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Aida

Grade – A

My Comments are in blue below… Unit 1: Chapter 3-----------Assesment

The Herbal Tradition from Ancient Egypt to the Present By Michael Tierra

I. True or False

1. Herbal Medicine was first discovered in China and did not come to the Middle East or

Africa until later: False

2. Ancient Egyptians believed that death and disease were a natural happening of life and dealt with it as such: False

3. All of Hippocrates writings are considered his own: False

4. A Greek doctor was held in high esteem and was often given a palace to live in by the

government: False

Yes, this is false. I have always found this fact so interesting…

5. Herbalism was never a finalized art. Physicians often argued over the usage of various

herbs: True

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II. Questions

6. What are some of the herbs that were found in the tombs of ancient Egypt?

Garlic and coriander.

7. What is the earliest record of ancient Egyptian medicine?

The earliest written records of ancient Egyptian medicine are to be found in the Ebers Papyrus dating from the sixteenth century BC.

8. What was the most important healing herb to the ancient Egyptians as well as Roman

healers and even in modern times? What was it largely used for in Rome? A. The most important healing herb was garlic. B. Raw garlic was routinely given to asthmatics and prescribed for those suffering with other bronchial-pulmonary symptoms.

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9. Three additional herbs are mentioned by the author that were used in Ancient Egypt. These are Coriander, Cumin and Cyperus. Please choose one and list how it was used in Ancient Egypt. THEN, using the Internet or a book (please cite your source), please mention some ways in which it has been used today. If you can, please cite any studies that have been done on the herb.

Cumin:

A. Use in ancient Egypt:

Cumin is an herb that is native to Egypt and ancient Egyptians used it as a stimulant

and carminative and as a condiment (flavoring substance). They also used it

medicinally to relieve arthritic pain, to relieve anal itching and to calm a cough.

B. Use in modern times:

Today, cumin is very popular as a spice in many international cuisines; it is one of

the ingredients in curry powder. Medicinally, cumin continues to be used on humans

and animals as a stimulant, carminative and antimicrobial agent. Due to its

unpleasant flavor, cumin has been replaced by caraway seed in European medicine.

Source: A Modern Herbal/ Mrs. M. Grieve

C. Studies done on Cumin:

In studies done on mice, cumin seed (when mixed with lard) has been reported to

have antioxidant activity, elevating levels of glutathione and stimulating other

antioxidant systems.

Source: Drugs.com

This is an interesting source of information. I would not have

imagined one could find herbal studies on a website called

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Drugs.com – however, I will post this to the student list. It

sounds like a promising source of scientific study

information.

In one study, cumin was shown to protect laboratory animals from developing

stomach or liver tumors probably because of its antioxidant properties and its proven

ability to enhance the liver’s detoxification enzymes.

Source: The epicentre.com/The encyclopedia of spices

10. What herb used by the Ancient Egyptians for paper was also used as a contraceptive

herb in Peru? Cyperus

11. What other healing methods were practiced by the Ancient Egyptians other than

herbal therapy? They practiced various methods of healing such as diet, color therapy, massage and

surgery. Psycho-spiritual healing tools such as charms and invocations were also

frequently used to facilitate the healing process. The Egyptians also stressed the

importance on hygiene and preventive healthcare on the attainment of good health.

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12. Who was the most famous Ancient Egyptian healer? Why is he famous to us today?

A. The most famous figure of Egyptian medicine was Imhotep, the first physician known by name. B. Imhotep is considered the first physician in recorded history. Because of his

honored status in the history of medical science, a statue of Imhotep standing in the

Hall of Immortals is found at the International College of Surgeons in Chicago.

13. The Ancient Egyptians used herbs but believed that something else actually cured the person. What is this something else? Ancient Egyptians believed that an illness was caused by an evil force/entity which

enters a person’s body and causes harm and disease. The Egyptian Shaman-physician

was required to discover the nature of this entity and then to drive it out of the

person by means of magic, either by rituals, spells or charms.

The Egyptians believed that herbs functioned primarily as pain relievers and that

magic alone produced the actual cure.

