the homesteading handbook : a back to basics guide to growing your own food, canning, keeping...
TRANSCRIPT
TheHomesteadingHandbook
ABacktoBasicsGuidetoGrowingYourOwnFood,Canning,KeepingChickens,GeneratingYourOwnEnergy,
Crafting,HerbalMedicine,andMore
AbigailGehring
TableofContents
TitlePageCopyrightPagePARTONE-TheHomeGardenPlanningaGardenImprovingYourSoilConservingWaterMulchinginYourGardenandYardOrganicGardeningTerracingStartYourOwnVegetableGardenStartYourOwnFlowerGardenPlantingTreesContainerGardeningRooftopGardensRaisedBedsGrowingPlantswithoutSoilPestandDiseaseManagementHarvestingYourGarden
PARTTWO-ThePantryCanningDryingandFreezingEdibleWildPlantsandMushroomsMakeYourOwnFoods
PARTTHREEChickensDucksTurkeysBeekeepingGoats
SheepLlamas
PARTFOUR-SimpleStructuresforYourLandDoghousesBirdhousesSimpleStablesPoultryHousesFences,Gates,andPensBasicBridgesToolShedsandWorkshopsSmokehousesRootCellars
PARTFIVE-EnergySolarEnergyWindEnergyHydropowerGeothermalEnergyCompostingToiletsGreywater
PARTSIX-CraftsHandmadeCandlesMakingYourOwnSoapPotteryBasicsKnittingTyingKnots
PARTSEVEN-Well-BeingHerbalMedicineFirstAid
INDEX
PARTONETheHomeGarden
“MygreenthumbcameonlyasaresultofthemistakesImadewhilelearningtoseethingsfromtheplant’spointofview.”
—H.FredAle
Creatingagarden—whetherit’sasingletomatoplantinapotonyourwindowsillorafullacrechock-fullofflowersandveggies—takesimagination,hardwork,abitofplanning,patience,andawillingnesstotakerisks.Therearesomefactorsyoucancontrol,liketheconditionofthesoilyouburyyourseedsin,thetimeofyearyoustartplanting,andwhatplantsyouputwhere.Buttherewillalwaysbesituationsyoucan’tpredict;youmightgetafrostinJune,anolddiscardedpumpkinseedmightsproutupinthemiddleofyourmagnolias,orthecatcouldknockyourbasilplantoffthecountertoitsdemiseonthekitchenfloor.Thiselementofsurpriseisoneofthejoysandchallengesofgardening.Ifyoucanlearntoskillfullynavigatethefactorsinyourcontrolandaccepttheunpredictablecircumstanceswithpatienceandasenseofhumor,you’llhavemasteredagreatlifelesson.Thefollowingpagesaremeanttohelpyouwiththatfirstpart:gainingtheknowledgeandinsightyouneedtogiveyourgardenthebestchanceofthriving.Fromunderstandingaplant’sbasicneeds,toproperlypreparingsoil,toprotectingagainstweedsandharmfulinsects,thissectioncoversallthegardeningbasics.Beyondthat,you’llfindinformationongrowingplantswithoutsoil,tipsforkeepingyourgardenorganic,andinspirationforgardeninginurbanenvironments.Thereislittleinlifeasrewardingasenjoyingasaladcomposedentirelyofthingsyou’vepickedfromyourowngarden.Butgardeningisalsoabouttheprocess:Ifyoucanlearntolovethefeelofthedirt
betweenyourfingers,theburninyourmusclesasyoudig,andthequiet,slowwayinwhichsproutsreachtowardthesun,nomomentofyourlaborwillhavebeenawaste,regardlessoftheendresults.
PlanningaGarden
BasicPlantRequirementsBeforeyoustartagarden,it’shelpfultounderstandwhatplantsneedinordertothrive.Someplants,likedandelions,aretolerantofawidevarietyofconditions,whileothers,suchasorchids,haveveryspecificrequirementsinordertogrowsuccessfully.Beforespendingtime,effort,andmoneyattemptingtogrowanewplantinagarden,todosomeresearchtolearnabouttheconditionsthataparticularplantneedsinordertogrowproperly.
Environmentalfactorsplayakeyroleinthepropergrowthofplants.Someoftheessentialfactorsthatinfluencethisnaturalprocessareasfollows:
1.LengthofDayTheamountoftimebetweensunriseandsunsetisthemostcriticalfactorinregulatingvegetativegrowth,blooming,flowerdevelopment,andtheinitiationofdormancy.Plantsutilizeincreasingdaylengthasacuetopromotetheirgrowthinspring,whiledecreasingdaylengthinfallpromptsthemtopreparefortheimpendingcoldweather.Manyplantsrequirespecificdaylengthconditionsinordertobloomandflower.
2.Light
Lightistheenergysourceforallplants.Cloudy,rainydaysoranyshadecastbynearbyplantsandstructurescansignificantlyreducetheamountoflightavailabletotheplant.Inaddition,plantsadaptedtothriveinshadyspacescannottoleratefullsunlight.Ingeneral,plantswillonlybeabletosurvivewhereadequatesunlightreachesthematlevelstheyareabletotolerate.
3.Temperature
Plantsgrowbestwithinanoptimalrangeoftemperatures.Thistemperaturerangemayvarydrasticallydependingontheplantspecies.Someplantsthrivein
environmentswherethetemperaturerangeisquitewide;otherscanonlysurvivewithinaverynarrowtemperaturevariance.Plantscanonlysurvivewheretemperaturesallowthemtocarryonlife-sustainingchemicalreactions.
Somegardensrequiremoreplanningthanothers.Flowergardenscanbecarefullyarrangedtocreatepatternsortocontainaspecificrangeofcolors,ortheycanbemorecasual,asthisgardenis.However,alwayskeepinminda
plant’sspecificenvironmentalneedsbeforechoosingaplaceforit.
Someplants,likecacti,thriveinhot,dryconditions.
4.Cold
Plantsdifferbyspeciesintheirabilitytosurvivecoldtemperatures.Temperaturesbelow60°Finjuresometropicalplants.Conversely,arcticspeciescantoleratetemperatureswellbelowzero.Theabilityofaplanttowithstandcoldisafunctionofthedegreeofdormancypresentintheplant,itswaterstatus,anditsgeneralhealth.Exposuretowind,brightsunlight,orrapidlychangingtemperaturescanalsocompromiseaplant’stolerancetothecold.
5.Heat
Aplant’sabilitytotolerateheatalsovarieswidelyfromspeciestospecies.Manyplantsthatevolvedtogrowinarid,tropicalregionsarenaturallyveryheattolerant,whilesub-arcticandalpineplantsshowverylittletoleranceforheat.
6.Water
Differenttypesofplantshavedifferentwaterneeds.Someplantscantoleratedroughtduringthesummerbutneedwinterrainsinordertoflourish.Otherplantsneedaconsistentsupplyofmoisturetogrowwell.Carefulattentiontoaplant’sneedforsupplementalwatercanhelpyoutoselectplantsthatneedaminimumofirrigationtoperformwellinyourgarden.Ifyouhavepoorlydrained,chronicallywetsoil,youcanselectlovelygardenplantsthatnaturallygrowinbogs,marshlands,andotherwetplaces.
7.SoilpH
Aplantroot’sabilitytotakeupcertainnutrientsdependsonthepH—ameasureoftheacidityoralkalinity—ofyoursoil.MostplantsgrowbestinsoilsthathaveapHbetween6.0and7.0.Mostericaceousplants,suchasazaleasandblueberries,needacidicsoilswithapHbelow6.0togrowwell.Limecanbeusedtoraisethesoil’spH,andmaterialscontainingsulfates,suchasaluminumsulfateandironsulfate,canbeusedtolowerthepH.ThesolubilityofmanytraceelementsiscontrolledbypH,andplantscanonlyusethesolubleformsoftheseimportantmicronutrients.
Feelingthesoilcangiveyouasenseofhownutrient-richitis.Dark,crumbly,softsoilisusuallyfullofnutrients.However,determiningthepHrequiresasoil
test(seepage9).
ABasicPlantGlossary
Hereissometerminologycommonlyusedinreferencetoplantsandgardening:annual—aplantthatcompletesitslifecycleinoneyearorseason.
arboretum—alandscapedspacewheretrees,shrubs,andherbaceousplantsarecultivatedforscientificstudyoreducationalpurposes,andtofosterappreciationofplants.
axil—theareabetweenaleafandthestemfromwhichtheleafarises.
bract—aleaflikestructurethatgrowsbelowaflowerorclusterofflowersandisoftencolorful.Coloredbractsattractpollinators,andareoftenmistakenforpetals.Poinsettiaandfloweringdogwoodareexamplesofplantswithprominentbracts.
coldhardy—capableofwithstandingcoldweatherconditions.
conifers—plantsthatpredatetrue,floweringplantsinevolution;coniferslacktrueflowersandproduceseparatemaleandfemalestrobili,orcones.Someconifers,suchasyews,havefruitsenclosedinafleshyseedcovering.
cultivar—acultivatedvarietyofaplantselectedforafeaturethatdistinguishesitfromthespeciesfromwhichitwasselected.
deciduous—havingleavesthatfallofforareshedseasonallytoavoidadverseweatherconditions,suchascoldordrought.
herbaceous—havinglittleornowoodytissue.Mostperennialsorannualsareherbaceous.
hybrid—aplant,orgroupofplants,thatresultsfromtheinterbreedingoftwodistinctcultivars,varieties,species,orgenera.
inflorescence—afloralaxisthatcontainsmanyindividualflowersinaspecificarrangement;alsoknownasaflowercluster.
nativeplant—aplantthatlivesorgrowsnaturallyinaparticularregionwithoutdirectorindirecthumanintervention.
panicle—apyramidal,looselybranchedflowercluster;apanicleisatypeofinflorescence.
perennial—aplantthatpersistsforseveralyears,usuallydyingbacktoaperennialcrownduringthewinterandinitiatingnewgrowtheachspringshrub—alow-growing,woodyplant,usuallylessthan15feettall,thatoftenhasmultiplestemsandmayhaveasuckeringgrowthhabit(thetendencytosproutfromtherootsystem).
taxonomy—thestudyofthegeneralprinciplesofscientificclassification,especiallytheorderlyclassificationofplantsandanimalsaccordingtotheirpresumednaturalrelationships.
tree—awoodyperennialplanthavingasingle,usuallyelongated
mainstem,ortrunk,withfewornobranchesonitslowerpart.
wildflower—aherbaceousplantthatisnativetoagivenareaandisrepresentativeofunselectedformsofitsspecies.
woodyplant—aplantwithpersistentwoodypartsthatdonotdiebackinadverseconditions.Mostwoodyplantsaretreesorshrubs.
PartsofaFlower
SelectingaSiteforYourGardenSelectingasiteforyourgardenisthefirststepingrowingthevegetables,fruits,
andherbsthatyouwant.Youdonotneedalargespaceinordertogrowasignificantamountofvegetables,fruit,andherbs.Creatingagardenthatisabout25feetsquareshouldbequitesufficientforafamily.Itisimportantthatyoudon’tstartoffwithaspacethatistoolarge—itisbettertostartsmallandthenworkyourwayupifyoufindthatgardeningissomethingthatyoutrulyenjoy.
FiveFactorstoConsiderWhenChoosingaGardenSite
1.Sunlight
Sunlightiscrucialforthegrowthofvegetablesandotherplants.Inorderforyourgardentogrow,yourplantswillneedatleastsixhoursofdirectsunlightperday.Inordertomakesureyourgardenreceivesanampleamountofsunlight,don’tselectagardensitethatwillbeintheshadeoftrees,shrubs,houses,orotherstructures.Certainvegetables,suchasbroccoliandspinach,growjustfineinshadierspots,soifyourgardendoesreceivesomeshade,makesuretoplantthosetypesofvegetablesintheshadierareas.However,onawhole,ifyourgardendoesnotreceiveatleastsixhoursofintensesunlightperday,itwillnotgrowasefficientlyorsuccessfully.
2.Proximity
Anotherconsiderationishowcloseyouplaceyourgardentoyourhome.Ifyourgardenisclosertoyourhouseandeasytoreach,youwillmostlikelyuseitmoreoften—andtoitsfullestpotential.Havingagardenclosetoyourhomewillhelpyoutopickyourvegetablesandfruitattheirpeakripeness,allowingyouaccesstoanabundanceoffreshproduceonaregularbasis.Weeding,watering,andcontrollingpestsareallmorelikelytobeattendedtoifyourgardenissituatednearyourhome.Overall,gardensplacedclosertothehomewillreceivemoreattentionandthusbehealthierandmoreproductive.
3.SoilQuality
Contrarytosomebeliefs,youdonotneedhigh-qualitysoiltostartandgrowaproductivegarden.However,itisbesttohavesoilthatisfertile,isfulloforganicmaterialsthatprovidenutrientstotheplantroots,andiseasytodigandtill.Loose,well-drainedsoilisidealforgrowingagoodgarden.Ifthereisasectionofyouryardwherewaterdoesnoteasilydrainafteragood,soakingrain,itisbestnottoplantyourgardeninthatarea,astheexcesswaterwillmost
likelydrownyourgardenplants.Furthermore,soilsthatareofaclayorsandyconsistencyarenotaseffectiveingrowingplants.Tomakethesetypesofsoilsmorenutrient-richandfertile,addinorganicmaterials(suchascompostormanure)toimprovetheirquality.
Ifyoudon’thaveenoughspaceforafullgarden,youcanplantinflowerpotsorothercontainers.Pottedplantsareespeciallyconvenientbecauseyoucanmove
themaroundtogetmorelightortomakewateringeasier.
Agardenofabout25feetsquareshouldbeadequatetoproduceenoughvegetablesforafamilyoffourtosixtoenjoy.
4.WaterAvailability
Waterisvitaltokeepingyourgardengreen,healthy,andproductive.Asuccessfulgardenneedsaround1inchofwaterperweektothrive.Rainand
irrigationsystemsareeffectiveinmaintainingthis1-inch-per-weekquota.Situatingyourgardennearaspigotorhoseisideal,allowingyoutokeepthesoilmoistandyourplantshappy.
5.Elevation
Itisessentialtomakesureyourgardenisnotlocatedinanareawhereaircannotcirculateandwherefrostquicklyforms.Placingyourgardeninalow-lyingarea,suchasatthebaseofaslope,shouldbeavoided,astheselowerareasdonotwarmasquicklyinthespring,andfrostformsquicklyduringthespringandfallsincethecoldaircollectsintheseareas.Yourgardenshould,ifatallpossible,beelevatedslightly,ongroundthatishigherup.Thisway,yourgardenplantswillbelesslikelytobeaffectedbyfrostandyou’llbeabletostartyourgardengrowingearlierinthespringandharvestwellintothefall.
SomeOtherThingstoConsider
Whenplanningoutyourgarden,itisusefultosketchadiagramofwhatyouwantyourgardentolooklike.Whatsortsofplantstoyouwanttogrow?Doyouwantagardenpurelyforgrowingvegetablesordoyouwanttomixinsomefruits,herbs,andwildflowers?Choosingtheappropriateplantstogrownexttoeachotherwillhelpyourgardengrowwellandwillprovideyouwithampleproducethroughoutthegrowingseason(seethechartsonthispage).
Gloves,atrowel,andawateringcanaresomeofthemostbasictoolsyoushouldhaveonhandforgardening.
Whenplantingagarden,besuretohaveaccesstomanytypesoftools.You’llneedaspadeordiggingforkfordiggingholesforseedsorseedlings(or,ifthe
soilislooseenough,youcanjustuseyourhands).You’llalsoneedatrowel,rake,orhoetosmoothoverthegardensurface.Ameasuringstickishelpfulwhenspacingyourplantsorseeds(ifyoudon’thaveameasuringstick,youcanuseaprecutstringtomeasure).Ifyouareplantingseedlingsorestablishedplants,youmayneedstakesandstringtotiethemup(sotheydon’tfalloverininclementweatherorwhentheystartproducingfruitorvegetables).Finally,ifyouareinterestedininstallinganirrigationsystemforyourgarden,youwillneedtobuytheappropriatematerialsforthispurpose.
CompanionPlantingPlantshavenaturalsubstancesbuiltintotheirstructuresthatrepelorattractcertaininsectsandcanhaveaneffectonthegrowthrateandeventheflavoroftheotherplantsaroundthem.Thus,someplantsaideachother’sgrowthwhenplantedincloseproximityandothersinhibiteachother.Smartcompanionplantingwillhelpyourgardenremainhealthy,beautiful,andinharmony,whiledeterringcertaininsectpestsandotherfactorsthatcouldbepotentiallydetrimentaltoyourgardenplants.
Thesechartslistvarioustypesofgardenvegetables,herbs,andflowersandtheirrespectivecompanionand“enemy”plants.
Vegetables
TypeCompanion plant(s) Avoid
Asparagus Tomatoes,parsley,basil Onion,garlic,potatoes
Beans Eggplant Tomatoes,onion,kales
Beets Mint Runnerbeans
Broccoli Onion,garlic,leeks Tomatoes,peppers,mustard
Cabbage Onion,garlic,leeks Tomatoes,peppers,beans
Carrot Leeks,beans Radish
Celery Daisies,snapdragons Corn,asterflower
Corn Legumes,squash,cucumber Tomatoes,celery
Cucumber Radishes,beets,carrots Tomatoes
Eggplant Marigolds,mint Runnerbeans
Leeks Carrots Legumes
Lettuce Radish,carrots Celery,cabbage,parsley
Melon Pumpkin,squash None
Peppers Tomatoes Beans,cabbage,kales
Onion Carrots Peas,beans
Peas Beans,corn Onion,garlic
Potato Horseradish Tomatoes,cucumber
Tomatoes Carrots,celery,parsley Corn,peas,potato,kales
Herbs
Type CompanionPlant(s) Avoid
Basil Chamomile,anise Sage
Chamomile Basil,cabbage Otherherbs(itwillbecomeoily)
Cilantro Beans,peas None
Chives Carrots Peas,beans
Dill Cabbage,cucumber Tomatoes,carrots
Fennel Dill Everythingelse
Garlic Cucumber,peas,lettuce None
Oregano Basil,peppers None
Peppermint Broccoli,cabbage None
Rosemary Sage,beans,carrots None
Sage Rosemary,beans None
Summer Onion,greenbeans None
savory
Beebalmdoeswellinpartialshade.Itsbrightcolorandsweetnectarhaveatendencytoattractbeesandhummingbirds.
Flowers
TypeCompanion Plant(s) Avoid
Geraniums Roses,tomatoes None
Marigolds Tomatoes,peppers,mostplants None
Petunias Squash,asparagus None
Sunflowers Corn,tomatoes None
Tansies Roses,cucumber,squash None
PlantsfortheShadeItisbesttosituateyourgardeninanareathatreceivesatleastsixhoursofdirectsunlightperday—especiallyifyouwanttogrowvegetablesorfruits.However,
iftheonlypartofyouryardsuitableforgardeningisblockedbypartialorfullshade(orpartofyoursunlitgardenreceivespartialshadeduringtheday),youcanstillgrowplentyofthingsintheseareas—youjustneedtoselectplantsthatgrowbestinthesetypesofenvironments.Itisagoodidea,eitherwhenbuyingseedlingsfromyourlocalnurseryorplantingyourownseeds,toreadtheaccompanyinglabelorpacketordoalittleresearchbeforeplantingtomakesureyourplantswillthriveinashadierenvironment.
Floweringplantsthatdowellinpartialandfullshade:BeebalmBleedingheartColeusDaylilyFernGlobedaisyImpatiensLilyofthevalleyPansyPersianvioletRueanemoneSweetalyssumBellflowerCardinalflowerColumbineDichondraForget-me-notGoldenbleedingheartLeopardbaneMeadowruePeriwinklePrimroseSnapdragonThyme
Vegetableplantsthatcangrowinpartialshade:ArugulaBeetsBrusselssprouts
EndiveLeaflettuceRadishSwisschardBeansBroccoliCauliflowerKalePeasSpinach
Beetslikecoolweatheranddowellinshadyareaswithrichsoil.Plantbeetsatleast1inchdeepand2inchespart.Weedregularlytoensurestrongroot
development.
ImprovingYourSoil
Whengardening,itisessentialtohavenutrient-rich,fertilesoilinordertogrowthebestandhealthiestplants—plantsthatwillsupplyyouwithqualityfruits,vegetables,andflowers.Sometimes,soillosesitsfertility(orhasminimumfertilitybasedontheregioninwhichyoulive),andsomeasuresmustbetakeninordertoimproveyoursoiland,subsequently,yourgarden.
SoilQualityIndicatorsSoilqualityisanassessmentofhowwellsoilperformsallofitsfunctionsnowandhowthosefunctionsarebeingpreservedforfutureuse.Thequalityofsoilcannotjustbedeterminedbymeasuringroworgardenyield,waterquality,oranyothersingleoutcome,norcanitbemeasureddirectly.Thus,itisimportanttolookatspecificindicatorstobetterunderstandthepropertiesofsoil.Plantscanprovideuswithcluesabouthowwellthesoilisfunctioning—whetheraplantisgrowingandproducingqualityfruitsandvegetablesorfailingtoyieldsuchthingsisagoodindicatorofthequalityofthesoilit’sgrowingin.
Indicatorsaremeasurablepropertiesofsoilorplantsthatprovidecluesabouthowwellthesoilcanfunction.Indicatorscanbephysical,chemical,andbiologicalproperties,processes,orcharacteristicsofsoils.Theycanalsobevisualfeaturesofplants.
Usefulindicatorsofsoilquality:areeasytomeasuremeasurechangesinsoilfunctionsencompasschemical,biological,andphysicalpropertiesareaccessibletomanyusersaresensitivetovariationsinclimateandmanagement
Indicatorscanbeassessedbyqualitativeorquantitativetechniques,suchassoiltests.Aftermeasurementsarecollected,theycanbeevaluatedbylookingforpatternsandcomparingresultstomeasurementstakenatadifferenttime.
Goodsoilisusuallydark,moist,anddense.
Spinachandothergreen,leafyvegetablestendtodowellinshadyareas.Justbesuretheygetenoughwater;treesorothershade-producingcanopiescanalso
blockrainfall.
Examplesofsoilqualityindicators:1. SoilOrganicMatter—promotessoilfertility,structure,stability,nutrient
retention,andhelpscombatsoilerosion.2. PhysicalIndicators—theseincludesoilstructure,depth,infiltrationand
bulkdensity,andwaterholdcapacity.Qualitysoilwillretainandtransportwaterandnutrientseffectively;itwillprovidehabitatformicrobes;itwillpromotecompactionandwatermovement;and,itwillbeporousandeasytoworkwith.
3. ChemicalIndicators—theseincludepH,electricalconductivity,and
extractablenutrients.Qualitysoilwillbeatitsthresholdforplant,microbial,biological,andchemicalactivity;itwillalsohaveplantnutrientsthatarereadilyavailable.
4. BiologicalIndicators—theseincludemicrobialbiomass,mineralizablenitrogen,andsoilrespiration.Qualitysoilisagoodrepositoryfornitrogenandotherbasicnutrientsforprosperousplantgrowth;ithasahighsoilproductivityandnitrogensupply;andthereisagoodamountofmicrobialactivity.
SoilandPlantNutrients
NutrientManagement
Thereare20nutrientsthatallplantsrequire.Sixofthemostimportantnutrients,calledmacronutrients,are:calcium,magnesium,nitrogen,phosphorous,potassium,andsulfur.Ofthese,nitrogen,phosphorus,andpotassiumareessentialtohealthyplantgrowthandsoarerequiredinrelativelylargeamounts.Nitrogenisassociatedwithlushvegetativegrowth,phosphorusisrequiredforfloweringandfruiting,andpotassiumisnecessaryfordurabilityanddiseaseresistance.Calcium,sulfur,andmagnesiumarealsorequiredincomparativelylargequantitiesandaidintheoverallhealthofplants.
Theothernutrients,referredtoasmicronutrients,arerequiredinverysmallamounts.Theseincludesuchelementsascopper,zinc,iron,andboron.Whilebothmacro-andmicronutrientsarerequiredforgoodplantgrowth,over-applicationofthesenutrientscanbeasdetrimentaltotheplantasanutrientdeficiency.Over-applicationofplantnutrientsmaynotonlyimpairplantgrowth,butmayalsocontaminategroundwaterbypenetratingthroughthesoilormaypollutesurfacewaters.
SoilTesting
TestingyoursoilfornutrientsandpHisimportantinordertoprovideyourplantswiththeproperbalanceofnutrients(whileavoidingover-application).Ifyouareestablishinganewlawnorgarden,asoiltestisstronglyrecommended.Thecostofsoiltestingisminorincomparisontothecostofplantmaterialsandlabor.Correctingaproblembeforeplantingismuchsimplerandcheaperthanafterwards.
Onceyourgardenisestablished,continuetotakeperiodicsoilsamples.Whilemanypeopleroutinelylimetheirsoil,thiscanraisethepHofthesoiltoohigh.Likewise,sincemanyfertilizerstendtolowerthesoil’spH,itmaydropbelowdesirablelevelsafterseveralyears,dependingonfertilizationandothersoilfactors,sooccasionaltestingisstronglyencouraged.
HometestsforpH,nitrogen,phosphorus,andpotassiumareavailablefrommostgardencenters.Whilethesemaygiveyouageneralideaofthenutrientsinyoursoil,theyarenotasreliableastestsperformedbytheCooperativeExtensionServiceatlandgrantuniversities.Universityandothercommercialtestingserviceswillprovidemoredetail,andyoucanrequestspecialtestsformicronutrientsifyoususpectaproblem.Inadditiontotheanalysisofnutrientsinyoursoil,theseservicesoftenproviderecommendationsfortheapplicationofnutrientsorhowbesttoadjustthepHofyoursoil.
ThetestforsoilpHisverysimple.pHisameasureofhowacidicoralkalineyoursoilis.ApHof7isconsideredneutral.Below7isacidicandabove7isalkaline.SincepHgreatlyinfluencesplantnutrients,adjustingthepHwilloftencorrectanutrientproblem.AtahighpH,severalofthemicronutrientsbecomelessavailableforplantuptake.Irondeficiencyisacommonproblem,evenataneutralpH,forsuchplantsasrhododendronsandblueberries.AtaverylowsoilpH,othermicronutrientsmaybetooavailabletotheplant,resultingintoxicity.
ThiselectronicsoiltesterrunsononeAAbatteryandgivespH,nutrient,andmoisturelevelreadingswithinminutes.
Todeterminethevariouslayersofyoursoil,calledyour“soilprofile,”acoresamplecanbetaken.Thisrequiresaboringmachine,whichwillinsertahollowcorerod,or“probe”liketheseshownhere,deepintothegroundtoextractsoil.Thelayerswillbedistinguishablebythechangeinsoilcolor.Severalcore
samplescanbemixedtogetherforamoreaccuratesoiltest.
Phosphorusandpotassiumaretestedregularlybycommercialtestinglabs.Whiletherearesoiltestsfornitrogen,thesemaybelessreliable.Nitrogenispresentinthesoilinseveralformsthatcanchangerapidly.Therefore,apreciseanalysisofnitrogenismoredifficulttoobtain.Mostuniversitysoiltestlabsdonotroutinelytestfornitrogen.Hometestingkitsoftencontainatestfornitrogenthatmaygiveyouageneral,thoughnotnecessarilycompletelyaccurate,ideaofthepresenceofnitrogeninyourgardensoil.
Organicmatterisoftenpartofasoiltest.Organicmatterhasalargeinfluenceonsoilstructureandsoishighlydesirableforyourgardensoil.Goodsoilstructureimprovesaeration,watermovement,andretention.Thisencouragesincreasedmicrobialactivityandrootgrowth,bothofwhichinfluencetheavailabilityofnutrientsforplantgrowth.Soilshighinorganicmattertendtohaveagreatersupplyofplantnutrientscomparedtomanysoilslowinorganicmatter.Organicmattertendstobindupsomesoilpesticides,reducingtheireffectiveness,andsothisshouldbetakenintoconsiderationifyouareplanningtoapplypesticidestoyourgarden.
Testsformicronutrientsareusuallynotperformedunlessthereisreasontosuspectaproblem.Certainplantshavegreaterrequirementsforspecific
micronutrientsandmayshowdeficiencysymptomsifthosenutrientsarenotreadilyavailable.(Seethechartlistingnutrientdeficiencysymptomsonpage57.)
StepsforTakingaSoilTest
1. Ifyouintendtosendyoursampletothelandgrantuniversityinyourstate,contactthelocalCooperativeExtensionServiceforinformationandsamplebags.Ifyouintendtosendyoursampletoaprivatetestinglab,contactthemforspecificdetailsaboutsubmittingasample.
2. Followthedirectionscarefullyforsubmittingthesample.Thefollowingaregeneralguidelinesfortakingasoilsample:
Samplewhenthesoilismoistbutnotwet.Obtainacleanpailorsimilarcontainer.Clearawaythesurfacelitterorgrass.Withaspadeorsoilauger,digasmallamountofsoiltoadepthof6inches.Placethesoilinthecleanpail.Repeatsteps3through5untiltherequirednumberofsampleshasbeencollected.Mixthesamplestogetherthoroughly.Fromthemixture,takethesamplethatwillbesentforanalysis.Sendimmediately.Donotdrybeforesending.
3. Ifyouareusingahomesoiltestingkit,followtheabovestepsfortakingyoursample.Followthedirectionsinthetestkitcarefullysoyoureceivethemostaccuratereadingpossible.
EnrichingYourSoil
OrganicandCommercialFertilizersandReturning
NutrientstoYourSoil
Onceyouhavetheresultsofthesoiltest,youcanaddnutrientsorsoilamendmentsasneededtoalterthepH.Ifyouneedtoraisethesoil’spH,uselime.Limeismosteffectivewhenitismixedintothesoil;therefore,itisbesttoapplybeforeplanting(ifyouapplylimeinthefall,ithasabetterchanceofcorrectinganysoilacidityproblemsforthenextgrowingseason).Forlargeareas,rototillingismosteffective.Forsmallareasoraroundplants,workingthelimeintothesoilwithaspadeorcultivatorispreferable.Whenworkingaroundplants,becarefulnottodigtoodeeplyorroughlysothatyoudamageplantroots.Dependingontheformoflimeandthesoilconditions,thechangeinpHmaybegradual.Itmaytakeseveralmonthsbeforeasignificantchangeisnoted.SoilshighinorganicmatterandclaytendtotakelargeramountsoflimetochangethepHthandosandysoils.
IfyouneedtolowerthepHsignificantly,especiallyforplantssuchasrhododendrons,youcanusealuminumsulfate.Inallcases,followthesoiltestormanufacturer’srecommendedratesofapplication.Again,mixingwellintothesoilisrecommended.
Afterrototillingormixinginthefertilizerwithaspade,youmaywishtorakeoutthesoiltomakeitsmoothandwellaerated.
Therearenumerouschoicesforprovidingnitrogen,phosphorus,andpotassium,thenutrientsyourplantsneedtothrive.Nitrogen(N)isneededforhealthy,greengrowthandregulationofothernutrients.Phosphorus(P)helpsrootsandseedsproperlydevelopandresistdisease.Potassium(K)isalsoimportantinrootdevelopmentanddiseaseresistance.Ifyoursoilisofadequatefertility,applyingcompostmaybethebestmethodofintroducingadditional
nutrients.Whilecompostisrelativelylowinnutrientscomparedtocommercialfertilizers,itisespeciallybeneficialinimprovingtheconditionofthesoilandisnontoxic.Bykeepingthesoilloose,compostallowsplantrootstogrowwellthroughoutthesoil,helpingthemtoextractnutrientsfromalargerarea.Aloosesoilenrichedwithcompostisalsoanexcellenthabitatforearthwormsandotherbeneficialsoilmicroorganismsthatareessentialforreleasingnutrientsforplantuse.Thenutrientsfromcompostarealsoreleasedslowly,sothereisnoconcernabout“burning”theplantwithanover-applicationofsyntheticfertilizer.
Manureisalsoanexcellentsourceofplantnutrientsandisanorganicmatter.Manureshouldbecompostedbeforeapplying,asfreshmanuremaybetoostrongandcaninjureplants.Becarefulwhencompostingmanure.Ifleftintheopen,exposedtorain,nutrientsmayleachoutofthemanureandtherunoffcancontaminatenearbywaterways.Makesurethemanureisstoredinalocationawayfromwellsandanywaterwaysandthatanyrunoffisconfinedorslowlyreleasedintoavegetatedarea.Improperlyappliedmanurealsocanbeasourceofpollution.Ifyouarenotcompostingyourownmanure,youcanpurchasesomeatyourlocalgardenstore.Forbestresults,workcompostedmanureintothesoilaroundtheplantsorinyourgardenbeforeplanting.
Ifpreparingabedbeforeplanting,compostandmanuremaybeworkedintothesoiltoadepthof8to12inches.Ifaddingtoexistingplants,workcarefullyaroundtheplantssoasnottoharmtheexistingroots.
Greenmanuresareanothersourceoforganicmatterandplantnutrients.Greenmanuresarecropsthataregrownandthentilledintothesoil.Astheybreakdown,nitrogenandotherplantnutrientsbecomeavailable.Thesemanuresmayalsoprovideadditionalbenefitsofreducingsoilerosion.Greenmanures,suchasryeandoats,areoftenplantedinthefallafterthecropshavebeenharvested.Inthespring,thesearetilledunderbeforeplanting.
Withallorganicsourcesofnitrogen,whethercompostormanure,thenitrogenmustbechangedtoaninorganicformbeforetheplantscanuseit.Therefore,itisimportanttohavewell-drained,aeratedsoilsthatprovidethefavorablehabitatforthesoilmicroorganismsresponsiblefortheseconversions.
Therearealsonumeroussourcesofcommercialfertilizersthatsupplynitrogen,phosphorus,andpotassium,thoughitispreferabletouseorganicfertilizers,suchascompostandmanures.However,ifyouchoosetouseacommercialfertilizer,itisimportanttoknowhowtoreadtheamountofnutrientscontainedineachbag.Thefirstnumberonthefertilizeranalysisisthe
percentageofnitrogen;thesecondnumberisphosphorus;andthethirdnumberisthepotassiumcontent.Afertilizerthathasa10-20-10analysiscontainstwiceasmuchofeachofthenutrientsasa5-10-5.Howmuchofeachnutrientyouneeddependsonyoursoiltestresultsandtheplantsyouarefertilizing.
Aswasmentionedbefore,nitrogenstimulatesvegetativegrowthwhilephosphorusstimulatesflowering.
Soil TestReading WhattoDo
Highph Yoursoilisalkaline.Tolowerph,addelementalsulfur,gypsum,orcottonseedmeal.Sulfurcantakeseveralmonthstoloweryoursoil’sph,asitmustfirstconverttosulfuricacidwiththehelpofthesoil’sbacteria.
Lowph Yoursoilistooacidic.Addlimeorwoodashes.
Lownitrogen
Addmanure,hornorhoofmeal,cottonseedmeal,fishmeal,ordriedblood.
Highnitrogen
Yoursoilmaybeover-fertilized.Waterthesoilfrequentlyanddon’taddanyfertilizer.
Lowphosphorus
Addcottonseedmeal,bonemeal,fishmeal,rockphosphate,driedblood,orwoodashes.
Highphosphorous
Yoursoilmaybeover-fertilized.Avoidaddingphosphorous-richmaterialsandgrowlotsofplantstouseuptheexcess.
