semi-modal NEED

Galileo GalileiI have never met a man so ignorantthat I couldn't learn something fromhim.

Related topics:

Modals to express ability: CAN,COULD, BE ABLE TOPresent perfect for past eventsPresent perfect with an incompleteperiod

George EliotIt is never too late to be who youmight have been.

Related topics:

Adjective + TO-infinitiveModals to express possibility:MAY, MIGHT, CAN, COULD

George SantayanaTo be interested in the changingseasons is a happier state of mindthan to be hopelessly in love withspring.

Related topics:

The TO-infinitive as subjectThe zero article with names ofdays, months, seasons, holidays andparts of the day

Haim GinottParents often talk about the youngergeneration as if they didn't haveanything to do with it.

Related topics:

AS IF / AS THOUGHPresent simple for present habitsand states

Hal BorlandApril is a promise that May isbound to keep.

Related topics:

BE BOUND + TO-infinitiveDefining relative clausePronouns used in defining relativeclausesThe indefinite article to describeand classify somethingThe zero article with names ofdays, months, seasons, holidays andparts of the day

Hal BorlandNo winter lasts forever; no springskips its turn.

Related topics:

Present simple for general truths

Hanoch McCartyIt's not who you are that holds youback, it's who you think you're not.

Related topics:

Cleft sentencesDefining relative clausePronouns used in defining relativeclauses

Harlan MillerI wish we could put up some of theChristmas spirit in jars and open ajar of it every month.

Related topics:

Wishes about the present

Harry "Breaker" HarbordMorant

Live every day as if it were goingto be your last; for one day you'resure to be right.

Related topics:

AS IF / AS THOUGHBE GOING TO for predictionsDeterminers with countable anduncountable nouns (SOME, ANY,NO, MANY, MUCH, FEW,LITTLE etc.)

Heinrich HeineIf the Romans had been obliged tolearn Latin, they would never havefound time to conquer the world.

Related topics:

Form: passive voiceThird conditional

Helen RowlandYou will never win if you neverbegin.

Related topics:

First conditionalFuture simple for predictionsFuture simple in complex sentences

Henry David ThoreauAs if you could kill time withoutinjuring eternity.

Related topics:

AS IF / AS THOUGH

Henry David ThoreauSuccess usually comes to thosewho are too busy to be looking forit.

Related topics:

Adjective + TO-infinitiveDefining relative clausePresent simple for general truthsPronouns used in defining relativeclausesThe continuous aspectThe difference between countableand uncountable nounsThe forms of the infinitive

Henry FordThere is no man living that cannotdo more than he thinks he can.

Related topics:

Defining relative clauseModals to express ability: CAN,COULD, BE ABLE TOParticiple clausesParticiples in non-finite relativeclausesPronouns used in defining relativeclauses

Henry MillerWe should read to give our souls achance to luxuriate.

Related topics:

Modals to express obligation:SHOULD, OUGHT TOThe infinitive of purpose

Herbert ProchnowA city is a large community wherepeople are lonesome together.

Related topics:

Defining relative clauseNouns which are always pluralRelative adverbs: WHERE,WHEN, WHYThe indefinite article with amember of a class

HippocratesLet your food be your medicine andyour medicine be your food.

Related topics:

HAVE, GET, LET, MAKE + object+ infinitive

Irish proverbIf you do not sow in the spring, youwill not reap in the autumn.

Related topics:

First conditionalFuture simple for predictionsFuture simple in complex sentences

Isaac AsimovWhat would I do if I had only sixmonths left to live? I'd type faster.

Related topics:

Second conditionalThe modal WOULD to expressunreal situations

Jim RohnMotivation is what gets you started.Habit is what keeps you going.

Related topics:

Present simple for general truthsThe difference between countableand uncountable nounsWHAT (the thing(s) that/which)

Joey AdamsIf it weren't for the fact that the TVset and the refrigerator are so farapart, some of us wouldn't get anyexercise at all.

Related topics:

IF, EVEN IF, ONLY IF, AS LONGAS, PROVIDED, SUPPOSING,UNLESS, BUT FOR, IFNECESSARY, IF SO, IN CASEetc.Second conditionalThe modal WOULD to expressunreal situations

John A. Simone, Sr.If you're in a bad situation, don'tworry it'll change. If you're in agood situation, don't worry it'llchange.