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14. How did Egyptian knowledge originally come to Ancient Greece? What was the ironic

tragedy that befell this portal? A. The ancient Egyptians, like other ancient societies conquered by Alexander the Great, brought with them their own traditions of healing which were adopted by the Greek conquerors. One year before his death in 323 BC, Alexander founded the city of Alexandria in

Egypt. Alexandria became the epicenter of learning and exchange of knowledge.

Ptolomy, Egypt's ruler for almost forty years after Alexander's death, founded the

Alexandrian library which at one time housed all the known knowledge of the ancient

world.

B. The Alexandrian Library was tragically destroyed by a fire around 450 AD.

Good insight. You are one of the few students that made this

connection.

15. What role do you see Ancient Greece playing in the history of medicine?

According to the text, “the great legacy of the ancient Greeks was their veneration for

thought and beauty.”

I believe that the greatest contribution of the Greeks to the history of medicine is in

the grand legacy of its most honored authors:

3 of the greatest and most influential physicians of all time were Greek: Hippocrates,

Dioscorides, and Galen. Their approaches and principles of healing and their medical

treatises exerted a strong influence on Islamic medicine and European medicine for

centuries.

Also, Greek philosopher/physicians like Aristotle (who has been referred to as the

Master or the First Teacher) also greatly impacted the views of scientists throughout

Europe and the Islamic empire.

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16. List two herbs listed by the author that were used in ancient Greece and their uses. Find some additional information on these herbs on the Internet or in a book and note if the uses are similar or different: (Castor oil, fennel, flax, asafetida, galangal, juniper, and saffron). A. Fennel:

The ancient Greeks used fennel in several ways: the plant stalks were eaten like

celery; the seeds were used to relieve gastro-intestinal pain and gas; fennel was also

prized for its ability to aid in the regeneration of liver cells.

In modern times, fennel continues to be used and prescribed for gastro-intestinal and

digestive issues; like most herbs, fennel is prescribed for many other reasons such as

to stimulate milk in lactating mothers, to induce menstruation for women with

irregular or absent periods and as a fragrant ingredient in beauty products.

B. Saffron:

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The ancient Greeks used saffron in several ways: they used it to relieve gas and

bloating, to induce perspiration and to help move the blood. They also used saffron

as a coloring and flavoring agent in food.

In modern times, Saffron is used in pretty much the same way that it was used in

ancient Greece, but it is also used to heal many additional health disorders like

chronic hemorrhaging of the uterus. Also, practioners of Traditional Chinese

Medicine use saffron to treat shock, depression and menstrual symptoms.

In the future, please provide detailed sources for all

information unless it comes directly from the texts. However,

even then, citing your sources is always a good practice to

cultivate. 17. What is the "common thread of evaluating herbs" that we find in all the ancient

civilizations and is still used today in Islamic and even Chinese medicine? In all the ancient civilization, we find the common thread of evaluating herbs

according to their atmospheric energies: hot, warm, neutral, cool; and, according to

their flavors: spicy, bitter, sweet, sour, salty and bland.

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18. What does the author state is the difference between the Ancient Medicine view and

the Western Medicine we use today? The traditional approach to healing examines the mental, physical and spiritual

causes of illness while incorporating diet, exercise and lifestyle changes in the

healing treatment.

The contemporary Western medical paradigm views the human body as a machine

with separate disconnected parts. Practitioners of the Western healthcare model

focus on relieving a patient’s symptoms and not on understanding the root cause of

the illness.

The traditional healing paradigm also places more emphasis on preventive medicine.

19. Why is the serpent used in ancient cultures to represent healing and why is it still

used today in the medical staff? A. In almost all ancient civilizations, the serpent is viewed as a symbol of healing.

Because of its proximity to the ground, ancient peoples believed that it had special

knowledge of healing; they also believed that because of the serpent or snake’s ability

to shed its skin, it had the power to renew its life and, therefore, live eternally--unlike

mortal humans and animals.

B. Asclepias, the Greek mythical god of medicine, may have derived his name from

the Greek word for serpent, askalabos. In Greek mythology and art, Asclepias was

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always depicted holding a knotted staff with a single serpent entwined around it. Up

until recently, this staff was the symbol of the medical profession.