Lowpotassium
Addpotash,woodashes,manure,driedseaweed,fishmeal,orcottonseedmeal.
Highpotassium
Continuetofertilizewithnitrogenandphosphorous-richsoiladditions,butavoidpotassium-richfertilizersforatleasttwoyears.
Poordrainageortoomuch
Ifyoursoilisaheavy,clay-likeconsistency,itwon’tdrainwell.Ifit’stoosandy,itwon’tabsorbnutrientsasitshould.Mixinpeatmossorcomposttoachieveabettertexture.
toomuchdrainage
Mixinpeatmossorcomposttoachieveabettertexture.
Toomuchnitrogencaninhibitfloweringandfruitproduction.Formanyflowersandvegetables,afertilizerhigherinphosphorusthannitrogenispreferred,suchasa5-10-5.Forlawns,nitrogenisusuallyrequiredingreateramounts,soafertilizerwithagreateramountofnitrogenismorebeneficial.
Forpottedplants,youcanapplyfertilizeraroundtheedgeofthepotifneeded,buttrytoavoiddirectcontactbetweentheplant’sroots,leaves,orstem,andthe
fertilizer.
FertilizerApplication
Commercialfertilizersarenormallyappliedasadry,granularmaterialormixedwithwaterandpouredontothegarden.Ifusinggranularmaterials,avoidspillingonsidewalksanddrivewaysbecausethesematerialsarewatersolubleandcancausepollutionproblemsifrinsedintostormsewers.Granularfertilizersareatypeofsalt,andifappliedtooheavily,theyhavethecapabilityofburningtheplants.Ifusingaliquidfertilizer,applydirectlytooraroundthebaseofeachplantandtrytocontainitwithinthegardenonly.
Inordertodecreasethepotentialforpollutionandtogainthegreatestbenefitsfromfertilizer,whetherit’sacommercialvariety,compost,orotherorganic
materials,applyitwhentheplantshavethegreatestneedforthenutrients.Plantsthatarenotactivelygrowingdonothaveahighrequirementfornutrients;thus,nutrientsappliedtodormantplants,orplantsgrowingslowlyduetocooltemperatures,aremorelikelytobewasted.Whilelightapplicationsofnitrogenmayberecommendedforlawnsinthefall,generally,nitrogenfertilizersshouldnotbeappliedtomostplantsinthefallinregionsofthecountrythatexperiencecoldwinters.Sincenitrogenencouragesvegetativegrowth,ifitisappliedinthefallitmayreducetheplant’sabilitytohardenproperlyforwinter.
Insomegardens,youcanreducefertilizerusebyapplyingitaroundtheindividualplantsratherthanbroadcastingitacrosstheentiregarden.Muchofthephosphorusinfertilizerbecomesunavailabletotheplantsoncespreadonthesoil.Forbetterplantuptake,applythefertilizerinabandneartheplant.Donotapplydirectlytotheplantorincontactwiththeroots,asitmayburnanddamagetheplantanditsrootsystem.
ACheapWaytoFertilize
Ifyouarelookingtosavemoneywhilestillprovidingyourlawnandgardenwithextranutrients,youcandosobysimplymowingyourlawnonaregularbasisandleavingthegrassclippingstodecomposeonthelawn,orspreadingthemaroundyourgardentodecomposeintothesoil.Annually,thiswillprovidenutrientsequivalenttooneortwofertilizerapplicationsanditisacompletelyorganicmeansofboostingasoil’snutrientcontent.
Thefertilizerinthisgardenhasonlybeenappliedtothegardenrows.
RulesofThumbforProperFertilizerUse
Itisbesttoapplyfertilizerbeforeoratthetimeofplanting.Fertilizerscaneitherbespreadoveralargeareaorconfinedtogardenrows,dependingontheconditionofyoursoilandthetypesofplantsyouwillbegrowing.Afterspreading,tillthefertilizerintothesoilabout3to4inchesdeep.Onlyspreadaboutonehalfofthefertilizerthiswayandthendispatchtherest3inchestothesidesofeachrowandalsoalittlebeloweachseedorestablishedplant.Thismethod,minusthespreader,isusedwhenapplyingfertilizertospecificrowsorplantsbyhand.
HowtoProperlyApplyFertilizertoYourGarden
Applyfertilizerwhenthesoilismoist,andthenwaterlightly.Thiswillhelpthefertilizermoveintotherootzonewhereitsnutrientsareavailabletotheplants,ratherthanstayingontopofthesoilwhereitcanbeblownorwashedaway.Watchtheweather.Avoidapplyingfertilizerimmediatelybeforeaheavyrainsystemispredictedtoarrive.Toomuchrain(orsprinklerwater)willtakethenutrientsawayfromthe
lawn’srootzoneandcouldmovethefertilizerintoanotherwatersystem,contaminatingit.Usetheminimumamountoffertilizernecessaryandapplyitinsmall,frequentapplications.Anapplicationoftwopoundsoffertilizer,fivetimesperyear,isbetterthanfivepoundsoffertilizertwiceayear.Ifyouarespreadingthefertilizerbyhandinyourgarden,weargardeningglovesandbesurenottodamagetheplantorrootsaroundwhichyouarefertilizing.
CompostinginYourBackyardCompostingisnature’sownwayofrecyclingyardandhouseholdwastesbyconvertingthemintovaluablefertilizer,soilorganicmatter,andasourceofplantnutrients.Theresultofthiscontrolleddecompositionoforganicmatter—adark,crumbly,earthy-smellingmaterial—workswondersonallkindsofsoilbyprovidingvitalnutrientsandcontributingtogoodaerationandmoisture-holdingcapacity,tohelpplantsgrowandlookbetter.
Compostingcanbeassimpleorasinvolvedasyouwouldlike,dependingonhowmuchyardwasteyouhave,howfastyouwantresults,andtheeffortyouarewillingtoinvest.Sinceallorganicmattereventuallydecomposes,compostingspeedsuptheprocessbyprovidinganidealenvironmentforbacteriaandotherdecomposingmicroorganisms.Thecompostingseasoncoincideswiththegrowingseason,whenconditionsarefavorableforplantgrowth,sothosesameconditionsworkwellforbiologicalactivityinthecompostpile.However,sincecompostgeneratesheat,theprocessmaycontinuelaterintothefallorwinter.Thefinalproduct—calledhumusorcompost—looksandfeelslikefertilegardensoil.
CommonCompostingMaterials
Cardboard
Coffeegrounds
Corncobs
Cornstalks
Foodscraps
Grassclippings
Hedgetrimmings
Livestockmanure
Newspapers
Plantstalks
Pineneedles
Oldpottingsoil
Sawdust
Seaweed
Shreddedpaper
Straw
Teabags
Telephonebooks
Treeleavesandtwigs
Vegetablescraps
Weedswithoutseedheads
Woodchips
Woodybrush
Avoidusing:
Breadandgrains
Cookingoil
Dairyproducts
Deadanimals
Diseasedplantmaterial
Dogorcatmanure
Greaseoroilyfoods
Meatorfishscraps
Noxiousorinvasiveweeds
Weedswithseedheads
CompostPreparation
Whileamultitudeoforganisms,fungi,andbacteriaisinvolvedintheoverallprocess,therearefourbasicingredientsforcomposting:nitrogen,carbon,water,andair.
Awiderangeofmaterialsmaybecompostedbecauseanythingthatwasoncealivewillnaturallydecompose.Thestartingmaterialsforcomposting,commonlyreferredtoasfeedstocks,includeleaves,grassclippings,straw,vegetableandfruitscraps,coffeegrounds,livestockmanure,sawdust,andshreddedpaper.However,somematerialsthatshouldalwaysbeavoidedincludediseasedplants,deadanimals,noxiousweeds,meatscrapsthatmayattractanimals,anddogorcatmanure,whichcancarrydisease.Sinceaddingkitchenwastestocompostmayattractfliesandinsects,makeaholeinthecenterofyourpileandburythewaste.
Mostofyourhouseholdfoodwastecanbecomposted.Avoidcompostingmeatscraps,dairyproducts,grains,orverygreasyfoods.
Thecalciumineggshellsencouragescellgrowthinplants.Youcanevenmixcrushedeggshellsdirectlyintothesoilaroundtomatoes,zucchini,squash,andpepperstopreventblossomendrot.Eggshellsalsohelpdeterslugs,snails,and
cutworm.
Forbestresults,youwillwantanevenratioofgreen,orwet,material,which
ishighinnitrogen,andbrown,ordry,material,whichishighincarbon.Simplylayerormixlandscapetrimmingsandgrassclippings,forexample,withdriedleavesandtwigsinapileorenclosure.Ifthereisnotagoodsupplyofnitrogen-richmaterial,ahandfulofgenerallawnfertilizerorbarnyardmanurewillhelpevenouttheratio.
Thoughrainprovidesthemoisture,youmayneedtowaterthepileindryweatherorcoveritinextremelywetweather.Themicroorganismsinthecompostpilefunctionbestwhenthematerialsareasdampasawrung-outsponge—notsaturatedwithwater.Amoisturecontentof40to60percentispreferable.Totestforadequatemoisture,reachintoyourcompostpile,grabahandfulofmaterial,andsqueezeit.Ifafewdropsofwatercomeout,itprobablyhasenoughmoisture.Ifitdoesn’t,addwaterbyputtingahoseintothepilesothatyouaren’tjustwettingthetop,or,betteryet,waterthepileasyouturnit.
Airistheonlypartthatcannotbeaddedinexcess.Forproperaeration,you’llneedtopunchholesinthepilesoithasmanyairpassages.Theairinthepileisusuallyusedupfasterthanthemoisture,andextremesofsunorraincanadverselyaffectthisbalance,sothematerialsmustbeturnedormixedupoftenwithapitchfork,rake,orothergardentooltoaddairthatwillsustainhightemperatures,controlodor,andyieldfasterdecomposition.
Overtime,you’llseethatthemicroorganisms,whicharesmallformsofplantandanimallife,willbreakdowntheorganicmaterial.Bacteriaarethefirsttobreakdownplanttissueandarethemostnumerousandeffectivecompostmakersinyourcompostpile.Fungiandprotozoanssoonjointhebacteriaand,laterinthecycle,centipedes,millipedes,beetles,sowbugs,nematodes,worms,andnumerousotherscompletethecompostingprocess.Withtherightingredientsandfavorableweatherconditions,youcanhaveafinishedcompostpileinafewweeks.
HowtoMakeYourOwnBackyardCompostingHeap1. Choosealevel,well-drainedsite,preferablynearyourgarden.2. Decidewhetheryouwillbeusingabinaftercheckingonanylocalorstate
regulationsforcompostinginurbanareas,assomecommunitiesrequirerodent-proofbins.Therearenumerousstylesofcompostbinsavailable,dependingonyourneeds,rangingfromamoveablebinformedbywiremeshtoamoresubstantialwoodenstructureconsistingofseveralcompartments.Youcanalsoeasilymakeyourownbinusingchickenwireorscrapwood.Whileabinwillhelpcontainthepile,itisnotabsolutely
necessary,asyoucanbuildyourpiledirectlyontheground.Tohelpwithaeration,youmaywanttoplacesomewoodymaterialonthegroundwhereyouwillbuildyourpile.
3. Ensurethatyourpilewillhaveaminimumdimensionof3feetallaround,butisnotallerthan5feet,asnotenoughairwillreachthemicroorganismsatthecenterifitistootall.Ifyoudon’thavethisamountatonetime,simplystockpileyourmaterialsuntilasufficientquantityisavailableforpropermixing.Whencompostingiscompleted,thetotalvolumeoftheoriginalmaterialsisusuallyreducedby30to50percent.
4. Buildyourpilebyusingeitheralternatingequallayersofhigh-carbonandhigh-nitrogenmaterialorbymixingequalpartsofbothtogetherandthenheapingitintoapile.Ifyouchoosetoalternatelayers,makeeachlayer2to4inchesthick.Somecompostersfindthatmixingthetwotogetherismoreeffectivethanlayering.Addingafewshovelsofsoilwillalsohelpgetthepileofftoagoodstartbecausesoiladdscommonlyfound,decomposingorganismstoyourcompost.
Asyourcompostbeginstobreakdown,youmaynoticegasesescapingfromthepile.
Anylargebucketcanbeturnedintoacompostbarrel.Youcancutoutapieceofthebarrelforeasyaccesstothecompost,asshownhere,orsimplyaccessthecompostthroughthelid.Drillingholesinthesidesandlidsofthebucketwillincreaseaircirculationandspeeduptheprocess.Leaveyourbucketinthesunandshakeit,rollit,orstirthecontentsregularly.
5. Keepthepilemoistbutnotwet.Soggypilesencouragethegrowthoforganismsthatcanlivewithoutoxygenandcauseunpleasantodors.
6. Punchholesinthesidesofthepileforaeration.Thepilewillheatupandthenbegintocool.Themostefficientdecomposingbacteriathriveintemperaturesbetween110and160°F.Youcantrackthiswithacompostthermometer,oryoucansimplyreachintothepiletodetermineifitisuncomfortablyhottothetouch.Atthesetemperatures,thepilekillsmostweedseedsandplantdiseases.However,studieshaveshownthatcompostproducedatthesetemperatureshaslessabilitytosuppressdiseasesinthesoil,sincethesetemperaturesmaykillsomeofthebeneficialbacterianecessarytosuppressdisease.
8.Checkyourbinregularlyduringthecompostingseasontoassureoptimummoistureandaerationarepresentinthematerialbeingcomposted.
9.Movematerialsfromthecentertotheoutsideofthepileandviceversa.Turneverydayortwoandyoushouldgetcompostinlessthanfourweeks.Turningeveryotherweekwillmakecompostinonetothreemonths.Finishedcompostwillsmellsweetandbecoolandcrumblytothetouch.
OtherTypesofComposting
ColdorSlowComposting
Coldcompostingallowsyoutojustpileorganicmaterialonthegroundorinabin.Thismethodrequiresnomaintenance,butitwilltakeseveralmonthstoayearormoreforthepiletodecompose,thoughtheprocessisfasterinwarmerclimatesthanincoolerareas.Coldcompostingworkswellifyouareshortontimeneededtotendtothecompostpileatleasteveryotherday,havelittleyardwaste,andarenotinahurrytousethecompost.
Grassclippings,weeds,andotherplantdebriscanallbeaddedtoyourcompostpile.
Forthismethod,addyardwasteasitaccumulates.Tospeeduptheprocess,shredorchopthematerialsbyrunningoversmallpilesoftrimmingswithyourlawnmower,becausethemoresurfaceareathemicroorganismshavetofeedon,thefasterthematerialswillbreakdown.
Coldcompostinghasbeenshowntobebetteratsuppressingsoil-bornediseasesthanhotcompostingandalsoleavesmorenon-decomposedbitsofmaterial,whichcanbescreenedoutifdesired.However,becauseofthelowtemperaturesachievedduringdecomposition,weedseedsanddisease-causingorganismsmaynotbedestroyed.
Vermicomposting
Vermicompostinguseswormstocompost.Thistakesupverylittlespaceandcanbedoneyear-roundinabasementorgarage.Itisanexcellentwaytodisposeofkitchenwastes.
Here’showtomakeyourownvermicompostingpile:1. Obtainaplasticstoragebin.Onebinmeasuring1footby2feetby3½feet
willbeenoughtomeettheneedsofafamilyofsix.2. Drill8to10holesabout¼inchindiameterinthebottomofthebinfor
drainage.3. Linethebottomofthebinwithafinenylonmeshtokeepthewormsfrom
escaping.4. Putatrayunderneathtocatchthedrainage.5. Ripnewspaperintopiecestouseasbeddingandpourwateroverthestrips
untiltheyarethoroughlymoist.Placetheseshreddedbitsononesideofyourbin.Donotletthemdryout.
6. Addwormstoyourbin.It’sbesttohaveabouttwopoundsofworms(roughly2,000worms)peronepoundoffoodwaste.Youmaywanttostartwithlessfoodwasteandincreasetheamountasyourwormpopulationgrows.Redwormsarerecommendedforbestcomposting,butotherspeciescanbeused.Redwormsarethecommon,smallwormsfoundinmostgardensandlawns.Youcancollectthemfromunderapileofmulchororderthemfromagardencatalog.
Wormswillfilteryourorganicwastethroughtheirsystemsandturnitintonutrient-richhumus.
7. Providewormswithfoodwastessuchasvegetablepeelings.Donotaddfatormeatproducts.Limittheirfeed,astoomuchatoncemaycausethematerialtorot.
8. Keepthebininadarklocationawayfromextremetemperatures.9. Waitaboutthreemonthsandyou’llseethatthewormshavechangedthe
beddingandfoodwastesintocompost.Atthistime,openyourbininabrightlightandthewormswillburrowintothebedding.Addfreshbeddingandmorefoodtotheothersideofthebin.Thewormsshouldmigratetothe
newfoodsupply.10. Scoopoutthefinishedcompostandapplytoyourplantsorsavetousein
thespring.
UsesforCompost
Compostcontainsnutrients,butitisnotasubstituteforfertilizers.Compostholdsnutrientsinthesoiluntilplantscanusethem,loosensandaeratesclaysoils,andretainswaterinsandysoils.
Touseasasoilamendment,mix2to5inchesofcompostintovegetableandflowergardenseachyearbeforeplanting.Inapottingmixture,addonepartcomposttotwopartscommercialpottingsoil,ormakeyourownmixturebyusingequalpartsofcompostandsand,orPerlite.
Asamulch,spreadaninchortwoofcompostaroundannualflowersandvegetables,andupto6inchesaroundtreesandshrubs.Studieshaveshownthatcompostusedasmulch,ormixedwiththetop1-inchlayerofsoil,canhelppreventsomeplantdiseases,includingsomeofthosethatcausedampingofseedlings.
Asatopdressing,mixfinelysiftedcompostwithsandandsprinkleevenlyoverlawns.
CommonProblemsCompostingisnotanexactscience.Experiencewilltellyouwhatworksbestforyou.Ifyounoticethatnothingishappening,youmayneedtoaddmorenitrogen,water,orair,chiporgrindthematerials,oradjustthesizeofthepile.
Ifthepileistoohot,youprobablyhavetoomuchnitrogenandneedtoaddadditionalcarbonmaterialstoreducetheheating.
Abadsmellmayindicatenotenoughairortoomuchmoisture.Simplyturnthepileoradddrymaterialstothewetpiletogetridoftheodor.
PlantingYourGarden
Onceyou’vechosenaspotforyourgarden(aswellasthesizeyouwanttomakeyourgardenbed),andpreparedthesoilwithcompostorotherfertilizer,it’stimetostartplanting.Seedsareveryinexpensiveatyourlocalgardencenter,oryoucanbrowsethroughseedcatalogsandorderseedsthatwilldowellinyourarea.Alternately,youcanstartwithbeddingplants(orseedlings)availableatnurseriesandgardencenters.
Readtheinstructionsonthebackoftheseedpackageorontheplastictaginyourplantpot.Youmayhavetoaskexpertswhentoplanttheseedsifthisinformationisnotstatedonthebackofthepackage.Someseeds(suchastomatoes)shouldbestartedindoors,insmallpotsorseedtrays,beforethelastfrost,andonlytransplantedoutdoorswhentheweatherwarmsup.Forestablishedplantsorseedlings,besuretoplantasdirectedontheplanttagorconsultyourlocalnurseryaboutthebestplantingtimes.
Someplugsarebiodegradablesothatyoucaninsertthemdirectlyintothegardenbed,ratherthanhavingtotransplantthem.
Seedlings
Ifyouliveinacoolerregionwithashortergrowingperiod,youwillwantto
startsomeofyourplantsindoors.Todothis,obtainplugflats(traysseparatedintomanysmallcupsor“cells”)ormakeyourownsmallplantersbypokingholesinthebottomofpapercups.Fillthecupstwo-thirdsfullwithpottingsoilorcompostedsoil.Burytheseedattherecommendeddepth,accordingtotheinstructionsonthepackage.Tampdownthesoillightlyandwater.Keeptheseedlingsinawarm,well-litplace,suchasthekitchen,toencouragegermination.
Oncetheweatherbeginstowarmupandyouarefairlycertainyouwon’tbegettinganymorefrosts(youcancontactyourlocalextensionofficetofindoutthelast“frostfree”dateforyourarea)youcanbegintoacclimateyourseedlingstothegreatoutdoors.Firstplacetheminapartiallyshadyspotoutdoorsthatisprotectedfromstrongwind.Afteracoupleofdays,movethemintodirectsunlight,andthenfinallytransplantthemtothegarden.
Seedscanbesproutedandeatenonsandwiches,salads,orstirfriesanytimeoftheyear.Theyaredeliciousandfullofvitaminsandproteins.Mungbean,soybean,alfalfa,wheat,corn,barley,mustard,clover,chickpeas,radish,andlentilsallmakegoodsprouts.Findseedsforsproutingfromyourlocalhealthfoodstoreorusedriedpeas,beans,orlentilsfromthegrocerystore.Neveruseseedsintendedforplantingunlessyou’veharvestedtheseedsyourself—commerciallyavailableplantingseedsareoftentreatedwithapoisonouschemicalfungicide.
Togrowsprouts,thoroughlyrinseandstraintheseeds,thensoakovernightincoolwater.You’llneedaboutfourtimesasmuchwaterasyouhaveseeds.Draintheseedsandplacetheminawide-mouthedbowloronacookiesheetwithalip.Sprinklewithwatertokeeptheseedsslightlydamp.Youmaywishtoplacetheseedsonadamppapertoweltobetterholdinthemoisture.Keeptheseedsat60to80°Fandrinsetwiceaday,returningthemtotheirbowlortrayafter.Oncesproutsare1to1½incheslong(generallyafter3to5days),theyarereadytoeat.
Radishsproutsaredeliciousontheirownorinsandwichesorsalads
Recommendedplantstostartasseedlings
Youcangrowseedlingsinanywood,metal,orplasticcontainerthatisatleast3inchesdeep.Eggcartonsworkverywellifyoudon’thaveaccesstoregularplug
flats.Justpunchholesinthebottomfordrainage.
HowtoBestWaterYourSoilAfteryourseedsorseedlingsareplanted,thenextstepistowateryoursoil.Differentsoiltypeshavedifferentwateringneeds.Youdon’tneedtobeasoilscientisttoknowhowtowateryoursoilproperly.Herearesometipsthatcanhelptomakeyoursoilmoistandprimedforgardening:1. Loosenthesoilaroundplantssowaterandnutrientscanbequickly
absorbed.2. Usea1-to2-inchprotectivelayerofmulchonthesoilsurfaceabovethe
rootarea.Cultivatingandmulchinghelpreduceevaporationandsoilerosion.
3. Wateryourplantsattheappropriatetimeofday.Earlymorningornightisthebesttimeforwatering,asevaporationislesslikelytooccuratthesetimes.Donotwateryourplantswhenitisextremelywindyoutside.Windwillpreventthewaterfromreachingthesoilwhereyouwantittogo.
Agentlespraywillsoakintothesoilwithoutdamagingtheplants.Thethinlayerofmulchwillhelptokeepthewaterfromevaporatingtooquickly.
Agoodold-fashionedwateringcanisgreatforsmallgardensandpottedplants.
TypesofSoilandTheirWaterRetention
Knowingthetypeofsoilyouareplantinginwillhelpyoubestunderstandhowtoproperlywaterandgrowyourgardenplants.Threecommontypesofsoilandtheirvariousabilitiestoabsorbwaterarelistedbelow:
Claysoil:Inordertomakethistypeofsoilmoreloamy,addorganicmaterials,suchascompost,peatmoss,andwell-rottedleaves,inthespringbeforegrowingandalsointhefallafterharvestingyourvegetablesandfruits.Addingtheseorganicmaterialsallowsthistypeofsoiltoholdmorenutrientsforhealthyplantgrowth.Tillorspadetohelploosenthesoil.
Sinceclaysoilabsorbswaterveryslowly,wateronlyasfastasthesoilcanabsorbthewater.
Sandysoil:Aswithclaysoil,addingorganicmaterialsinthespringandfallwillhelpsupplementthesandysoilandpromotebetterplantgrowthandwaterabsorption.
Leftonitsown(withnoaddedorganicmatter)thewaterwillrunthroughsandysoilsoquicklythatplantswon’tbeabletoabsorbitthroughtheirrootsandwillfailtogrowandthrive.
Loamsoil:Thisisthebestkindofsoilforgardening.It’sacombinationofsand,silt,andclay.Loamysoilisfertile,deep,easilycrumbles,andismadeupoforganicmatter.Itwillhelppromotethegrowthofqualityfruitsandvegetables,aswellasflowersandotherplants.
Loamabsorbswaterreadilyandstoresitforplantstouse.Waterasfrequentlyasthesoilneedstomaintainitsmoistureandtopromoteplantgrowth.
Sandysoilisusuallylighterincolorandwon’teasilyclumptogetherinyourhands.Itneedsorganicmatterandplentyofwater
tobesuitableforgrowing.
ConservingWater
Wiseuseofwaterforhydratingyourgardenandlawnnotonlyhelpsprotecttheenvironment,butsavesmoneyandalsoprovidesoptimumgrowingconditionsforyourplants.Therearesimplewaysofreducingtheamountofwaterusedforirrigation,suchasgrowingxeriphyticspecies(plantsthatareadaptedtodryconditions),mulching,addingwater-retainingorganicmattertothesoil,andinstallingwindbreaksandfencestoslowwindsandreduceevapotranspiration.
Youcanconservewaterbywateringyourplantsandlawnintheearlymorning,beforethesunistoointense.Thishelpsreducetheamountofwaterlostduetoevaporation.Furthermore,installingrainguttersandcollectingwaterfromdownspouts—incollectionbinssuchasrainbarrels—alsohelpsreducewateruse.
HowPlantsUseWaterWaterisacriticalcomponentofphotosynthesis,theprocessbywhichplantsmanufacturetheirownfoodfromcarbondioxideandwaterinthepresenceoflight.Waterisoneofthemanyfactorsthatcanlimitplantgrowth.Otherimportantfactorsincludenutrients,temperature,andamountanddurationofsunlight.
Plantstakeincarbondioxidethroughtheirstomata—microscopicopeningsontheundersidesoftheleaves.Thestomataarealsotheplacewherewaterislost,inaprocesscalledtranspiration.Transpiration,alongwithevaporationfromthesoil’ssurface,accountsformostofthemoisturelostfromthesoilandsubsequentlyfromtheplants.
Whenthereisalackofwaterintheplanttissue,thestomataclosetotrytolimitexcessivewaterloss.Ifthetissueslosetoomuchwater,theplantwillwilt.Plantsadaptedtodryconditionshavedevelopedcertaincharacteristicsthatsupportnumerousmechanismsforreducingwaterloss—theytypicallyhavenarrow,hairyleavesandthick,fleshystemsandleaves.Pines,hemlocks,andjunipersarealsowell-adaptedtosurviveextendedperiodsofdryconditions—anenvironmentalfactortheyencountereachwinterwhenthefrozensoilprevents
theuptakeofwater.Cacti,whichhavethickstemsandleavesreducedtospines,arethebestexampleofplantswell-adaptedtoextremelydryenvironments.
Evenverydryareascanbemadeattractivewithtastefulplacementofgrasses,yarrow,andsimilarplants.
Heathflowersarewell-adaptedtodryenvironmentsandmakeaveryattractivegroundcover.
ChoosingPlantsforLowWaterUseYouarenotlimitedtocacti,succulents,ornarrow-leafedevergreenswhen
selectingplantsadaptedtolowwaterrequirements.Manyplantsgrowinginhumidenvironmentsarewell-adaptedtolowlevelsofsoilmoisture.Numerousplantsfoundgrowingincoastalormountainousregionshavedevelopedmechanismsfordealingwithextremelysandy,excessivelywell-drainedsoilsorrocky,coldsoilsinwhichmoistureislimitedformonthsatatime.Tryalfalfa,aloe,artichokes,asparagus,bluehibiscus,chives,columbine,eucalyptus,garlic,germander,lamb’sear,lavender,ornamentalgrasses,prairieturnip,rosemary,sage,sedum,shrubroses,thyme,yarrow,yucca,andverbena.
InstallingIrrigationSystemsAnirrigationsystemcanbeeasytoinstall,andtherearemanydifferentproductsavailableforhomeirrigationsystems.Thesimplestsystemconsistsofasoakerhosethatislaidoutaroundtheplantsandconnectedtoanoutdoorspigot.Noinstallationisrequired,andthehosecanbemovedasneededtowatertheentiregarden.
Aslightlymoresophisticatedsystemisaslottedpipesystem.Herearethestepsneededinordertoinstallthistypeofirrigationsysteminyourgarden:1. Sketchthelayoutofyourgardensoyouknowwhatmaterialsyouwillneed.
Ifyouintendtowateravegetablegarden,youmaywantonepipenexttoeveryroworonepipebetweeneverytworows.
2. Dependingonthelayoutandtypeofgarden,purchasetherequiredlengthsofpipe.Youwillneedalengthofsolidpipeforthewidthofyourgarden,andperforatedpipesthatarethelengthofyourlateralrows(andremembertobuyonepipeforeachrowortwo).
3. Measurethedistancesbetweenrowsandcutthesolidpipetotheproperlengths.
4. PlaceT-connectorsbetweenthepiecesofsolidpipe.5. Intheapproximatecenterofthesolidpipe,placeaT-connectortowhicha
hoseconnectorwillbefitted.
Aslottedpipeirrigationsystem.
TrickleIrrigationSystems
Trickleirrigationanddripirrigationsystemshelpreducewateruseandsuccessfullymeettheneedsofmostplants.Withthesesystems,verysmallamountsofwateraresuppliedtothebasesoftheplants.Sincethewaterisapplieddirectlytothesoil—ratherthanontotheplant—evaporationfromtheleafsurfacesisreduced,thusallowingmorewatertoeffectivelyreachtheroots.Inthesetypesofsystems,thewaterisnotwastedbybeingspreadalloverthegarden;rather,itisapplieddirectlytotheappropriatesource.
Asimpletrickleirrigationsystem.
6. Cuttheperforatedpipetothelengthoftherows.7. AttachtheperforatedpipestotheT-connectorssothattheperforationsare
facingdownward.Captheendofthepipe.8. Connectagardenhosetothehoseconnectoronthesolidpipe.Adjustthe
pressureofthewaterflowingfromthespigotuntilthewaterslowlyemergesfromeachoftheperforatedpipes.
RainBarrelsAnotherveryefficientandeasywaytoconservewater—andsavemoney—istobuyormakeyourownrainbarrel.Arainbarrelisalargebinthatisplacedbeneathadownspoutandthatcollectsrainwaterrunofffromaroof.Thewatercollectedintherainbarrelcanthenberoutedthroughagardenhoseandusedto
wateryourgardenandlawn.
Rainbarrelscanbepurchasedfromspecialtyhomeandgardenstores,butasimplerainbarrelisalsoquiteeasytomake.Herearesimpleinstructionsonhowtomakeyourownrainbarrel.
Instructions1. Obtainasuitableplasticbarrel,alargeplastictrashcanwithalid,ora
woodenbarrel(e.g.,awinebarrel)thathasnotbeenstoreddryfortoomanyseasons,sinceitcanstarttoleak.Goodplacestofindplasticbarrelsincludesuppliersofdairyproducts,metalplatingcompanies,andbulkfoodsuppliers.Justbesurethatnothingtoxicorharmfultoplantsandanimals(includingyou!)wasstoredinthebarrel.Awinebarrelcanbeobtainedthroughawinery.Barrelsthatallowlesslighttopenetratethroughwilleliminatetheriskofalgaegrowthandtheestablishmentofothermicroorganisms.
2. Onceyouhaveyourbarrel,findalocationforitunderornearoneofyourhome’sdownspouts.Inorderforthebarreltofit,youwillprobablyneedtoshortenthedownspoutbyafewfeet.Youcandothisbyremovingthescrewsorrivetslocatedatajointofthedownspout,orbysimplycuttingoffthelastfewfeetwithahacksaworothercutter.Ifyourbarrelwillnotbeabletofitunderneaththedownspout,youcanpurchaseaflexibledownspoutatyourlocalhomeimprovementstore.Theseflexibletubeswilldirectthewaterfromthedownspoutintothebarrel.Analternative,andaestheticallyappealing,optionistousearainchain—alarge,metalchainthatwatercanrundown.
3. Createalevel,stableplatformforyourrainbarreltositonbyrakingthedirtunderthespout,addinggraveltosmoothoutlawnbumps,orusingbricksorconcreteblockstomakealowplatform.Keepinmindthatabarrelfullofwaterisveryheavy,soifyoudecidetobuildaplatform,makesureitissturdyenoughtoholdsuchheavyweight.
4. Ifyourbarrelhasasolidtop,you’llneedtomakeagood-sizedholeinitforthedownspouttopourinto.Youcandothisusingahole-cuttingattachmentonapowerdrillorbydrillingaseriesofsmallerholesclosetogetherandthencuttingouttheremainingmaterialwithahacksawbladeorascrollsaw.
5. Mosquitoesaredrawntostandingwater,sotoreducetheriskofbreedingtheseinsects,andtoalsokeepdebrisfromenteringthebarrel,fastenapieceofwindowscreentotheundersideofthetopsoitcoverstheentirehole.
6. Next,drillaholesothehosebibyou’llattachtothesideofthebarrelfitssnugly.Placethehosebibasclosetothebottomofthebarrelaspossible,soyou’llbeabletogainaccesstothemaximumamountofwaterinthebarrel.Attachthehosebibusingscrewsdrivenintothebarrel.You’llprobablyneedtoapplysomecaulking,plumber’sputty,orsiliconsealantaroundthejointbetweenthebarrelandthehosebibtopreventleaks,dependingonthetypeofhardwareyou’reusingandhowsnugitfitsintheholeyoudrilled.
7. Attachasecondhosebibtothesideofthebarrelnearthetop,toactasanoverflowdrain.Attachashortpieceofgardenhosetothishosebibandrouteittoaflowerbed,lawn,oranothernearbyareathatwon’tbedamagedbysomerunningwaterifyourbarrelgetstoofull(or,ifyouwanttohaveasecondrainbarrelforexcesswater,youcanattachittoanotherhosebibonasecondbarrel.Ifyouarechainingmultiplebarrelstogether,oneofthemshouldhaveahoseattachedtodrainofftheoverflow.
8. Attachagardenhosetothelowerhosebibandopenthevalvetoallowcollectedrainwatertoflowtoyourplants.Thelowerbibcanalsobeusedtoconnectmultiplerainbarrelstogetherforalargerwaterreservoir.
9. Considerusingadripirrigationsysteminconjunctionwiththerainbarrels.Rainbarrelsdon’tachieveanythingnearthepressureofcitywatersupplies,soyouwon’tbeabletousemicrosprinklerattachments,andyouwillneedtousebuttonattachmentsthatareintendedtodeliverfourtimestheamountofcity-suppliedwateryouneed.
10. Now,waitforaheavydownpourandstartenjoyingyourrainbarrel!
Rainbarrelscanbemadefromanylargebucket.Itisespeciallyconvenienttohaveaspigotcomingfromthebottomofthebucketsoyoucanfillsmaller
containerswithwaterasneeded.
