the history of political thought. the hindu vision the ancient hindus believed that one must first...

The History of The History of Political ThoughtPolitical Thought

The Hindu VisionThe Hindu Vision

The ancient Hindus believed that one must The ancient Hindus believed that one must first master himself before he qualified to first master himself before he qualified to exercise power over othersexercise power over others

Illusion and ignorance are the source of Illusion and ignorance are the source of fearfear

Liberation from fear brings perception that Liberation from fear brings perception that all beings are interconnected.all beings are interconnected.

The Hindus distrusted politics and the stateThe Hindus distrusted politics and the state

Hindu EducationHindu Education

Artha – the value of wealth and propertyArtha – the value of wealth and property

Kama – sensual, especially sexual pleasureKama – sensual, especially sexual pleasure

Dharma – religious duties which lead one Dharma – religious duties which lead one toward righteousnesstoward righteousness

Moksha – spiritual liberation, freedom from Moksha – spiritual liberation, freedom from illusion, fear, and ignorance and the illusion, fear, and ignorance and the discovery of the unity of all beingsdiscovery of the unity of all beings

The Hindu Stages of LifeThe Hindu Stages of Life

Brahmacharya – the student stage (0-25) Brahmacharya – the student stage (0-25) Composed of studying all knowledge and Composed of studying all knowledge and the texts of Hinduismthe texts of Hinduism

Grihastha – the householder stage (25-55) Grihastha – the householder stage (25-55) providing for family and raising childrenproviding for family and raising children

Vanaprastha – literally “forest hermit,” this Vanaprastha – literally “forest hermit,” this person sought truth is solitude. He left all person sought truth is solitude. He left all family responsibility behind to seek truth.family responsibility behind to seek truth.

The Hindu Stages of LifeThe Hindu Stages of Life

Sannyasa – meaning “saintliness.” This Sannyasa – meaning “saintliness.” This depends on the result of vanaprastha. depends on the result of vanaprastha. The person returns to society once being The person returns to society once being enlightened with the unity of all things. enlightened with the unity of all things.

The sannyasin is strictly noviolent because The sannyasin is strictly noviolent because the connection of all things leads to the the connection of all things leads to the truth that in injuring another, we injure our truth that in injuring another, we injure our self. self.

The Hindu CastesThe Hindu Castes

The Hindus believed in a tripartite soul – The Hindus believed in a tripartite soul – sattva (wisdom or goodness), rajas sattva (wisdom or goodness), rajas (courage or energy) and tamas (desire or (courage or energy) and tamas (desire or appetite).appetite).The social organization reflects the The social organization reflects the predominance of these qualities among predominance of these qualities among the people.the people.The Castes were originally merit, not The Castes were originally merit, not heredity based.heredity based.

The Hindu CastesThe Hindu Castes

Brahmans – the philosopher/priest class Brahmans – the philosopher/priest class dominate because of their wisdom and dominate because of their wisdom and goodnessgoodness

Kshatriyas – the political/military class Kshatriyas – the political/military class excel in courage and energyexcel in courage and energy

Vaishyas – the commercial and Vaishyas – the commercial and agricultural class are characterized by agricultural class are characterized by desire and appetite. desire and appetite.

EgyptEgypt

The Pharaoh was considered to be both god The Pharaoh was considered to be both god and man.and man.

He thus ruled absolutely – his word was law.He thus ruled absolutely – his word was law.

The power of governance was held by a The power of governance was held by a single person. Rule was not by the consent single person. Rule was not by the consent of the governed.of the governed.

Note that Egyptians owned their own land Note that Egyptians owned their own land until the time of Joseph.until the time of Joseph.

Ancient IsraelAncient Israel

Israel started out without any national Israel started out without any national political system. political system.

They had a legal system and local They had a legal system and local government (the elders of each city)government (the elders of each city)

They were warned by Samuel against They were warned by Samuel against having a king.having a king.