A variation of the staff of Asclepias is the caduseus, a winged staff with two serpents

entwined around it. The caduseus was used by the Romans and, in modern times, it

is worn by Army medical personnel to symbolize non-combat status in war.

20. How did the ancient Greek temples of healing discriminate against patients?

In the Greek healing temples, the healing was believed to come from Asclepias, the

immortal god of medicine, and not from the temple priests.

In order to achieve a high success rate of healing among their patients, the Greek

temple priests would not admit patients who were critically ill or patients who were

pregnant.

21. In what way was the ancient temple a model for the modern hospital?

The ancient temple was a model for the modern hospital in several ways: A. People who were ill came to the temples to be healed. B. When patients were admitted to the hospital, they were waited on by priests, stretcher-bearers, bath masters, and other caretakers who prepared them for their healing sleep. C. After their discharge, the patients were required to pay for the treatment they received at the healing temple.

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22. What do you see the main method of healing as being in these ancient temples?

Suggestion? Spiritual? The Opium? Or something else? The main method of healing in the ancient Greek temples was through auto-suggestion, a form of self-hypnosis.

23. Describe an example of surgery in the Ancient Temples: (for an ulcer).

Here is an example of surgery included in the reading material:

"A man with an ulcer in his stomach. He incubated, and saw a vision: the god

seemed to order his followers to seize and hold him that he might incise his

stomach. So he fled, but they caught and tied him to the door-knocker. The

Asclepian opened his stomach, cut out the ulcer, sewed him up again and loosed his

bonds. He went away whole, but the floor of his chamber was covered with his

blood."

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It becomes clear from this example that surgery was an unrefined art in ancient Greece.

24. How were medical services paid for in Ancient Greece and how was the pay scale accommodating to the poor? Patients offered sacrifices depending on their financial status and the offerings of the

rich were always expected to be more than those for the poor.

Those less fortunate, would offer an item of clothing or food and drinks while the

wealthy offered swine and sheep.

The temple priests also allowed some patients to make their offerings or payments in

periodic installments up to one year.

I will need to go back to the readings on this one. My

memory and the test “key” (I use both) don’t recall the

details of the “installment” program you mentioned or the

swine. I will look them up again. You probably just read the

material in much more detail than expected. This is one skill

I hope all students come out of the course having – the

ability to retrieve information they have read before or to

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find information in books and readings. With all there is to

know in the field of natural healing, one must remember,

but must also cultivate the skill of finding.

25. Why was Hippocrates famous?

Hippocrates is a Greek physician from the 5th century BC, considered by many

as the father of medicine. His principles of healing were based on reason and

logic and went against the grain of ancient Greek medical theory of his day

which was based on superstition and magico-spiritual therapies.

Hippocrates is also famous for the Hippocratic oath, a code of ethics which

medical students traditionally swore by upon graduating from medical school.

26. When did Hippocrates live?

Around 460—377 B.C.

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27. Name two things the Hippocratic Oath requires of a doctor?

A. The Hippocratic Oath requires the doctor to only use a healing method if it proves

to be helpful to the patient and refrain from using a healing method which is found to

be harmful to the patient.

B. The Oath also requires a doctor to refuse any request by a woman to induce an

abortion.

28. What other famous healers and philosophers lived at the time of Hippocrates?

A. Buddha

B. Socrates

C. Xenophon

D. Phidias

E. Plato

29. What did Hippocrates see as the key to healing each person?

Hippocrates was an early proponent of holistic medicine; his attitude towards healing

can by summed up in this quote from Plato: “to heal even an eye, one must heal the

head, and indeed the whole body.”

Hippocrates believed that the body was governed by four humors which, when brought

out of balance, resulted in disease; specific foods and herbs were used to bring the

body back into balance.

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30. What method did Hippocrates use to heal his patients first?

He first did a thorough examnation of the patient and recorded the symptoms of the disease and its progress during the healing process.