MaryMaddoxandherhusbandandchildrenmaintainafullvegetablegardenandraisechickens,ducks,turkeys,andagooseonlessthanhalfanacreofland.Theydescribetheirexperiencesandsharetipsontheirblog,“TheYardstead,”
www.yardstead.com.
Myhusband,children,andIliveinasmalltowninNorthFlorida.Likemostofourneighborsweliveonalittlelessthan½acrelot.Wedreamofbecominghomesteaderson10to15acresbutuntilthatdreambecomesreality,wedowhatwecanonoursmallplot.Wecurrentlymaintaina30ft.x30ft.vegetablegarden,andkeepchickens,ducks,turkeys,andagoose.Thesebirdsonlyrequire3-4sq.ft.perbirdandareeasytocareforinanappropriatesizepen.
Wekeepbetween10and20chickensmostofthetimeina72sq.ft.pen,withanadjoining200sq.ft.penforafewducks,turkeys,andagoose.Wesupplyourfamily,friends,andneighborswithfresheggsyearroundandputafewchickensinthefreezeraswell.Werecentlyweregivenaroosterbyoneofourneighborsandourhenshavehatchedtheirfirstbabiesthisspring.
Wetrytokeepsomethinggrowinginthegardenallyearround.Eachyearweareabletogrowenoughsquashandzucchinitoeatfreshallspringandsummerandputenoughupinthefreezertolastthroughthewinter.Wealsogrowenoughonionsandgarlicmostyearstomeetallourneedsandsharewithourfriendsandfamily.Wedabbleinothervegetablesandgrowavarietyofgourdsonourfencelineeachyear.
Wehavelandscapedtheyardwithmostlyedibleplantsandtrees.Ourbackyardshadeisprovidedbyapecan,mulberry,persimmon,andothertrees.Wehavechosensomenativeshrubs,likethepineappleguava,thatalsoproducesedibleflowersandfruit.Wekeepseveraldwarfcitrusaspottedplantsthatcanbemovedinandoutofthehousedependingonourwintertemperatureseachyear.Lastfallweplantedafewsmallcanesofsugarcane.Theseclumpsofsugarcanewillbemostlyforourchildrentoenjoyinlatesummereachyear.
Wetrytogardenandcareforouranimalsandyardwithanemphasisonpermacultureandwefolloworganicpracticesasmuchaspossible.Alloftheyardwasteandfoodwasteweproducegofirsttothechickensandotherbirdswholovetoeattablescrapsaswellasgrassclippingsandthelike.Theyeatwhattheylikeandtheleftoversalongwiththerichdroppingsarerakedoutoccasionallyandaddedtothecompostpile.Thisprovidesusaconstantsupplyofrichcompost,whichisthefertilizerweuseinthegarden.Wealsoletsomechickensroamthegardenaftertheplantshavegrowntoan8-10in.height.Theydoanexcellentjobofkeepingthegardenpestfreebyeatingeverybugtheycanfind.
HowtoMakeaSimpleRainBarrel
ThingsYou’llNeed
Aclean,plasticbarrel,talltrashcanwithlid,orawoodenbarrelthatdoesnotleak—a55gallonplasticdrumorbarreldoesaverygoodjobatholdingrainwaterTwohosebibs(avalvewithafittingforagardenhoseononeendandaflangewithashortpipestickingoutofitattheotherend)GardenhosePlywoodandpaint(ifyourbarreldoesn’talreadyhaveatop)WindowscreenWoodscrewsVegetableoilAdrillAhacksawAscrewdriver
Weloveteachingourchildrenaboutgardeningandcaringforanimalsandweallenjoyahealthysenseofself-reliance.Weshareourproduceasmuchaspossibleandalsotrytoshareasmuchknowledgeaspossiblewithanyonewhoisinterested.
ThingstoConsider
Putsomewaterinthebarrelfromagardenhoseonceeverythingisinplaceandanysealantshavehadtimetothoroughlydry.Thefirstgooddownpourisnotthetimetofindoutthere’saleakinyourbarrel.Ifyoudon’townthepropertyonwhichyouarethinkingofinstallingarainbarrel,besuretogetpermissionbeforealteringthedownspouts.Ifyourbarreldoesn’talreadyhaveasolidtop,coveritsecurelywithacircleofpaintedplywood,anoldtrashcanlidscrewedtothewallsofthebarrel,oraheavytarpsecuredoverthetopofthebarrelwithbungeecords.Thiswillprotectchildrenandsmallanimalsfromfallingintothebarrelanddrowning.Asstatedbefore,stagnantwaterisanexcellentbreedinggroundformosquitoes,soitwouldbeagoodideatotakeadditionalstepstokeepthemoutofyourbarrelbysealingalltheopeningsintothebarrelwithcaulkorputty.Youmightalsoconsideraddingenoughnon-toxicoil(suchasvegetablecookingoil)tothebarreltoformafilmontopofthewaterthatwillpreventmosquitolarvaefromhatching.
Alwaysdoublechecktomakesurethebarrelyou’reusing(particularlyifitisfromafooddistributioncenterorotherrecycledsource)didnotcontainpesticides,industrialchemicals,weedkillers,orothertoxinsorbiologicalmaterialsthatcouldbeharmfultoyou,yourplants,ortheenvironment.Ifyouareconcernedaboutthis,itisbesttopurchaseanewbarrelortrashcansothereisnodoubtaboutitssafety.
MulchinginYourGardenandYard
Mulchingisoneofthesimplestandmostbeneficialpracticesyoucanuseinyourgarden.Mulchissimplyaprotectivelayerofmaterialthatisspreadontopofthesoiltoenrichthesoil,preventweedgrowth,andhelpprovideabettergrowingenvironmentforyourgardenplantsandflowers.
Mulchescaneitherbeorganic—suchasgrassclippings,barkchips,compost,groundcorncobs,choppedcornstalks,leaves,manure,newspaper,peanutshells,peatmoss,pineneedles,sawdust,straw,andwoodshavings—orinorganic—suchasstones,brickchips,andplastic.Bothorganicandinorganicmulcheshavenumerousbenefits,including:1. Protectingthesoilfromerosion2. Reducingcompactionfromtheimpactofheavyrains3. Conservingmoisture,thusreducingtheneedforfrequentwatering4. Maintainingamoreevensoiltemperature5. Preventingweedgrowth6. Keepingfruitsandvegetablesclean7. Keepingfeetcleanandallowingaccesstothegardenevenwhenit’sdamp8. Providinga“finished”looktothegarden
Organicmulchesalsohavethebenefitofimprovingtheconditionofthesoil.Asthesemulchesslowlydecompose,theyprovideorganicmattertohelpkeepthesoilloose.Thisimprovesrootgrowth,increasestheinfiltrationofwater,improvesthewater-holdingcapacityofthesoil,providesasourceofplantnutrients,andestablishesanidealenvironmentforearthwormsandotherbeneficialsoilorganisms.
Whileinorganicmulcheshavetheirplaceincertainlandscapes,theylackthesoil-improvingpropertiesoforganicmulches.Inorganicmulches,becauseoftheirpermanence,maybedifficulttoremoveifyoudecidetochangeyourgardenplansatalaterdate.
Woodchipsorshavingsaresomeofthemostcommonformsofmulch.
WheretoFindMulchMaterialsYoucanfindmulchmaterialsrightinyourownbackyard.Theyinclude:1. Lawnclippings.Theymakeanexcellentmulchinthevegetablegardenif
spreadimmediatelytoavoidheatingandrotting.Thefinetextureallowsthemtobespreadeasily,evenaroundsmallplants.
2. Newspaper.Asamulch,newspaperworksespeciallywelltocontrolweeds.Saveyourownnewspapersandonlyusethetextpages,orthosewithblackink,ascolordyesmaybeharmfultosoilmicrofloraandfaunaifcompostedandused.Usethreeorfoursheetstogether,anchoredwithgrassclippingsorothermulchmaterialtopreventthemfromblowingaway.
3. Leaves.Leafmold,orthedecomposedremainsofleaves,givestheforestflooritsabsorbent,spongystructure.Collectleavesinthefallandchopwithalawnmowerorshredder.Compostleavesoverwinter,assomestudieshaveindicatedthatfreshlychoppedleavesmayinhibitthegrowthofcertaincrops.
4. Compost.Themixturemakeswonderfulmulch—ifyouhavealargesupply—asitnotonlyimprovesthesoilstructurebutalsoprovidesanexcellentsourceofplantnutrients.
5. Barkchipsandcompostedbarkmulch.Thesematerialsareavailableatgardencentersandaresometimesusedwithlandscapefabricorplasticthat
isspreadatopthesoilandbeneaththemulchtoprovideadditionalprotectionagainstweeds.However,thebarrierbetweenthesoilandthemulchalsopreventsanyimprovementinthesoilconditionandmakesplantingadditionalplantsmoredifficult.Withoutthebarrier,barkmulchmakesaneatfinishtothegardenbedandwilleventuallyimprovetheconditionofthesoil.Itmaylastforonetothreeyearsormore,dependingonthesizeofthechipsorhowwell-compostedthebarkmulchis.Smallerchipsareeasiertospread,especiallyaroundsmallplants.
Mulchcanbeneatandattractive,especiallyifkeptfromspillingintoyouryardwitharoworcircleofstones.
Atrowelandhandforkarehelpfulformulchingsmallareasaroundandbetweenplants.
6. Hayandstraw.Theseworkwellinthevegetablegarden,althoughtheymayharborweedseeds.
7. Seaweedmulch,groundcorncobs,andpineneedles.Dependingonwhereyoulive,thesematerialsmaybereadilyavailableandcanalsobeusedasmulch.However,pineneedlestendtoincreasetheacidityofthesoil,sotheyworkbestaroundacid-lovingplants,suchasrhododendronsandblueberries.
Whenchoosingamulchmaterial,thinkofyourprimaryobjective.Newspaperandgrassclippingsaregreatforweedcontrol,whilebarkmulchgivesaperfect,finishingtouchtoafront-yardperennialgarden.Ifyou’relookingforacheapsolution,considerusingmaterialsfoundinyourownyardorseeifyourcommunityofferschippedwoodorcomposttoitsresidents.
Ifyouwantthemulchtostayinplaceforseveralyearsaroundshrubs,forexample,youmightwanttoconsiderusinginorganicmulches.Whiletheywillnotprovideorganicmattertothesoil,theywillbemoreorlesspermanent.
CommonOrganicMulchingMaterials
Barkchips
Compost
Groundcorncobs
Leaves
Newspaper
Peatmoss
Sawdust
Woodshavings
Choppedcornstalks
Grassclippings
Hay
Manure
Peanutshells
Pineneedles
Straw
Hayandstrawmakeexcellent,inexpensivemulch.
WhentoApplyMulchTimeofapplicationdependsonwhatyouhopetoachievebymulching.Mulches,byprovidinganinsulatingbarrierbetweenthesoilandtheair,moderatethesoiltemperature.Thismeansthatamulchedsoilinthesummer
willbecoolerthananadjacent,unmulchedsoil;whileinthewinter,themulchedsoilmaynotfreezeasdeeply.However,sincemulchactsasaninsulatinglayer,mulchedsoilstendtowarmupmoreslowlyinthespringandcooldownmoreslowlyinthefallthanunmulchedsoils.
Ifyouareusingmulchesinyourvegetableorflowergarden,itisbesttoapplyoraddadditionalmulchafterthesoilhaswarmedupinthespring.Organicmulchesreducethesoiltemperatureby8to10°Fduringthesummer,soiftheyareappliedtocoldgardensoils,thesoilwillwarmupmoreslowlyandplantmaturitywillbedelayed.
Mulchesusedtohelpmoderatewintertemperaturescanbeappliedlateinthefallafterthegroundhasfrozen,butbeforethecoldesttemperaturesarrive.Applyingmulchesbeforethegroundhasfrozenmayattractrodentslookingforawarmover-winteringsite.Delayedapplicationsofmulchshouldpreventthisproblem.
Mulchesusedtoprotectplantsoverthewintershouldbecomposedofloosematerial,suchasstraw,hay,orpineboughsthatwillhelpinsulatetheplantswithoutcompactingundertheweightofsnowandice.Oneofthebenefitsfromwinterapplicationsofmulchisthereductioninthefreezingandthawingofthesoilinthelatewinterandearlyspring.Theserepeatedcyclesoffreezingatnightandthenthawinginthewarmthofthesuncausemanysmallorshallow-rootedplantstobeheavedoutofthesoil.Thisleavestheirrootsystemsexposedandresultsininjury,ordeath,oftheplant.Mulchinghelpspreventtheserapidfluctuationsinsoiltemperatureandreducesthechancesofheaving.
GeneralMulchingGuidelines
Mulchismeasuredincubicfeet,so,forexample,ifyouhaveanareameasuring10feetby10feet,andyouwishtoapply3inches(1/4foot)ofmulch,youwouldneed25cubicfeettodothejobcorrectly.
Whilesomemulchcancomefromrecycledmaterialinyourownyard,itcanalsobepurchasedbaggedorinbulkfromagardencenter.Buyinginbulkmaybecheaperifyouneedalargevolumeandhaveawaytohaulit.Baggedmulchisofteneasiertohandle,especiallyforsmallerprojects,asmostbaggedmulchcomesin3-
cubic-footbags.
Tostart,removeanyweeds.Beginmulchingbyspreadingthematerialsinyourgarden,beingcarefulnottoapplymulchtotheplantsthemselves.Leaveaninchorsoofspacenexttotheplantstohelppreventdiseasesfromflourishingintimesofexcesshumidity.
HowMuchDoIApply?Theamountofmulchtoapplytoyourgardendependsonthemulching
materialused.Spreadbarkmulchandwoodchips2to4inchesdeep,keepingitaninchortwoawayfromtreetrunks.
Scatterchoppedandcompostedleaves3to4inchesdeep.Ifusingdryleaves,applyabout6inches.
Grassclippings,ifspreadtoothick,tendtocompactandrot,becomingquiteslimyandsmelly.Theyshouldbeapplied2to3inchesdeep,andadditionallayersshouldbeaddedasclippingsdecompose.Makesurenottouseclippingsfromlawnstreatedwithherbicides.
Sheetsofnewspapershouldonlybe¼inchthickandcoveredlightlywithgrassclippingsorothermulchmaterialtoanchorthem.Ifothermulchmaterialsarenotavailable,covertheedgesofthenewspaperwithsoil.
Ifusingcompost,apply3to4inchesdeep,asit’sanexcellentmaterialforenrichingthesoil.
Gatherfallenleavesinthefallandcompostthemorusetheminlargeplasticbagsasextrahouseinsulationoverthewinter.Comespring,thedecomposed
leaveswillbereadyformulch.
OrganicGardening
“Organicallygrown”foodisfoodgrownandprocessedusingnosyntheticfertilizersorpesticides.Pesticidesderivedfromnaturalsources(suchasbiologicalpesticides—compostandmanure)maybeusedinproducingorganicallygrownfood.
Organicgardenersgrowthehealthiest,highestqualityfoodsandflowers—allwithouttheadditionofchemicalfertilizers,pesticides,orherbicides.Organicgardeningmethodsarehealthier,environmentallyfriendly,safeforanimalsandhumans,andaretypicallylessexpensive,sinceyouareworkingwithnaturalmaterials.Itiseasytogrowandharvestorganicfoodsinyourbackyardgardenandtypically,organicgardensareeasiertomaintainthangardensthatrelyonchemicalandunnaturalcomponentstohelpthemgroweffectively.
Organicproductionisnotsimplytheavoidanceofconventionalchemicalinputs,norisitthesubstitutionofnaturalinputsforsyntheticones.Organicfarmersapplytechniquesfirstusedthousandsofyearsago,suchascroprotationsandtheuseofcompostedanimalmanuresandgreenmanurecrops,inwaysthatareeconomicallysustainableintoday’sworld.
Organicfarmingentails:Useofcovercrops,greenmanures,animalmanures,andcroprotationstofertilizethesoil,maximizebiologicalactivity,andmaintainlong-termsoilhealth.Useofbiologicalcontrol,croprotations,andothertechniquestomanageweeds,insects,anddiseases.Anemphasisonbiodiversityoftheagriculturalsystemandthesurroundingenvironment.Reductionofexternalandoff-farminputsandeliminationofsyntheticpesticidesandfertilizersandothermaterials,suchashormonesandantibiotics.Afocusonrenewableresources,soilandwaterconservation,andmanagementpracticesthatrestore,maintain,andenhanceecologicalbalance.
HowtoStartYourOwnOrganicGarden
StepOne:ChooseaSiteforYourGarden1. Thinksmall,atleastatfirst.Asmallgardentakeslessworkandmaterials
thanalargeone.Ifdonewell,a4x4-footgardenwillyieldenoughvegetablesandfruitforyouandyourfamilytoenjoy.
2. Becarefulnottoover-plantyourgarden.Youdonotwanttoendupwithtoomanyvegetablesthatwillendupover-ripeningorrottinginyourgarden.
3. Youcanevenstartagardeninawindowboxifyouareunsureofyourtimeanddedicationtoalargerbed.
StepTwo:MakeaCompostPile
1.Compostisthemainingredientforcreatingandmaintainingrich,fertilesoil.Youcanusemostorganicmaterialstomakecompostthatwillprovideyoursoilwithessentialnutrients.Tostartacompostpile,allyouneedarefallenleaves,weeds,grassclippings,andothervegetationthatisinyouryard.(SeetheCompostchapterformoredetailsonhowtomakecompost.)
StepThree:AddSoil
1.Inordertohaveathrivingorganicgarden,youmusthaveexcellentsoil.Addingorganicmaterial(suchasthatinyourcompostpile)toyourexistingsoilwillonlymakeitbetter.Soilcontainingcopiousamountsoforganicmaterialisverygoodforyourgarden.Organicallyrichsoil:
Nourishesyourplantswithoutanychemicals,keepingthemnaturalIseasytousewhenplantingseedsorseedlings,anditalsoallowsforweedstobemoreeasilypickedIssofterthanchemicallytreatedsoil,sotherootsofyourplantscanspreadandgrowdeeperHelpswaterandairfindtheroots
StepFour:WeedControl1. Weedsareinvasivetoyourgardenplantsandthusmustberemovedin
orderforyourorganicgardentogrowefficiently.Commonweedsthatcaninvadeyourgardenareivy,mint,anddandelions.
2. Usingasharphoe,goovereachareaofexposedsoilfrequentlytokeepweedsfromsprouting.Also,pluckingoffthegreenportionsofweedswilldeprivethemofthenutrientstheyneedtosurvive.
3. Gentlypulloutweedsbyhandtoremovetheirrootsystemsandtostopcontinuedgrowth.Becarefulwhenweedingaroundestablishedplantssoyoudon’tuprootthemaswell.
4. Mulchunplantedareasofyourgardensothatweedswillbelesslikelytogrow.Youcanfindorganicmulches,suchaswoodchipsandgrassclippings,atyourlocalgardenstore.Thesemulcheswillnotonlydiscourageweedgrowthbutwillalsoeventuallybreakdownandhelpenrichthesoil.Mulchingalsohelpsregulatesoiltemperaturesandhelpsinconservingwaterbydecreasingevaporation.(Seethe“Mulch”chapterformoreonmulching.)
Yourgardencanbeassmallorlargeasyourspaceallows,butbesuretostartwithasizeyoucanmanage.
Arowoflettucethrivesinthecompost-fertilizedsoil.
StepFive:BeCarefulofLawnFertilizers
Ifyouhavealawnandyourorganicgardenissituatedinit,bemindfulthatanychemicalsyoumightplaceonyourlawnmayfindtheirwayintoyourorganicgarden.Therefore,refrainfromfertilizingyourlawnwithchemicalsand,
ifyouwishtoreturnnutrientstoyourgrass,simplyletyourcutgrassclippingsremainintheyardtodecomposenaturallyandenrichthesoilbeneath.
ThingstoConsider“Organic”meansthatyoudon’tuseanykindsofmaterials,suchaspaperorcardboard,thatcontainchemicals,andespeciallynotfertilizerorpesticides.Makesurethattheseproductsdonotfindtheirwayintoyourgardenorcompostpile.Ifyouareaddinggrassclippingstoyourcompostpile,makesuretheydon’tcomefromalawnthathasbeentreatedwithchemicalfertilizer.Ifyoudon’twanttostartacompostpile,simplyaddleavesandgrassclippingsdirectlytoyourgardenbed.Thiswillactlikeamulch,deterweedsfromgrowing,andwilleventuallybreakdowntohelpreturnnutrientstoyoursoil.Ifyoufindinsectsattackingyourplants,thebestwaytocontrolthemisbypickingthemoffbyhand.Alsopracticecroprotation(plantingdifferenttypesofplantsinagivenareafromyeartoyear),whichmightreduceyourpestproblem.Forsomeinsects,justastrongstreamofwateriseffectiveinremovingthemfromyourplants.Shyawayfromusingbarkmulch.Itrobsnitrogenfromthesoilasitdecomposesandcanalsoattracttermites.
Ahandforkcanbeusefulindigginguptoughrootsofpeskyweeds.
Terracing
Terracescancreateseveralmini-gardensinyourbackyard.Onsteepslopes,terracingcanmakeplantingagardenpossible.Terracesalsopreventerosionbyshorteningalongslopeintoaseriesofshorter,morelevelsteps.Thisallowsheavyrainstosoakintothesoilratherthantorunoffandcauseerosionandpoorplantgrowth.
MaterialsNeededforTerracesNumerousmaterialsareavailableforbuildingterraces.Treatedwoodisoftenusedinterracebuildingandhasseveraladvantages:Itiseasytoworkwith,itblendswellwithplantsandthesurroundingenvironment,anditisoftenlessexpensivethanothermaterials.Therearemanytypesoftreatedwoodavailableforterracing—railroadtiesandlandscapingtimbersarejusttwoexamples.Thesematerialswilllastforyears,whichiscrucialifyouarehopingtokeepyourterracedgardenintactforanylengthoftime.Therehasbeensomeconcernaboutusingthesetreatedmaterialsaroundplants,butstudiesbyTexasA&MUniversityandtheSouthwestResearchInstituteconcludedthatthesematerialsarenotharmfultogardensorpeoplewhenusedasrecommended.
Othermaterialsforterracesincludebricks,rocks,concreteblocks,andsimilarmasonrymaterials.Somemasonrymaterialsaremadespecificallyforwallsandterracesandcanbemoreeasilyinstalledbyahomeownerthanothermaterials.Theseincludefieldstoneandbrick.Onedrawbackisthatmoststoneormasonryproductstendtobemoreexpensivethanwood,soifyouarelookingtosavemoney,treatedwoodwillmakeasufficientterracewall.
Terraceshelppreventerosionandencouragevegetationonslopedground.
HowHighShouldtheTerraceWallsBe?Thesteepnessoftheslopeonwhichyouwishtogardenoftendictatestheappropriateheightoftheterracewall.Maketheterracesinyouryardhighenoughsothelandbetweenthemisfairlylevel.Besuretheterracematerialisstrongenoughandanchoredwelltostayinplacethroughfreezingandthawing,andduringheavyrainstorms.Donotunderestimatethepressureofwaterloggedsoilbehindawall—itcanbeenormousandwillcauseimproperlyconstructedwallstobulgeorcollapse.
Manycommunitieshavebuildingcodesforwallsandterraces.Largeprojectswillmostlikelyneedtheexpertiseofaprofessionallandscapertomakesurethewallscanstanduptowaterpressureinthesoil.Largeterracesalsoneedtobebuiltwithadequatedrainageandtiedbackintotheslopeproperly.Becauseoftheexpertiseandequipmentrequiredtodothiscorrectly,youwillprobablywanttorestrictterracesyoubuildonyourowntonomorethanafootortwohigh.
BuildingYourOwnTerraceThesafestwaytobuildaterraceisbyusingthecutandfillmethod.Withthismethod,littlesoilisdisturbed,givingyouprotectionfromerosionshoulda
suddenstormoccurwhiletheworkisinprogress.Thismethodwillalsorequirelittle,ifany,additionalsoil.Herearethestepsneededtobuildyourownterrace:1. Contactyourutilitycompaniestoidentifythelocationofanyburiedutility
linesandpipesbeforestartingtodig.2. Determinetheriseandrunofyourslope.Theriseistheverticaldistance
fromthebottomoftheslopetothetop.Therunisthehorizontaldistancebetweenthetopandthebottom.Thiswillallowyoutodeterminehowmanyterracesyouwillneed.Forexample,ifyourrunis20feetandtheriseis8feet,andyouwanteachbedtobe5feetwide,youwillneedfourbeds.Theriseofeachbedwillbe2feet.
3. Startbuildingthebedsatthebottomofyourslope.Youwillneedtodigatrenchinwhichtoplaceyourfirsttier.Thedepthandwidthofthetrenchwillvarydependingonhowtalltheterracewillbeandthespecificbuildingmaterialsyouareusing.Followthemanufacturer’sinstructionscarefullywhenusingmasonryproducts,asmanyofthesehavelimitsonthenumberoftiersortheheightthatcanbesafelybuilt.Ifyouareusinglandscapetimbersandyourterraceislow(lessthan2feet),youonlyneedtoburythetimbertoabouthalfitsthicknessorless.Thewidthofthetrenchshouldbeslightlywiderthanyourtimber.Makesurethebottomofthetrenchisfirmlypackedandcompletelylevel,andthenplaceyourtimbersintothetrench.
4. Forthesidesofyourterrace,digatrenchintotheslope.Thebottomofthistrenchmustbelevelwiththebottomofthefirsttrench.Whenthedepthofthetrenchisoneinchgreaterthanthethicknessofyourtimber,youhavereachedthebackoftheterraceandcanstopdigging.
5. Cutapieceoftimbertothecorrectlengthandplaceitintothetrench.6. Drillholesthroughyourtimbersandpoundlongspikes,orpipes,through
theholesandintotheground.Aminimumof18inchesofpipelengthisrecommended,andlongerpipesmaybeneededinhigherterracesforaddedstability.
7. Placethenexttieroftimbersontopofthefirst,overlappingthecornersandjoints.Poundaspikethroughbothtierstofusethemtogether.
8. Movethesoilfromthebackofthebedtothefrontofthebeduntilthesurfaceislevel.Addanothertierasneeded.
Neatrowsofgreenplantslinethisterracedhill,whichwouldotherwiselikelybebarren.
Heathergrowswildinmanyareasbutcanalsobeplantedonyourhillsidestohelppreventerosion.
9. Repeat,startingwithstep2,tocreatetheremainingterraces.Incontinuouslyconnectedterracesystems,thefirsttimberofthesecondtier
willalsobethebackwallofyourfirstterrace.10. Thebackwallofthelastbedwillbelevelwithitsfrontwall.11. Whenfinished,youcanstarttoplantandmulchyourterracedgarden.
OtherWaystoMakeUseofSlopesinYourYardIfterracesarebeyondthelimitsofyourtimeormoney,youmaywanttoconsiderotheroptionsforbackyardslopes.Ifyouhaveaslopethatishardtomow,considerusinggroundcoversonthesloperatherthangrass.Therearemanyplantsadaptedtoawiderangeoflightandmoistureconditionsthatrequirelittlecare(anddonotneedmowing)andprovidesoilerosionprotection.Theseinclude:
JuniperWintercreeperPeriwinkleCotoneasterPotentillaHeathersandheaths
Strip-croppingisanotherwaytodealwithlongslopesinyouryard.Ratherthanterracingtomakegardenbedslevel,plantperennialbedsandstripsofgrassacrosstheslope.Onceestablished,manyperennialsareeffectiveinreducingerosion.Addingmulchalsohelpsreduceerosion.Iferosiondoesoccur,itwillbebasicallylimitedtothegardenedarea.Thegrassstripswillactasfilterstocatchmuchofthesoilthatmayrunoffthebeds.Grassstripsshouldbewideenoughtomoweasily,aswellaswideenoughtoreduceerosioneffectively.
Periwinklesrequirelittlemaintenance,spreadquickly,andwillgroweasilyonaslopeinyouryard.
StartYourOwnVegetableGarden
Ifyouwanttostartyourownvegetablegarden,justfollowthesesimplestepsandyou’llbeonyourwaytogrowingyourownyummyvegetables—rightinyourownbackyard.
StepstoMakingYourOwnVegetableGarden1. Selectasiteforyourgarden.
Vegetablesgrowbestinwell-drained,fertilesoil(loamysoilsarethebest).Somevegetablescancopewithshadyconditions,butmostpreferasitewithagoodamountofsunshine—atleastsixhoursadayofdirectsunlight.
2. Removeallweedsinyourselectedspotanddisposeofthem.Ifyouareusingcomposttosupplementyourgardensoil,donotputtheweedsonthecompostheap,astheymaygerminateonceagainandcausemoreweedgrowthamongyourvegetableplants.
3. Preparethesoilbytillingit.Thiswillbreakuplargesoilclumpsandallowyoutoseeandremovepeskyweedroots.Thiswouldalsobetheappropriatetimetoaddorganicmaterials(suchascompost)totheexistingsoiltohelpmakeitmorefertile.Thetoolsusedfortillingwilldependonthesizeofyourgarden.Someexamplesare:
Shovelandturningfork—usingthesetoolsishardwork,requiringstrongupperbodystrength.Rotarytiller—thiswillhelpcutupweedrootsandmixthesoil.
4. Afterthesoilhasbeentilled,youarereadytobeginplanting.Ifyouwouldlikestraightrowsinyourgarden,aguidecanbemadefromtwowoodenstakesandabitofrope.
Aftersoilistilleditshouldbelooseandfreefromweedsorrootsystems.
Youcanoftengrowtwocropsofcabbageorothergreenleafyvegetablesinonegrowingseasonifyoustartthegardenearlyenough.
5. Vegetablescanbegrownfromseedsortransplanted.
Ifyourgardenhasproblemswithpestssuchasslugs,it’sbesttotransplantolderplants,astheyaremorelikelytosurviveattacksfromtheseorganisms.Transplantingworkswellforvegetablesliketomatoesandonions,whichusuallyneedaheadstarttomaturewithinashortergrowingseason.Thesecanbegerminatedindoorsonseedtraysonawindowsillbeforethegrowingseasonbegins.
6. Followthesebasicstepstogrowvegetablesfromseeds:Informationonwhenandhowdeeptoplantvegetableseedsisusuallyprintedonseedpackagesoronvariouswebsites.Youcanalsocontactyourlocalnurseryorgardencentertoinquireafterthisinformation.Measurethewidthoftheseedtodeterminehowdeepitshouldbeplanted.Takethewidthandmultiplyby2.Thatishowdeeptheseedshouldbeplacedinthehole.Asageneralrule,thelargertheseed,thedeeperitshouldbeplanted.
7. Watertheplantsandseedswelltoensureagoodstart.Makesuretheyreceivewateratleasteveryotherday,especiallyifthereisnorainintheforecast.
Tomatoplantswillgrowbestifbegunasseedlingsindoorsandthenthentransplantedintoyourgardenwellafterthelastfrost.
Ashovelisperfectlyadequateforturningoversoilinasmallgarden.
ThingstoConsiderIntheearlydaysofavegetablegarden,allyourplantsarevulnerabletoattackbyinsectsandanimals.Itisbesttoplantmultiplesofthesameplanttoensurethatsomesurvive.Placingnettingandfencesaroundyourgardencanhelpkeepoutcertainanimalpests.Coffeegrainsorslugtrapsfilledwithbeerwillalsohelpprotectyourplantsagainstinsectpests.Ifsowingseedstraightontoyourbed,besuretoobtainaphotographofwhatyourseedlingswilllooklikesoyoudon’tmistakethegrowingplantforaweed.Weedingearlyonisveryimportanttotheoverallsuccessofyourgarden.Weedsstealwater,nutrients,andlightfromyourvegetables,whichwillstunttheirgrowthandmakeitmoredifficultforthemtothrive.
Seedsshouldbeplantedatadepthoftwicetheirwidth.Iftheseedis¼inchwide,itshouldbeplanted½inchbelowthesurface.
Forverysmallseeds,suchascarrotseeds,youcansprinkle15to20seedsperinchinashallowchannel.Tomaketherowstraight,tieastringtotwosmallsticksanddriveeachstickintothegroundoneithersideofyourgardensothatthestringistaut.Useahoetodigashallowchannelinthestring’sshadow.
StartYourOwnFlowerGarden
Ifyouarelookingtogrowabeautifulgardenfullofflowers,justfollowthesesimplestepstoachievetheperfectbeginner’sflowergarden.
StepOne:StartwithaSmallGarden
Gardeningtakesalotofwork,andsoforthebeginnergardener,tacklingalargegardencanbeoverwhelming.Startwithasmallflowerbedaround25squarefeet.Thiswillprovideyouwithroomforabout20to30plants—enoughroomforthreetypesofannualsandtwotypesofperennials.Asyourgardeningexperiencegrows,socanthesizeofyourgarden!
Ifyouarelookingtostartevensmaller,youcanalwaysbeginyourfirstflowergardeninacontainer,orcreateaborderfromtreatedwoodorbricksandstonesaroundyourexistingbed.Thatway,whenyouarereadytoexpandyourgarden,allyouneedtodoisremovethetemporaryborderandyou’llbeallset.Evenasmallcontainerfilledwithafewdifferenttypesofplantscanbeawonderfuladditiontoanyyard.
StepTwo:PlanYourFlowerGarden
Drawupaplanofhowyou’dlikeyourgardentolook,andthendigaflowerbedtofitthatplan.Planningyourgardenbeforegatheringtheseedsorplantsandbeginningthediggingcangiveyouaclearersenseofhowyourgardenwillbeorganizedandcanfacilitatetheplantingprocess.
StepThree:ChooseaSpotforYourGarden
Itisimportant,whenchoosingwhereyourflowergardenwillbelocated,thatyouconsideranareathatreceivesatleastsixhoursofdirectsunlightperday,asthiswillbeadequateforalargevarietyofgardenplants.Becarefulthatyouwillnotbediggingintoutilitylinesorpipes,andthatyouplaceyourgardenatleastashortdistanceawayfromfencesorotherstructures.
Ifyouliveinapartofthecountrythatisquitehot,itmightbebeneficialforyourflowerstobeplacedinanareathatgetssomeshadeduringthehotafternoonsun.Placingyourgardenontheeastsideofyourhomewillhelpyourflowersflourish.Ifyourgardenwillgetmorethansixhoursofsunlightperday,itwouldbewisetochooseflowersthatthriveinhot,sunnyspaces,andmakesuretowaterthemfrequently.
Itisalsoimportanttochooseaspotthathasgood,fertilesoilinwhichyourflowerscangrow.Trytoavoidanyareaswithrocky,shallowsoilorwherewatercollectsandpools.Makesureyourgardenisawayfromlargetreesandshrubs,astheseplantswillcompetewithyourflowersforwaterandnutrients.Ifyouareconcernedthatyoursoilmaynotcontainenoughnutrientsforyourflowerstogrowproperly,youcanhaveasoiltestdone,whichwilltellyouthepHofthesoil.Dependingontheresults,youcanthenadjustthetypesofnutrientsneededinyoursoilbyaddingorganicmaterialsorcertaintypesoffertilizers.
Flowergardensdonotneedtobeascarefullyorganizedasvegetablegardens.Experimentwithdifferentcolorcombinationsandflowervarieties.Ingeneral,it’sbesttoputtallerplantstowardthecenterorbackofyourgardensothatthe
shorterflowerswillstillbevisible.
Someflowers,likelilies,dobestifstartedinpotsandthentransplantedintoyourgarden.