The Lord’s anointed king only became The Lord’s anointed king only became king when so chosen by the people.king when so chosen by the people.

The Athenian DemocracyThe Athenian Democracy

Every adult male citizen shared in direct ruleEvery adult male citizen shared in direct rule

The Athenian assembly met once a monthThe Athenian assembly met once a month

There were no literacy or property There were no literacy or property qualificationsqualifications

Any citizen could address the assembly and Any citizen could address the assembly and propose legislationpropose legislation

Every citizen could serve in some public Every citizen could serve in some public officeoffice

The Athenian DemocracyThe Athenian Democracy

Women and slaves were denied any Women and slaves were denied any representation in the governmentrepresentation in the government

Direct rule was exercised by 40,000 men Direct rule was exercised by 40,000 men out of a population of 350,000out of a population of 350,000

Politics were dominated by amateursPolitics were dominated by amateurs

The Athenian DemocracyThe Athenian DemocracyThe rights of an Athenian citizen includedThe rights of an Athenian citizen included– freedom of speechfreedom of speech– freedom of expressionfreedom of expression– the right of a trial by jurythe right of a trial by jury– the right to bear armsthe right to bear arms– the right to participate in the Assemblythe right to participate in the Assembly– the right to hold government officethe right to hold government office

An Athenian didn’t have freedom of An Athenian didn’t have freedom of religion – to be Athenian meant to worship religion – to be Athenian meant to worship the Greek gods.the Greek gods.

The Athenian declineThe Athenian decline

Pericles led Athens into war against Pericles led Athens into war against Sparta – The Peloponnesian War.Sparta – The Peloponnesian War.

Part of the war centered on Corcyra, an Part of the war centered on Corcyra, an island whose people were split in island whose people were split in allegiance between Athens and Sparta.allegiance between Athens and Sparta.

The people of this island committed The people of this island committed horrendous atrocities against each otherhorrendous atrocities against each other

The Athenian declineThe Athenian decline

Thucydides, a Greek historian, wrote that Thucydides, a Greek historian, wrote that “People went to every extreme and “People went to every extreme and beyond it.” beyond it.”

Fathers killed sons. Whole families were Fathers killed sons. Whole families were executed. People were killed in the executed. People were killed in the religious temples.religious temples.

Reflecting on the ruin this brought to the Reflecting on the ruin this brought to the Athenian civilization, Thucydides wrote Athenian civilization, Thucydides wrote “War is a violent teacher.”“War is a violent teacher.”

The Athenian declineThe Athenian declineIn the Athenian society, different factions In the Athenian society, different factions twisted the meanings of words which led to twisted the meanings of words which led to the degeneration of civilization.the degeneration of civilization.

Character deteriorated as people were carried Character deteriorated as people were carried away by their passions and forgot reason.away by their passions and forgot reason.

Thucydides concludes that “love of power, Thucydides concludes that “love of power, operating through greed and personal operating through greed and personal ambition, was the cause of all these evils.”ambition, was the cause of all these evils.”

He then asked “Can power be wielded He then asked “Can power be wielded wisely?”wisely?”

Socrates and TruthSocrates and Truth

Socrates asks “What course of life is best?”Socrates asks “What course of life is best?”

In answer, he recommends the philosophical In answer, he recommends the philosophical life – the pilgrimage for truth.life – the pilgrimage for truth.

Wisdom consists of knowing that one does Wisdom consists of knowing that one does not know. One must recognize his own not know. One must recognize his own ignorance and be humble to search for truth.ignorance and be humble to search for truth.

Truth must be pursued, it cannot be infallibly Truth must be pursued, it cannot be infallibly possessed (religions claim to possess truth)possessed (religions claim to possess truth)

Plato vs. HindusPlato vs. Hindus

Plato see the state as a moral force – an Plato see the state as a moral force – an agent of virtue and a means of education.agent of virtue and a means of education.

The Hindus see the state as an agent of The Hindus see the state as an agent of discipline.discipline.