Hippocrates then determined the patient’s humoural type; he believed that the body

was governed by four humors (sanguine, melancholic, phlegmatic, choleric) which,

when brought out of balance, resulted in disease. To help bring the body back into

balance, he used massage, therapeutic baths, and specific foods and herbs.

31. What was the main difference between his methods of healing and those of ancient

Greece? In ancient Greece, the focus of the healing temples was on the mystical/spiritual

healing power of Asclepian and other mythical gods of healing.

Hippocrates rejected principles of healing which were borne out of superstition or

magic and relied instead on sound logical principles of health care. Unlike the Greek

medical theory which believed that disease is divinely inflicted, Hippocrates believed

that diseases followed a logical, visible pattern and could be healed with the proper

diet.

32. Did everyone agree with Hippocrates’ view of healing as a holistic craft? Why or why

not? A. No: Not all Greek doctors agreed with the Hippocratic principles of holistic

medicine.

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B. In Alexandria, Eristratos, a Greek physician and anatomist, rejected the

Hippocratic concept of holism stating, “Why bother with the whole body if only part

of the man is sick?”

33. What is Mithridaticum? Why was it invented? Does it remind you of any modern

practice we have today? A. Mithridaticum was an anti-poison remedy containing 54 poisons; this antidote was

developed during the 1st century BC and named after Mithridates, King of Pontos,

who was always fearful of being poisoned by his enemies. Ingesting small amounts of

this anti-poison remedy over time was supposed to make King Mithridates immune to

the fatal effects of these 54 known poisons.

The Romans eventually created their own anti-poison remedy called, Theriacum,

which contained 70 poisons and was listed in pharmacopoeias for centuries up

through the European Renaissance.

B. Theoretically, vaccinations (modern medical antidotes) are supposed to work in a

similar manner to Mithridaticum.

Good thinking. Some students had a hard time coming up

with this answer. It did take a bit of imagination.

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34. What was the first and most important contribution of the Romans to medical history?

The most important contribution of the Romans to the history of medicine comes in

their style of governing. The Romans were very practical and this is most evident in

their acceptance and adoption of the local customs, religions and accumulated

knowledge of the foreign nations under their control.

They were also great administrators who paid careful attention to the principles of

hygiene when it came to burial of the dead, refuse and sewage disposal and water

transport via aqueducts.

35. Who are the two most important medical figures of ancient Rome?

The two most important medical figures of the Roman Empire were Dioscorides and

Galen, two Greek physicians whose writings became the standard for subsequent

works on medicine and botany.

36. What was Dioscorides’ amazing contribution to modern medicine?

Dioscorides’ most important contribution to modern medicine is a five volume book

called De Materia Medica, one of the most influential herbal books in the history of

botanical science; in fact, it remained in use until about the 1600’s.

Unlike the works of many classical authors, Dioscorides’ famous herbal was not

"rediscovered" during the European Renaissance because it never left circulation.

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37. What idea about herbs did his book introduce that had never been introduced before?

In De Materia Medica, Dioscorides introduced a new and superior way of classifying

various plants according to their physiological effects; for example, he labeled plants

as warming, cooling, dilating, nourishing, drying etc.

Previously, plants were always grouped according to their botanical families,

treatment for specific diseases, or even according to the criteria of flavors and

energies (hot, cold, moist, and dry).

38. What does the author claim is the foundation of European Herbalism as we know it

today? Please keep this in mind as the course continues. The works of Dioscorides and Galen, 2 of the most important and influential Greek

doctors of the Roman Empire, have formed the foundation of European herbalism as

we know it today.

39. Why was medicine forbidden by the early Christian church?

The early Christian church believed that only faith in Jesus Christ would heal a

person from any illness and that any healing method which does not rely on faith was

actually acting in the role of Christ or “playing God.”

For this reason, church officials attempted to destroy and suppress the ancient

knowledge of herbs and natural medicine.

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40. Who are the only two Muslim healers the author mentions in his writings?

A. Al-Razi

B. Avicenna

41. Who is one of the most important women healers of Europe? Why?

A. One of the most important women healers of Europe was Hildegard of Bingen also

know as St. Hildegard: a 12th century mystic and healer.