StepFour:StartDigging
Nowthatyouhaveasitepickedout,markouttheboundarieswithahoseorstring.Removethesodandanyweedrootsthatmayre-grow.Useyourspadeor
gardenforktodigupthebedatleast8to12inchesdeep,removinganyrocksordebrisyoucomeacross.
Onceyourbedisdug,levelitandbreakupthesoilwitharake.Addcompostormanureifthesoilisnotfertile.Ifyoursoilissandy,addingpeatmossorgrassclippingswillhelpitholdmorewater.Workanyadditionsintothetop6inchesofsoil.
StepFive:PurchaseYourSeedsorPlants
Onceyou’vechosenwhichtypesofflowersyou’dliketogrowinyourgarden,visityourlocalgardenstoreornurseryandpickoutalready-establishedplantsorpackagedseeds.Followtheplantinginstructionsontheplanttabsorseedpackets.Thesmallerplantsshouldbesituatedinthefrontofthebed.Onceyourplantsorseedsareintheirholes,packinthesoilaroundthem.Makesuretoleaveamplespacebetweenyourseedsorplantsforthemtogrowandspreadout(mostlabelsandpacketswillalertyoutohowlargeyourflowershouldbeexpectedtogrow,soyoucanadjustthespacingasneeded).
StepSix:WaterYourFlowerGarden
Afteryourplantsorseedsarefirstputintotheground,besuretheygetathoroughwatering.Continuetocheckyourgardentoseewhetherornotthesoilisdryingout.Ifso,giveyourgardenagoodsoakingwiththegardenhoseorwateringcan.Theamountofwateryourgardenneedsisdependantontheclimateyoulivein,theexposuretothesun,andhowmuchrainyourareahasreceived.
Totransplantflowersfromonegrowinglocationtoanother,diguptheplant,beingcarefulnottodamagetherootsystem.Wraptherootballinalargeleaforaclothandtieatthetoparoundthestemstokeeptherootsfromdryingout.Leafwrappingsdonotneedtoberemovedbeforereplanting.Besuretowater
theplantthoroughlyafterplantingitinitsnewlocation.
StepSeven:CuttingYourFlowers
Onceyourflowersbegintobloom,feelfreetocutthemanddisplaythebeautifulbloomsinyourhome.Pruningyourflowergarden(cuttingthedeadordyingbloomsofftheplant)willhelpcertainplantstore-bloom.Also,ifyouhaveplantsthatarebecomingtopheavy,supportthemwithastakeandsomestringsoyoucanenjoytheirblossomstothefullest.
ThingstoConsider•Annualsareplantsthatyouneedtoreplanteveryyear.Theyareofteninexpensive,andmanyhavebrightlycoloredflowers.Annualscanberewardingforbeginnergardeners,astheytakelittleeffortandprovidelovelycolortoyourgarden.Thefollowingseason,you’llneedtoreplantorstartoverfromseed.
Echinaceaisbeautifulaswellasusefulformedicinalpurposes.Itgrowsbestinsunnyareas.Plantinearlyspringforsummerblooming,orabouttwomonths
beforethefirstfrostforflowersthenextyear.
Bright,fragrantflowerswillattractbutterfliestoyourgarden.
•Perennialslastfromoneyeartothenext.They,too,willrequireannualmaintenancebutnotyearlyreplanting.Perennialsmayrequiredivision,support,andextracareduringwintermonths.Perennialsmayalsoneedtheiroldbloomsandstemsprunedandcutbackeverysooften.
•Healthy,happyplantstendnottobeassusceptibletopestsanddiseases.Itiseasiertopracticepreventionratherthancuringexistingproblems.Doyourbesttogiveyourplantsgoodsoil,nutrients,andappropriatemoisture,andchooseplantsthatarewell-suitedtoyourclimate.Thisway,yourgardenwillbemorelikelytogrowtoitsmaximumpotentialandyourplantswillbestrongandhealthy.
BarrelPlantHolder
Ifyouhavesomeperennialsyouwanttodisplayinyouryardawayfromyourflowergarden,youcancreateaplanteroutofanoldbarrel.Thisplantholderismadebysawinganoldbarrel(woodenormetal)intotwopiecesandmountingitonshortortalllegs—whicheverdesignfitsbetterinyouryard.Youcanchoosetoeitherpaintitorleaveitnatural.Fillingtheplanterwithgoodqualitysoilandcompostandplantinganarrayofmulti-coloredflowersintothebarrelplanterwillbrightenupyouryardallsummerlong.Ifyoudonotwanttomountthebarrelonlegs,itcanbeplacedontheground
onasmoothandlevelsurfacewhereitwon’teasilytipover.
Gardencentersorfarmstandsoftensellflowersthatarestartedinflatsorplugs.Becausetherootsystemsarealreadyestablished,theyareeasiertogrow
andcreateaninstantlyattractivegarden.
RusticPlantStand
Ifyou’dliketoincorporatearustic,natural-lookingplantstandinyourgardenoronyourpatioordeck,onecaneasilybemadefromapreexistingwoodenboxorbynailingboardstogether.Thisboxshouldbemountedonlegs(seepicture
below).Tomakethelegs,sawthepieceofwoodmeantfortheleginhalftoalengthfromthetopequaltothedepthofthebox.Then,crosscutandremoveonehalf.Thecorneroftheboxcanthenbeinsertedinthemiddleofthecrosscutandthelegnailedtothesideofthebox.
Theplantstandcanbedecoratedtosuityourneedsandpreference.Youcannailsmaller,alternatingtwigsorcutbranchesaroundthestandtogiveitamorenaturalfeeloryoucansimplypaintitasoothing,naturalcolorandplaceitinyouryard.
Afencecanbesetuparoundyourgardentokeepoutdeerandotherwildanimals.Seepage181forfenceconstructionideas.
WoodenWindowBox
Plantingperennialflowersandcascadingplantsinwindowboxesistheperfectwaytobrightenupthefrontexteriorofyourhome.
Makingasimplewoodenwindowboxtoholdyourflowersandplantsisquiteeasy.Theseboxescanbemadefrompreexistingwoodenboxes(suchasfruitcrates)oryoucanmakeyourownoutofsimpleboards.Whatevermethodyouchoose,makesuretheboardsarestoutenoughtoholdthebradsfirmly.
Thesizeofyourwindowwillultimatelydeterminethesizeofyourbox,butthisplancallsforaboxroughly21x7x7inches.Youcandecorateyourboxeswithwaterproofpaintoryoucannailstripsofwoodorstickstothepanels.Makesuretocutafewholesinthebottomoftheboxtoallowforwaterdrainage.
PlantingTrees
Treesinyouryardcanbecomehometomanydifferenttypesofwildlife.Treesalsoreduceyourcoolingcostsbyprovidingshade,helpcleantheair,addbeautyandcolor,provideshelterfromthewindandthesun,andaddvaluetoyourhome.
ChoosingaTreeChoosingatreeshouldbeawell-thought-outdecision.Treeplantingcanbeasignificantinvestment,bothinmoneyandtime.Selectingthepropertreeforyouryardcanprovideyouwithyearsofenjoyment,aswellassignificantlyincreasethevalueofyourproperty.However,atreethatisinappropriateforyourpropertycanbeaconstantmaintenanceproblem,orevenadangertoyourandothers’safety.Beforeyoudecidetopurchaseatree,takeadvantageofthemanyreferencesongardeningatlocallibraries,universities,arboretums,nativeplantandgardeningclubs,andnurseries.Somequestionstoconsiderinselectingatreeinclude:
1.Whatpurposewillthistreeserve?
Treescanservenumerouslandscapefunctions,includingbeautification,screeningofsightsandsounds,shadeandenergyconservation,andwildlifehabitat.
2.Isthespeciesappropriateforyourarea?
Reliablenurserieswillnotsellplantsthatarenotsuitableforyourarea.However,somemassmarketershavetreesandshrubsthatarenotfittedfortheenvironmentinwhichtheyaresold.Evenifatreeishardy,itmaynotflowerconsistentlyfromyeartoyeariftheenvironmentalfactorsarenotconduciveforittodoso.Ifyouarebuyingatreeforitsspringflowersandfallfruits,considerclimatewhendecidingwhichspeciesoftreetoplant.
Beawareofmicroclimates.Microclimatesarelocalizedareaswhereweatherconditionsmayvaryfromthenorm.Averyshelteredyardmay
supportvegetationnotnormallyadaptedtotheregion.Ontheotherhand,anorth-facingslopemaybesignificantlycoolerorwindierthansurroundingareas,andsurvivalofnormallyadaptedplantsmaybelimited.Selecttreesnativetoyourarea.Thesetreeswillbemoretolerantoflocalweatherandsoilconditions,enhancenaturalbiodiversityinyourneighborhood,andbemorebeneficialtowildlifethanmanynon-nativetrees.Avoidexotictreesthatcaninvadeotherareas,crowdoutnativeplants,andharmnaturalecosystems.
3.Howbigwillitget?
Whenplantingasmalltree,itisoftendifficulttoimaginethatin20yearsitwillmostlikelybeshadingyourentireyard.Unfortunately,manytreesareplantedandlaterremovedwhenthetreegrowsbeyondthedimensionsoftheproperty.
4.Whatistheaveragelifeexpectancyofthetree?
Sometreescanliveforhundredsofyears.Othersareconsidered“short-lived”andmayliveforonly20to30years.Manyshort-livedtreestendtobesmaller,ornamentalspecies.Short-livedspeciesshouldnotnecessarilyberuledoutwhenconsideringplantings,astheymayhaveotherdesirablecharacteristics,suchassize,shape,toleranceofshade,orfruit,thatwouldbeusefulinthelandscape.Thesespeciesmayalsofillavoidinayounglandscapeandcanberemovedasotherlarger,longer-livedspeciesmature.
Fruittreesprovidesweet-smellingflowersinthespringandfruitinthefall.
Full-growntreescreateashade-producingcanopyofbranchesandleaves.Shadecanbeagoodadditiontoyourproperty,butbesureyoudon’tplanttrees
inanareawhereyouwantagardenthatrequiresfullsun.
5.Doesithaveanyparticularornamentalvalue,suchasleafcolororflowersandfruits?
Somespeciesprovidebeautifuldisplaysofcolorforshortperiodsinthespringorfall.Otherspeciesmayhavefoliagethatisreddishorvariegatedandcanaddcolorinyouryardyear-round.Treesbearingfruitsornutscanprovideanexcellentsourceoffoodformanyspeciesofwildlife.
6.Doesithaveanyparticularinsect,disease,orotherproblemthatmayreduceitsusefulnessinthefuture?
Certaininsectsanddiseasescancauseseriousproblemsforsomedesirablespeciesincertainregions.Dependingonthepest,controloftheproblemmaybedifficultandthepestmaysignificantlyreducetheattractiveness,ifnotthelifeexpectancy,ofthetree.Otherspecies,suchasthesilvermaple,areknowntohaveweakwoodthatissusceptibletodamageinicestormsorheavywinds.Allthesefactorsshouldbekeptinmind,ascontrollingpestsordealingwithtreelimbsthathavesnappedinfoulweathercanbeexpensiveandpotentiallydamaging.
7.Howcommonisthisspeciesinyourneighborhoodortown?
Somespeciesareover-planted.Increasingthenaturaldiversityinyourareawillprovidehabitatforwildlifeandhelplimittheopportunityforasinglepesttodestroylargenumbersoftrees.
8.Isthetreeevergreenordeciduous?
Evergreentreeswillprovidecoverandshadeyear-round.Theymayalsobemoreeffectiveaswindandnoisebarriers.Ontheotherhand,deciduoustreeswillgiveyousummershadebutallowthewintersuntoshinein.Ifplantingadeciduoustree,keeptheseheatingandcoolingfactorsinmindwhenplacingthetreeinyouryard.
PlacementofTreesProperplacementoftreesiscriticalforyourenjoymentandfortheirlong-termsurvival.Checkwithlocalauthoritiesaboutregulationspertainingtoplacementoftreesinyourarea.Somecommunitieshaveordinancesrestrictingplacementoftreeswithinaspecifieddistancefromastreet,sidewalk,streetlight,orothercityutilities.
Beforeplantingyourtree,considerthetree’spotentialmaximumsize.Askyourselfthesesimplequestions:1. Whenthetreenearsmaturity,willitbetooclosetoyouroraneighbor’s
house?Anevergreentreeplantedonyournorthsidemayblockthewintersunfromyournext-doorneighbor.
2. Willitprovidetoomuchshadeforyourvegetableandflowergardens?Mostvegetablesandmanyflowersrequireconsiderableamountsofsun.Ifyouintendtogrowtheseplantsinyouryard,considerhowtheplacementoftreeswillaffectthesegardens.
3. Willthetreeobstructanydrivewaysorsidewalks?4. Willitcauseproblemsforburiedoroverheadpowerlinesandutilitypipes?
Onceyouhavetakenthesequestionsintoconsiderationandhaveboughttheperfecttreeforyouryard,itistimetostartdigging!
PlantingaTreeAproperlyplantedandmaintainedtreewillgrowfasterandlivelongerthanonethatisincorrectlyplanted.Treescanbeplantedalmostanytimeoftheyear,aslongasthegroundisnotfrozen.Latesummerorearlyfallistheoptimumtimetoplanttreesinmanyareas.Byplantingduringthesetimes,thetreehasa
chancetoestablishnewrootsbeforewinterarrivesandthegroundfreezes.Whenspringcomes,thetreeisthenreadytogrow.Anotherfeasibletimeforplantingtreesislatewinterorearlyspring.Plantinginhotsummerweathershouldbeavoidedifpossibleastheheatmaycausetheyoungtreetowilt.Plantinginfrozensoilduringthewinterisverydifficultandistoughontreeroots.Whenthetreeisdormantandthegroundisfrozen,thereisnoopportunityforthenewrootstobegingrowing.
Treescanbepurchasedascontainer-grown,balledandburlapped(B&B),orbareroot.Generally,container-grownaretheeasiesttoplantandsuccessfullyestablishinanyseason,includingsummer.Withcontainer-grownstock,theplanthasbeengrowinginacontainerforaperiodoftime.Whenplantingcontainer-growntrees,littledamageisdonetotherootsastheplantistransferredtothesoil.Container-growntreesrangeinsizefromverysmallplantsingallonpotsuptolargetreesinhugepots.
Bareroottreesareusuallyextremelysmallplants.Becausethereisnosoilaroundtheroots,theymustbeplantedwhentheyaredormanttoavoiddryingout,andtherootsmustbekeptmoistuntilplanted.Frequently,bareroottreesareofferedbyseedandnurserymailordercatalogs,orinthewholesaletrade.Manystate-operatednurseriesandlocalconservationdistrictsalsosellbarerootstockinbulkquantitiesforonlyafewcentsperplant.Barerootplantsareusuallyofferedintheearlyspringandshouldbeplantedassoonaspossible.
B&Btreesaredugfromanursery,wrappedinburlap,andkeptinthenurseryforanadditionalperiodoftime,givingtherootsopportunitytoregenerate.B&B
plantscanbequitelarge.
Besuretocarefullyfollowtheplantinginstructionsthatcomewithyourtree.Ifspecificinstructionsarenotavailable,herearesomegeneraltree-plantingguidelines:1. Beforestartinganydigging,callyourlocalutilitycompaniestoidentifythe
locationofanyundergroundwiresorlines.IntheU.S.,youcancall811tohaveyourutilitylinesmarkedforfree.
2. Digaholetwiceaswideas,andslightlyshallowerthan,therootball.Roughenthesidesandbottomoftheholewithapickorshovelsothattherootscaneasilypenetratethesoil.
3. Withapottedtree,gentlyremovethetreefromthecontainer.Todothis,laythetreeonitssidewiththecontainerendneartheplantinghole.Hitthebottomandsidesofthecontaineruntiltherootballisloosened.Ifrootsaregrowinginacircularpatternaroundtherootball,slicethroughtherootsonacoupleofsidesoftherootball.Withtreeswrappedinburlap,removethestringorwirethatholdstheburlaptotherootcrown;itisnotnecessarytoremovetheburlapcompletely.Plasticwrapsmustbecompletelyremoved.Gentlyseparatecirclingrootsontherootball.Shortenexceptionallylongrootsandguidetheshortenedrootsdownwardandoutward.Roottipsdiequicklywhenexposedtolightandair,socompletethisstepasquicklyas
possible.4. Placetherootballinthehole.Leavethetopoftherootball(wherethe
rootsendandthetrunkbegins)½to1inchabovethesurroundingsoil,makingsurenottocoveritunlesstherootsareexposed.Forbarerootplants,makeamoundofsoilinthemiddleoftheholeandspreadplantrootsoutevenlyoverthemound.Donotsetthetreetoodeepintothehole.
5. Asyouaddsoiltofillinaroundthetree,lightlytapthesoiltocollapseairpockets,oraddwatertohelpsettlethesoil.Formatemporarywaterbasinaroundthebaseofthetreetoencouragewaterpenetration,andbesuretowaterthetreethoroughlyafterplanting.Atreewithadryrootballcannotabsorbwater;iftherootballisextremelydry,allowwatertotrickleintothesoilbyplacingthehoseatthetrunkofthetree.
Burlapwrapsdonotneedtoberemovedbeforeplantingyourtree.Theywilldecomposeinthesoilwithtime.
6. Placemulcharoundthetree.Acircleofmulch,3-footindiameter,iscommon.
7. Dependingonthesizeofthetreeandthesitecondiions,stakingthetreeinplacemaybebeneficial.Stakingsupportsthetreeuntiltherootsarewellestablishedtoproperlyanchorit.Stakingshouldallowforsomemovementofthetreeonwindydays.Aftertreesareestablished,removeallsupportingwires.Ifthesearenotremoved,theycangirdlethetree,cutintothetrunk,andeventuallykillthetree.
MaintenanceForthefirstyearortwo,especiallyafteraweekorsoofespeciallyhotordryweather,watchyourtreecloselyforsignsofmoisturestress.Ifyouseeanyleafwiltingorhard,cakedsoil,waterthetreewellandslowlyenoughtoallowthewatertosoakin.Thiswillencouragedeeprootgrowth.Keeptheareaunderthetreemulched.
Somespeciesofevergreentreesmayneedprotectionagainstwintersunandwind.Athoroughwateringinthefallbeforethegroundfreezesisrecommended.
Fertilizationisusuallynotneededfornewlyplantedtrees.Dependingonthesoilandgrowingconditions,fertilizermaybebeneficialatalatertime.
ThingsYou’llNeed
TreeShovelWateringcanorgardenhoseMeasuringstickMulchOptional:scissorsorknifetocuttheburlaporcontainer,stakes,andsupportingwires
Pruning
Usually,pruningisnotneededonnewlyplantedtrees.Asthetreegrows,lowerbranchesmaybeprunedtoprovideclearanceabovetheground,ortoremovedeadordamagedlimbsorsuckersthatsproutfromthetrunk.Sometimeslargertreesneedpruningtoallowmorelighttoenterthecanopy.Smallbranchescanberemovedeasilywithpruners.Largebranchesshouldberemovedwitha
pruningsaw.Allcutsshouldbevertical.Thiswillallowthetreetohealquicklywithouttheuseofanyartificialsealants.Majorpruningshouldbedoneinlatewinterorearlyspring.Atthistime,thetreeismorelikelyto“bleed,”assapisrisingthroughtheplant.Thisisactuallyhealthyandwillhelppreventinvasionbymanydisease-carryingorganisms.Undernocircumstanceshouldtreesbetopped(toppingis
choppingofflargetoptreebranches).Notonlydoesthispracticeruinthenaturalshapeofthetree,butitalsoincreasesitssusceptibilitytodiseasesandresultsinverynarrowcrotchitssusceptibilitytodiseasesandresultsinverynarrowangles(theanglebetweenthetrunkandthesidebranch).Narrowcrotchanglesareweakerthanwideonesandmoresusceptibletodamagefromwindandice.Ifalargetreerequiresmajorreductioninheightorsize,contactaprofessionallytrainedarborist.
Youngtreesneedprotectionagainstrodents,frostcracks,sunscald,lawnmowers,andweedwhackers.Inthewintermonths,miceandrabbitsfrequentlygirdlesmalltreesbychewingawaythebarkatthesnowlevel.Sincethetissuesthattransportnutrientsinthetreearelocatedjustunderthebark,agirdledtreeoftendiesinthespringwhengrowthresumes.Weedwhackersarealsoacommoncauseofgirdling.Inordertopreventgirdlingfromoccurring,useplasticguards,whichareinexpensiveandeasytocontrol.
Frostcrackingiscausedbythesunnysideofthetreeexpandingatadifferentratethanthecolder,shadedside.Thiscancauselargesplitsinthetrunk.Topreventthis,wrapyoungtreeswithpapertreewrap,startingfromthebaseandwrappinguptothebottombranches.Sunscaldcanoccurwhenayoungtreeissuddenlymovedfromashadyspotintodirectsunlight.Light-coloredtreewrapscanbeusedtoprotectthetrunkfromsunscald.
FinalThoughtsTreesarenaturalwindbreaks,slowingthewindandprovidingshelterandfood
forwildlife.Treescanhelpprotectlivestock,gardens,andlargercrops.Theyalsohelppreventdustparticlesfromaddingtosmogoverurbanareas.Treeplantingsarekeycomponentsofaneffectiveconservationsystemandcanprovideyouryardwithbeauty,shade,andrich,naturalresources.
ContainerGardening
Analternativetogrowingvegetables,flowers,andherbsinatraditionalgardenistogrowthemincontainers.Whiletheamountthatcanbegrowninacontaineriscertainlylimited,containergardensworkwellfortomatoes,peppers,cucumbers,herbs,saladgreens,andmanyfloweringannuals.Choosevegetablevarietiesthathavebeenspecificallybredforcontainergrowing.Youcanobtainthisinformationonlineoratyourgardencenter.Containergardeningalsobringsbirdsandbutterfliesrighttoyourdoorstep.Hangingbasketsoffuchsiaorpotsofsnapdragonsarefrequentlyvisitedbyhummingbirds,allowingforup-closeobservation.
Containergardeningisanexcellentmethodofgrowingvegetables,herbs,andflowers,especiallyifyoudonothaveadequateoutdoorspaceforafullgardenbed.Acontainergardencanbeplacedanywhere—onthepatio,balcony,rooftop,orwindowsill.Vegetablessuchasleaflettuce,radishes,smalltomatoes,andbabycarrotscanallbegrownsuccessfullyinpots.
HowtoGrowVegetablesinaContainerGardenHerearesomesimplestepstofollowforgrowingvegetablesincontainers.1. Chooseasunnyareaforyourcontainerplants.Yourplantswillneedat
leastfivetosixhoursofsunlightaday.Someplants,suchascucumbers,mayneedmore.Selectplantsthataresuitableforcontainergrowing.Usuallytheirnamewillhavewordssuchas“patio,”“bush,”“dwarf,”“toy,”or“miniature”inthem.Peppers,onions,andcarrotsarealsogoodchoices.
2. Chooseaplanterthatisatleast5gallons,unlesstheplantisverysmall.Pokeholesinthebottomiftheydon’talreadyexist;thesoilmustbeabletodraininordertopreventtherootsfromrotting.Avoidterracottaordarkcoloredpotsastheytendtodryoutquickly.
Youonlyneedafewsimpletoolsforcontainergardening.
3. Fillyourcontainerwithpottingsoil.Goodpottingsoilwillhaveamixtureofpeatmossandvermiculite.Youcanmakeyourownpottingsoilusingcompostedsoil(seepage13).Readthedirectionsontheseedpacketorlabeltodeterminehowdeeptoplantyourseeds.
4. Checkthemoistureofthesoilfrequently.Youdon’twantthesoiltobecomemuddy,butthesoilshouldalwaysfeeldamptothetouch.Donotwaituntiltheplantiswiltingtowaterit—atthatpoint,itmaybetoolate.
ThingstoConsiderFollownormalplantingschedulesforyourclimatewhendeterminingwhentoplantyourcontainergarden.Youmaywishtolineyourcontainerwithporousmaterialssuchasshreddednewspaperorragstokeepthesoilfromwashingout.Besurethewatercanstilldraineasily.
HowtoGrowHerbsinaContainerHerbswillthriveincontainersifcaredforproperly.Andifyoukeepthemnearyourkitchen,youcaneasilysnipoffpiecestouseincooking.Here’showtostartyourownherbcontainergarden:1. Ifyourcontainerdoesn’talreadyhaveholesinthebottom,pokeseveralto
allowthesoiltodrain.Pourgravelintothecontaineruntilitisaboutaquarterofthewayfull.Thiswillhelpthewaterdrainandhelptokeepthesoilfromwashingout.
2. Fillyourcontainerthree-quartersofthewaywithpottingsoilorasoil-basedcompost.
3. It’sbesttouseseedlingswhenplantingherbsincontainers.Teasetherootsslightly,gentlyspreadingthemapartwithyourfingertips.Thiswillencouragethemtospreadonceplanted.Placeeachherbintothepotandcovertherootbasewithsoil.Placeherbsthatwillgrowtallerinthecenterofyourcontainer,andthesmalleronesaroundtheedges.Leaveaboutfoursquareinchesofspacebetweeneachseedling.
4. Asyougentlypressinsoilbetweentheplants,leaveaninchorsobetweenthecontainer’stopandthesoil.Youdon’twantthecontainertooverflowwhenyouwatertheherbs.
5. Cutthetopsoffthetallerherbplantstoencouragethemtogrowfasterandtoproducemoreleaves.
6. Pourwaterintothecontaineruntilitbeginstoleakoutthebottom.Mostherbsliketodryoutbetweenwatering,andover-wateringcancausesomeherbstorotanddie,soonlywatereveryfewdaysunlesstheplantsareinaveryhotplace.
It’seasiesttogrowherbsfromseedlingslikethese,thoughyoucancertainlygrowthemfromseeds,too.
ThingstoConsiderGrowingseveralkindsofherbstogetherhelpstheplantstothrive.Afewexceptionstothisruleareoregano,lemonbalm,andteabalm.Theseherbsshouldbeplantedontheirownbecausetheywillovertaketheotherherbsinyourcontainer.
Youmaywishtochooseyourherbsaccordingtocolortocreateattractivearrangementsforyourhome.Anyofthefollowingherbswillgrowwellincontainers:Silverherbs:artemsias,curryplans,santolinasGoldenherbs:lemonthyme,calendula,nasturtium,sage,lemonbalmBlueherbs:borage,hyssop,rosemary,catnipGreenherbs:basil,mint,marjoram,thyme,parsley,chives,tarragonPinkandpurpleherbs:oregano(theflowers)arepink,lavenderIfyoudecidetotransplantyourherbsinthesummermonths,theywillgrowquitewelloutdoorsandwillgiveyoualargerharvest.
HowtoGrowFlowersfromSeedsinaContainer1. Coverthedrainageholeinthebottomofthepotwithaflatstone.Thiswill
keepthesoilfromtricklingoutwhentheplantiswatered.2. Fillthecontainerwithsoil.Thecontainershouldbefilledalmosttothetop
andforthebestresults,usepottingsoilfromyourlocalnurseryorgardencenter.
3. Makeholesfortheseeds.Refertotheseedpackettoseehowdeeptomaketheholes.Alwayssavetheseedpacketforfuturereference—itmostlikelyhashelpfuldirectionsaboutthinningyoungplants.
4. Placeaseedineachhole.Patthesoilgentlyontopofeachseed.
5. Usealightmisttowateryourseeds,makingsurethatthesoilisonlymoistandnotsoaked.
6. Makesureyourseedsgetthecorrectamountofsunlight.Refertotheseedpacketfortheadequateamountofsunlighteachseedlingneeds.
7. Watchyourseedsgrow.Mostseedstake3to17daystosprout.Oncetheplantsstartsprouting,besuretopulloutplantsthataretooclosetogethersotheremainingplantswillhaveenoughspacetoestablishgoodrootsystems.
8. Remembertowaterandfeedyourcontainerplants.Keepthesoilmoistsoyourplantscangrow.Andinnotimeatall,youshouldhavewonderfulflowersgrowinginyourcontainergarden.
PreservingYourContainerPlantsAsfallapproaches,frostwillsoondescendonyourcontainerplantsandcanultimatelydestroyyourgarden.Containerplantsareparticularlysusceptibletofrostdamage,especiallyifyouaregrowingtropicalplants,perennials,andhardywoodyplantsinasinglecontainergarden.Therearemanywaysthatyoucanpreserveandmaintainyourcontainergardenplantsthroughoutthewinterseason.
Preservationtechniqueswillvarydependingontheplantsinyourcontainergarden.Tropicalplantscanbeover-winteredusingmethodsreplicatingadryseason,forcingtheplantintodormancy;hardyperennialsandwoodyshrubsneedacolddormancytogrowinthespring,sotheymuststayoutside;cactiandsucculentsprefertheirwinterswarmanddryandmustbebroughtinside,whilemanyannualscanbepropagatedbystemcuttingsorcanjustberepottedandmaintainedinside.
Cinderblocksorsimplewoodenplantersmadeofscrapwoodcanmakeinexpensivecontainergardens.
PreservingTropicalBulbsandTubers
Manytropicalplants,suchascannas,elephantears,andangel’strumpetscanbesavedfromanuntimelydeathbyover-winteringtheminadarkcornerorsunnywindowofyourhome,dependingonthetypeofplant.Alotofbulbousandtuberoustropicalplantshaveanaturaldryseason(analogoustoourwinter)whentheirleafypartsdieoff,leavingthebulbbehind.Don’tthrowthebulbsaway.Afterheavyfroststurntheabovegroundplantpartstomush,cutthedamagedfoliageoffabout4inchesabovethethickenedbulb.Then,digthemupandremoveallexcesssoilfromtheroots.Atthispoint,youcandetermineiftheclumpneedsdividing.Ifitneedsdividing,besuretodustallcutsurfaceswithasulfurbasedfungicidemadeforbulbstopreventthewoundsfromrotting.Cuttherootsbackto1inchfromthebulbandleavetodryoutevenly.Rottenbulbsorrootsneedtobethrownawaysoinfectiondoesn’tspreadtothehealthybulbs.
Abulb’sortuber’sdryingtimecanlastuptotwoweeksifitissittingonsomethingabsorbentlikenewspaperandlocatedsomewhereshadedanddry—preferablyaround50°F—suchasagarageorbasement.Oncecleananddry,bulbsshouldbestoredallwinterindamp(notsoggy)milledpeatmoss.Thispreventsthebulbsfromdryingoutanyfurther,whichcouldcausethemtodie.
Manygardenersdon’thaveaperfectlycoolbasementorgaragetokeepbulbsdormant.Alternativemethodsfordrystorageincludeadarkclosetwiththedoorcrackedforcirculation,acabinet,orunderneathabedinacardboardboxwithafewholespunchedforairflow.Theimportantthingtokeepinmindisthatthebulbneedstobekeptonthedryside,inthedark,andmoderatelywarm.
Growingflowersfromseeds.
Ifabulbwasgrownasasinglespecimeninitsownpot,theentirepotcanbeplacedinagaragethatstaysabove50°Foracoolbasementandallowedtodryoutcompletely.Cutallabovegroundplantpartsflushwiththesoilanddon’twateruntiltheoutsidetemperaturesstabilizeabove60°F.Often,bulbsbreakdormancyunexpectedlyinthisdrypotmethod.Ifthishappens,potscanbemovedtoasunnylocationnearawindowandwateredsparinglyuntiltheycanbeplacedoutside.Theemergingleaveswillbestunted,butonceoutside,theplantwillreplaceanyspindlyleaveswithlush,newones.
Annuals
Manyherbaceousannualscanalsobesavedforthefollowingyear.Byrootingstemcuttingsinwateronasunnywindowsill,plantslikeimpatiens,coleus,sweetpotatovinecultivars,andpurpleheartcanbeheldoverwinteruntilneededinthespring.Otherwise,theplantscanbecutbackbyhalf,pottedinapeat-based,soillessmix,andplacedonasunnywindowsill.Withawideassortmentof“annuals”availableonthemarket,someresearchisrequiredtodeterminewhichannualscanbeover-winteredsuccessfully.Trueannuals(suchasbasils,cockscomb,andzinnias)—regardlessofanytreatmentgiven—willgotoseedanddiewhenbroughtinside.
CactiandSucculents
Ifyouplantedamixeddrycontainerthisyearandwanttoretainanyoftheplantsfornextyear,theyshouldberemovedfromthemaincontainerandrepottedintoahigh-sand-contentsoilmixforcactiandsucculents.Keepthemnearasunnywindowandwaterwhendry.Manysucculentsandcactidowellindoors,eitherinaheatedgarageoramoderatelysunnycornerofalivingroom.
Youcanmakecontainergardensoutofalmostanything.
Aswithothertropicalplants,succulentsalsoneedtimetoadjusttosunnierconditionsinthespring.Movethemtoashadyspotoutsidewhentemperatureshavestabilizedabove60°Fandthengraduallyintroducethemtobrighterconditions.
HardyPerennials,Shrubs,andVines
Hardyperennials,woodyshrubs,andvinesneedn’tbethrownawaywhenit’stimetogetridofaccentcontainers.Crack-resistant,four-seasoncontainerscanhouseperennialsandwoodyshrubsyear-round.Belowisalistofspecific
perennialsandwoodyplantsthatdowellinbothhotandcoldweather,indoorsandout:
Shadeperennials,likecoralbells,lentenrose,assortedhardyferns,andJapaneseforestgrassaregreatforallweathercontainers.Sun-lovingperennials,suchassedges,somesalvias,purpleconeflower,daylily,spiderwort,andbeeblossomarealsoveryhardyanddowellinyear-roundcontainers.Interplantthemwithcoolgrowingplants,likekale,pansies,andSwisschard,forfallandspringinterest.Woodyshrubsandvines—manyofwhichhavegreatfoliageinterestwithfour-seasonappeal—areidealforcontainergardens.Red-twiggeddogwoodcultivars,clematisvinecultivars,anddwarfcrapemyrtlecultivarsaregreatcontaineradditionsthatcanstayoutdoorsyear-round.
Ifthecontainerhastoberemoved,hardyperennialsandwoodyshrubscanbetemporarilyplantedinthegroundandmulched.Digthemfromthegardeninthespring,ifyouwish,andreplantintoacontainer.Or,leavethemintheirgardenspotandstartoverwithfreshideasandnewplantmaterialforyourcontainergarden.
SustainablePlantsandMoneyinYourPocket
Over-winteringisagreatformofsustainableplantconservationachievedsimplyandeffectivelybyadheringtoeachplant’sculturalandenvironmentalneeds.Withcarefulplanningandstoragetechniques,you’llsavemoneyaswellasplantmaterial.Thebeautyandinterestyou’vecreatedinthisseason’swell-growncontainergardencanalsoprovideenjoymentforyearstocome.
RooftopGardens
Ifyouliveinanurbanareaanddon’thavealawn,thatdoesnotmeanthatyoucannothaveagarden.Whetheryouliveinanapartmentbuildingorownyourownhomewithoutyardspace,youcangrowyourveryowngarden,rightonyourroof!
IsYourRoofSuitableforaRooftopGarden?Theoretically,anyroofsurfacecanbegreened—evenslopedorcurvedroofscansupportalayerofsodorwildflowers.However,iftheangleofyourroofisover30degreesyoushouldconsultwithaspecialist.Veryslantedroofsmakeitdifficulttokeepthesoilinplaceuntiltheplant’srootstakehold.Certainly,aflatroof,approximatinglevelgroundconditionsistheeasiestonwhichtogrowagarden,thoughaslightslantcanbehelpfulinallowingdrainage.