Plato believes that the wise can be trusted Plato believes that the wise can be trusted to wield power wisely.to wield power wisely.

The Hindus believe that political power will The Hindus believe that political power will corrupt the wise.corrupt the wise.

What is justice?What is justice?

The RepublicThe Republic of Plato of Plato

Polemarchus argues that justice is giving Polemarchus argues that justice is giving each man his due. each man his due.

Justice is “an eye for an eye”Justice is “an eye for an eye”

Socrates responds that it can never be Socrates responds that it can never be just, though it may be expedient, to harm just, though it may be expedient, to harm another personanother person


Thrasymachus claims that justice is “might Thrasymachus claims that justice is “might makes right.” The stronger party defines makes right.” The stronger party defines “just” as whatever is its best interest.“just” as whatever is its best interest.

Socrates responds that just as a doctor Socrates responds that just as a doctor seeks to benefit not himself, but his seeks to benefit not himself, but his patients, a ruler must seek to benefit his patients, a ruler must seek to benefit his subjects. Like the doctor, the ruler must subjects. Like the doctor, the ruler must posses the scientific knowledge proper to posses the scientific knowledge proper to his craft.his craft.


Glaucon argues that justice arises not Glaucon argues that justice arises not from moral truth, but from expedience. from moral truth, but from expedience. Justice originates in the desire of the weak Justice originates in the desire of the weak to have security against the strong. He to have security against the strong. He claims that all people will pursue their own claims that all people will pursue their own self-interests regardless of law or justice if self-interests regardless of law or justice if they have the opportunity.they have the opportunity.

He cites the myth of Gyges to support this He cites the myth of Gyges to support this social contract view of justice. social contract view of justice.


Socrates responds that the state, like an Socrates responds that the state, like an individual, is composed of reason, spirit individual, is composed of reason, spirit and desire. Justice is the right balance of and desire. Justice is the right balance of these three elements with reason over all.these three elements with reason over all.


Plato argues that Athens is in need of Plato argues that Athens is in need of drastic reform and proposes 3 waves of drastic reform and proposes 3 waves of changechange– Qualified women must be allowed to hold Qualified women must be allowed to hold

political powerpolitical power– The nuclear family and private property must The nuclear family and private property must

be abolished to raise up common interestbe abolished to raise up common interest– Philosophers should rule.Philosophers should rule.


Plato points out 3 failures of democracyPlato points out 3 failures of democracy– it failed to distinguish between freedom and it failed to distinguish between freedom and

license license – it catered to the satisfaction of desires while it catered to the satisfaction of desires while

neglecting to provide order and foster civic neglecting to provide order and foster civic dutyduty

– it was governed by mere opinion instead of by it was governed by mere opinion instead of by genuine knowledgegenuine knowledge

He then offers the parable of the ship of He then offers the parable of the ship of statestate

Plato’s FormsPlato’s Forms

Plato believed that everything on earth has Plato believed that everything on earth has eternal, perfect counterparts that exist eternal, perfect counterparts that exist independent of human reality.independent of human reality.

Something's goodness is dependent on Something's goodness is dependent on how similar it is to the perfect form.how similar it is to the perfect form.

Plato proposes a perfect city to which we Plato proposes a perfect city to which we should aspire. This city is very similar to should aspire. This city is very similar to Augustine’s City of God.Augustine’s City of God.

Raphael’s painting, “The City of Athens”

Aristotle vs. PlatoAristotle vs. PlatoAristotle was from Macedonia and wasn’t Aristotle was from Macedonia and wasn’t affected by Athens defeat in the affected by Athens defeat in the Peloponnesian War as Plato was.Peloponnesian War as Plato was.Aristotle saw his teacher live a long Aristotle saw his teacher live a long productive life where Plato saw his teacher productive life where Plato saw his teacher condemned and executed.condemned and executed.Aristotle came from the middle class Aristotle came from the middle class where Plato was an aristocrat.where Plato was an aristocrat.Aristotle was schooled in biology and Aristotle was schooled in biology and natural sciences where Plato was natural sciences where Plato was schooled math.schooled math.