Related topics:

First conditionalFuture simple for predictionsImperatives in the first conditional

John WoodenA coach is someone who can givecorrection without causingresentment.

Related topics:

Defining relative clauseModals to express ability: CAN,COULD, BE ABLE TOPronouns used in defining relativeclausesThe indefinite article with amember of a class

Kelvin ThroopIf people behaved likegovernments, you'd call the cops.

Related topics:


Lao TseA journey of a thousand miles mustbegin with a single step.

Related topics:

Modals to express obligation:MUST, HAVE (GOT) TOThe indefinite article with amember of a class

Lao TseNature does not hurry, yeteverything is accomplished.

Related topics:

Form: passive voicePresent simple for general truths

Leo TolstoyIf you want to be happy, be.

Related topics:

Imperatives in the first conditional

Lily TomlinThe trouble with the rat race is thateven if you win, you are still a rat.

Related topics:

IF, EVEN IF, ONLY IF, AS LONGAS, PROVIDED, SUPPOSING,UNLESS, BUT FOR, IFNECESSARY, IF SO, IN CASEetc.Zero conditional

Marcus AureliusWhat is not good for the swarm isnot good for the bee.

Related topics:

Present simple for general truthsWHAT (the thing(s) that/which)

Margaret FullerMen for the sake of getting a livingforget to live.

Related topics:

Irregular plural formsPreposition + gerundPresent simple for general truthsTO-infinitive or gerund: FORGET,REMEMBER, REGRET, GO ON,STOP, TRY

Marie CurieNothing in life is to be feared. It isonly to be understood.

Related topics:

BE + TO-infinitiveForm: passive voiceThe forms of the infinitive

Mark TwainIf you tell the truth, you don't haveto remember anything.

Related topics:

Modals to express obligation:MUST, HAVE (GOT) TOZero conditional

Mark TwainThe secret of getting ahead isgetting started.

Related topics:

Preposition + gerundThe passive with GET

Marlene DietrichIt is the friends you can call up at 4a.m. that matter.

Related topics:

Modals to express ability: CAN,COULD, BE ABLE TOCleft sentencesDefining relative clausePronouns used in defining relativeclauses

Mary EngelbreitIf you don't like something changeit; if you can't change it, change theway you think about it.

Related topics:

Modals to express ability: CAN,COULD, BE ABLE TOImperatives in the first conditional

Mignon McLaughlinWhat you have become is the priceyou paid to get what you used towant.

Related topics:

Defining relative clauseModals to express habits: WILL,WOULD, USED TOPast simple for completed actionsin the pastPresent perfect for past eventsPronouns used in defining relativeclausesThe infinitive of purposeWHAT (the thing(s) that/which)

Muhammad AliChildren make you want to start lifeover.

Related topics:

HAVE, GET, LET, MAKE + object+ infinitiveIrregular plural formsMAKE + object + bare infinitiveVerb + TO-infinitive

Nan PorterIf cats could talk, they wouldn't.

Related topics:

Second conditionalModals to express willingness /unwillingness: WILL, WOULD

Native American proverbNo river can return to its source,yet all rivers must have abeginning.

Related topics:

Modals to express ability: CAN,COULD, BE ABLE TO

Native American proverbThe soul would have no rainbow ifthe eyes had no tears.

Related topics:


Nelson HendersonThe true meaning of life is to planttrees, under whose shade you donot expect to sit.

Related topics:

Non-defining relative clausePronouns used in non-definingrelative clausesThe TO-infinitive as a subjectcomplementVerb + TO-infinitive

Oscar WildeWe are all in the gutter, but some ofus are looking at the stars.

Related topics:

Present continuous for actions inprogress at the time of speakingPresent simple for present habitsand statesThe continuous aspect

Oscar WildeTo be natural is such a verydifficult pose to keep up.

Related topics:

Adjective + TO-infinitiveThe TO-infinitive as subject

Pablo PicassoEvery child is an artist. Theproblem is how to remain an artistonce we grow up.

Related topics:

Determiners with countable anduncountable nouns (SOME, ANY,NO, MANY, MUCH, FEW,LITTLE etc.)Future time clausesPresent simple for general truthsQuestion word + TO-infinitiveThe indefinite article to describeand classify something

Peter DruckerThe best way to predict the future isto create it.