Alsoconsiderhowmuchweightyourroofcanbear.Asimple,lightweightrooftopgardenwillweighbetween13and30poundspersquarefoot.Addtothisyourownweight—orthatofanyonewhowillbetendingorenjoyingthegarden—gardeningtools,and,ifyouliveinacolderclimate,theadditionalweightofsnowinthewinter.
WillaRooftopGardenCauseWaterLeakageorOtherDamage?No.Infact,plantingbedsorsurfacesareoftenusedtoprotectandinsulateroofs.However,youshouldtakesomeprecautionstoprotectyourroof:1. Coveryourroofwithalayerofwaterproofmaterial,suchasaheavy-duty
pondliner.Youmaywanttoplaceanoldrugontopofthewaterproofmaterialtohelpitstayinplaceandtogiveadditionalsupporttothematerialsontop.
Rooftopgardensarebecomingmorepopularinurbanareasaroundtheworld.
Youcanusecontainerplantsonyourrooftopratherthanlayingagardendirectlyontheroof.However,stillbesurethatyourroofissturdyenough
toholdthepotsandthepeoplewhowillbetendingthem.
2. Placeaprotectivedrainagelayerontopofthewaterproofmaterial.Otherwise,shovels,shoeheels,ordroppedtoolscouldpuncturetheroof.Useacoarsematerialsuchasgravel,pumice,orexpandedshale.
3. Placeafilterlayerontopofthedrainagelayertokeepsoilinplacesothatitwon’tclogupyourdrainage.Alightweightpolyestergeotextile(aninexpensive,non-wovenfabricfoundatmosthomeimprovementstores)isidealforthis.Notethatifyourroofhasanangleofover10degrees,onlyinstallthefilterlayeraroundtheedgesoftheroofasitcanincreaseslippage.
4. Usingmoveableplantersorcontainers,modularwalkwaysandsurfacingtreatment,andcompartmentalizedplantingbedswillmakeiteasiertofixleaksshouldtheyappear.
BenefitsofRooftopGardening
Createmoreoutdoorgreenspacewithinyoururbanenvironment.Growyourownfreshvegetables—eveninthecity.ImproveairqualityandreduceCO2emissions.Helpdelaystormwaterrunoff.Giveadditionalinsulationtobuildingroofs.Reducenoise.
ThingstoConsider1. Ifyouliveinaveryhotarea,youmaywanttobuildsmallwooden
platformstoelevateyourplantsabovethehotrooftop.Thiswillhelpincreasetheventilationaroundtheplants.
2. Whendeterminingwhetherornotyourroofisstrongenoughtosupportagarden,rememberthatlargepotsfullofwaterandsoilwillbeveryheavy,andiftheroofisnotstrongenough,yourgardencouldcausestructuraldamage.
3. Youcanusepotsorothercontainersonyourrooftopratherthanmakingafullgardenbed.Youshouldstillfirstfindouthowmuchweightyourroofcanholdandchooselightweightcontainers.
4. Consideraddingafenceorrailingaroundyourroof,especiallyifchildrenwillbehelpinginthegarden.
HowtoMakeaRooftopGarden
Preparation1. Beforeyoubegin,findoutifitispossibleandlegaltocreatea
gardenonyourroof.Youdon’twanttospendlotsoftimeand
moneypreparingforagardenandthenfindoutthatitisprohibited.
2. Makesurethattheroofisabletoholdtheweightofarooftopgarden.Ifso,figureouthowmuchweightitcanhold.Rememberthiswhenmakingthegardenanduselightercontainersandsoilasneeded.
SettingUptheGarden1. Installyourwaterproof,protectivedrainage,andfilterlayers,as
describedearlier.Ifyourroofisangled,youmaywanttoplaceawoodenframearoundtheedgesoftherooftokeepthelayersfromslidingoff.Besuretouserot-resistantwoodandcutoutletsintotheframetoallowexcesswatertodrainaway.Layerpebblesaroundtheoutletstoaiddrainageandtokeepvegetationfromcloggingthem.
2. Addsoiltoyourgarden.Itshouldbe1–4inchesthickandwillbebestifit’samixof¾inorganicsoil(crushedbrickorasimilargranularmaterial)and¼organiccompost.
PlantingandMaintainingtheGarden1. Startplanting.Youcanplantseeds,seedlings,ortransplant
matureplants.Chooseplantsthatarewind-resistantandwon’tneedagreatdealofmaintenance.Sedumsmakeexcellentrooftopplantsastheyrequireverylittleattentiononceplanted,arehardy,andareattractivethroughoutmostoftheyear.Mostvegetablescanbegrownin-seasononrooftops,thoughthewindwillmaketallervegetables(likecornorbeans)difficulttogrow.Ifyourroofisslanted,plantdrought-resistantplantvarietiesnearthepeak,asthey’llgetlesswater.
2. Wateryourgardenimmediatelyafterplanting,andthenregularlythroughoutthegrowingseason,unlessraindoestheworkforyou.
RaisedBeds
Ifyouliveinanareawherethesoiliswet(preventingagoodvegetablegardenfromgrowinginthespring),finditdifficulttobendovertoplantandcultivateyourvegetablesorflowers,orifyoujustwantadifferentlooktoyourbackyardgarden,considerbuildingaraisedbed.
Araisedbedisaninterestingandaffordablewaytogarden.Itcreatesanidealenvironmentforgrowingvegetables,sincethesoilconcentrationcanbecloselymonitoredand,asitisraisedabovetheground,itreducesthecompactionofplantsfrompeoplewalkingonthesoil.
Raisedbedsaretypically2to6feetwideandaslongasneeded.Inmostcases,araisedbedconsistsofa“frame”thatisfilledinwithnutrient-richsoil(includingcompostororganicfertilizers)andisthenplantedwithavarietyofvegetablesorflowers,dependingonthegardener’spreference.Bycontrollingthebed’sconstructionandthesoilmixturethatgoesintothebed,agardenercaneffectivelyreducetheamountofweedsthatwillgrowinthegarden.
Whenplantingseedsoryoungsproutsinaraisedbed,itisbesttospacetheplantsequallyfromeachotheronallsides.Thiswillensurethattheleaveswillbetouchingoncetheplantismature,thussavingspaceandreducingthesoil’smoistureloss.
HowtoMakeaRaisedBed
StepOne:PlanOutYourRaisedBed1. Thinkabouthowyou’dlikeyourraisedbedtolook,andthendesignthe
shape.Araisedbedisnotextremelycomplicated,andallyouneedtodoisbuildanopen-topandopen-bottombox(ifyouareambitious,youcancreatearaisedbedintheshapeofacircle,hexagon,orstar).Themainpurposeofthisboxistoholdsoil.
2. Makeadrawingofyourraisedbed,measureyouravailablegardenspace,andaddthosemeasurementstoyourdrawing.Thiswillallowyoutodeterminehowmuchmaterialisneeded.Generally,yourbedshouldbeat
least24inchesinheight.
Raisedbedsmakeneat,attractivegardensandmakeiteasytomonitortheconditionofthesoil.
3. Decidewhatkindofmaterialyouwanttouseforyourraisedbed.Youcanuselumber,plastic,syntheticwood,railroadties,bricks,rocks,oranumberofotheritemstoholdthedirt.Usinglumberistheeasiestandmostefficientmethod.
4. Gatheryoursupplies.
StepTwo:BuildYourRaisedBed1. Makesureyourbedwillbesituatedinaplacethatgetsplentyofsunlight.
Carefullyassessyourplacement,asyourraisedbedwillbefairlypermanent.
2. Connectthesidesofyourbedtogether(witheitherscrewsornails)toformthedesiredshapeofyourbed.Ifyouareusinglumber,youcanuse4x4-inchpoststoserveasthecornersofyourbed,andthennailorscrewthesidestothesecornerposts.Bydoingso,youwillincreasethestrengthofthestructureandensurethatthedirtwillstayinside.
3. Cutapieceofgardeningplastictofitinsideyourraisedbed,andlayitoutintheappropriatelocation.Thiswillsignificantlyreducetheamountofweedsgrowinginyourgarden.
4. Placeyourframeoverthegardeningplastic(thismighttaketwopeople).
StepThree:StartPlanting1. Addsomecompostintothebottomofthebedandthenlayerpottingsoilon
topofthecompost.Ifyouhavesoilfromotherpartsofyouryard,feelfreetousethatinadditiontothecompostandpottingsoil.Planonfillingatleastı⁄3ofyourraisedbedwithcompostorcompostedmanure(availablefromnurseriesorgardencentersin40-poundbags).
2. Mixindryorganicfertilizers(likewoodash,bonemeal,andbloodmeal)whilebuildingyourbed.Followthepackageinstructionsforhowbesttomixitin.
3. Decidewhatyouwanttoplant.Somepeopleliketogrowflowersintheirraisedbeds;othersprefertogrowvegetables.Ifyoudowanttogrowfood,raisedbedsareexcellentchoicesforsaladgreens,carrots,onions,radishes,beets,andotherrootcrops.
ThingstoConsider1. Tosavemoney,trytodigupandusesoilfromyouryard.Pottingsoilcan
beexpensive,andyardsoilisjustaseffectivewhenmixedwithcompost.2. Becreativewhenbuildingyourraisedplantingbed.Youcanconstructa
greatraisedbedoutofrecycledgoodsoroldlumber.3. Youcanconvertyourraisedbedintoagreenhouse.Justaddhoopstoyour
bedbybendingandconnectingPVCpipeoverthebed.Thenclip
greenhouseplastictothePVCpipes,andyouhaveyourowngreenhouse.4. Makesuretowateryourraisedbedoften.Becauseitisaboveground,your
raisedbedwillnotretainwateraswellasthesoilintheground.Ifyoukeepyourbednarrow,itwillhelpconservewater.
5. Decorateorilluminateyourraisedbedtomakeitafocalpointinyouryard.6. Ifyouuselumbertoconstructyourraisedbed,keepawatchoutfor
termites.7. Bewareofold,pressure-treatedlumber,asitmaycontainarsenicandcould
potentiallyleakintotherootsystemsofanyvegetablesyoumightgrowinyourraisedbed.Newerpressure-treatedlumbershouldnotcontainthesetoxicchemicals.
ThingsYou’llNeed
Formsforyourraisedbed(considerusing4x4-inchpostscutto24inchesinheightforcorners,and2x12-inchboardsforthesides)NailsorscrewsHammerorscrewdriverPlasticliner(toactasaweedbarrieratthebottomofyourbed)ShovelCompost,orcompostingmanureSoil(eitherpottingsoilorsoilfromanotherpartofyouryard)Rake(tosmoothoutthesoilonceinthebed)SeedsoryoungplantsOptional:PVCpipingandgreenhouseplastic(toconvertyourraisedbedtoagreenhouse)
GrowingPlantswithoutSoil
Plantsgrowninsoillessculturesstillneedthebasicrequirementsofplantgrowth,suchastemperature,light(ifindoors,useaheat-lampandsetthecontainernearoronawindowsill),water,oxygen(youcanproducegoodairflowbyusingasmall,rotatingfanindoors),carbondioxide,andmineralnutrients(derivedfromsolutions).Butpalntsgrownwithoutsoilhavetheirrootseitherfree-floatinginanutrient-richsolutionorbeddedinasoil-likemedium,suchassand,gravel,brickshards,Perlite,orrockwool.Theseplantsdonothavetoexertasmuchenergytogathernutrientsfromthesoilandthustheygrowmorequicklyand,usually,moreproductively.
TypesofSoillessSystemsTherearetwomaintypesofsoillessculturesthatcanbeusedinordertogrowplantsandvegetables.Thefirstisawaterculture,inwhichplantsaresuppliedwithmineralnutrientsdirectlyfromthewatersolution.Thesecond,calledaggregatecultureor“sandculture,”usesanaggregate(suchassand,gravel,orPerlite)assoiltoprovideananchoringsupportfortheplantroots.Bothtypesofhydroponicsareeffectiveingrowingsoillessplantsandinprovidingessentialnutrientsforhealthyandproductiveplantgrowth.
TheBenefitsandDrawbacksofGrowingPlantsinaHydroponicsSystemHydroponicsisthemethodofgrowingplantsinacontainerfilledwithanutrient-richbath(waterwithspecialfertilizer)andnosoil.
Lettuceisespeciallywell-suitedtohydroponicssystems.
Inthistypeofhydroponicssystem,adripperreleasesthenutrientsolutionintothetoplayerofpiping.Itthenflowsinasteadystreamdownthroughtheother
layersofpiping.
Benefits:Plantscanbegrowninareaswherenormalplantagricultureisdifficult(suchasdesertsandotheraridplaces,orcities).
Mostterrestrialplantswillgrowinahydroponicssystem.Thereisminimalweedgrowth.Thesystemtakesuplessspacethansoilsystem.Itconserveswater.Nofearofcontaminatedrunofffromgardenfertilizers.Thereislesslaborandcostinvolved.Certainseasonalplantscanberaisedduringanyseason.Thequalityofproduceisgenerallyconsistent.Oldnutrientsolutioncanbeusedtowaterhouseplants.
Drawbacks:Cancausesalmonellatogrowduetothewetandconfinedconditions.Moredifficulttogrowrootvegetables,suchascarrotsandpotatoes.Ifnutrientsolutionisnotregularlychanged,plantscanbecomenutrientdeficientandthusnotgroworproduce.
WaterCultureThemainadvantageofusingawaterculturesystemisthatasignificantpartofthenutrientsolutionisalwaysincontactwiththeplants’roots.Thisprovidesanadequateamountofwaterandnutrients.Themainchallengesofthissystemareprovidingsufficientairsupplyfortherootsandprovidingtherootswithpropersupportandanchorage.
Waterculturesystemsarenotextremelyexpensive,thoughthecostdoesdependonthepriceofthechemicalsandwaterusedinthepreparationofthenutrientsolutions,thesizeofyourcontainer,andwhetherornotyourareusingmechanizedobjects,suchaspumpsandfilters.Youcandecreasethecostbystartingsmallandusingreadilyavailablematerials.
MaterialsNeededtoMakeYourOwnWaterCulture
Alargewaterculturesystemwillneedeitherawoodorconcretetank6to18inchesdeepand2to3feetwide.Ifyouuseawoodencontainer,besuretherearenoknotsinthewoodandsealthetankwithnon-creosoteortarasphalt.
Forsmallwaterculturesystems,whicharerecommendedforbeginners,glassjars,earthenwarecrocks,orplasticbucketswillsufficeasyourholdingtanks.Ifyourcontaineristransparent,besuretopainttheoutsideofthecontainerwith
blackpainttokeepthelightout(andtokeepalgaefromgrowinginsideyoursystem).Keepanarrow,verticalstripunpaintedinordertoseethelevelofthenutrientsolutioninsideyourcontainer.
Theplantbedshouldbe3ormoreinchesdeepandlargeenoughtocoverthecontainerortank.Inordertosupporttheweightofthelitter(whereyourseedsorseedlingsareplaced),coverthebottomofthebedwithchickenwireandthenfillthebedwithlitter(woodshavings,sphagnummoss,peat,orotherorganicmaterialsthatdonoteasilydecay).Ifyouarestartingyourplantsfromseeds,germinatetheseedsinabedofsandandthentransplanttothewaterculturebed,keepingthebedmoistuntiltheplantsgettheirrootsdownintothenutrientsolution.
Inawaterculturesystem,therootsarealwaysincontactwiththenutrientsolution.
Aeration
Adifficultyinusingwatercultureiskeepingthesolutionproperlyaerated.Itisimportanttokeepenoughspacebetweentheseedbedandthenutrientsolutionsotheplant’srootscanreceiveproperoxygen.Inordertomakesurethataircaneasilyflowintothecontainer,eitherpropuptheseedbedslightlytoallowairflowordrillaholeinyourcontainerjustabovethehighestsolutionlevel.
Tomakesurethereissufficientoxygenreachingtheplantroots,youcaninstallanaquariumpumpinyourwaterculturesystem.Justmakesurethatthewaterisnotagitatedtoomuchortherootsmaybedamaged.Youcanalsouseanairstoneorperforatedpipetogentlyintroduceairflowintoyourcontainer.
WaterSupply
Yourhydroponicssystemneedsanadequatesupplyoffreshwatertomaintainhealthyplantlife.Makesurethatthenaturalmineralsinyourwaterarenotgoingtoadverselyaffectyourhydroponicsplants.Ifthereistoomuchsodiuminyourwater(usuallyaneffectofsoftenedwater),itcouldbecometoxictoyourplants.Ingeneral,themineralsinwaterarenotharmfultothegrowthofyourplants.
NutrientSolution
Youmayaddnutrientsolutionbyhand,byagravity-feedsystem,ormechanically.Insmallerwaterculturesystems,mixingthenutrientsolutioninasmallcontainerandaddingitbyhand,asneeded,istypicallyadequate.
Ifyouareusingalargersetup,agravity-feedsystemwillworkquitewell.Inthistypeofsystem,thenutrientsolutionismixedinavatandthentappedfromthevatintoyourcontainerasneeded.Youcanuseaplasticcontainerorlargerearthenwarejarasthevat.
Apumpcanalsobeusedtosupplyyoursystemwithadequatenutrientsolution.Youcaninsertthepumpintothevatandthentransferthesolutiontoyourhydroponicssystem.
Whenyourplantsareyoung,itisimportanttokeepthespacebetweenyourseedbedandthenutrientsolutionsmall(thatway,theyoungplantrootscanreachthenutrients).Asyourplantsgrow,theamountofspacebetweenthebedandsolutionshouldincrease(butdothisslowlyandkeepthelevelratherconsistent).
Ifthetemperatureisratherhighandthereisincreasedevaporation,itisimportanttokeeptherootsatthecorrectlevelinthewaterandchangethenutrientsolutioneveryday,ifneeded.
Drainyourcontainereverytwoweeksandthenrenewthenutrientsolutionfromyourvatorbyhand.Thismustbedoneinashortamountoftimesotherootsdonotdryout.
Transplanting
Whentransplantingyourseedlings,it’simportantthatyouarecarefulwiththe
tinyrootsystems.Gentlywork
ThingsYou’llNeed
ExternalpumpAirlineortubingAirstonesWaterproofbin,bucket,orfishtanktouseasareserveStyrofoamNetpotsTypeofgrowingmedium,suchasrockwoolorgrowrocksHydroponicsnutrients,suchasgrowformula,bloomformula,supplements,andpHBlackspraypaint(thisisonlyrequiredifthereservoiristransparent)Knife,boxcutter,orscissorsTapemeasuretherootsthroughthesupportnettinganddownintothenutrientsolution.Thenfillinthesupportnettingwithlittertohelptheplantremainupright.
HowtoBuildaSimple,HomemadeHydroponicsSystem
StepstoBuildingYourHydroponicsSystem:1. Findacontainertouseasareservoir,suchasafishtank,abin,orabucket
ofsomesort.Thereservoirshouldbepaintedblackifitisnotlightproof(orcoveredwithathick,blacktrashbagifyouwanttoreusethetankatsomepoint),andallowedtodrybeforemovingontothenextstep.Allowinglighttoenterthereservoirwillpromotethegrowthofalgae.Itisagoodideatouseareservoirthatisthesamedimensions(lengthandwidth)fromtoptobottom.
2. Usingaknifeorsharpobject,scorealineonthetank(scratchoffsomepaintinastraightlinefromtoptobottom).Thiswillbeyourwaterlevelmeter,whichwillallowyoutoseehowmuchwaterisinthereservoirand
willgiveyouamoreaccurateandconvenientviewofthenutrientsolutionlevelinyourtank.
3. Useatapemeasuretodeterminethelengthandwidthofyourreservoir.Measuretheinsideofthereservoirfromoneendtotheother.Onceyouhavethedimensions,cuttheStyrofoam¼inchsmallerthanthesizeofthereservoir.Forexample,ifyourdimensionsare36x20inches,youshouldcuttheStyrofoamto35¾x19¾inches.TheStyrofoamshouldfitnicelyinthereservoir,withjustenoughroomtoadjusttoanywaterlevelchanges.Ifthereservoirtapersoffatthebottom(thebottomissmallerindimensionthanthetop)thefloater(Styrofoam)shouldbe2to4inchessmallerthanthereservoir,ormoreifnecessary.
Asimplehydroponicssystem.
4. DonotplacetheStyrofoaminthereservoiryet.First,youneedtocutholesforthenetpots.PutthenetpotsontheStyrofoamwhereyouwanttoplaceeachplant.Usingapenorpencil,tracearoundthebottomofeachnetpot.Useaknifeorboxcuttertofollowthetracelinesandcuttheholesforpots.OnoneendoftheStyrofoam,cutasmallholefortheairlinetorunintothereservoir.
5. Thenumberofplantsyoucangrowwilldependonthesizeofthegardenyoubuildandthetypesofcropsyouwanttogrow.Remembertospaceplantsappropriatelysothateachreceivesampleamountsoflight.
6. Thepumpyouchoosemustbestrongenoughtoprovideenoughoxygentosustainplantlife.Askforadvicechoosingapumpatyourlocalhydroponicssupplystoreorgardencenter.
7. Connecttheairlinetothepumpandattachtheairstonetothefreeend.Theairlineshouldbelongenoughtotravelfromthepumpintothebottomofthereservoir,oratleastfloatinthemiddleofthetanksotheoxygenbubblescangettotheplantroots.Italsomustbetherightsizeforthepumpyouchoose.Mostpumpswillcomewiththecorrectsizeairline.To
determinethetank’scapacity,useaone-gallonbucketorbottleandfillthereservoir.Remembertocounthowmanygallonsittakestofillthereservoirandyouwillknowthecorrectcapacityofyourtank.
SettingUpYourHydroponicsSystem1. Fillthereservoirwiththenutrientsolution.2. PlacetheStyrofoamintothereservoir.3. Runtheairlinethroughthedesignatedholeornotch.
ThingstoConsiderAhomemadehydroponicssystemlikethisisnotidealforlarge-scaleproductionofplantsorforcommercialusage.Thisparticularsystemdoesnotofferawaytoconvenientlychangethenutrientsolution.Anextracontainerwouldberequiredtoholdthefloaterwhileyouchangethesolution.Lettuce,watercress,tomatoes,cucumbers,andherbsgrowespeciallywellhydroponically.
4. Fillthenetpotswithgrowingmediumandplaceoneplantineachpot.5. PutthenetpotsintothedesignatedholesintheStyrofoam.6. Pluginthepump,turniton,andstartgrowingwithyourfullyfunctional,
homemadehydroponicssystem.
AggregateCultureAggregateculturesystemsutilizedifferentmediumsthatactinplaceofsoiltostabilizetheplantanditsroots.Theaggregateinthecontainerisfloodedwiththenutrientsolution.Theadvantageofthistypeofsystemisthatthereisnotasmuchtroublewithaeratingtheroots.Also,aggregateculturesystemsallowfortheeasytransplantationofseedlingsintotheaggregatemediumanditislessexpensive.
MaterialsNeededforanAggregateCultureSystem
Thecontainershouldbewatertighttohelpconservethenutrientsolution.Large
tankscanbemadeofconcreteorwood,andsmalleroperationscaneffectivelybedoneinglassjars,earthenwarecontainers,orplasticbuckets.Makesuretopainttransparentcontainersblack.
Aggregatematerialsmaydiffergreatly,dependingonwhattypeyouchoosetouse.Silicasand(wellwashed)isoneofthebestmaterialsthatcanbeused.Anyothertypeofcoarse-texturedsandisalsoeffective,butmakesureitdoesnotcontainlime.Sandholdsmoisturequitewellanditallowsforeasytransplantation.Amixtureofsandandgraveltogetherisalsoaneffectiveaggregate.Othermaterials,suchaspeatmoss,vermiculite,woodshavings,andcocopeat,arealsogoodaggregates.Youcanfindaggregatematerialsatyourlocalgardencenter,homecenter,orgarden-supplyhouse.
Aeration
Aggregateculturesystemsallowmucheasieraerationthanwaterculturesystems.Drainingandrefillingthecontainerwithnutrientsolutionhelpstheairtomoveinandoutoftheaggregatematerial.Thisbringsafreshsupplyofoxygentotheplantroots.
WaterSupply
Thesamewaterrequirementsareneededforthistypeofhydroponicssystemasforawaterculturesystem.Mineralsinthewatertendtocollectintheaggregatematerial,soit’sagoodideatoflushthematerialwithfreshwatereveryfewweeks.
NutrientSolution
Thesimplestwayofaddingthenutrientsolutiontoaggregateculturesistopouritovertheaggregatesbyhand.Youmayalsouseamanualgravity-feedsystem
withbucketsorvats.Attachthevattothebottomofthecontainerwithaflexiblehose,raisethevattofloodthecontainer,andlowerittodrainit.Coverthevattopreventevaporationandreplenishitwithnewnutrientsolutiononceeverytwoweeks.
Agravitydrip-feedsystemalsoworkswellandhelpsreducetheamountofworkyoudo.Placethevathigherthanthecontainer,andthencontrolthesolutiondripsoitisjustfastenoughtokeeptheaggregatemoist.
Itisimportantthatthenutrientsolutionisaddedanddrainedorraisedandloweredatleastonceaday.Inhotterweather,theaggregatematerialmayneedmorewettingwiththesolution.Makesurethatthematerialisnotdryingouttheroots.Drenchingtheaggregatewithsolutionoftenwillnotharmtheplantsbutlettingtherootsdryoutcouldhavedetrimentaleffects.
Alwaysreplaceyournutrientsolutionaftertwoweeks.Notreplacingthesolutionwillcausesaltsandharmfulfertilizerresiduestobuildup,whichmayultimatelydamageyourplants.
Planting
Youmayuseeitherseedlingsorrootedcuttingsinanaggregateculturesystem.Theaggregateshouldbefloodedandsolutiondrainedbeforeplantingtocreateamoist,compactedseedbed.Seedsmayalsobeplanteddirectlyintotheaggregatematerial.Donotplanttheseedstoodeep,andfloodthecontainerfrequentlywithwatertokeeptheaggregatemoist.Oncetheseedlingshavegerminated,youmaystartusingthenutrientsolution.
Ifyouaretransplantingseedlingsfromagerminationbed,makesuretheyhavegerminatedinsoillessmaterial,asanysoilleftontherootsmaycausethemtorotandmayhampertheminobtainingnutrientsfromthesolution.
Pre-mixedChemicalsManyoftheessentialnutrientsneededforhydroponicplantgrowtharenowavailablealreadymixedintheircorrectproportions.Youmayfindthesesolutionsincatalogsorfromgarden-supplystores.Theyaretypicallyinexpensiveandonlysmallquantitiesareneededtohelpyourplantsgrowstrongandhealthy.Alwaysfollowthedirectionsonthecontainerwhenusingpre-mixedchemicals.
MakingYourOwnSolution
Intheeventthatyouwanttomakeyourownnutrientsolution,hereisaformulaforasolutionthatwillprovideallthemajorelementsrequiredforyourplantstogrow.
Youcanobtainallofthesechemicalsfromgarden-supplystoresordrugstores.
MakingNutrientSolutions
Forplantstogrowproperly,theymustreceivenitrogen,phosphorous,potassium,calcium,magnesium,sulfur,iron,manganese,boron,zinc,copper,molybdenum,andchlorine.Thereisawiderangeofnutrientsolutionsthatcanbeused.Ifyourplantsarereceivinginadequateamountsofnutrients,theywillshowthisindifferentways.Thismeansthatyoumustproceedwithcautionwhenselectingandaddingthemineralsthatwillbepresentinyournutrientsolution.
Itisimportanttohavepurenutrientmaterialswhenpreparingthesolution.Usingfertilizer-gradechemicalsisalwaysthebestroutetogo,asitischeapest.Makesurethecontainersareclosedandnotexposedtoair.Evaporatedsolutionsincreasetheamountofsaltwhichcouldharmyourplants.
Afterallthechemicalshavebeenmixedintothesolution,checkthepHofthesolution.ApHof7.0isneutral;anythingbelow7.0isacidicandanythingaboveisalkaline.CertainplantsgrowbestincertainpHs.PlantsthatgrowwellatalowerpH(between4.5and5.5)areazaleas,buttercups,gardenias,androses;plantsthatgrowwellataneutralpHarepotatoes,zinnias,andpumpkins;most
plantsgrowbestinaslightlyacidicpH(between5.5and6.5).
TodeterminethepHofyoursolution,useapHindicator(theseareusuallypaperstrips).ThestripwillchangecolorwhenplacedindifferentlevelsofpH.IfyoufindyourpHleveltobeaboveyourdesiredrange,youcanbringitdownbyaddingdilutesulfuricacidinsmallquantitiesusinganeyedropper.KeepretestinguntilyoureachyourdesiredpHlevel.
PlantNutrientDeficienciesWhenplantsarelackingnutrients,theytypicallydisplaythesedeficienciesoutwardly.Followingisalistofsymptomsthatmightoccurifaplantislackingacertaintypeofnutrient.Ifyourplantsdisplayanyofthesesymptoms,itisimperativethatthelevelofthatparticularnutrientbeincreased.
DeficientNutrient Symptoms
Boron Tipoftheshootdies;stemsandpetiolesarebrittle
Calcium Tipoftheshootdies;tipsoftheyoungleavesdie;tipsoftheleavesarehooked
Iron Newupperleavesturnyellowbetweentheveins;edgesandtipsofleavesmaydie
Magnesium Lowerleavesareyellowbetweentheveins;leafmarginscurlupordown;leavesdie
Manganese Newupperleaveshavedeadspots;leafmightappearnetted
Nitrogen Leavesaresmallandlightgreen;lowerleavesarelighterthanupperleaves;weakstalks
Phosphorous Dark-greenfoliage;lowerleavesareyellowbetweentheveins;purplishcoloronleaves
Potassium Lowerleavesmightbemottled;deadareasneartipsofleaves;yellowingatleafmarginsandtowardthecenter
Sulfur upperleaves;leafveinsarelighterthansurroundingarea
SulfurLight-green
upperleaves;leafveinsarelighterthansurroundingarea
Aggregatecultureisespeciallyusefulinurbanareaswherequalitysoilisnotreadilyavailable.Iftheonlyspotyouhaveforagardenisoutsideyourwindow,youshouldstillbeabletogrowavarietyofflowers,vegetables,orherbs.
PestandDiseaseManagement
Pestmanagementcanbeoneofthegreatestchallengestothehomegardener.Yardpestsincludeweeds,insects,diseases,andsomespeciesofwildlife.Weedsareplantsthataregrowingoutofplace.Insectpestsincludeanenormousnumberofspecies,fromtinythripsthatarenearlyinvisibletothenakedeye,tothelargelarvaeofthetomatohornworm.Plantdiseasesarecausedbyfungi,bacteria,viruses,andotherorganisms—someofwhichareonlynowbeingclassified.Poorplantnutritionandmisuseofpesticidesalsocancauseinjurytoplants.Slugs,mites,andmanyspeciesofwildlife,suchasrabbits,deer,andcrowscanbeextremelydestructiveaswell.
IdentifytheProblemCarefulidentificationoftheproblemisessentialbeforetakingmeasurestocontroltheissueinyourgarden.Someinsectdamagemayatfirstappeartobeadisease,especiallyifnovisibleinsectsarepresent.Nutrientproblemsmayalsomimicdiseases.Herbicidedamage,resultingfrommisapplicationofchemicals,canalsobemistakenforotherproblems.Learningaboutdifferenttypesofgardenpestsisthefirststepinkeepingyourplantshealthyandproductive.
InsectsandMitesAllinsectshavesixlegs,butotherthanthattheyareextremelydifferentdependingonthespecies.Someinsectsincludesuchorganismsasbeetles,flies,bees,ants,moths,andbutterflies.Mitesandspidershaveeightlegs—theyarenot,infact,insectsbutwillbetreatedassuchforthepurposesofthissection.
Insectsdamageplantsinseveralways.Themostvisibledamagecausedbyinsectsischewedplantleavesandflowers.Manypestsarevisibleandcanbereadilyidentified,includingtheJapanesebeetle,Coloradopotatobeetle,andnumerousspeciesofcaterpillarssuchastentcaterpillarsandtomatohornworms.Otherchewinginsects,however,suchascutworms(whicharecaterpillars),comeoutatnighttoeat,andburrowintothesoilduringtheday.Thesearemuchhardertoidentifybutshouldbeconsideredlikelyculpritsifyoungplantsseemtodisappearovernightorarefoundcutoffatgroundlevel.
LeafdamagefromJapanesebeetles
AJapanesebeetleseatsholesinaleaf
Suckinginsectsareextremelycommoningardensandcanbeverydamagingtoyourvegetableplantsandflowers.Themostknownoftheseinsectsareleafhoppers,aphids,mealybugs,thrips,andmites.Theseinsectsinserttheirmouthpartsintotheplanttissuesandsuckouttheplantjuices.Theyalsomaycarrydiseasesthattheyspreadfromplanttoplantastheymoveabouttheyard.Youmaysuspectthattheseinsectsarepresentifyounoticemisshapenplantleavesorflowerpetals.Oftentheyoungerleaveswillappearcurledorpuckered.Flowersdevelopingfromthebudsmayonlypartiallydevelopifthey’vebeensuckedbythesebugs.Lookontheundersidesoftheleaves—thatiswheremanyinsectstendtogather.
Otherinsectscausedamagetoplantsbyboringintostems,fruits,andleaves,possiblydisruptingtheplant’sabilitytotransportwater.Theyalsocreateopportunitiesfordiseaseorganismstoattacktheplants.Youmaysuspectthepresenceofboringinsectsifyouseesmallaccumulationsofsawdust-likematerialonplantstemsorfruits.Commonexamplesofboringinsectsincludesquashvineborersandcornborers.
IntegratedPestManagement(IPM)Itisdifficult,ifnotimpossible,topreventallpestproblemsinyourgardeneveryyear.Ifyourbestpreventioneffortshavenotbeenentirelysuccessful,youmayneedtousesomecontrolmethods.Integratedpestmanagement(IPM)reliesonseveraltechniquestokeeppestsatacceptablepopulationlevelswithoutexcessiveuseofchemicalcontrols.ThebasicprinciplesofIPMincludemonitoring(scouting),determiningtolerableinjurylevels(thresholds),andapplyingappropriatestrategiesandtacticstosolvethepestissue.Unlikeothermethodsofpestcontrolwherepesticidesareappliedonarigidschedule,IPMappliesonlythosecontrolsthatareneeded,whentheyareneeded,tocontrolpeststhatwillcausemorethanatolerablelevelofdamagetotheplant.
Monitoring
MonitoringisessentialforasuccessfulIPMprogram.Checkyourplantsregularly.Lookforsignsofdamagefrominsectsanddiseasesaswellasindicationsofadequatefertilityandmoisture.Earlyidentificationofpotentialproblemsisessential.
Certainkindsofwormsandbeetleswillleavedamagingholesinyourplants.
Aphids
Therearethousandsofinsectsinagarden,manyofwhichareharmlessorevenbeneficialtotheplants.Properidentificationisneededbeforecontrolstrategiescanbeadopted.Itisimportanttorecognizethedifferentstagesofinsectdevelopmentforseveralreasons.Thecaterpillareatingyourplantsmaybethelarvaeofthebutterflyyouweretryingtoattract.Anysmalllarvaewithsixspotsonitsbackisprobablyayoungladybug,averybeneficialinsect.