Aristotle’s ResponseAristotle’s Response

Aristotle proposed the “golden mean.”Aristotle proposed the “golden mean.”

The mean is the way of moderation. Most The mean is the way of moderation. Most things have two extremes, we need the things have two extremes, we need the middle way.middle way.

On one side is cowardice, on the other On one side is cowardice, on the other side is foolhardiness. The golden mean is side is foolhardiness. The golden mean is courage. courage.

Not everything has a mean; there is no Not everything has a mean; there is no right way to commit adultery.right way to commit adultery.

Aristotle’s Response Aristotle’s Response to the First Waveto the First Wave

Aristotle argues against women as rulersAristotle argues against women as rulers

He says that nature shows us that there He says that nature shows us that there need to be both the ruler and the ruled. need to be both the ruler and the ruled.

The ruling people have reason and foresight.The ruling people have reason and foresight.

The ruled people should obey the rulersThe ruled people should obey the rulers

This is evident in nature and in societal This is evident in nature and in societal institutions such as family and institutions such as family and polispolis. .

Aristotle’s Response Aristotle’s Response to the First Waveto the First Wave

The human soul has two elements, one The human soul has two elements, one that rules (reason) and one that is ruled that rules (reason) and one that is ruled (passion).(passion).Women must not be allowed to rule since Women must not be allowed to rule since they lack rational capacity. In men, the they lack rational capacity. In men, the rational always rules but, for women, it is rational always rules but, for women, it is present but ineffective. present but ineffective. Slaves are slaves because they lack the Slaves are slaves because they lack the capacity to reason.capacity to reason.

Aristotle’s Response Aristotle’s Response to the Second Waveto the Second Wave

Aristotle says that the institutions of family Aristotle says that the institutions of family and property are rooted in nature. and property are rooted in nature. Observation shows that we take care of Observation shows that we take care of what is our own, and neglect that which is what is our own, and neglect that which is not our own. Possession brings duty and not our own. Possession brings duty and obligation.obligation.

The family is natural and promotes civic The family is natural and promotes civic virtue and mutual care among loved ones.virtue and mutual care among loved ones.

Aristotle’s Response Aristotle’s Response to the Second Waveto the Second Wave

Private property is necessary because Private property is necessary because people neglect common property but care people neglect common property but care for private propertyfor private property

Property should be possessed in Property should be possessed in moderation and put to public use when moderation and put to public use when possiblepossible

Charity is only possible under private Charity is only possible under private propertyproperty

Aristotle’s Response Aristotle’s Response to the Third Waveto the Third Wave

Aristotle believes that it is dangerous to Aristotle believes that it is dangerous to concentrate power in an elite. concentrate power in an elite.

Concentrated power will breed discontentConcentrated power will breed discontent

The middle class embodies moderation The middle class embodies moderation since they hold property and make livings. since they hold property and make livings. They will reject radical change.They will reject radical change.

Qualified rulers are then male property Qualified rulers are then male property owners who are literate.owners who are literate.

Alexander the GreatAlexander the GreatWas a student of AristotleWas a student of Aristotle

Believed thatBelieved that– all men are equalall men are equal– men should be judged by virtue rather than men should be judged by virtue rather than

race or religionrace or religion– the government should be tolerant, the government should be tolerant,

multicultural and diversemulticultural and diverse– peace and harmony would be increased by peace and harmony would be increased by

free trade and tolerant social policiesfree trade and tolerant social policies– by intermarriage men would accept each by intermarriage men would accept each

other as brothersother as brothers

The Roman RepublicThe Roman Republic

The Roman Republic was born after The Roman Republic was born after Rome’s defeat by Carthage in 216 BC Rome’s defeat by Carthage in 216 BC (70,000 Romans died in one battle). (70,000 Romans died in one battle).