Related topics:

Present simple for general truthsThe TO-infinitive as a subjectcomplement

Peter MarshallSmall deeds done are better thangreat deeds planned.

Related topics:

Participle clausesParticiples in non-finite relativeclausesPresent simple for general truths

PlatoWise men speak because they havesomething to say; fools becausethey have to say something.

Related topics:

Irregular plural formsModals to express obligation:MUST, HAVE (GOT) TONoun phrase + TO-infinitivePresent simple for general truthsSAY, TELL and ASK

Ralph HodgsonSome things have to be believed tobe seen.

Related topics:

Determiners with countable anduncountable nouns (SOME, ANY,NO, MANY, MUCH, FEW,LITTLE etc.)Form: passive voiceModals to express obligation:MUST, HAVE (GOT) TOThe forms of the infinitive

Ralph Waldo EmersonWhat we call results arebeginnings.

Related topics:

WHAT (the thing(s) that/which)

Robert BraultEach day is an opportunity to travelback into tomorrow's past andchange it.

Related topics:

Noun phrase + TO-infinitivePresent simple for general truths

Robert FrostFreedom lies in being bold.

Related topics:

Preposition + gerundPresent simple for general truthsThe difference between countableand uncountable nouns

Robert GravesEvery English poet should masterthe rules of grammar before heattempts to bend or break them.

Related topics:

Determiners with countable anduncountable nouns (SOME, ANY,NO, MANY, MUCH, FEW,LITTLE etc.)Modals to express obligation:SHOULD, OUGHT TOVerb + TO-infinitive

Ruth E. RenklYou live longer once you realizethat any time spent being unhappy iswasted.

Related topics:

Form: passive voiceParticiple clausesParticiples in non-finite relativeclausesSPEND, WASTE + object +present participle

Samuel LevensonYou must learn from the mistakes ofothers. You can't possibly live longenough to make them all yourself.

Related topics:

Modals to express ability: CAN,COULD, BE ABLE TOAdjective + TO-infinitiveModals to express obligation:MUST, HAVE (GOT) TOThe infinitive of purpose

Samuel Taylor ColeridgeFriendship is a sheltering tree.

Related topics:

The difference between countableand uncountable nounsThe present and past participlesused as adjectives

Satchel PaigeHow old would you be if you didn'tknow how old you were?

Related topics:


SenecaFate leads the willing, and dragsalong the reluctant.

Related topics:

Present simple for general truthsThe definite article with adjectivesThe difference between countableand uncountable nouns

SophoclesIt is terrible to speak well and bewrong.

Related topics:

Adjective + TO-infinitivePresent simple for general truths

Spanish proverbWhoever gossips to you will gossipabout you.

Related topics:

Future simple for predictionsWHATEVER, WHOEVER,WHICHEVER, WHEREVER,WHENEVER

Swedish proverbThose who wish to sing alwaysfind a song.

Related topics:

Defining relative clausePresent simple for general truthsPronouns used in defining relativeclausesVerb + TO-infinitive

Tehyi HsiehAction will remove the doubts thattheory cannot solve.

Related topics:

Defining relative clauseFuture simple for predictionsModals to express ability: CAN,COULD, BE ABLE TOPronouns used in defining relativeclauses

Thomas EdisonI have not failed. I've just found10,000 ways that won't work.

Related topics:

Modals to express willingness /unwillingness: WILL, WOULDPresent perfect for past eventsThe perfect aspect

Thomas Watson, Sr.To be successful, you have to haveyour heart in your business, andyour business in your heart.

Related topics:

Modals to express obligation:MUST, HAVE (GOT) TONouns with countable anduncountable meaningsThe infinitive of purpose

Vince LombardiWe would accomplish many morethings if we did not think of them asimpossible.

Related topics:


Vita Sackville-WestFlowers really do intoxicate me.

Related topics:

DO, DOES, DID + bare infinitiveThe auxiliaries DO and DOES foremphasis

VoltaireLife is a shipwreck but we must notforget to sing in the lifeboats.

Related topics:

Modals to express obligation:MUST, HAVE (GOT) TOPresent simple for general truthsThe difference between countableand uncountable nounsTO-infinitive or gerund: FORGET,REMEMBER, REGRET, GO ON,STOP, TRY

Washington IrvingA barking dog is often more usefulthan a sleeping lion.