Thresholds
Itisnotnecessarytokilleveryinsect,weed,ordiseaseorganisminvadingyourgardeninordertomaintaintheplants’health.Whendealingwithgardenpests,
aneconomicthresholdcomesintoplayandisthepointwherethedamagecausedbythepestexceedsthecostofcontrol.Inahomegarden,thiscanbedifficulttodetermine.Whatyouaregrowingandhowyouintendtouseitwilldeterminehowmuchdamageyouarewillingtotolerate.Rememberthatlargerplants,especiallythoseclosetoharvest,cantoleratemoredamagethanatinyseedling.Afewfleabeetlesonaradishseedlingmaywarrantcontrol,whereasnumerousJapanesebeetleseatingtheleavesofbeansclosetoharvestmaynot.
Ifthethresholdlevelforcontrolhasbeenexceeded,youmayneedtoemploycontrolstrategies.EffectiveandsafestrategiescanbediscussedwithyourlocalCooperativeExtensionService,gardencenters,ornurseries.
Mechanical/PhysicalControlStrategies
Manyinsectscansimplyberemovedbyhand.Thismethodisdefinitelypreferableifonlyafew,largeinsectsarecausingtheproblem.Simplyremovetheinsectfromtheplantanddropitintoacontainerofsoapywaterorvegetableoil.Beawarethatsomeinsectshaveprickly
BeneficialInsectsthatHelpControlPestPopulations
Insect Pest Control led
Greenlacewings Aphids,mealybugs,thrips,andspidermites
Ladybugs AphidsandColoradopotatobeetles
Prayingmantises Almostanyinsect
Groundbeetles Caterpillarsthatattacktreesandshrubs
Seedheadweevilsand Weeds
otherbeetles
spinesorexcreteoilysubstancesthatcancauseinjurytohumans.Usecaution
whenhandlingunfamiliarinsects.Wearglovesorremoveinsectswithtweezers.
Manyinsectscanberemovedfromplantsbysprayingwaterfromahoseorsprayer.Smallvacuumscanalsobeusedtosuckupinsects.Trapscanbeusedeffectivelyforsomeinsectsaswell.Thesecomeinavarietyofstylesdependingontheinsecttobecaught.Manytrapsrelyontheuseofpheromones—naturallyoccurringchemicalsproducedbytheinsectsandusedtoattracttheoppositesexduringmating.Theyareextremelyspecificforeachspeciesand,therefore,willnotharmbeneficialspecies.Onecautionwithtrapsisthattheymayactuallydrawmoreinsectsintoyouryard,sodon’tplacethemdirectlyintoyourgarden.Othertraps(suchasyellowandbluestickycards)aremoregenericandwillattractnumerousspecies.Differentinsectsareattractedtodifferentcolorsofthesetraps.Stickycardsalsocanbeusedeffectivelytomonitorinsectpests.
OtherPestControls
Diatomaceousearth,apowder-likedustmadeoftinymarineorganismscalleddiatoms,canbeusedtoreducedamagefromsoft-bodiedinsectsandslugs.Spreadthismaterialonthesoil—itissharpandcutsorirritatesthesesoftorganisms.Itisharmlesstootherorganisms.Inordertotrapslugs,putoutshallowdishesofbeer.
BiologicalControls
Biologicalcontrolsarenature’swayofregulatingpestpopulations.Biologicalcontrolsrelyonpredatorsandparasitestokeeporganismsundercontrol.Manyofourpresentpestproblemsresultfromthelossofpredatorspeciesandotherbiologicalcontrolfactors.
Somebiologicalcontrolsincludebirdsandbatsthateatinsects.Asinglebatcaneatupto600mosquitoesanhour.Manybirdspecieseatinsectpestsontreesandinthegarden.
ChemicalControls
Whenusingbiologicalcontrols,beverycarefulwithpesticides.Mostcommonpesticidesarebroadspectrum,whichmeansthattheykillawidevarietyoforganisms.Sprayapplicationsofinsecticidesarelikelytokillnumerousbeneficialinsectsaswellasthepests.Herbicidesappliedtoweedspeciesmaydriftinthewindorvaporizeintheheatofthedayandinjurenon-targetedplants.
Runoffofpesticidescanpollutewater.Manypesticidesaretoxictohumansaswellaspetsandsmallanimalsthatmayenteryouryard.Trytoavoidusingthesetypesofpesticidesatallcosts—andifyoudousethem,readthelabelscarefullyandavoidsprayingthemonwindydays.
Cutworms
Somecommon,non-toxichouseholdsubstancesareaseffectiveasmanytoxicpesticides.Afewdropsofdishwashingdetergentmixedwithwaterandsprayedonplantsisextremelyeffectiveincontrollingmanysoft-bodiedinsects,suchasaphidsandwhiteflies.Crushedgarlicmixedwithwatermaycontrolcertaininsects.Abakingsodasolutionhasbeenshowntohelpcontrolsomefungaldiseasesonroses.
AlternativestoPesticidesandChemicals
Whenusedincorrectly,pesticidescanpollutewater.Theyalsokillbeneficialaswellasharmfulinsects.Naturalalternativespreventbothoftheseeventsfromoccurringandsaveyoumoney.Considerusingnaturalalternativesforchemicalpesticides:Non-detergentinsecticidalsoaps,garlic,hotpepperspray,1teaspoonofliquidsoapinagallonofwater,useddishwater,oraforcefulstreamofwaterfromahoseallworktodislodgeinsectsfromyourgardenplants.
Anothersolutionistoalsoconsiderusingplantsthatnaturallyrepelinsects.Theseplantshavetheirownchemicaldefensesystems,andwhenplantedamongflowersandvegetables,theyhelpkeepunwantedinsectsaway.
PlantDiseasesPlantdiseaseidentificationisextremelydifficult.Insomecases,onlylaboratoryanalysiscanconclusivelyidentifysomediseases.Diseaseorganismsinjureplantsinseveralways:Someattackleafsurfacesandlimittheplant’sabilitytocarryonphotosynthesis;othersproducesubstancesthatclogplanttissuesthattransportwaterandnutrients;stillotherdiseaseorganismsproducetoxinsthatkilltheplantorreplaceplanttissuewiththeirown.
NaturalPestRepellants
Pest Repel lant
Ant Mint,tansy,orpennyroyal
Aphids Mint,garlic,chives,coriander,oranise
Beanleafbeetle Potato,onion,orturnip
Codlingmoth Commonoleander
Coloradopotatobug Greenbeans,coriander,ornasturtium
Cucumberbeetle Radishortansy
Fleabeetle Garlic,onion,ormint
Importedcabbage Mint,sage,rosemary,orhyssop
worm
Japanesebeetle Garlic,larkspur,tansy,rue,orgeranium
Leafhopper GeraniumorpetuniaMiceOnion
Rootknotnematodes Frenchmarigolds
SlugsProstrate rosemaryorwormwood
Spidermites Onion,garlic,cloves,orchives
SquashbugRadish, marigolds,tansy,ornasturtium
Stinkbug Radish
Thrips Marigolds
Tomatohornworm Marigolds,sage,orborage
Whitefly Marigoldsornasturtium
Symptomsthatareassociatedwithplantdiseasesmayincludethepresenceofmushroom-likegrowthsontrunksoftrees;leaveswithagrayish,mildewedappearance;spotsonleaves,flowers,andfruits;suddenwiltingordeathofaplantorbranch;sapexudingfrombranchesortrunksoftrees;andstuntedgrowth.
Misapplicationofpesticidesandnutrients,airpollutants,andotherenvironmentalconditions—suchasfloodingandfreezing—canalsomimicsomediseaseproblems.Yellowingorreddeningofleavesandstuntedgrowthmayindicateanutritionalproblem.Leafcurlingormisshapengrowthmaybearesultofherbicideapplication.
PestandDiseaseManagementPracticesPreventingpestsshouldbeyourfirstgoalwhengrowingagarden,althoughitisunlikelythatyouwillbeabletoavoidallpestproblemsbecausesomeplantseedsanddiseaseorganismsmaylaydormantinthesoilforyears.
Diseasesneedthreeelementstobecomeestablishedinplants:thediseaseorganism,asusceptiblespecies,andtheproperenvironmentalconditions.Somediseaseorganismscanliveinthesoilforyears;otherorganismsarecarriedininfectedplantmaterialthatfallstotheground.Somediseaseorganismsarecarriedbyinsects.Goodsanitationwillhelplimitsomeproblemswithdisease.Choosingresistantvarietiesofplantsalsopreventsmanydiseasesfrom
occurring.Rotatingannualplantsinagardencanalsopreventsomediseases.
Plantsthathaveadequate,butnotexcessive,nutrientsarebetterabletoresistattacksfrombothdiseasesandinsects.Excessiveratesofnitrogenoftenresultinextremelysucculentvegetativegrowthandcanmakeplantsmoresusceptibletoinsectanddiseaseproblems,aswellasdecreasingtheirwinterhardiness.Properwateringandspacingofplantslimitsthespreadofsomediseasesandprovidesgoodaerationaroundplants,sodiseasesthatfesterinstandingwatercannotmultiply.Trickleirrigation,wherewaterisappliedtothesoilandnottheplantleaves,maybehelpful.
Removalofdiseasedmaterialcertainlylimitsthespreadofsomediseases.Itisimportanttocleanuplitterdroppedfromdiseasedplants.Prunediseasedbranchesontreesandshrubstoallowformoreaircirculation.Whenpruningdiseasedtreesandshrubs,disinfectyourprunersbetweencutswithasolutionofchlorinebleachtoavoidspreadingthediseasefromplanttoplant.Alsotrytocontrolinsectsthatmaycarrydiseasestoyourplants.
Powderymildewleafdisease
Youcanmakeyourownnaturalfungicidebycombining5teaspoonseachofbakingsodaandhydrogenperoxidewithagallonofwater.Sprayonyourinfectedplants.Milkdilutedwithwaterisalsoaneffectivefungicide,duetothe
potassiumphosphateinit,whichboostsaplant’simmunesystem.Themoredilutedthesolution,themorefrequentlyyou’llneedtospraytheplant.
HarvestingYourGarden
Itisessential,inordertogetthebestfreshness,flavor,andnutritionalbenefitsfromyourgardenvegetablesandfruits,toharvestthemattheappropriatetime.Thevegetable’sstageofmaturityandthetimeofdayatwhichitisharvestedareessentialforgood-tastingandnutritiousproduce.Overripevegetablesandfruitswillbestringyandcoarse.Whenpossible,harvestyourvegetablesduringthecoolpartofthemorning.Ifyouaregoingtocanandpreserveyourvegetablesandfruits,dosoassoonaspossible.Or,ifthisprocessmustbedelayed,coolthevegetablesinicewaterorcrushediceandstorethemintherefrigerator.Herearesomebriefguidelinesforharvestingvarioustypesofcommongardenproduce:Asparagus—Harvestthespearswhentheyareatleast6to8inchestallbysnappingorcuttingthematgroundlevel.Afewspearsmaybeharvestedthesecondyearaftercrownsaresetout.Afullharvestseasonwilllastfourtosixweeksduringthethirdgrowingseason.
Beans,snap—Harvestbeforetheseedsdevelopinthepod.Beansarereadytopickiftheysnapeasilywhenbentinhalf.
Beans,lima—Harvestwhenthepodsfirststarttobulgewiththeenlargedseeds.Podsmuststillbegreen,notyellowish.
Broccoli—Harvestthedarkgreen,compactcluster,orhead,whilethebudsareshuttight,beforeanyyellowflowersappear.Smallersideshootswilldeveloplater,providingacontinuousharvest.
Brusselssprouts—Harvestthelowersprouts(smallheads)whentheyareabout1to1½inchesindiameterbytwistingthemoff.Removingthelowerleavesalongthestemwillhelptohastentheplant’smaturity.
Cabbage—Harvestwhentheheadsfeelhardandsolid.
Cantaloupe—Harvestwhenthestemslipseasilyfromthefruitwithagentletug.Anotherindicatorofripenessiswhenthenettingontheskinbecomesroundedandthefleshbetweenthenettingturnsfromagreentoatancolor.
Carrots—Harvestwhentherootsare¾to1inchindiameter.Thelargest
rootsgenerallyhavedarkertops.
Cauliflower—Whenpreparingtoharvest,excludesunlightwhenthecurds(heads)are1to2inchesindiameterbylooselytyingtheouterleavestogetherabovethecurdwithastringorrubberband.Thisprocessisknownasblanching.Harvestthecurdswhentheyare4to6inchesindiameterbutstillcompact,white,andsmooth.Theheadshouldbeready10to15daysaftertyingtheleaves.
Driedcorncanbemadeintocornmealbyremovingthekernelsfromthehuskandgrindingtheminafoodprocessor.
Ifyouhaveanover-abundancofsnappeas,blanchethemfor1to2minutes,drain,dunktheminicewater,drainagainandfreezeinairtightplasticbags.
Collards—Harvestolder,lowerleaveswhentheyreachalengthof8to12inches.Newleaveswillgrowaslongasthecentralgrowingpointremains,providingacontinuousharvest.Wholeplantsmaybeharvestedandcookedifdesired.
Corn,sweet—Thesilksbegintoturnbrownanddryoutastheearsmature.Checkafewearsformaturitybyopeningthetopoftheearandpressingafewkernelswithyourthumbnail.Iftheexudedliquidismilkyratherthanclear,theearisreadyforharvesting.Cookingafewearsisalsoagoodwaytotestformaturity.
Cucumbers—Harvestwhenthefruitsare6to8inchesinlength.Harvestwhenthecolorisdeepgreenandbeforeyellowcolorappears.Pickfourtofivetimesperweektoencouragecontinuousproduction.Leavingmaturecucumbersonthevinewillstoptheproductionoftheentireplant.
Eggplant—Harvestwhenthefruitsare4to5inchesindiameterandtheircolorisaglossy,purplishblack.Thefruitisgettingtooripewhenthecolorstartstodullorbecomebronzed.Becausethestemiswoody,cut—donotpull—thefruitfromtheplant.Ashortstemshouldremainoneachfruit.
Kale—Harvestbytwistingofftheouter,olderleaveswhentheyreachalengthof8to10inchesandaremediumgreenincolor.Heavy,darkgreenleavesareoverripeandarelikelytobetoughandbitter.Newleaveswillgrow,providingacontinuousharvest.
Lettuce—Harvesttheolder,outerleavesfromleaflettuceassoonastheyare4to6incheslong.Harvestheadingtypeswhentheheadsaremoderatelyfirmandbeforeseedstalksform.
Mustard—Harvesttheleavesandleafstemswhentheyare6to8incheslong;newleaveswillprovideacontinuousharvestuntiltheybecometoostronginflavorandtoughintexture,duetotemperatureextremes.
Okra—Harvestyoung,tenderpodswhentheyare2to3incheslong.Picktheokraatleasteveryotherdayduringthepeakgrowingseason.Overripepodsbecomewoodyandaretootoughtoeat.
Onions—Harvestwhenthetopsfalloverandbegintoturnyellow.Diguptheonionsandallowthemtodryoutintheopensunforafewdaystotoughentheskin.Thenremovethedriedsoilbybrushingtheonionslightly.Cutthestem,leaving2to3inchesattached,andstoreinanet-typebaginacool,dryplace.
Peas—Harvestregularpeaswhenthepodsarewellrounded;edible-podvarietiesshouldbeharvestedwhentheseedsarefullydevelopedbutstillfreshandbrightgreen.Podsaregettingtoooldwhentheylosetheirbrightnessandturnlightoryellowishgreen.
Peppers—Harvestsweetpepperswithasharpknifewhenthefruitsarefirm,crisp,andfullsize.Greenpepperswillturnredifleftontheplant.Allowhotpepperstoattaintheirbrightredcolorandfullflavorwhileattachedtothevine;thencutthemandhangthemtodry.
Potatoes(Irish)—Harvestthetuberswhentheplantsbegintodryanddiedown.Storethetubersinacool,highhumiditylocationwithgoodventilation,suchasthebasementorcrawlspaceofyourhouse.Avoidexposingthetuberstolight,asgreening,whichdenotesthepresenceofdangerousalkaloids,willoccurevenwithsmallamountsoflight.
Pumpkins—Harvestpumpkinsandwintersquashbeforethefirstfrost.Afterthevinesdryup,thefruitcolordarkensandtheskinsurfaceresistspuncturefromyourthumbnail.Avoidbruisingorscratchingthefruitwhilehandlingit.Leavea3-to4-inchportionofthestemattachedtothefruitandstoreitinacool,drylocationwithgoodventilation.
Don’tcutasparagusbelowthesoilasitcoulddamageotherbudsonthecrownthatwouldotherwisesendupnewspears.
Radishes—Harvestwhentherootsare½to1½inchesindiameter.Theshouldersofradishrootsoftenappearthroughthesoilsurfacewhentheyaremature.Ifleftinthegroundtoolong,theradisheswillbecometoughandwoody.
Rutabagas—Harvestwhentherootsareabout3inchesindiameter.Therootsmaybestoredinthegroundandusedasneeded,ifproperlymulched.
Spinach—Harvestbycuttingalltheleavesoffatthebaseoftheplantwhentheyare4to6incheslong.Newleaveswillgrow,providingadditionalharvests.
Squash,summer—Harvestwhenthefruitissoft,tender,and6to8incheslong.Theskincoloroftenchangestoadark,glossygreenoryellow,dependingonthevariety.Pickeverytwotothreedaystoencouragecontinuedproduction.
Sweetpotatoes—Harvesttherootswhentheyarelargeenoughforusebeforethefirstfrost.Avoidbruisingorscratchingthepotatoesduringhandling.Idealstorageconditionsareatatemperatureof55°Fandarelativehumidityof85percent.Thebasementorcrawlspaceofahousemaysuffice.
Swisschard—Harvestbybreakingoffthedevelopedouterleaves1inchabovethesoil.Newleaveswillgrow,providingacontinuousharvest.
Tomatoes—Harvestthefruitsatthemostappealingstageofripeness,whentheyarebrightred.Theflavorisbestatroomtemperature,butripefruitmaybeheldintherefrigeratorat45to50°Ffor7to10days.
Turnips—Harvesttherootswhentheyare2to3inchesindiameterbutbeforeheavyfallfrostsoccur.Thetopsmaybeusedassaladgreenswhentheleavesare3to5incheslong.
Watermelons—Harvestwhenthewatermelonproducesadullthudratherthanasharp,metallicsoundwhenthumped—thismeansthefruitisripe.Otherripenessindicatorsareadeepyellowratherthanawhitecolorwherethemelontouchestheground,browntendrilsonthestemnearthefruit,andarough,slightlyridgedfeeltotheskinsurface.
PARTTWOThePantry
“Thegreatestdelightthefieldsandwoodsministeristhesuggestionofanoccultrelationbetweenmanandthevegetable.Iamnotaloneandunacknowledged.TheynodtomeandItothem.”
—RalphWaldoEmerson
Oneofthegreatestpleasuresofself-sufficiencyispreparing,preserving,andeatingyourownfood.Afterthehardworkofplantingandtendingyourgardens,orraisinganimalsforeggs,milk,ormeat,yourkitchenwillbecomeajoyfullaboratorywhereyoucancreatewonderfulfoodsfromthefruitsofyourlabortoenjoyortoshare.Withalittlepreparation,yourpantrycanbecomeatreasuretroveofcannedanddriedfoods,readytodrawfromallwinterlong.Thereissomethingdistinctlyrewardingaboutrunningouttothegardentopicksaladmakingsinthesummer,orreachingintothecupboardforanewjarofstrawberryjaminthemiddleofthewinter.It’sagiftmoreandmorepeoplearefindingtimetoaccept,asthequalityofsupermarketofferingsseemstoplummetandanewawarenessofthebenefitsoflocallygrownfoodsweepsacrossruralandurbanareasalike.Ifyoudon’thavethespaceortimetogroworproduceyourownfood,therearefarmers’marketsspringingupalloverwhereyoucanfindfresh,deliciousproduce,meats,bakedgoods,anddairyproductstoenjoyonyourownortoinspireafestivedinnerparty.Whetheryougotothegarden,thepantry,orthemarketforyourfood,remembertheworkthatwentintoitsgrowthandpreparationandyouwillbegintoseefoodnotonlyasanecessityandapleasure,butasagreatgift.
Canning
IntroductiontoCanningOnthenextfewpages,youwillfinddescriptionsofpropercanningmethods,withdetailsonhowcanningworksandwhyitisbothsafeandeconomical.MuchoftheinformationhereisfromtheUSDA,whichhasdoneextensiveresearchonhomecanningandpreserving.Ifyouarenewtohomecanning,readthissectioncarefullyasitwillhelptoensuresuccesswiththerecipesthatfollow.
Whetheryouareaseasonedhomecannerorthisisyourfirstforayintofoodpreservation,itisimportanttofollowdirectionscarefully.Withsomerecipesitisokaytoexperimentwithvariedproportionsoraddedingredients,andwithothersitisimportanttosticktowhat’swritten.Inmanyinstancesitisnotedwhethercreativelibertyisagoodideaforaparticularrecipe,butifyouarenotsure,playitsafe—otherwiseyoumayendupwithajamthatistoorunny,avegetablethatismushy,oraproductthatisspoiled.Taketimetoreadthedirectionsandprepareyourfoodsandequipmentadequately,andyouwillfindthathomecanningissafe,economical,tremendouslysatisfying,andagreatdealoffun!
WhyCanFoods?
Canningisfunandagoodwaytopreserveyourpreciousproduce.Asmoreandmorefarmers’marketsmaketheirwayintourbancenters,citydwellersarealsodiscoveringhowrewardingitistomakeseasonaltreatslastallyearround.Besidesthevalueofyourlabor,canninghome-grownorlocallygrownfoodmaysaveyouhalfthecostofbuyingcommerciallycannedfood.Andwhatmakesanicer,morethoughtfulgiftthanajarofhomemadejam,tailoredtomatchtherecipient’sfavoritefruitsandflavors?
Thenutritionalvalueofhomecanningisanaddedbenefit.Manyvegetablesbegintolosetheirvitaminsassoonastheyareharvested.Nearlyhalfthevitaminsmaybelostwithinafewdaysunlessthefreshproduceiskeptcoolor
preserved.Withinonetotwoweeks,evenrefrigeratedproduceloseshalformoreofcertainvitamins.Theheatingprocessduringcanningdestroysfromone-thirdtoone-halfofvitaminsAandC,thiamin,andriboflavin.Oncecanned,foodsmaylosefrom5percentto20percentofthesesensitivevitaminseachyear.Theamountsofothervitamins,however,areonlyslightlylowerincannedcomparedwithfreshfood.Ifvegetablesarehandledproperlyandcannedpromptlyafterharvest,theycanbemorenutritiousthanfreshproducesoldinlocalstores.
Cannedjamsandnutbutters.
Theadvantagesofhomecanningarelostwhenyoustartwithpoorqualityfoods;whenjarsfailtosealproperly;whenfoodspoils;andwhenflavors,texture,color,andnutrientsdeteriorateduringprolongedstorage.Thetipsthatfollowexplainmanyoftheseproblemsandrecommendwaystominimizethem.
HowCanningPreservesFoods
Thehighpercentageofwaterinmostfreshfoodsmakesthemveryperishable.Theyspoilorlosetheirqualityforseveralreasons:
Growthofundesirablemicroorganisms—bacteria,molds,andyeasts
ActivityoffoodenzymesReactionswithoxygenMoistureloss
Microorganismsliveandmultiplyquicklyonthesurfacesoffreshfoodandontheinsideofbruised,insectdamaged,anddiseasedfood.Oxygenandenzymesarepresentthroughoutfreshfoodtissues.
Propercanningpracticesinclude:CarefullyselectingandwashingfreshfoodPeelingsomefreshfoodsHotpackingmanyfoodsAddingacids(lemonjuice,citricacid,orvinegar)tosomefoodsUsingacceptablejarsandself-sealinglidsProcessingjarsinaboiling-waterorpressurecannerforthecorrectamountoftime
Collectively,thesepracticesremoveoxygen;destroyenzymes;preventthegrowthofundesirablebacteria,yeasts,andmolds;andhelpformahighvacuuminjars.Highvacuumsformtightseals,whichkeepliquidinandairandmicroorganismsout.
CANNINGbeganinFrance,attheturnofthenineteenthcentury,whenNapoleonBonapartewasdesperateforawaytokeephistroopswell-fedwhileonthemarch.In1800,hedecidedtoholdacontest,offering12,000francstoanyonewhocoulddeviseasuitablemethodoffoodpreservation.NicolasFrançoisAppert,aFrenchconfectioner,rosetothechallenge,consideringthatifwinecouldbepreservedinbottles,perhapsfoodcouldbeaswell.Heexperimenteduntilhewasabletoprovethatheatingfoodtoboilingafterithadbeensealedinairtightglassbottlespreventedthefoodfromdeteriorating.Interestingly,thisalltookplaceabout100yearsbeforeLouisPasteurfoundthatheatcoulddestroybacteria.Nearlytenyearsafterthecontestbegan,NapoleonpersonallypresentedNicolaswiththecashreward.
Cannedapplesauceandpeacheslinethispantry’sshelves.
CanningGlossaryAcidfoods—FoodsthatcontainenoughacidtoresultinapHof4.6orlower.Includesmosttomatoes;fermentedandpickledvegetables;relishes;jams,jellies,andmarmalades;andallfruitsexceptfigs.Acidfoodsmaybeprocessedinboilingwater.
Ascorbicacid—ThechemicalnameforvitaminC.Commonlyusedtopreventbrowningofpeeled,light-coloredfruitsandvegetables.
Blancher—A6-to8-quartliddedpotdesignedwithafitted,perforatedbaskettoholdfoodinboilingwaterorwithafittedracktosteamfoods.Usefulforlooseningskinsonfruitstobepeeledorforheatingfoodstobehotpacked.
Boiling-watercanner—Alarge,standard-sized,liddedkettlewithjarrackdesignedforheat-processingsevenquartsoreighttoninepintsinboilingwater.
Botulism—AnillnesscausedbyeatingatoxinproducedbygrowthofClostridiumbotulinumbacteriainmoist,low-acidfoodcontaininglessthan2percentoxygenandstoredbetween40°Fand120°F.Properheatprocessingdestroysthisbacteriumincannedfood.Freezertemperaturesinhibititsgrowthinfrozenfood.Lowmoisturecontrolsitsgrowthindriedfood.Highoxygencontrolsitsgrowthinfreshfoods.
Canning—Amethodofpreservingfoodthatemploysheatprocessinginairtight,vacuum-sealedcontainerssothatfoodcanbesafelystoredatnormalhometemperatures.
Canningsalt—Alsocalledpicklingsalt.Itisregulartablesaltwithouttheanti-cakingoriodineadditives.
Citricacid—Aformofacidthatcanbeaddedtocannedfoods.Itincreasestheacidityoflow-acidfoodsandmayimprovetheirflavor.
Coldpack—Canningprocedureinwhichjarsarefilledwithrawfood.“Rawpack”isthepreferredtermfordescribingthispractice.“Coldpack”isoftenusedincorrectlytorefertofoodsthatareopen-kettlecannedorjarsthatareheat-processedinboilingwater.
Enzymes—Proteinsinfoodthatacceleratemanyflavor,color,texture,andnutritionalchanges,especiallywhenfoodiscut,sliced,crushed,bruised,orexposedtoair.Properblanchingorhot-packingpracticesdestroyenzymesandimprovefoodquality.
Greenbeansshouldbechoppedintosmallpiecesbeforecanning.
Exhausting—Removingairfromwithinandaroundfoodandfromjarsandcanners.Exhaustingorventingofpressurecannersisnecessarytopreventbotulisminlow-acidcannedfoods.
Headspace—Theunfilledspaceabovefoodorliquidinjarsthatallowsforfoodexpansionasjarsareheatedandforformingvacuumsasjarscool.
Heatprocessing—Treatmentofjarswithsufficientheattoenablestoringfoodatnormalhometemperatures.
Hermeticseal—Anabsolutelyairtightcontainersealthatpreventsreentryofairormicroorganismsintopackagedfoods.
Hotpack—Heatingofrawfoodinboilingwaterorsteamandfillingithotintojars.
Low-acidfoods—FoodsthatcontainverylittleacidandhaveapHabove4.6.Theacidityinthesefoodsisinsufficienttopreventthegrowthofbotulismbacteria.Vegetables,somevarietiesoftomatoes,figs,allmeats,fish,seafood,andsomedairyproductsarelow-acidfoods.Tocontrolallrisksofbotulism,jarsofthesefoodsmustbeeitherheatprocessedinapressurecanneroracidifiedtoapHof4.6orlowerbeforebeingprocessedinboilingwater.
Microorganisms—Independentorganismsofmicroscopicsize,includingbacteria,yeast,andmold.Inasuitableenvironment,theygrowrapidlyandmaydivideorreproduceevery10to30minutes.Therefore,theyreachhighpopulationsveryquickly.Microorganismsaresometimesintentionallyaddedtofermentfoods,makeantibiotics,andforotherreasons.Undesirablemicroorganismscausediseaseandfoodspoilage.
Mold—Afungus-typemicroorganismwhosegrowthonfoodisusuallyvisibleandcolorful.Moldsmaygrowonmanyfoods,includingacidfoodslikejamsandjelliesandcannedfruits.Recommendedheatprocessingandsealingpracticespreventtheirgrowthonthesefoods.
Alargestockpotwithalidcanbeusedinplaceofaboiling-watercannerforhigh-acidfoodsliketomatoes,pickles,apples,peaches,andjams.Simplyplacearackinsidethepotsothatthejarsdonotrestdirectlyonthebottomofthepot.
Mycotoxins—Toxinsproducedbythegrowthofsomemoldsonfoods.
Open-kettlecanning—Anon-recommendedcanningmethod.Foodisheat-processedinacoveredkettle,filledwhilehotintosterilejars,andthensealed.Foodscannedthiswayhavelowvacuumsortoomuchair,whichpermitsrapidlossofqualityinfoods.Also,thesefoodsoftenspoilbecausetheybecomerecontaminatedwhilethejarsarebeingfilled.
Pasteurization—Heatingfoodtotemperatureshighenoughtodestroydisease-causingmicroorganisms.pH—Ameasureofacidityoralkalinity.Valuesrangefrom0to14.AfoodisneutralwhenitspHis7.0.Lowervaluesareincreasinglymoreacidic;highervaluesareincreasinglymorealkaline.
PSIG—Poundspersquareinchofpressureasmeasuredbyagauge.
Pressurecanner—Aspecificallydesignedmetalkettlewithalockablelid
usedforheat-processinglow-acidfood.Thesecannershavejarracks,oneormoresafetydevices,systemsforexhaustingair,andawaytomeasureorcontrolpressure.Cannerswith20-to21-quartcapacityarecommon.Theminimumsizeofcannerthatshouldbeusedhasa16-quartcapacityandcanholdsevenone-quartjars.Useofpressuresaucepanswithacapacityoflessthan16quartsisnotrecommended.
Rawpack—Thepracticeoffillingjarswithraw,unheatedfood.Acceptableforcanninglow-acidfoods,butallowsmorerapidqualitylossesinacidfoodsthatareheat-processedinboilingwater.Alsocalled“coldpack.”
Styleofpack—Formofcannedfood,suchaswhole,sliced,piece,juice,orsauce.Thetermmayalsobeusedtospecifywhetherfoodisfilledraworhotintojars.
Vacuum—Astateofnegativepressurethatreflectshowthoroughlyairisremovedfromwithinajarofprocessedfood;thehigherthevacuum,thelessairleftinthejar.
Peelpotatoesbeforecanningthem.
ProperCanningPracticesGrowthofthebacteriumClostridiumbotulinumincannedfoodmaycausebotulism—adeadlyformoffoodpoisoning.Thesebacteriaexisteitherassporesorasvegetativecells.Thespores,whicharecomparabletoplantseeds,cansurviveharmlesslyinsoilandwaterformanyyears.Whenidealconditionsexistforgrowth,thesporesproducevegetativecells,whichmultiplyrapidlyandmay
produceadeadlytoxinwithinthreetofourdaysinanenvironmentconsistingof:Amoist,low-acidfoodAtemperaturebetween40°Fand120°F,andLessthan2percentoxygen.
Botulinumsporesareonmostfreshfoodsurfaces.Becausetheygrowonlyintheabsenceofair,theyareharmlessonfreshfoods.Mostbacteria,yeasts,andmoldsaredifficulttoremovefromfoodsurfaces.Washingfreshfoodreducestheirnumbersonlyslightly.Peelingrootcrops,undergroundstemcrops,andtomatoesreducestheirnumbersgreatly.Blanchingalsohelps,butthevitalcontrolsarethemethodofcanninganduseoftherecommendedresearch-basedprocessingtimes.Theseprocessingtimesensuredestructionofthelargestexpectednumberofheat-resistantmicroorganismsinhome-cannedfoods.
Properlysterilizedcannedfoodwillbefreeofspoilageiflidssealandjarsarestoredbelow95°F.Storingjarsat50to70°Fenhancesretentionofquality.
FoodAcidityandProcessingMethods
Whetherfoodshouldbeprocessedinapressurecannerorboiling-watercannertocontrolbotulismbacteriadependsontheacidityinthefood.Aciditymaybenatural,asinmostfruits,oradded,asinpickledfood.Low-acidcannedfoodscontaintoolittleaciditytopreventthegrowthofthesebacteria.Otherfoodsmaycontainenoughaciditytoblocktheirgrowthortodestroythemrapidlywhenheated.Theterm“pH”isameasureofacidity:theloweritsvalue,themoreacidicthefood.Theaciditylevelinfoodscanbeincreasedbyaddinglemonjuice,citricacid,orvinegar.
Labelyourjarsafterprocessingwiththecontentsandthedate.
Low-acidfoodshavepHvalueshigherthan4.6.Theyincluderedmeats,seafood,poultry,milk,andallfreshvegetablesexceptformosttomatoes.Mostproductsthataremixturesoflow-acidandacidfoodsalsohavepHvaluesabove4.6unlesstheiringredientsincludeenoughlemonjuice,citricacid,orvinegartomakethemacidfoods.AcidfoodshaveapHof4.6orlower.Theyincludefruits,pickles,sauerkraut,jams,jellies,marmalade,andfruitbutters.
Althoughtomatoesusuallyareconsideredanacidfood,somearenowknowntohavepHvaluesslightlyabove4.6.FigsalsohavepHvaluesslightlyabove4.6.Therefore,iftheyaretobecannedasacidfoods,theseproductsmustbeacidifiedtoapHof4.6orlowerwithlemonjuiceorcitricacid.Properlyacidifiedtomatoesandfigsareacidfoodsandcanbesafelyprocessedinaboiling-watercanner.
Botulinumsporesareveryhardtodestroyatboiling-watertemperatures;thehigherthecannertemperature,themoreeasilytheyaredestroyed.Therefore,alllow-acidfoodsshouldbesterilizedattemperaturesof240to250°F,attainablewithpressurecannersoperatedat10to15PSIG.(PSIGmeanspoundspersquareinchofpressureasmeasuredbyagauge.)Atthesetemperatures,thetimeneededtodestroybacteriainlow-acidcannedfoodsrangesfrom20to100minutes.Theexacttimedependsonthekindoffoodbeingcanned,thewayitispackedintojars,andthesizeofjars.Thetimeneededtosafelyprocesslow-acidfoodsinboilingwaterrangesfrom7to11hours;thetimeneededtoprocessacidfoodsinboilingwatervariesfrom5to85minutes.