The last king had been driven out of Rome The last king had been driven out of Rome in 509 BC and Romans hated the idea of in 509 BC and Romans hated the idea of lexlex. This is why the Caesar was not king.. This is why the Caesar was not king.

The Roman republic was a model of a The Roman republic was a model of a balanced constitution.balanced constitution.


The Romans believed there were three The Romans believed there were three essentials for good government:essentials for good government:– Monarchy – the need for strong leadershipMonarchy – the need for strong leadership– Aristocracy – the need for guidance by a Aristocracy – the need for guidance by a

small group of wise and experienced citizenssmall group of wise and experienced citizens– Democracy – the need for a broad base of Democracy – the need for a broad base of

popular supportpopular support


The branches of Roman government The branches of Roman government were:were:– Consuls, the executives. Two were elected Consuls, the executives. Two were elected

every year and were the generals of the every year and were the generals of the armies. Each had veto power over the other. armies. Each had veto power over the other. The senate had to approve any spending.The senate had to approve any spending.

– Senate, the aristocracy was composed of 300 Senate, the aristocracy was composed of 300 former magistrates who served for life. former magistrates who served for life. Senate controlled spending and foreign Senate controlled spending and foreign policy. The Senate could not pass laws.policy. The Senate could not pass laws.


– Magistrates, the judges, were elected directly Magistrates, the judges, were elected directly by the people. The judges sought to discover by the people. The judges sought to discover and apply law.and apply law.

– Assembly of all Roman citizens. This was the Assembly of all Roman citizens. This was the sovereign power of Rome. It was composed sovereign power of Rome. It was composed of all males who served in the military and it of all males who served in the military and it passed laws and decided all matters of war passed laws and decided all matters of war and peace. The assembly elected the and peace. The assembly elected the magistrates.magistrates.


– Tribunes were the protectors of the people. Tribunes were the protectors of the people. Every year 10 tribunes were elected. A single Every year 10 tribunes were elected. A single tribune had veto power over the Assembly, tribune had veto power over the Assembly, the Senate and the Consuls. the Senate and the Consuls.

The Romans held civic virtue high and The Romans held civic virtue high and their education system trained people to their education system trained people to be virtuous and civic minded. be virtuous and civic minded.

The Roman army was a citizen army – all The Roman army was a citizen army – all men had to serve for 16 years.men had to serve for 16 years.


The rights of a Roman citizen included:The rights of a Roman citizen included:– The right to vote and participate in politicsThe right to vote and participate in politics– Equality under the lawEquality under the law– Freedom from arbitrary arrestFreedom from arbitrary arrest– The right to trial by juryThe right to trial by jury– Freedom of speechFreedom of speech– Economic freedomEconomic freedom

You did not get freedom of religion; to be a You did not get freedom of religion; to be a Roman citizen meant to worship Rome’s Roman citizen meant to worship Rome’s gods.gods.

MachiavelliMachiavelli

Machiavelli and Plato share similarities. Machiavelli and Plato share similarities. Both Both – lived in times of political crisis and turned to lived in times of political crisis and turned to

power based solutionspower based solutions– believed in strong central leadershipbelieved in strong central leadership

Machiavelli sees the state as an Machiavelli sees the state as an instrument of force rather than of virtueinstrument of force rather than of virtueHe views human nature more like He views human nature more like Thucydides than Plato or Aristotle.Thucydides than Plato or Aristotle.

Machiavelli’s Machiavelli’s The PrinceThe Prince

He urges the Prince to act pragmatically He urges the Prince to act pragmatically and to practice vice whenever it is useful and to practice vice whenever it is useful to do so. He also says that virtue or ethics to do so. He also says that virtue or ethics need not apply in politics.need not apply in politics.

He tells the Prince that it is better to be He tells the Prince that it is better to be feared than to be loved. The Prince must feared than to be loved. The Prince must use violence and strength decisively.use violence and strength decisively.