Related topics:

Present simple for general truthsThe indefinite article with amember of a classThe present and past participlesused as adjectives

William BarretIt is the familiar that usually eludesus in life. What is before our noseis what we see last.

Related topics:

Cleft sentencesDefining relative clausePresent simple for general truthsPronouns used in defining relativeclausesPseudo-cleft sentencesThe definite article with adjectivesWHAT (the thing(s) that/which)

William Carlos WilliamsIn summer, the song sings itself.

Related topics:

Present simple for general truthsThe zero article with names ofdays, months, seasons, holidays andparts of the day

William Frederick BookA man must be master of his hoursand days, not their servant.

Related topics:

Modals to express obligation:MUST, HAVE (GOT) TOThe indefinite article with amember of a class

William SafireOnly in grammar can you be morethan perfect.

Related topics:

Modals to express ability: CAN,COULD, BE ABLE TOONLY AFTER, ONLY IF, ONLY INTHIS WAY etc., NOT UNTIL

Winston ChurchillI am an optimist. It does not seemtoo much use being anything else.

Related topics:

Other expressions followed by thegerundPresent simple for present habitsand statesThe indefinite article to describeand classify something

Winston ChurchillA pessimist sees the difficulty inevery opportunity; an optimist seesthe opportunity in every difficulty.

Related topics:

Determiners with countable anduncountable nouns (SOME, ANY,NO, MANY, MUCH, FEW,LITTLE etc.)Present simple for general truthsThe indefinite article with amember of a class

Yogi BerraIf you don't know where you'regoing, you might never get there.

Related topics:

Modals to express possibility:MAY, MIGHT, CAN, COULDState verbs and action verbsZero conditional

Zen sayingWhen you get to the top of amountain, keep climbing.

Related topics:

Future time clauses

Zen sayingKnowledge is learning somethingevery day. Wisdom is letting go ofsomething every day.

Related topics:

Determiners with countable anduncountable nouns (SOME, ANY,NO, MANY, MUCH, FEW,LITTLE etc.)The difference between countableand uncountable nounsThe gerund as a subjectcomplement

GlossaryA | B | C | D | E | F |

H | I | M | N | O | P |

Q | R | S | T | U | V |

W | Y

A

actionA general term to express thatsomebody or something is doing

something.

adjectiveA part of speech that modifies,qualifies or restricts a noun or apronoun. (It's a nice house. Theapples are ripe. He's verytalented.)

adverbA part of speech that modifies averb, adjective, adverb orconjunction. (I could hardly say aword. That car is incrediblyexpensive.)

affirmative sentenceA declarative sentence thatindicates "yes"; also called apositive sentence. (Adam playssquash a lot.)

agentThe doer of an action; the person orthing that is doing something. Theagent is not necessarily the subjectof the sentence. (Jim called you thismorning. Hamlet was written byShakespeare.)

article

Any of the words a, an and the,used to limit or give definiteness toa noun. A and an are indefinitearticles, while the is a definitearticle. (A man was standing on theplatform.)

aspectA verbal category that relates anaction to the passage of time. It canexpress duration (continuous (orprogressive) aspect) or completion(perfect aspect).

auxiliary verbA helping verb used with main

verbs that expresses mood, voiceor tense. (I can't swim. When wereyou born? They are working on itnow. Have they left?)

B

bare infinitiveThe infinitive without to. It can besimple (write), continuous (bewriting), perfect (have written) orperfect continuous (have beenwriting). The term "bare infinitive"is often used to refer to the simplebare infinitive (write), which isidentical to the base form of theverb.

base form

The form of a verb to whichinflections are added, e.g. go, meetand want. Inflected forms of theseverbs include, e.g. goes, meetingand wanted. The base form is theone listed in dictionaries.

C

clauseA group of related words with asubject and a verb. Sometimes thesubject may not be mentionedexplicitly in the clause itself butfound in a nearby clause. (Whilewalking through the park, Tomlost his keys.)

complementA word or phrase that comes after

the verb and is required to make thesentence complete. (The weatherwas beautiful. Carol is a teacher.)

complete period of timeA period of time that has finishedand does not include the time ofspeaking. (Lena didn't go skiinglast year.)

completionA concept related to the perfectaspect that expresses that an actionhas finished. (He has finisheduniversity.)

conjunctionA part of speech that connectswords, clauses or sentences. (Theroom was dark and cold. Althougheveryone heard the news, no oneseemed to care.)

contextThe situation within whichsomething exists or happens or anutterance is made.

continuous aspectThe aspect that expresses duration,formed with be + verb-ing. (What

are you doing?)