B. Hildegard followed the healing principles of Hippocrates; she practiced holistic

medicine and used the 4 elements and 4 humours system of diagnosing disease and

determining the proper healing remedy. Her healing protocol included diet, herbs

(including many oriental spices) and gem therapy.

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42. When were most of the great European herbals printed and preserved? What years or

era? Most of the great European herbals were printed and preserved during the Renaissance era: the 1500’s---1600’s.

43. Why was Culpepper hated by his colleagues and loved by the people?

During the time of Culpeper (the 1600’s) official medical knowledge was routinely

printed and discussed only in Latin by those in the medical profession. Culpeper

rejected this practice as medical elitism by his colleagues .

Culpeper believe that keeping important health information from the masses was

unethical so he translated some of the elitist works of his times from Latin into

common English. One of the works he translated was the Pharmacopoeia which

Culpeper renamed, A Physicall Directory.

Culpeper’s actions infuriated his colleagues who accused him of violating a solemn

oath of the London College of Physicians. The commoners in England, however, loved

and appreciated him because he gave them the power and knowledge to heal

themselves; the locals also loved him because he had a down to earth, humble manner

and he charged small fees to patients.

Culpeper’s famous herbal continues to be reprinted up to the present time.

Ironically, natural healers are still “hated” in some circles for the

same reasons.

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44. Why does the author compare the Jewish Holocaust to the situation of women healers?

During the Jewish holocaust in the 1940’s, hundreds of thousands of European Jews,

gypsies and other ethnic groups were killed as a part of the Nazi campaign of

genocide.

Women healers experienced their own holocaust between the 14th and 17th centuries

when millions of women accused of being witches were tortured and executed.

According to Barbara Ehrenreich and Deirdre English, the majority of these accused

witches were village healers serving the peasant population.

As in the holocaust of Nazi Germany, the European witch hunts were well-organized

campaigns which were financed and carried out by church and state officials who

controlled medical education and felt threatened by these women healers.

45. Why, after so many years of herbal and healing traditions, was American medicine so

dangerous in the early 19th century? In the early part of the 19th century (early 1800’s), the American system of medicine

was in shambles and going to a medical doctor was a risky undertaking. Doctors were

not trained sufficiently and clung to outdated allopathic theories and toxic remedies

which ended up harming a patient almost as much as the disease itself.

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46. What motto of Thomsonian Medicine reminds you of Culpepper?

Samuel Thomson (1769-1843) a poorly educated farmer, developed Thomsonian

Medicine, an herbal alternative to the dangerous and ineffective allopathic system of

medicine in his day.

Like Culpeper, Samuel Thomson had an anti-intellectual attitude towards medicine

and healthcare and the motto of Thomsonian Medicine was the Jeffersonian belief in

“Every man as his own doctor.”

47. Name the three different and progressive alternative medicines of the 19th century in

America. A. Thomsonian Medicine

B. The Physio-medicalists

C. Eclectic Medicine (this was first called the Reformed Botanic Movement and then

it was called the American System of Medicine).

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48. Which of these three is closest to the modern herbalist?

I would say that Electic Medicine is probably closest to the modern herbalist.

49. Why did the eclectics fail in their popularity and how did they revive? Why did they

finally die out again? A. The Eclectics failed in their popularity because of constant internal fighting and

declining enrollment in the Eclectic Medical Schools during the Civil War.

B. John Milton Scudder (1829-1894) is credited with the revival of Eclectic Medicine.

Scudder took the best that the system had to offer, then combined it with the best

from other popular healing modalities and created a unique system of herbal

medicine.

C. The Eclectic system of medicine gradually declined and eventually disappeared for

several reasons: several prominent leaders of the movement had died, the Eclectics

were slow to accept and incorporate new ideas in medicine, and they were unable to

resist the powerful forces of the American Medical Association.

For these main reasons, the Eclectic Medical College, the last school of Eclectic

Medicine, closed its doors in 1939.

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50. How did Chinese Medicine originally evolve? Like all ancient healing systems, Traditional Chinese Medicine evolved partly

through myth and legend and partly through trial and error.