Machiavelli’s Machiavelli’s The PrinceThe Prince

Keeping one’s word is praiseworthy but Keeping one’s word is praiseworthy but gain is more likely by using illusion and gain is more likely by using illusion and deception.deception.The Prince should study the fox and the The Prince should study the fox and the lion – cunning and strength. Often trickery lion – cunning and strength. Often trickery is preferable to brute force.is preferable to brute force.Machiavelli taught that the end always Machiavelli taught that the end always justified the means. The Princes methods justified the means. The Princes methods are always worthyare always worthy

The Divine Right of KingsThe Divine Right of Kings

The king is chosen and ordained by God. The king is chosen and ordained by God. The king rules on earth in Gods place thus The king rules on earth in Gods place thus resistance to the king is blasphemy.resistance to the king is blasphemy.

This is an old concept, from Egypt and This is an old concept, from Egypt and Mesopotamia, known by Homer, and Mesopotamia, known by Homer, and written into Roman law (for the Emperors)written into Roman law (for the Emperors)

People used Paul’s statement in Ro 13 to People used Paul’s statement in Ro 13 to back this idea. back this idea.

We are skipping the English We are skipping the English tradition and that of the tradition and that of the

Founding of America in this set Founding of America in this set of slides. We will cover it later of slides. We will cover it later

in this course.in this course.

AnarchyAnarchyEmma Goldman was an anarchist. She Emma Goldman was an anarchist. She stood for personal freedom and predicted stood for personal freedom and predicted the downfall of Soviet communism.the downfall of Soviet communism.

Anarchists reject the entire system of Anarchists reject the entire system of government as authoritarian and government as authoritarian and hierarchical. They want to overturn the hierarchical. They want to overturn the class structure.class structure.

Their main principle is resistance to Their main principle is resistance to authority because it deprives us of authority because it deprives us of freedom of expression and belief.freedom of expression and belief.

AnarchyAnarchy

The 3 main points of anarchy are as follow:The 3 main points of anarchy are as follow:

Human nature is seen as goodHuman nature is seen as good– it is flexible and dynamic and changesit is flexible and dynamic and changes– it is not innately aggressive but is cooperative it is not innately aggressive but is cooperative

such that a child can be raised so that authority such that a child can be raised so that authority is unnecessaryis unnecessary

– People want to help each other and live in People want to help each other and live in social harmonysocial harmony

AnarchyAnarchy

Freedom is the supreme valueFreedom is the supreme value– freedom and equality are tied togetherfreedom and equality are tied together– equality means equality of opportunity and equality means equality of opportunity and

economic equalityeconomic equality– Emma spent time in jail for teaching women Emma spent time in jail for teaching women

about birth control. about birth control.

AnarchyAnarchy

The relationship of the means to the end The relationship of the means to the end must be correctmust be correct– Emma criticized communism for believing that Emma criticized communism for believing that

the end justifies the meansthe end justifies the means– She asserted that any attempt to change the She asserted that any attempt to change the

human condition must make its “first ethical human condition must make its “first ethical precept the identity of means used and aims precept the identity of means used and aims sought.” sought.”

FascismFascism

Fascism derives from Machiavelli’s ideasFascism derives from Machiavelli’s ideas

Fascism is anti-intellectualFascism is anti-intellectual

It holds that all truth is a matter of opinion It holds that all truth is a matter of opinion and what counts is actionand what counts is action

The fascist worships power and believes The fascist worships power and believes that might makes rightthat might makes right

FascismFascism

Fascists view the government and the Fascists view the government and the country as the same thingcountry as the same thing

They want a strong, charismatic leaderThey want a strong, charismatic leader

They are often intolerant of other religions, They are often intolerant of other religions, ethnicities or other factorsethnicities or other factors

Fascists will do whatever seems necessary Fascists will do whatever seems necessary – be it allow freedom or remove it.– be it allow freedom or remove it.

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