D

declarative sentenceThe sentence type used to makestatements. A declarative sentencemay be affirmative or negative.(Adam plays squash a lot. Tim hasno friends.)

definitePertaining to a specific person,thing, idea or time. (I know the guyyou are talking about.)

direct objectThe directly affected object of theverb. (Let's have a coffee. She toldme her name.)

ditransitive verbA verb that has two objects: adirect object and an indirect object.(She told me her name.)

durationA concept related to the continuousaspect that expresses that an action

is in progress. (What are youdoing?)

E

emphasisSpecial importance or attentiongiven to something. (We do want tohelp you.)

eventA general term to express thatsomebody or something is doingsomething or that something ishappening. (The lights turned red.)

expressionA word or group of words used in aspecific situation. (Good morning,at six and on the sofa)

F

focusThe main or central point ofattention or interest; what isemphasised. (It was János Irinyiwho invented the non-explosivematch in 1836.)

formalNot part of colloquial or everydayspeech; official. (I shall be withyou shortly.)

H

hypotheticalUnreal, imagined.

I

imperative sentenceThe sentence type used to expresssuggestions, directions or orders.(Take a seat, please.)

incomplete period of timeA period of time that includes thetime of speaking. (I have knownhim for two years.)

indefinite

Not pertaining to a specific person,thing, idea or time. (Somebody leftyou a message this morning.)

indirect objectTo or for whom the action of theverb is being done; the receiver ofthe action. (She told me her name.)

inflectionA change in or addition to the formof a word that shows a change inthe way it is used in sentences. (Helikes what you cooked.)

informalPart of colloquial or everydayspeech. (I'll be with you in a sec.)

instrumentSomething that the doer uses inperforming the action. (She coveredthe child with a blanket.)

interrogative sentenceThe sentence type used to express adirect question. (What are youdoing?)

intransitive verbA verb that does not take a directobject. (How long have you beenliving here?)

inversionA construction in which a verb oran auxiliary precedes the subject.(Here comes the bus. You don'twork here, do you?)

M

main clauseA clause that could be a sentence initself. (I wouldn't go there if Iwere you. When I called her, shewas studying.)

main verbA verb that can express an action ora state in itself; also called alexical verb. (Adam plays squash a

lot. This watch belonged to mygrandfather.)

N

negative sentenceA declarative sentence thatindicates "no". (Tim has nofriends.)

nounA part of speech that names aperson, place or thing. (The koalais a marsupial.)

O

objectA person or thing that is affected bythe action of a verb or is involvedin the result of an action. (Can youhelp me?)

P

particleA word that is joined to the verb ina phrasal verb. (He is looking afterhis ageing parents.)

perfect aspectThe aspect that expressescompletion, formed with have +past participle. (He has finisheduniversity.)

period of timeThe length of time between twopoints of time. (He works from 8to 4. We've been staying here fortwo weeks.)

point of timeA specific moment in time. (Shecame home at six. I was born in1980.)

progressAn action is said to be in progresswhen it is happening. (When I

called her, she was studying.)

pronounA part of speech that refers to orstands instead of a noun. (Who doyou think I am?)

punctuationThe use of special marks tostructure and organise writtenlanguage: full stop (.), comma (,),question mark (?), exclamationmark (!), apostrophe ('), quote ("),colon (:), semi-colon (;), hyphen (-), dash (–), parentheses (( )) andbrackets ([ ]).

Q

question wordA word that introduces a wh-question. (What are you doing?How old are you?)

R

reference pointA point of time in relation to whichan action takes place. (When Icalled her, she was studying. Theyhad all arrived by 10 o'clock.)

S

stateA condition that exists at a specifictime. (I was sick. He doesn't haveyour address.)

structureThe way in which the parts of asentence, clause or expression arearranged. (make + object + bareinfinitive in the sentence The

teacher made me rewrite thecomposition.)

subjectThe person or thing that performsthe action of a verb or that isdescribed by a verb. (You lookpretty. The house was destroyed byfire.)

subordinate clauseA clause that cannot be a sentencein itself and is linked to a mainclause. (I wouldn't go there if Iwere you. When I called her, shewas studying.)