The earliest recorded Chinese herbal was Emperor Shen Nong’s Classic Herbal written

in 200 BC with information about 365 herbs.

Shen Nong, the God-Farmer was one of three legendary kings of ancient Chinese

history who was supposedly the first person in China to discover the healing powers

of medicinal herbs.

According to Chinese folk legend, Shen Nong would experiment with different herbs

on himself and then record their benefits and side effects. The results of his

experiments and observations made up the Shen Nong’s Herbal.

Every official herbal in China has since been named after Shen Nong.

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51. What was the most important book of Chinese Medicine?

The earliest known and most important document of Traditional Chinese Medicine is

The Yellow Emperor’s Classic of Internal Medicine, written in the 3rd century BC.

The book’s author is considered the fabled Yellow Emperor, Huang-ti.

The Yellow Emperor’s classic deals with the famous Chinese concepts of Yin-Yang, the

Five Elements and other fundamental principles of of Traditional Chinese Medicine.

52. Who was the greatest surgeon and acupuncturist in Chinese Medicine? When was he

alive? A. Hua Tuo is regarded as one of the greatest acupuncturists and surgeons of Chinese

medical history.

B. Hua Tuo lived during the years of 100-208 AD.

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53. Did Arab medicine influence Chinese medicine? Did Chinese Medicine influence Arab

medicine? Because of their contacts through commercial trading, there is no doubt that the

Arabs and the Chinese influenced each other in the fields of science, art and

technology.

This exchange of information and knowledge occurred in all ancient cultures and is a

humbling testament of our debt to each other.

54. What is the most important Chinese Herbal and when was it published?

A. The most influential and important Chinese herbal was the Pen T’sao Jing Ji Zhu

(Commentaries on the Herbal Classic) written by Tao Hong Jing.

B. The Commentaries on the Herbal Classic was published in 492 AD.

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55. Who had more influence on modern American medicine: The Arabs or the Chinese? There is no question that the Arabs had more influence on modern American

medicine. I do not say this due to racial pride because I don’t like pride in any form.

However, based on the readings in Unit 1, it is clear that the Arabs/Muslims impacted

modern science and modern scientists in fundamental ways:

1. They translated most of the classical works of the Greek masters, essentially

saving these masterpieces from oblivion.

2. Scientists like Razes, Avicenna, Albucasis and others made pioneering discoveries

in the science of medicine which have remained in use to this day.

3. The Arabs/Muslims were the originators of experimental science, a stark contrast

from their Greek forebears whose scientific knowledge was largely theoretical.

Yes, this is the correct answer.

56. What is important about TCM? How did it combine the modern and the ancient? A. Traditional Chinese Medicine is based on herbal/botanical science. Many

important herbals were written in China starting with the Shen Nong’s herbal about

200 years before the birth of Christ. Since then, famous Chinese herbals evolved into

a complete system of healthcare called, Traditional Chinese Medicine. TCM

incorporates herbs, diet, hygiene, preventive medicine and even psycho-spiritual

therapy as part of its system of healing.

B. Like other ancient healing systems, TCM evolved over time; during its evolution,

TCM practitioners incorporated advancements in medical science whether these

advancements originated from from Chinese doctors or adopted from other cultures.

During the early 1900’s, the Chinese government made a strong attempt to modify

TCM and make it more in line with Western medical philosophy which the

government believed was superior and more advanced. TCM has since incorporated

some modern practices of hygiene and downplayed the role of religion and spirituality

in its system of medicine.

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57. What is Ayurveda and when were the first books published on this topic? Did Ayurveda come before or after ancient Egyptian medicine? A. Ayurveda, meaning the study of life, is the traditional medicine of ancient India.

The earliest Vedic texts were especially concerned with aging, various afflictions, the

prescription of cures involving prayers and herbal medicines.

B. The fisrt Vedic texts dated from 1500-1200 BC.

C. According to the information in this section, the earliest records of Egyptian

medicine was found in the Ebers Papyrus from the 16th century BC. This would mean

that Egyptian medicine came before Ayurvedic medicine.