KnowYourAltitude
Itisimportanttoknowyourapproximateelevationoraltitudeabovesealevelinordertodetermineasafeprocessingtimeforcannedfoods.Sincetheboiling
temperatureofliquidislowerathigherelevations,itiscriticalthatadditionaltimebegivenforthesafeprocessingoffoodsataltitudesabovesealevel.
WhatNottoDo
Open-kettlecanningandtheprocessingoffreshlyfilledjarsinconventionalovens,microwaveovens,anddishwashersarenotrecommendedbecausethesepracticesdonotpreventallrisksofspoilage.Steamcannersarenotrecommendedbecauseprocessingtimesforusewithcurrentmodelshavenotbeenadequatelyresearched.Becausesteamcannersmaynotheatfoodsinthesamemannerasboiling-watercanners,theirusewithboiling-waterprocessingtimesmayresultinspoilage.So-calledcanningpowdersareuselessaspreservativesanddonotreplacetheneedforproperheatprocessing.
Itisnotrecommendedthatpressuresinexcessof15PSIGbeappliedwhenusingnewpressure-canningequipment.
EnsuringHigh-QualityCannedFoods
Examinefoodcarefullyforfreshnessandwholesomeness.Discarddiseasedandmoldyfood.Trimsmalldiseasedlesionsorspotsfromfood.
Canfruitsandvegetablespickedfromyourgardenorpurchasedfromnearbyproducerswhentheproductsareattheirpeakofquality—within6to12hoursafterharvestformostvegetables.However,apricots,nectarines,peaches,pears,andplumsshouldberipenedoneormoredaysbetweenharvestandcanning.Ifyoumustdelaythecanningofotherfreshproduce,keepitinashady,coolplace.
Fresh,home-slaughteredredmeatsandpoultryshouldbechilledandcannedwithoutdelay.Donotcanmeatfromsicklyordiseasedanimals.Putfishandseafoodoniceafterharvest,eviscerateimmediately,andcanthemwithintwodays.
MaintainingColorandFlavorinCannedFood
Tomaintaingoodnaturalcolorandflavorinstoredcannedfood,youmust:Removeoxygenfromfoodtissuesandjars,Quicklydestroythefoodenzymes,andObtainhighjarvacuumsandairtightjarseals.Followtheseguidelinestoensurethatyourcannedfoodsretainoptimalcolorsandflavorsduringprocessingandstorage:
Useonlyhigh-qualityfoodsthatareatthepropermaturityandarefreeofdiseasesandbruises.Usethehot-packmethod,especiallywithacidfoodstobeprocessedinboilingwater.Don’tunnecessarilyexposepreparedfoodstoair;canthemassoonaspossible.Whilepreparingacannerloadofjars,keeppeeled,halved,quartered,slicedordicedapples,apricots,nectarines,peaches,andpearsinasolutionof3grams(3,000milligrams)ascorbicacidto1gallonofcoldwater.Thisprocedureisalsousefulinmaintainingthenaturalcolorofmushroomsandpotatoesandforpreventingstem-enddiscolorationincherriesandgrapes.Youcangetascorbicacidinseveralforms:
Purepowderedform—Seasonallyavailableamongcanningsuppliesinsupermarkets.Onelevelteaspoonofpurepowderweighsabout3grams.Use1teaspoonpergallonofwaterasatreatmentsolution.
VitaminCtablets—Economicalandavailableyear-roundinmanystores.Buy500-milligramtablets;crushanddissolvesixtabletspergallonofwaterasatreatmentsolution.
Commerciallypreparedmixesofascorbicandcitricacid—Seasonallyavailableamongcanningsuppliesinsupermarkets.Sometimescitricacidpowderissoldinsupermarkets,butitislesseffectiveincontrollingdiscoloration.Ifyouchoosetousetheseproducts,followthemanufacturer’sdirections.
Fillhotfoodsintojarsandadjustheadspaceasspecifiedinrecipes.Tightenscrewbandssecurely,butifyouareespeciallystrong,notastightlyaspossible.Processandcooljars.Storethejarsinarelativelycool,darkplace,preferablybetween50and70°F.Cannomorefoodthanyouwillusewithinayear.
AdvantagesofHotPacking
Manyfreshfoodscontainfrom10percenttomorethan30percentair.Thelengthoftimethatfoodwilllastatpremiumqualitydependsonhowmuchairisremovedfromthefoodbeforejarsaresealed.Themoreairthatisremoved,thehigherthequalityofthecannedproduct.
Rawpackingisthepracticeoffillingjarstightlywithfreshlypreparedbutunheatedfood.Suchfoods,especiallyfruit,willfloatinthejars.Theentrappedairinandaroundthefoodmaycausediscolorationwithintwotothreemonthsofstorage.Rawpackingismoresuitableforvegetablesprocessedinapressurecanner.
Hotpackingisthepracticeofheatingfreshlypreparedfoodtoboiling,simmeringitthreetofiveminutes,andpromptlyfillingjarslooselywiththeboiledfood.
Hotpackingisthebestwaytoremoveairandisthepreferredpackstyleforfoodsprocessedinaboiling-watercanner.Atfirst,thecolorofhot-packedfoodsmayappearnobetterthanthatofraw-packedfoods,butwithinashortstorageperiod,bothcolorandflavorofhot-packedfoodswillbesuperior.
Whetherfoodhasbeenhotpackedorrawpacked,thejuice,syrup,orwatertobeaddedtothefoodsshouldbeheatedtoboilingbeforeitisaddedtothejars.Thispracticehelpstoremoveairfromfoodtissues,shrinksfood,helpskeepthefoodfromfloatinginthejars,increasesvacuuminsealedjars,andimprovesshelflife.Preshrinkingfoodallowsyoutoaddmorefoodtoeachjar.
ControllingHeadspace
Theunfilledspaceabovethefoodinajarandbelowitslidistermedheadspace.Itisbesttoleavea¼-inchheadspaceforjamsandjellies,½-inchforfruitsandtomatoestobeprocessedinboilingwater,andfrom1to1¼inchesinlow-acidfoodstobeprocessedinapressurecanner.
Thisspaceisneededforexpansionoffoodasjarsareprocessedandforformingvacuumsincooledjars.Theextentofexpansionisdeterminedbytheaircontentinthefoodandbytheprocessingtemperature.Airexpandsgreatlywhenheatedtohightemperatures—thehigherthetemperature,thegreatertheexpansion.Foodsexpandlessthanairwhenheated.
JarsandLids
Foodmaybecannedinglassjarsormetalcontainers.Metalcontainerscanbeusedonlyonce.Theyrequirespecialsealingequipmentandaremuchmorecostlythanjars.
Mason-typejarsdesignedforhomecanningareidealforpreservingfoodbypressureorboiling-watercanning.Regularandwide-mouthedthreadedmasonjarswithself-sealinglidsarethebestchoices.Theyareavailableinhalf-pint,
pint,1½-pint,andquartsizes.Thestandardjarmouthopeningisabout2⅜inches.Wide-mouthedjarshaveopeningsofabout3inches,makingthemmoreeasilyfilledandemptied.Regular-moutheddecorativejellyjarsareavailablein8-ounceand12-ouncesizes.
Withcarefuluseandhandling,masonjarsmaybereusedmanytimes,requiringonlynewlidseachtime.Whenlidsareusedproperly,jarsealsandvacuumsareexcellent.
JarCleaning
Beforereuse,washemptyjarsinhotwaterwithdetergentandrinsewellbyhand,orwashinadishwasher.Rinsethoroughly,asdetergentresiduemaycauseunnaturalflavorsandcolors.Scaleorhard-waterfilmsonjarsareeasilyremovedbysoakingjarsforseveralhoursinasolutioncontaining1cupofvinegar(5percentacid)pergallonofwater.
SterilizationofEmptyJars
Usesterilejarsforalljams,jellies,andpickledproductsprocessedlessthan10minutes.Tosterilizeemptyjars,putthemrightsideupontherackinaboiling-watercanner.Fillthecannerandjarswithhot(notboiling)waterto1inchabovethetopsofthejars.Boilfor10minutes.Removeanddrainhot,sterilizedjarsoneatatime.Savethehotwaterforprocessingfilledjars.Filljarswithfood,addlids,andtightenscrewbands.
Emptyjarsusedforvegetables,meats,andfruitstobeprocessedinapressurecannerneednotbesterilizedbeforehand.Itisalsounnecessarytosterilizejarsforfruits,tomatoes,andpickledorfermentedfoodsthatwillbeprocessed10minutesorlongerinaboiling-watercanner.
LidSelection,Preparation,andUse
Thecommonself-sealinglidconsistsofaflatmetallidheldinplacebyametalscrewbandduringprocessing.Theflatlidiscrimpedarounditsbottomedgetoformatrough,whichisfilledwithacoloredgasketmaterial.Whenjarsareprocessed,thelidgasketsoftensandflowsslightlytocoverthejar-sealingsurface,yetallowsairtoescapefromthejar.Thegasketthenformsanairtightsealasthejarcools.Gasketsinunusedlidsworkwellforatleastfiveyearsfromdateofmanufacture.Thegasketmaterialinolder,unusedlidsmayfailtosealonjars.
Itisbesttobuyonlythequantityoflidsyouwilluseinayear.Toensureagoodseal,carefullyfollowthemanufacturer’sdirectionsinpreparinglidsforuse.Examineallmetallidscarefully.Donotuseold,dented,ordeformedlidsorlidswithgapsorotherdefectsinthesealinggasket.
Afterfillingjarswithfood,releaseairbubblesbyinsertingaflat,plastic(notmetal)spatulabetweenthefoodandthejar.Slowlyturnthejarandmovethespatulaupanddowntoallowairbubblestoescape.Adjusttheheadspaceandthencleanthejarrim(sealingsurface)withadampenedpapertowel.Placethelid,gasketdown,ontothecleanedjar-sealingsurface.Uncleanedjar-sealingsurfacesmaycausesealfailures.
Thenfitthemetalscrewbandovertheflatlid.Followthemanufacturer’sguidelinesenclosedwithorontheboxfortighteningthejarlidsproperly.
Ifscrewbandsaretootight,aircannotventduringprocessing,andfoodwilldiscolorduringstorage.Overtighteningalsomaycauselidstobuckleandjarstobreak,especiallywithraw-packed,pressure-processedfood.Ifscrewbandsaretooloose,liquidmayescapefromjarsduringprocessing,sealsmayfail,andthefoodwillneedtobereprocessed.
Donotretightenlidsafterprocessingjars.Asjarscool,thecontentsinthejarcontract,pullingtheself-sealinglidfirmlyagainstthejartoformahighvacuum.Screwbandsarenotneededonstoredjars.Theycanberemovedeasilyafterjarsarecooled.Whenremoved,washed,dried,andstoredinadryarea,screwbandsmaybeusedmanytimes.Ifleftonstoredjars,theybecomedifficulttoremove,oftenrust,andmaynotworkproperlyagain.
SelectingtheCorrectProcessingTime
Whenfoodiscannedinboilingwater,moreprocessingtimeisneededformostraw-packedfoodsandforquartjarsthanisneededforhot-packedfoodsandpintjars.
Todestroymicroorganismsinacidfoodsprocessedinaboiling-watercanner,youmust:
Processjarsforthecorrectnumberofminutesinboilingwater.Coolthejarsatroomtemperature.Todestroymicroorganismsinlow-acidfoodsprocessedwithapressurecanner,youmust:Processthejarsforthecorrectnumberofminutesat240°F(10PSIG)or250°F(15PSIG).Allowcannertocoolatroomtemperatureuntilitiscompletelydepressurized.
Thefoodmayspoilifyoufailtousetheproperprocessingtimes,failtoventsteamfromcannersproperly,processatlowerpressurethanspecified,processforfewerminutesthanspecified,orcoolthecannerwithwater.
Processingtimesforhaft-pintandpintjarsarethesame,asaretimesfor1½-pintandquartjars.Forsomeproducts,youhaveachoiceofprocessingat5,10,or15PSIG.Inthesecases,choosethecannerpressure(PSIG)youwishtouseandmatchitwithyourpackstyle(raworhot)andjarsizetofindthecorrectprocessingtime.
RecommendedCanners
Therearetwomaintypesofcannersforheat-processinghome-cannedfood:boiling-watercannersandpressurecanners.Mostaredesignedtoholdsevenone-quartjarsoreighttonineone-pintjars.Smallpressurecannersholdfourone-quartjars;somelargepressurecannersholdeighteenone-pintjarsintwolayersbutholdonlysevenquartjars.Pressuresaucepanswithsmallervolumecapacitiesarenotrecommendedforuseincanning.Treatsmallpressurecannersthesameasstandardlargercanners;theyshouldbeventedusingthetypicalventingprocedures.
Aboilingwatercanner
Low-acidfoodsmustbeprocessedinapressurecannertobefreeofbotulismrisks.Althoughpressurecannersalsomaybeusedforprocessingacidfoods,boiling-watercannersarerecommendedbecausetheyarefaster.Apressurecannerwouldrequirefrom55to100minutestocanaloadofjars;thetotaltimeforcanningmostacidfoodsinboilingwatervariesfrom25to60minutes.
Aboiling-watercannerloadedwithfilledjarsrequiresabout20to30minutesofheatingbeforeitswaterbeginstoboil.Aloadedpressurecannerrequiresabout12to15minutesofheatingbeforeitbeginstovent,another10minutestoventthecanner,another5minutestopressurizethecanner,another8to10minutestoprocesstheacidfood,and,finally,another20to60minutestocoolthecannerbeforeremovingjars.
Boiling-WaterCanners
Thesecannersaremadeofaluminumorporcelain-coveredsteel.Theyhaveremovableperforatedracksandfittedlids.Thecannermustbedeepenoughsothatatleast1inchofbrisklyboilingwaterwillcoverthetopsofjarsduringprocessing.Someboiling-watercannersdonothaveflatbottoms.Aflatbottommustbeusedonanelectricrange.Eitheraflatorridgedbottomcanbeusedonagasburner.Toensureuniformprocessingofalljarswithanelectricrange,thecannershouldbenomorethan4incheswiderindiameterthantheelementonwhichitisheated.
UsingaBoiling-WaterCanner
Followthesestepsforsuccessfulboiling-watercanning:1. Fillthecannerhalfwaywithwater.2. Preheatwaterto140°Fforraw-packedfoodsandto180°Fforhot-packed
foods.3. Loadfilledjars,fittedwithlids,intothecannerrackandusethehandlesto
lowertherackintothewater;orfillthecanner,onejaratatime,withajarlifter.
4. Addmoreboilingwater,ifneeded,sothewaterlevelisatleast1inchabovejartops.
5. Turnheattoitshighestpositionuntilwaterboilsvigorously.6. Setatimerfortheminutesrequiredforprocessingthefood.7. Coverwiththecannerlidandlowertheheatsettingtomaintainagentle
boilthroughouttheprocessingtime.8. Addmoreboilingwater,ifneeded,tokeepthewaterlevelabovethejars.9. Whenjarshavebeenboiledfortherecommendedtime,turnofftheheat
andremovethecannerlid.10. Usingajarlifter,removethejarsandplacethemonatowel,leavingatleast
1inchofspacebetweenthejarsduringcooling.
PressureCanners
Pressurecannersforuseinthehomehavebeenextensivelyredesignedinrecentyears.Modelsmadebeforethe1970swereheavy-walledkettleswithclamp-onlids.Theywerefittedwithadialgauge,aventportintheformofapetcockorcounterweight,andasafetyfuse.Modernpressurecannersarelightweight,thin-walledkettles;mosthaveturn-onlids.Theyhaveajarrack,gasket,dialorweightedgauge,anautomaticventorcoverlock,aventport(steamvent)thatisclosedwithacounterweightorweightedgauge,andasafetyfuse.
Pressuredoesnotdestroymicroorganisms,buthightemperaturesappliedforacertainperiodoftimedo.Thesuccessofdestroyingallmicroorganismscapableofgrowingincannedfoodisbasedonthetemperatureobtainedinpuresteam,freeofair,atsealevel.Atsealevel,acanneroperatedatagaugepressureof10poundsprovidesaninternaltemperatureof240°F.
Airtrappedinacannerlowerstheinsidetemperatureandresultsinunder-
processing.Thehighestvolumeofairtrappedinacanneroccursinprocessingraw-packedfoodsindial-gaugecanners.Thesecannersdonotventairduringprocessing.Tobesafe,alltypesofpressurecannersmustbevented10minutesbeforetheyarepressurized.
Apressurecanner
Toventacanner,leavetheventportuncoveredonnewermodelsormanuallyopenpetcocksonsomeoldermodels.Heatingthefilledcannerwithitslidlockedintoplaceboilswaterandgeneratessteamthatescapesthroughthepetcockorventport.Whensteamfirstescapes,setatimerfor10minutes.Afterventing10minutes,closethepetcockorplacethecounterweightorweightedgaugeovertheventporttopressurizethecanner.
Weighted-gaugemodelsexhausttinyamountsofairandsteameachtimetheirgaugerocksorjigglesduringprocessing.Thesoundoftheweightrockingorjigglingindicatesthatthecannerismaintainingtherecommendedpressureandneedsnofurtherattentionuntiltheloadhasbeenprocessedforthesettime.Weighted-gaugecannerscannotcorrectpreciselyforhigheraltitudes,andataltitudesabove1,000feetmustbeoperatedatapressureof15.
Checkdialgaugesforaccuracybeforeuseeachyearandreplaceiftheyreadhighbymorethan1poundat5,10,or15poundsofpressure.Lowreadingscauseover-processingandmayindicatethattheaccuracyofthegaugeisunpredictable.Ifagaugeisconsistentlylow,youmayadjusttheprocessingpressure.Forexample,ifthedirectionscallfor12poundsofpressureandyourdialgaugehastested1poundlow,youcansafelyprocessat11poundsof
pressure.Ifthegaugeismorethan2poundslow,itisunpredictable,anditisbesttoreplaceit.GaugesmaybecheckedatmostUSDAcountyextensionoffices,whicharelocatedineverystateacrossthecountry.Tofindonenearyou,visitwww.csrees.usda.gov.
Handlegasketsofcannerlidscarefullyandcleanthemaccordingtothemanufacturer’sdirections.Nickedordriedgasketswillallowsteamleaksduringpressurizationofcanners.Gasketsofoldercannersmayneedtobelightlycoatedwithvegetableoilonceperyear,butnewermodelsarepre-lubricated.Checkyourcanner’sinstructions.
Lidsafetyfusesarethin,metalinsertsorrubberplugsdesignedtorelieveexcessivepressurefromthecanner.Donotpickatorscratchfuseswhilecleaninglids.UseonlycannersthathaveUnderwriter’sLaboratory(UL)approvaltoensuretheirsafety.
Replacementgaugesandotherpartsforcannersareoftenavailableatstoresofferingcannerequipmentorfromcannermanufacturers.Toorderparts,listcannermodelnumberanddescribethepartsneeded.
UsingaPressureCanner
Followthesestepsforsuccessfulpressurecanning:1. Put2to3inchesofhotwaterinthecanner.Placefilledjarsontherack,
usingajarlifter.Fastencannerlidsecurely.2. Openpetcockorleaveweightoffventport.Heatatthehighestsettinguntil
steamflowsfromthepetcockorventport.
Usingapressurecanner
3. Maintainhighheatsetting,exhauststeam10minutes,andthenplaceweightonventportorclosepetcock.Thecannerwillpressurizeduringthenextthreetofiveminutes.
4. Starttimingtheprocesswhenthepressurereadingonthedialgaugeindicatesthattherecommendedpressurehasbeenreachedorwhentheweightedgaugebeginstojiggleorrock.
5. Regulateheatunderthecannertomaintainasteadypressureatorslightlyabovethecorrectgaugepressure.Quickandlargepressurevariationsduringprocessingmaycauseunnecessaryliquidlossesfromjars.WeightedgaugesonMirrocannersshouldjiggleabouttwoorthreetimesperminute.OnPrestocanners,theyshouldrockslowlythroughouttheprocess.
Whenprocessingtimeiscompleted,turnofftheheat,removethecannerfromheatifpossible,andletthecannerdepressurize.Donotforce-coolthecanner.Ifyoucoolitwithcoldrunningwaterinasinkoropentheventportbeforethecannerdepressurizesbyitself,liquidwillspurtfromthejars,causinglowliquidlevelsandjarsealfailures.Force-coolingalsomaywarpthecannerlidofoldermodelcanners,causingsteamleaks.
Depressurizationofoldermodelsshouldbetimed.Standardsizeheavy-walledcannersrequireabout30minuteswhenloadedwithpintsand45minuteswithquarts.Newerthin-walledcannerscoolmorerapidlyandareequippedwithventlocks.Thesecannersaredepressurizedwhentheirventlockpistondropstoanormalposition.1. Aftertheventportorpetcockhasbeenopenfortwominutes,unfastenthe
lidandcarefullyremoveit.Liftthelidawayfromyousothatthesteamdoesnotburnyourface.
2. Removejarswithalifter,andplaceontowelorcoolingrack,ifdesired.
CoolingJars
Coolthejarsatroomtemperaturefor12to24hours.Jarsmaybecooledonracksortowelstominimizeheatdamagetocounters.Thefoodlevelandliquidvolumeofraw-packedjarswillbenoticeablyloweraftercoolingbecauseairisexhaustedduringprocessing,andfoodshrinks.Ifajarlosesexcessiveliquidduringprocessing,donotopenittoaddmoreliquid.Aslongasthesealisgood,
theproductisstillusable.
TestingJarSeals
Aftercoolingjarsfor12to24hours,removethescrewbandsandtestsealswithoneofthefollowingmethods:Method1:Pressthemiddleofthelidwithafingerorthumb.Ifthelidspringsupwhenyoureleaseyourfinger,thelidisunsealedandreprocessingwillbenecessary.
Method2:Tapthelidwiththebottomofateaspoon.Ifitmakesadullsound,thelidisnotsealed.Iffoodisincontactwiththeundersideofthelid,itwillalsocauseadullsound.Ifthejarlidissealedcorrectly,itwillmakearinging,high-pitchedsound.
Method3:Holdthejarateyelevelandlookacrossthelid.Thelidshouldbeconcave(curveddownslightlyinthecenter).Ifcenterofthelidiseitherflatorbulging,itmaynotbesealed.
ReprocessingUnsealedJars
Ifajarfailstoseal,removethelidandcheckthejar-sealingsurfacefortinynicks.Ifnecessary,changethejar,addanew,properlypreparedlid,andreprocesswithin24hoursusingthesameprocessingtime.
Anotheroptionistoadjustheadspaceinunsealedjarsto1½inchesandfreezejarsandcontentsinsteadofreprocessing.However,makesurejarshavestraightsides.Freezingmaycrackjarswith“shoulders.”
Foodsinsingle,unsealedjarscouldbestoredintherefrigeratorandconsumedwithinseveraldays.
StoringCannedFoods
Iflidsaretightlyvacuum-sealedoncooledjars,removescrewbands,washthelidandjartoremovefoodresidue,thenrinseanddryjars.Labelanddatethejarsandstoretheminaclean,cool,dark,dryplace.Donotstorejarsattemperaturesabove95°Fornearhotpipes,arange,afurnace,inanuninsulatedattic,orindirectsunlight.Undertheseconditions,foodwilllosequalityinafewweeksormonthsandmayspoil.Dampnessmaycorrodemetallids,breakseals,andallowrecontaminationandspoilage.
Testingjarseals
Accidentalfreezingofcannedfoodswillnotcausespoilageunlessjarsbecomeunsealedandrecontaminated.However,freezingandthawingmaysoftenfood.Ifjarsmustbestoredwheretheymayfreeze,wraptheminnewspapers,placetheminheavycartons,andcoverthemwithmorenewspapersandblankets.
IdentifyingandHandlingSpoiledCannedFood
Growthofspoilagebacteriaandyeastproducesgas,whichpressurizesthefood,swellslids,andbreaksjarseals.Aseachstoredjarisselectedforuse,examineitslidfortightnessandvacuum.Lidswithconcavecentershavegoodseals.
Next,whileholdingthejaruprightateyelevel,rotatethejarandexamineitsoutsidesurfaceforstreaksofdriedfoodoriginatingatthetopofthejar.Lookatthecontentsforrisingairbubblesandunnaturalcolor.
Whileopeningthejar,smellforunnaturalodorsandlookforspurtingliquidandcotton-likemoldgrowth(white,blue,black,orgreen)onthetopfoodsurfaceandundersideoflid.Donottastefoodfromastoredjaryoudiscovertohaveanunsealedlidorthatotherwiseshowssignsofspoilage.
Allsuspectcontainersofspoiled,low-acidfoodsshouldbetreatedashavingproducedbotulinumtoxinandshouldbehandledcarefullyasfollows:
Ifthesuspectglassjarsareunsealed,open,orleaking,theyshouldbedetoxifiedbeforedisposal.Ifthesuspectglassjarsaresealed,removelidsanddetoxifytheentirejar,contents,andlids.
DetoxificationProcess
Carefullyplacethesuspectcontainersandlidsontheirsidesinaneight-quart-
volumeorlargerstockpot,pan,orboiling-watercanner.Washyourhandsthoroughly.Carefullyaddwatertothepot.Thewatershouldcompletelycoverthecontainerswithaminimumof1inchofwaterabovethecontainers.Avoidsplashingthewater.Placealidonthepotandheatthewatertoboiling.Boil30minutestoensuredetoxifyingthefoodandallcontainercomponents.Coolanddiscardlidsandfoodinthetrashorburyinsoil.
Thoroughlycleanallcounters,containers,andequipmentincludingcanopener,clothing,andhandsthatmayhavecomeincontactwiththefoodorthecontainers.Discardanyspongesorwashclothsthatwereusedinthecleanup.Placetheminaplasticbaganddiscardinthetrash.
CannedFoodsforSpecialDiets
Thecostofcommerciallycanned,specialdietfoodoftenpromptsinterestinpreparingtheseproductsathome.Somelow-sugarandlow-saltfoodsmaybeeasilyandsafelycannedathome.However,itmaytakesomeexperimentationtocreateaproductwiththedesiredcolor,flavor,andtexture.Startwithasmallbatchandthenmakeappropriateadjustmentsbeforeproducinglargequantities.
CanningwithoutSugar
Incanningregularfruitswithoutsugar,itisveryimportanttoselectfullyripebutfirmfruitsofthebestquality.Itisgenerallybesttocanfruitinitsownjuice,butblendsofunsweetenedapple,pineapple,andwhitegrapejuicearealsogoodforpouringoversolidfruitpieces.Adjustheadspacesandlidsandusetheprocessingrecommendationsforregularfruits.Addsugarsubstitutes,ifdesired,whenserving.
FruitThere’snothingquitelikeopeningajarofhome-preservedstrawberriesinthemiddleofawintersnowstorm.Ittakesyourightbacktothewarm,early-summersunshine,thesmellofthestrawberrypatch’sdampearth,andthefeelofthefirmberriesasyousnippedthemfromthevines.Bestofall,yougettoindulgeinthesweet,summeryflavorevenasthesnowswirlsoutsidethewindows.
Preservingfruitissimple,safe,anditallowsyoutoenjoythefruitsofyoursummer’slaborallyear-round.Onthenextpages,youwillfindreferencechartsforprocessingvariousfruitsandfruitproductsinadial-gaugepressurecanneror
aweighted-gaugepressurecanner.Thesameinformationisalsoincludedwitheachrecipe’sdirections.Insomecases,aboiling-watercannerwillservebetter;fortheseinstances,directionsforitsuseareofferedinstead.
Addingsyruptocannedfruithelpstoretainitsflavor,color,andshape,althoughitdoesnotpreventspoilage.Tomaintainthemostnaturalflavor,usetheVeryLightSyruplistedinthetablefoundonpage78.Manyfruitsthataretypicallypackedinheavysyruparejustasgood—andalotbetterforyou—whenpackedinlightersyrups.However,ifyou’represervingfruitthat’sonthesourside,likecherriesortartapples,youmightwanttosplurgeononeofthesweeterversions.
Syrups
Addingsyruptocannedfruithelpstoretainitsflavor,color,andshape,althoughjarsstillneedtobeprocessedtopreventspoilage.Followthechartintotherightforsyrupsofvaryingsweetness.Lightcornsyrupsormildflavoredhoneymaybeusedtoreplaceuptohalfthetablesugarcalledforinsyrups.
Directions1. Bringwaterandsugartoaboilinamediumsaucepan.2. Pouroverrawfruitsinjars.
ProcessTimesforFruitsandFruitProductsinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*
ProcessTimesforFruitsandFruitProductsinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*
SugarandWaterinSyrup
AppleJuice
Thebestapplejuiceismadefromablendofvarieties.Ifyoudon’thaveyourownapplepress,trytobuyfreshjuicefromalocalcidermakerwithin24hoursafterithasbeenpressed.
Directions1. Refrigeratejuicefor24to48hours.2. Withoutmixing,carefullypouroffclearliquidanddiscardsediment.Strain
theclearliquidthroughapapercoffeefilterordoublelayersofdampcheesecloth.
3. Heatquicklyinasaucepan,stirringoccasionally,untiljuicebeginstoboil.4. Fillimmediatelyintosterilepintorquartjarsorintoclean,half-gallonjars,
leaving¼-inchheadspace.5. Adjustlidsandprocess.Seebelowforrecommendedtimesforaboiling-
watercanner.
ProcessTimesforAppleJuiceinaBoiling-WaterCanner*
AppleButter
ThebestapplevarietiestouseforapplebutterincludeJonathan,Winesap,Stayman,GoldenDelicious,andMacintoshapples,butanyofyourfavoritevarietieswillwork.Don’tbothertopeeltheapples,asyouwillstrainthefruitbeforecookingitanyway.Thisrecipewillyieldeighttoninepints.
Ingredients
8lbsapples
2cupsvinegar
2¼cupspackedbrownsugar
2cupscider
2¼cupswhitesugar
2tbspgroundcinnamon
1tbspgroundcloves
Directions1. Wash,stem,quarter,andcoreapples.2. Cookslowlyinciderandvinegaruntilsoft.Pressfruitthroughacolander,
foodmill,orstrainer.3. Cookfruitpulpwithsugarandspices,stirringfrequently.Totestfor
doneness,removeaspoonfulandholditawayfromsteamfor2minutes.Ifthebutterremainsmoundedonthespoon,itisdone.Ifyou’restillnotsure,spoonasmallquantityontoaplate.Whenarimofliquiddoesnotseparatearoundtheedgeofthebutter,itisreadyforcanning.
4. Fillwhilehotintosterilehalf-pintorpintjars,leaving¼-inchheadspace.Quartjarsneednotbepresterilized.
ProcessTimesforAppleButterinaBoiling-WaterCanner*
Applesauce
Besidesbeingdeliciousonitsownorpairedwithdisheslikeporkchopsorlatkes,applesaucecanbeusedasabuttersubstituteinmanybakedgoods.Selectapplesthataresweet,juicy,andcrisp.Foratartflavor,addonetotwopoundsoftartapplestoeachthreepoundsofsweeterfruit.
Quantity1. Anaverageof21poundsofapplesisneededpercannerloadofseven
quarts.2. Anaverageof13½poundsofapplesisneededpercannerloadofnine
pints.
3. Abushelweighs48poundsandyields14to19quartsofsauce—anaverageofthreepoundsperquart.
Directions1. Wash,peel,andcoreapples.Sliceapplesintowatercontainingalittle
lemonjuicetopreventbrowning.2. Placedrainedslicesinan8-to10-quartpot.Add½cupwater.Stirring
occasionallytopreventburning,heatquicklyuntiltender(5to20minutes,dependingonmaturityandvariety).
3. Pressthroughasieveorfoodmill,orskipthepressingstepifyoupreferchunky-stylesauce.Saucemaybepackedwithoutsugar,butifdesired,sweetentotaste(startwith⅛cupsugarperquartofsauce).
4. Reheatsaucetoboiling.Filljarswithhotsauce,leaving½-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.
ProcessTimesforApplesauceinaBoiling-WaterCanner*
ProcessTimesforApplesauceinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*
ProcessTimesforApplesauceinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*
Apricots,HalvedorSliced
Apricotsareexcellentinbakedgoods,stuffing,chutney,orontheirown.Choosefirm,well-colored,maturefruitforbestresults.
QuantityAnaverageof16poundsisneededpercannerloadofsevenquarts.Anaverageof10poundsisneededpercannerloadofninepints.
Abushelweighs50poundsandyields20to25quarts—anaverageof2¼poundsperquart.
Directions1. Dipfruitinboilingwaterfor30to60secondsuntilskinsloosen.Dip
quicklyincoldwaterandslipoffskins.2. Cutinhalf,removepits,andsliceifdesired.Topreventdarkening,keep
peeledfruitinwaterwithalittlelemonjuice.3. Prepareandboilaverylight,light,ormediumsyrup(seepage78)orpack
apricotsinwater,applejuice,orwhitegrapejuice.
ProcessTimesforHalvedorSlicedApricotsinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*
ProcessTimesforHalvedorSlicedApricotsinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*
Berries,Whole
Preservedberriesareperfectforuseinpies,muffins,pancakes,orinpoultryorporkdressings.Nearlyeveryberrypreserveswell,includingblackberries,blueberries,currants,dewberries,elderberries,gooseberries,huckleberries,loganberries,mulberries,andraspberries.Chooseripe,sweetberrieswithuniformcolor.
QuantityAnaverageof12poundsisneededpercannerloadofsevenquarts.Anaverageof8poundsisneededpercannerloadofninepints.A24-quartcrateweighs36poundsandyields18to24quarts—anaverageof1¾poundsperquart.
Directions1. Wash1or2quartsofberriesatatime.Drain,cap,andstemifnecessary.
Forgooseberries,snipoffheadsandtailswithscissors.2. Prepareandboilpreferredsyrup,ifdesired(seepage78).Add½cupsyrup,
juice,orwatertoeachcleanjar.
Hotpack—(Bestforblueberries,currants,elderberries,gooseberries,andhuckleberries)Heatberriesinboilingwaterfor30secondsanddrain.Filljarsandcoverwithhotjuice,leaving½-inchheadspace.
Rawpack—Filljarswithanyoftherawberries,shakingdowngentlywhilefilling.Coverwithhotsyrup,juice,orwater,leaving½-inchheadspace.
RecommendedProcessTimesforWholeBerriesinaBoiling-WaterCanner*
ProcessTimesforWholeBerriesinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*
ProcessTimesforWholeBerriesinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*
BerrySyrup
Juicesfromfreshorfrozenblueberries,cherries,grapes,raspberries(blackorred),andstrawberriesareeasilymadeintotoppingsforuseonicecreamandpastries.Foranelegantfinishtocheesecakesorpoundcakes,drizzleathinstreaminazigzagacrossthetopjustbeforeserving.Berrysyrupsarealsogreatadditionstosmoothiesormilkshakes.Thisrecipemakesaboutninehalf-pints.
Directions1. Select6½cupsoffreshorfrozenberriesofyourchoice.Wash,cap,and
stemberriesandcrushinasaucepan.2. Heattoboilingandsimmeruntilsoft(5to10minutes).Strainhotthrougha
colanderplacedinalargepananddrainuntilcoolenoughtohandle.