T

tenseA grammatical category that ismarked by verb inflection. Tensesare used in order to express whenan event or action is happening intime or when a state exists.

timeA concept related to our perceptionof reality; that part of existence

which is measured in seconds,minutes, hours, days, weeks etc.

time markerA verb or auxiliary that marks thereference point of a non-finite form.(The telephone is known to havebeen invented by Bell. He deniedbeing in love with the suspect. Theymust have missed their flight.)

time of speakingA point of time at which anutterance is made.

TO-infinitiveThe infinitive with to. It can besimple (to write), continuous (tobe writing), perfect (to havewritten) or perfect continuous (tohave been writing).

transitive verbA verb that takes a direct object. (Iknow him quite well.)

U

unreal tenseA verb form that expresses ahypothetical situation. (I wish youwere here.)

utteranceSomething that somebody says in aspecific context.

V

verbA part of speech that expresses anaction or a state. (What kind ofmusic do you like?)

voiceThe form of the transitive verb(active or passive) that shows therelation of the subject of thesentence to the action of the verb. Inan active sentence, the subject is

the agent or doer of the action. (Mymom made the cake.) With thepassive voice, the subject is therecipient of the action. (The cakewas made by my mom.)

W

wh-questionA question that starts with aquestion word. (What are youdoing? How old are you?)

Y

yes/no questionA question without a questionword; one to which the answer is"yes" or "no". (Are you old enoughto enter?)

Symbols used inthis book

Italics indicate examples:Can, could, will and would areused to express requests.The book will be published. (anexample of the passive voice)Boldface in examples highlights thewords or phrases under discussion:A few minutes ago, they were stilldancing. (past continuous tense)Strikethrough indicates that a wordor phrase is inappropriate,incorrect or unnecessary:I am needing a new phone. I need a

new phone.The woman who she answered thedoor was about forty years old.Brackets ( ) in examples indicatethat the word or phrase in bracketscan be omitted. It's (high) timemeans that both it's time and it'shigh time are acceptable.A slash [ / ] in examples indicatesan alternative between words orphrases. As if / as though meansthat either as if or as though isacceptable.The symbol » indicates arelationship between two items:look » looked (the base form andpast tense form of the verb look)

I have » I've (the latter is acontracted form of the former)

Symbols used in the timediagrams

indicates the time of speaking.

indicates a specific point of time:What were you doing when you heardthe explosion? They got home at 10o'clock.

indicates aperiod of time: I haven't smoked today.Joe lived in Boston for ten years.

indicates a completed action: Ibought a car yesterday.

indicates anaction in progress or happening over aperiod of time: It's raining. Soon, he'llhave been running for 4 hours.

indicates astate: George likes pudding. I washappy.

indicatesrepeated or habitual actions: I go to thegym twice a week. I've been coughingall day.

BibliographyI consulted the following sources inwriting this book and recommend themfor further study:

Carter, Ronald and McCarthy,Michael. Cambridge Grammar ofEnglish. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press, 2006.Eastwood, John. Oxford Guide toEnglish Grammar. Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press, 2002.Greenbaum, Sidney and Quirk,Randolph. A Student's Grammar ofthe English Language. London:Longman, 1990.

Swan, Michael. Practical EnglishUsage. Oxford: Oxford UniversityPress, 1992.Thomson, A. J. and Martinet, A. V.A Practical English Grammar.Oxford: Oxford University Press,1991.Vince, Michael and Sunderland,Peter. Advanced LanguagePractice. Oxford: MacmillanPublishers Limited, 2003.

Copyright© 2013 Péter Simon

All rights reserved. This book may notbe reproduced in any form, in whole orin part, without the express and priorwritten consent of the author, except inthe case of brief quotations embodied incritical reviews and certain other non-commercial uses permitted by copyrightlaw. The quotations in this book areeither in the public domain or copyrightof their respective authors and providedunder the fair use provision of copyrightlaw.

AfterwordThank you for reading this book.

If you enjoyed it, please take a momentto leave a review on Amazon or add it toyour bookshelf on Goodreads.

Thank you!

Péter Simon

http://www.amazon.com/dp/B00G321AYO

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