3. Strainthecollectedjuicethroughadoublelayerofcheeseclothorjellybag.Discardthedrypulp.Theyieldofthepressedjuiceshouldbeabout4½to5cups.
4. Combinethejuicewith6¾cupsofsugarinalargesaucepan,bringtoaboil,andsimmer1minute.
5. Fillintocleanhalf-pintorpintjars,leaving½-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.
Tomakesyrupwithwholeberries,ratherthancrushed,save1or2cupsofthefreshorfrozenfruit,combinethesewiththesugar,andsimmeruntilsoft.Removefromheat,skimofffoam,andfillinto
cleanjars,followingprocessingdirectionsforregularberrysyrup.
ProcessTimesforBerrySyrupinaBoiling-WaterCanner*
FruitPurées
Almostanyfruitcanbepuréedforuseasbabyfood,insauces,orjustasanutritioussnack.Puréedprunesandapplescanbeusedasabutterreplacementinmanybakedgoods.Usethisrecipeforanyfruitexceptfigsandtomatoes.
Directions1. Stem,wash,drain,peel,andremovepitsifnecessary.Measurefruitinto
largesaucepan,crushingslightlyifdesired.2. Add1cuphotwaterforeachquartoffruit.Cookslowlyuntilfruitissoft,
stirringfrequently.Pressthroughsieveorfoodmill.Ifdesired,addsugartotaste.
3. Reheatpulptoboil,oruntilsugardissolves(ifadded).Fillhotintocleanjars,leaving¼-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.
ProcessTimesforFruitPuréesinaBoiling-WaterCanner*
ProcessTimesforFruitPuréesinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*
ProcessTimesforFruitPuréesinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*
GrapeJuice
Purplegrapesarefullofantioxidantsandhelptoreducetheriskofheartdisease,cancer,andAlzheimer’sdisease.Forjuice,selectsweet,well-colored,firm,maturefruit.
QuantityAnaverageof24½poundsisneededpercannerloadofsevenquarts.Anaverageof16poundspercannerloadofninepints.Alugweighs26poundsandyieldsseventoninequartsofjuice—anaverageof3½poundsperquart.
Directions1. Washandstemgrapes.Placegrapesinasaucepanandaddboilingwaterto
cover.Heatandsimmerslowlyuntilskinissoft.2. Strainthroughadampjellybagordoublelayersofcheesecloth,anddiscard
solids.Refrigeratejuicefor24to48hours.3. Withoutmixing,carefullypouroffclearliquidandsave;discardsediment.
Ifdesired,strainthroughapapercoffeefilterforaclearerjuice.
4. Addjuicetoasaucepanandsweetentotaste.Heatandstiruntilsugarisdissolved.Continueheatingwithoccasionalstirringuntiljuicebeginstoboil.Fillintojarsimmediately,leaving¼-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.
ProcessTimesforGrapeJuiceinaBoiling-WaterCanner*
Peaches,HalvedorSliced
Peachesaredeliciousincobblers,crisps,andmuffins,orgrilledforauniquecaketopping.Chooseripe,maturefruitwithminimalbruising.
QuantityAnaverageof17½poundsisneededpercannerloadofsevenquarts.Anaverageof11poundsisneededpercannerloadofninepints.Abushelweighs48poundsandyields16to24quarts—anaverageof2½poundsperquart.
Directions1. Dipfruitinboilingwaterfor30to60secondsuntilskinsloosen.Dip
quicklyincoldwaterandslipoffskins.Cutinhalf,removepits,andsliceifdesired.Topreventdarkening,keeppeeledfruitinascorbicacidsolution.
2. Prepareandboilaverylight,light,ormediumsyruporpackpeachesinwater,applejuice,orwhitegrapejuice.Rawpacksmakepoor-qualitypeaches.Hotpack—Inalargesaucepan,placedrainedfruitinsyrup,water,or
juiceandbringtoboil.Filljarswithhotfruitandcookingliquid,leaving½-inchheadspace.Placehalvesinlayers,cutsidedown.
Rawpack—Filljarswithrawfruit,cutsidedown,andaddhotwater,juice,orsyrup,leaving½-inchheadspace.
3. Adjustlidsandprocess.
ProcessTimesforHalvedorSlicedPeachesinaBoiling-WaterCanner*
ProcessTimesforHalvedorSlicedPeachesinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*
ProcessTimesforHalvedorSlicedPeachesinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*
Pears,Halved
Chooseripe,maturefruitforbestresults.Foraspecialtreat,filledhalvedpearswithamixtureofchoppeddriedapricots,pecans,brownsugar,andbutter;bakeormicrowaveuntilwarmandservewithvanillaicecream.
QuantityAnaverageof17½poundsisneededpercannerloadofsevenquarts.Anaverageof11poundsisneededpercannerloadofninepints.Abushelweighs50poundsandyields16to25quarts—anaverageof2½poundsperquart.
Directions1. Washandpeelpears.Cutlengthwiseinhalvesandremovecore.Amelon
ballerormetalmeasuringspoonworkswellforcoringpears.Topreventdiscoloration,keeppearsinwaterwithalittlelemonjuice.
2. Prepareaverylight,light,ormediumsyrup(seepage78)oruseapplejuice,whitegrapejuice,orwater.Rawpacksmakepoorqualitypears.Boildrainedpearsfor5minutesinsyrup,juice,orwater.Filljarswithhotfruitandcookingliquid,leaving½-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.
ProcessTimesforHalvedPearsinaBoiling-WaterCanner*
ProcessTimesforHalvedPearsinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*
ProcessTimesforHalvedPearsinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*
Rhubarb,Stewed
Rhubarbinthegardenisasuresignthatspringhassprungandsummeriswellonitsway.Butwhynotenjoyrhubarballyear-round?Thebrilliantredstalksmakeitasappropriateforaholidaytableasforanearlysummerfeast.Rhubarbisalsodeliciousincrisps,cobblers,orservedhotovericecream.Selectyoung,tender,well-coloredstalksfromthespringor,ifavailable,latefallcrop.
QuantityAnaverageof10½poundsisneededpercannerloadofsevenquarts.Anaverageof7poundsisneededpercannerloadofninepints.Alugweighs28poundsandyields14to28quarts—anaverageof1½poundsperquart.
Directions1. Trimoffleaves.Washstalksandcutinto½-inchto1-inchpieces.2. Placerhubarbinalargesaucepan,andadd½cupsugarforeachquartof
fruit.Letstanduntiljuiceappears.Heatgentlytoboiling.Filljarswithoutdelay,leaving½-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.
ProcessTimesforStewedRhubarbinaBoiling-WaterCanner*
ProcessTimesforStewedRhubarbinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*
ProcessTimesforStewedRhubarbinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*
CannedPieFillingsUsingapre-madepiefillingwillcutyourpiepreparationtimebymorethanhalf,butmostcommerciallyproducedfillingsareoozingwithhighfructosecornsyrupandallmannerofartificialcoloringandflavoring.(Foodcoloringisnotatallnecessary,butifyou’rereallyconcernedabouthowtheinsideofyourpiewilllook,appropriateamountsareaddedtoeachrecipeasanoptionalingredient.)Makingandpreservingyourownpiefillingsmeansthatyoucanuseyourownfreshingredientsandadjustthesweetnesstoyourtaste.Becausesomefolksliketheirpiesrichandsweetandotherspreferanaturaltartflavor,youmightwanttofirstmakeasinglequart,makeapiewithit,andseehowyoulikeit.Thenyoucanadjustthesugarandspicesintherecipetosuityourpersonalpreferencesbeforemakingalargebatch.Experimentwithcombiningfruitsoraddingdifferentspices,buttheamountoflemonjuiceshouldnotbealtered,asitaidsincontrollingthesafetyandstoragestabilityofthefillings.
TheserecipesuseClearJel(sometimessoldasClearJelA),achemicallymodifiedcornstarchthatproducesexcellentsauceconsistencyevenafterfillingsarecannedandbaked.ByusingClearJel,youcanlowerthesugarcontentofyourfillingswithoutsacrificingsafety,flavor,ortexture.(Note:InstantClearJelisnotmeanttobecookedandshouldnotbeusedfortheserecipes.Sure-GelisanaturalfruitpectinandisnotasuitablesubstituteforClearJel.Cornstarch,tapiocastarch,orarrowrootstarchcanbeusedinplaceofClearJel,butthefinishedproductislikelytoberunny.)OnepoundofClearJelcostslessthanfivedollarsandisenoughtomakefillingsforabout14pies.Itwillkeepforatleastayearifstoredinacool,dryplace.ClearJelisincreasinglyavailableamongcanningandfreezingsuppliesinsomestores.Alternately,youcanorder
itbythepoundatanyofthefollowingonlinestores:www.barryfarm.comwww.kitchenkrafts.comwww.theingredientstore.com
Whenusingfrozencherriesandblueberries,selectunsweetenedfruit.Ifsugarhasbeenadded,rinseitoffwhilefruitisfrozen.Thawfruit,thencollect,measure,andusejuicefromfruittopartiallyreplacethewaterspecifiedintherecipe.
ApplePieFilling
Usefirm,crispapples,suchasStayman,GoldenDelicious,orRomevarietiesforthebestresults.Ifappleslacktartness,useanadditional¼cupoflemonjuiceforeachsixquartsofslices.Ingredientsareincludedforaone-quart(enoughforone8-inchpie)oraseven-quartrecipe.
Ingredients
Blanched,slicedfreshapples 3½cups 6quarts
Granulatedsugar ¾cup+2tbsp 5½cups
Granulatedsugar ¾cup+2tbsp 5½cups
ClearJel® ¼cup 1½cup
Cinnamon ¼tsp 1tbsp
Coldwater ½cup 2½cups
Applejuice ¾cup 5cups
Bottledlemonjuice 2tbsp ¾cup
Nutmeg(optional) ⅛tsp 1tsp
Directions1. Wash,peel,andcoreapples.Prepareslices½inchwideandplaceinwater
containingalittlelemonjuicetopreventbrowning.2. Forfreshfruit,place6cupsatatimein1gallonofboilingwater.Boileach
batch1minuteafterthewaterreturnstoaboil.Drain,butkeepheatedfruitinacoveredbowlorpot.
3. Combinesugar,ClearJel,andcinnamoninalargekettlewithwaterandapplejuice.Addnutmeg,ifdesired.Stirandcookonmedium-highheatuntilmixturethickensandbeginstobubble.
4. Addlemonjuiceandboil1minute,stirringconstantly.Foldindrainedappleslicesimmediatelyandfilljarswithmixturewithoutdelay,leaving1-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocessimmediately.
ProcessTimesforApplePieFillinginaBoiling-WaterCanner*
BlueberryPieFilling
Selectfresh,ripe,andfirmblueberries.Unsweetenedfrozenblueberriesmaybeused.Ifsugarhasbeenadded,rinseitoffwhilefruitisstillfrozen.Thawfruit,thencollect,measure,andusejuicefromfruittopartiallyreplacethewaterspecifiedintherecipe.Ingredientsareincludedforaone-quart(enoughforone8-inchpie)orseven-quartrecipe.
Ingredients
1Quart 7Quarts
Freshorthawedblueberries 3½cups 6quarts
Granulatedsugar ¾cup+2tbsp 6cups
ClearJel® ¼cup+1tbsp 2¼cup
Coldwater 1cup 7cups
Bottledlemonjuice 3½cups ½cup
Bluefoodcoloring(optional)
Redfoodcoloring(optional) 1drop 7drops
Directions1. Washanddrainblueberries.Place6cupsatatimein1gallonboilingwater.
Allowwatertoreturntoaboilandcookeachbatchfor1minute.Drainbutkeepheatedfruitinacoveredbowlorpot.
2. CombinesugarandClearJelinalargekettle.Stir.Addwaterandfoodcoloringifdesired.Cookonmedium-highheatuntilmixturethickensandbeginstobubble.
3. Addlemonjuiceandboil1minute,stirringconstantly.Foldindrainedberriesimmediatelyandfilljarswithmixturewithoutdelay,leaving1-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocessimmediately.
ProcessTimesforBlueberryPieFillinginaBoiling-WaterCanner*
CherryPieFilling
Selectfresh,veryripe,andfirmcherries.Unsweetenedfrozencherriesmaybeused.Ifsugarhasbeenadded,rinseitoffwhilethefruitisstillfrozen.Thawfruit,thencollect,measure,andusejuicefromfruittopartiallyreplacethewaterspecifiedintherecipe.Ingredientsareincludedforaone-quart(enoughforone8-inchpie)orseven-quartrecipe.
Ingredients
1Quart 7Quarts
Freshorthawedsourcherries 3⅓cups 6quarts
Granulatedsugar 1cup 7cups
ClearJel® ¼cup+1tbsp 1-¾cups
Coldwater 1⅓cups 9⅓cups
Bottledlemonjuice 1tbsp+1tsp ½cup
Cinnamon(optional) ⅛tsp 1tsp
Almondextract(optional) ¼tsp 2tsp
Redfoodcoloring(optional)
Directions1. Rinseandpitfreshcherries,andholdincoldwater.Topreventstemend
frombrowning,usewaterwithalittlelemonjuice.Place6cupsatatimein1gallonboilingwater.Boileachbatch1minuteafterthewaterreturnstoaboil.Drainbutkeepheatedfruitinacoveredbowlorpot.
2. CombinesugarandClearJelinalargesaucepanandaddwater.Ifdesired,addcinnamon,almondextract,andfoodcoloring.Stirmixtureandcookovermedium-highheatuntilmixturethickensandbeginstobubble.
3. Addlemonjuiceandboil1minute,stirringconstantly.Foldindrainedcherriesimmediatelyandfilljarswithmixturewithoutdelay,leaving1-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocessimmediately.
ProcessTimesforCherryPieFillinginaBoiling-WaterCanner*
FestiveMincemeatPieFilling
Mincemeatpieoriginatedas“ChristmasPie”intheeleventhcentury,whentheEnglishcrusadersreturnedfromtheHolyLandbearingorientalspices.Theyaddedthreeofthesespices—cinnamon,cloves,andnutmeg—totheirmeatpiestorepresentthethreegiftsthatthemagibroughttotheChristchild.Mincemeatpiesaretraditionallysmallandareperfectpairedwithamugofhotbutteredrum.Walnutsorpecanscanbeusedinplaceofmeatifpreferred.Thisrecipeyieldsaboutsevenquarts.
Ingredients
2cupsfinelychoppedsuet
4lbsgroundbeefor4lbsgroundvenisonand1lbsausage
5qtschoppedapples
2lbsdark,seedlessraisins
1lbwhiteraisins
2qtsapplecider
2tbspgroundcinnamon
2tspgroundnutmeg
½tspcloves
5cupssugar
2tbspsalt
Directions1. Cooksuetandmeatinwatertoavoidbrowning.Peel,core,andquarter
apples.Putsuet,meat,andapplesthroughfoodgrinderusingamediumblade.
2. Combineallingredientsinalargesaucepanandsimmer1houroruntilslightlythickened.Stiroften.
3. Filljarswithmixturewithoutdelay,leaving1-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.
ProcessTimesforFestiveMincemeatPieFillinginaDial-GaugePressureCanner*
MakingJamsandJellieswithoutAddedPectin
Ifyouarenotsureifafruithasenoughofitsownpectin,combine1tablespoonofrubbingalcoholwith1tablespoonofextractedfruitjuiceinasmallglass.Letstand2minutes.Ifthemixtureformsintoonesolidmass,there’splentyofpectin.Ifyouseeseveralweakblobs,youneedtoaddpectinorcombinewithanotherhigh-pectinfruit.
ProcessTimesforFestiveMincemeatPieFillinginaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*
Jams,Jellies,andOtherFruitSpreadsHomemadejamsandjellieshavelotsmoreflavorthanstore-bought,over-processedvarieties.Thecombinationsoffruitsandspicesarelimitless,sohavefunexperimentingwiththeserecipes.Ifyoucanbeartopartwithyourcreationswhenyou’realldone,theymakewonderfulgiftsforanyoccasion.
Pectiniswhatmakesjamsandjelliesthickenandgel.Manyfruits,suchascrabapples,citrusfruits,sourplums,currants,quinces,greenapples,orConcordgrapes,haveplentyoftheirownnaturalpectin,sothere’snoneedtoaddmorepectintoyourrecipes.Youcanuselesssugarwhenyoudon’taddpectin,butyouwillhavetoboilthefruitforlonger.Still,theprocessisrelativelysimple
andyoudon’thavetoworryabouthavingstore-boughtpectinonhand.
Tousefreshfruitswithalow-pectincontentorcannedorfrozenfruitjuice,powderedorliquidpectinmustbeaddedforyourjamsandjelliestothickenandsetproperly.Jellyorjammadewithaddedpectinrequireslesscookingandgenerallygivesalargeryield.Theseproductshavemorenaturalfruitflavors,too.Inaddition,usingaddedpectineliminatestheneedtotesthotjelliesandjamsforpropergelling.
Beginningthissectionaredescriptionsofthedifferencesbetweenmethods,andtipsforsuccesswithwhicheveryouuse.
JellyWithoutAddedPectin
Makingjellywithoutaddedpectinisnotanexactscience.Youcanaddalittlemoreorlesssugaraccordingtoyourtaste,substitutehoneyforupto½ofthesugar,orexperimentwithcombiningsmallamountsoflow-pectinfruitswithotherhigh-pectinfruits.TheIngredientstablebelowshowsyouthebasicsforcommonhigh-pectinfruits.Useitasaguidelineasyouexperimentwithotherfruits.
Asfruitripens,itspectincontentdecreases,sousefruitthathasrecentlybeenpicked,andmix¾ripefruitwith¼under-ripe.Cookingcoresandpeelsalongwiththefruitwillalsoincreasethepectinlevel.Avoidusingcannedorfrozenfruitastheycontainverylittlepectin.
Besuretowashallfruitthoroughlybeforecooking.Onepoundoffruitshouldyieldatleast1cupofclearjuice.
Ingredients
Directions1. Crushsoftfruitsorberries;cutfirmerfruitsintosmallpieces(thereisno
needtopeelorcorethefruits,ascookingallthepartsaddspectin).2. Addwatertofruitsthatrequireit,aslistedintheIngredientstableabove.
Putfruitandwaterinlargesaucepanandbringtoaboil.Thensimmeraccordingtothetimesinthechartuntilfruitissoft,whilestirringtopreventscorching.
3. Whenfruitistender,strainthroughacolander,thenstrainthroughadoublelayerofcheeseclothorajellybag.Allowjuicetodripthrough,usingastandorcolandertoholdthebag.Avoidpressingorsqueezingthebagorclothasitwillcausecloudyjelly.
4. Usingnomorethan6to8cupsofextractedfruitjuiceatatime,measurefruitjuice,sugar,andlemonjuiceaccordingtotheIngredientstable,andheattoboiling.
5. Stiruntilthesugarisdissolved.Boiloverhighheattothejellyingpoint.Totestjellyfordoneness,useoneofthefollowingmethods:
Temperaturetest—Useajellyorcandythermometerandboiluntilmixturereachesthefollowingtemperatures:
Sheetorspoontest—Dipacool,metalspoonintotheboilingjellymixture.Raisethespoonabout12inchesabovethepan(outofsteam).Turnthespoonsotheliquidrunsofftheside.Thejellyisdonewhenthesyrupformstwodropsthatflowtogetherandsheetorhangofftheedgeofthespoon.Removefromheatandquicklyskimofffoam.Fillsterilejarswithjelly.Usea
measuringcuporladlethejellythroughawide-mouthedfunnel,leaving¼-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.
ProcessTimesforJellywithoutAddedPectininaBoilingWaterCanner1
LemonCurd
Lemoncurdisarich,creamyspreadthatcanbeusedon(orin)avarietyofteatimetreats—crumpets,scones,cakefillings,tartlets,ormeringuesareallenhancedbyitstangy-sweetflavor.Followtherecipecarefully,asvariancesiningredients,order,andtemperaturesmayleadtoapoortextureorflavor.ForLimeCurd,usethesamerecipebutsubstitute1cupbottledlimejuiceand¼cupfreshlimezestforthelemonjuiceandzest.Thisrecipeyieldsaboutthreetofourhalf-pints.
Ingredients
2½cupssuperfinesugar1
½cuplemonzest(freshlyzested),optional
1cupbottledlemonjuice2
¾cupunsaltedbutter,chilled,cutintoapproximately¾-inchpieces7largeeggyolks
4largewholeeggs
Directions1. Wash4half-pintcanningjarswithwarm,soapywater.Rinsewell;keephot
untilreadytofill.Preparecanninglidsaccordingtomanufacturer’sdirections.
2. Fillboilingwatercannerwithenoughwatertocoverthefilledjarsby1to2inches.Useathermometertopreheatthewaterto180°Fbythetimefilledjarsarereadytobeadded.Caution:Donotheatthewaterinthecannertomorethan180°Fbeforejarsareadded.Ifthewaterinthecanneristoohotwhenjarsareadded,theprocesstimewillnotbelongenough.Thetimeit
takesforthecannertoreachboilingafterthejarsareaddedisexpectedtobe25to30minutesforthisproduct.Processtimestartsafterthewaterinthecannercomestoafullboiloverthetopsofthejars.
3. Combinethesugarandlemonzestinasmallbowl,stirtomix,andsetasideabout30minutes.Pre-measurethelemonjuiceandpreparethechilledbutterpieces.
4. Heatwaterinthebottompanofadoubleboiler3untilitboilsgently.Thewatershouldnotboilvigorouslyortouchthebottomofthetopdoubleboilerpanorbowlinwhichthecurdistobecooked.Steamproducedwillbesufficientforthecookingprocesstooccur.
5. Inthetopofthedoubleboiler,onthecountertoportable,whisktheeggyolksandwholeeggstogetheruntilthoroughlymixed.Slowlywhiskinthesugarandzest,blendinguntilwell-mixedandsmooth.Blendinthelemonjuiceandthenaddthebutterpiecestothemixture.
6. Placethetopofthedoubleboileroverboilingwaterinthebottompan.Stirgentlybutcontinuouslywithasiliconespatulaorcookingspoon,topreventthemixturefromstickingtothebottomofthepan.Continuecookinguntilthemixturereachesatemperatureof170°F.Useafoodthermometertomonitorthetemperature.
7. Removethedoubleboilerpanfromthestoveandplaceonaprotectedsurface,suchasadishclothortowelonthecountertop.Continuetostirgentlyuntilthecurdthickens(about5minutes).Strain
8. Fillhot,strainedcurdintotheclean,hothalf-pintjars,leaving½-inchheadspace.Removeairbubblesandadjustheadspaceifneeded.Wiperimsofjarswithadampened,cleanpapertowel;applytwo-piecemetalcanninglids.Process.Letcool,undisturbed,for12to24hoursandcheckforseals.
ProcessTimesforLemonCurdinaBoiling-WaterCanner*
JamWithoutAddedPectin
Makingjamiseveneasierthanmakingjelly,asyoudon’thavetostrainthefruit.However,you’llwanttobesuretoremoveallstems,skins,andpits.Besuretowashandrinseallfruitsthoroughlybeforecooking,butdon’tletthemsoak.Forbestflavor,usefullyripefruit.UsetheIngredientstablebelowasaguidelineasyouexperimentwithlesscommonfruits.
Ingredients
1. Removestems,skins,seeds,andpits;cutintopiecesandcrush.Forberries,removestemsandblossomsandcrush.Seedyberriesmaybeputthroughasieveorfoodmill.Measurecrushedfruitintolargesaucepanusingtheingredientquantitiesspecifiedabove.
2. Addsugarandbringtoaboilwhilestirringrapidlyandconstantly.Continuetoboiluntilmixturethickens.Useoneofthefollowingteststodeterminewhenjamsandjelliesarereadytofill.Rememberthatthejamwillthickenasitcools.
Temperaturetest—Useajellyorcandythermometerandboiluntilmixturereachesthetemperatureforyouraltitude.
Refrigeratortest—Removethejammixturefromtheheat.Pourasmallamountofboilingjamonacoldplateandputitinthefreezercompartmentofarefrigeratorforafewminutes.Ifthemixturegels,itisreadytofill.
3. Removefromheatandskimofffoamquickly.Fillsterilejarswithjam.Use
ameasuringcuporladlethejamthroughawide-mouthedfunnel,leaving¼-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.
ProcessTimesforJamswithoutAddedPectininaBoiling-WaterCanner*
JamsandJelliesWithAddedPectin
Tousefreshfruitswithalow-pectincontentorcannedorfrozenfruitjuice,powderedorliquidpectinmustbeaddedforyourjamsandjelliestothickenandsetproperly.Jellyorjammadewithaddedpectinrequireslesscookingandgenerallygivesalargeryield.Theseproductshavemorenaturalfruitflavors,too.Inaddition,usingaddedpectineliminatestheneedtotesthotjelliesandjamsforpropergelling.
Commerciallyproducedpectinisanaturalingredient,usuallymadefromapplesandavailableatmostgrocerystores.Thereareseveraltypesofpectinnowcommonlyavailable;liquid,powder,low-sugar,andno-sugarpectinseachhavetheirownadvantagesanddownsides.Pomona’sUniversalPectin®isacitruspectinthatallowsyoutomakejamsandjellieswithlittleornosugar.Becausetheorderofcombiningingredientsdependsonthetypeofpectinused,
itisbesttofollowthecommonjamandjellyrecipesthatareincludedrightonmostpectinpackages.However,ifyouwanttotrysomethingalittledifferent,followoneofthefollowingrecipesformixedfruitandspicedfruitjamsandjellies.
Tips
Adding½teaspoonofbutterormargarinewiththejuiceandpectinwillreducefoaming.However,thesemaycauseoff-flavorinalong-termstorageofjelliesandjams.Purchasefreshfruitpectineachyear.Oldpectinmayresultinpoorgels.Besuretousemasoncanningjars,self-sealingtwo-piecelids,andafive-minuteprocess(correctedforaltitude,asnecessary)inboilingwater.
ProcessTimesforJamsandJellieswithAddedPectininaBoiling-WaterCanner*
Pear-AppleJam
Thisisadeliciousjamperfectformakingattheendofautumn,justbeforethefrostgetsthelastapples.Forawarming,spicytwist,addateaspoonoffresh,gratedgingeralongwiththecinnamon.Thisrecipeyieldsseventoeighthalf-pints.
Ingredients
2cupspeeled,cored,andfinelychoppedpears(about2lbs)
1cuppeeled,cored,andfinelychoppedapples
¼tspgroundcinnamon
6½cupssugar
⅓cupbottledlemonjuice
6ozliquidpectin
Directions1. Peel,core,andsliceapplesandpearsintoalargesaucepanandstirin
cinnamon.Thoroughlymixsugarandlemonjuicewithfruitsandbringtoaboiloverhighheat,stirringconstantlyandcrushingfruitwithapotatomasherasitsoftens.
2. Onceboiling,immediatelystirinpectin.Bringtoafullrollingboilandboilhard1minute,stirringconstantly.
3. Removefromheat,quicklyskimofffoam,andfillsterilejars,leaving¼-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.
ProcessTimesforPear-AppleJaminaBoilingWaterCanner*
Strawberry-RhubarbJelly
Strawberry-rhubarbjellywillturnanyordinarypieceofbreadintoadelightfultreat.Youcanalsospreaditonshortcakeorpoundcakeforasimpleanduniquedessert.Thisrecipeyieldsaboutsevenhalf-pints.
Ingredients
1½lbsredstalksofrhubarb
1½qtsripestrawberries
½tspbutterormargarinetoreducefoaming(optional)
6cupssugar
6ozliquidpectin
Directions1. Washandcutrhubarbinto1-inchpiecesandblendorgrind.Wash,stem,
andcrushstrawberries,onelayeratatime,inasaucepan.Placebothfruitsinajellybagordoublelayerofcheeseclothandgentlysqueezejuiceintoalargemeasuringcuporbowl.
2. Measure3½cupsofjuiceintoalargesaucepan.Addbutterandsugar,thoroughlymixingintojuice.Bringtoaboiloverhighheat,stirringconstantly.
3. Assoonasmixturebeginstoboil,stirinpectin.Bringtoafull,rollingboilandboilhard1minute,stirringconstantly.Removefromheat,quicklyskimofffoam,andfillsterilejars,leaving¼-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.
ProcessTimesforStrawberry-RhubarbJellyinaBoiling-WaterCanner*
Blueberry-SpiceJam
Thisisasummerytreatthatisdeliciousspreadoverwaffleswithalittlebutter.Usingwildblueberriesresultsinastrongerflavor,butcultivatedblueberriesalsoworkwell.Thisrecipeyieldsaboutfivehalf-pints.
Ingredients
2½pintsripeblueberries
1tbsplemonjuice
½tspgroundnutmegorcinnamon
¾cupwater
5½cupssugar
1box(1¾oz)powderedpectin
Directions1. Washandthoroughlycrushblueberries,addingonelayeratatime,ina
saucepan.Addlemonjuice,spice,andwater.Stirpectinandbringtoafull,rollingboiloverhighheat,stirringfrequently.
2. Addthesugarandreturntoafull,rollingboil.Boilhardfor1minute,stirringconstantly.Removefromheat,quicklyskimofffoam,andfillsterilejars,leaving¼-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.
ProcessTimesforBlueberry-SpiceJaminaBoiling-WaterCanner*
Grape-PlumJelly
Ifyouthinkpeanutbutterandjellysandwichesareonlyforkids,trygrape-plumjellyspreadwithanaturalnutbutteroverathicksliceofwholewheatbread.You’llchangeyourmind.Thisrecipeyieldsabout10half-pints.
Ingredients
3½lbsripeplums
3lbsripeConcordgrapes
8½cupssugar
1cupwater
½tspbutterormargarinetoreducefoaming(optional)
1box(1¾oz)powderedpectin
Directions1. Washandpitplums;donotpeel.Thoroughlycrushtheplumsandgrapes,
addingonelayeratatime,inasaucepanwithwater.Bringtoaboil,cover,andsimmer10minutes.
2. Strainjuicethroughajellybagordoublelayerofcheesecloth.Measuresugarandsetaside.Combine6½cupsofjuicewithbutterandpectininlargesaucepan.Bringtoahardboiloverhighheat,stirringconstantly.
3. Addthesugarandreturntoafull,rollingboil.Boilhardfor1minute,stirringconstantly.Removefromheat,quicklyskimofffoam,andfillsterilejars,leaving¼-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.
ProcessTimesforGrape-PlumJellyinaBoiling-WaterCanner*
MakingReduced-SugarFruitSpreads
Avarietyoffruitspreadsmaybemadethataretasteful,yetlowerinsugarsandcaloriesthanregularjamsandjellies.Themoststraightforwardmethodisprobablytobuylow-sugarpectinandfollowthedirectionsonthepackage,butthefollowingrecipesshowalternatemethodsofusinggelatinorfruitpulpasthickeningagents.Gelatinrecipesshouldnotbeprocessedandshouldberefrigeratedandusedwithinfourweeks.
Peach-PineappleSpread
Thisrecipemaybemadewithanycombinationofpeaches,nectarines,apricots,andplums.Youcanusenosugar,uptotwocupsofsugar,oracombinationofsugarandanothersweetener(suchashoney,Splenda,oragavenectar).Notethatifyouuseaspartame,thespreadmayloseitssweetnesswithinthreetofourweeks.Addcinnamonorstaraniseifdesired.Thisrecipeyieldsfivetosixhalf-pints.
Ingredients
4cupsdrainedpeachpulp(followdirectionsbelow)
2cupsdrainedunsweetenedcrushedpineapple
¼cupbottledlemonjuice
2cupssugar(optional)
Directions1. Thoroughlywash4to6poundsoffirm,ripepeaches.Drainwell.Peeland
removepits.Grindfruitfleshwithamediumorcoarseblade,orcrushwithafork(donotuseablender).
2. Placegroundorcrushedpeachpulpina2-quartsaucepan.Heatslowlytoreleasejuice,stirringconstantly,untilfruitistender.Placecookedfruitinajellybagorstrainerlinedwithfourlayersofcheesecloth.Allowjuicetodripabout15minutes.Savethejuiceforjellyorotheruses.
3. Measure4cupsofdrainedpeachpulpformakingspread.Combinethe4cupsofpulp,pineapple,andlemonjuiceina4-quartsaucepan.Addupto2cupsofsugarorothersweetener,ifdesired,andmixwell.
4. Heatandboilgentlyfor10to15minutes,stirringenoughtopreventsticking.Filljarsquickly,leaving¼-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsand
process.
ProcessTimesforPeach-PineappleSpreadinaBoiling-WaterCanner*
RefrigeratedAppleSpread
Thisrecipeusesgelatinasathickener,soitdoesnotrequireprocessingbutitshouldberefrigeratedandusedwithinfourweeks.Forspicedapplejelly,addtwosticksofcinnamonandfourwholeclovestomixturebeforeboiling.Removebothspicesbeforeaddingthesweetenerandfoodcoloring(ifdesired).Thisrecipeyieldsfourhalf-pints.
Ingredients
2tbspunflavoredgelatinpowder
1qtbottleunsweetenedapplejuice
2tbspbottledlemonjuice
2tbspliquidlow-caloriesweetener(e.g.,sucralose,honey,or1–2tspliquidstevia)
Directions1. Inasaucepan,softenthegelatinintheappleandlemonjuices.Todissolve
gelatin,bringtoafull,rollingboilandboil2minutes.Removefromheat.2. Stirinsweetenerandfoodcoloring(ifdesired).Filljars,leaving¼-inch
headspace.Adjustlids.Refrigerate(donotprocessorfreeze).
RefrigeratedGrapeSpread
Thisisasimple,tastyrecipethatdoesn’trequireprocessing.Besuretorefrigerateandusewithinfourweeks.Thisrecipemakesthreehalf-pints.
Ingredients
2tbspunflavoredgelatinpowder
1bottle(24oz)unsweetenedgrapejuice
2tbspbottledlemonjuice
2tbspliquidlow-caloriesweetener(e.g.,sucralose,honey,or1–2tspliquidstevia)
Directions1. Inasaucepan,heatthegelatininthegrapeandlemonjuicesuntilmixtureis
soft.Bringtoafull,rollingboiltodissolvegelatin.Boil1minuteandremovefromheat.Stirinsweetener.
2. Filljarsquickly,leaving¼-inchheadspace.Adjustlids.Refrigerate(donotprocessorfreeze).
RemakingSoftJellies
Sometimesjellyjustdoesn’tturnoutrightthefirsttime.Jellythatistoosoftcanbeusedasasweetsaucetodrizzleovericecream,cheesecake,orangelfoodcake,butitcanalsobere-cookedintotheproperconsistency.
ToRemakewithPowderedPectin1. Measurejellytobere-cooked.Workwithnomorethan4to6cupsata
time.Foreachquart(4cups)ofjelly,mix¼cupsugar,½cupwater,2tablespoonsbottledlemonjuice,and4teaspoonspowderedpectin.Bringtoaboilwhilestirring.
2. Addjellyandbringtoarollingboiloverhighheat,stirringconstantly.Boilhardfor½minute.Removefromheat,quicklyskimfoamoffjelly,andfillsterilejars,leaving¼-inchheadspace.Adjustnewlidsandprocessasrecommended.
ToRemakeWithLiquidPectin1. Measurejellytobere-cooked.Workwithnomorethan4to6cupsata
time.Foreachquart(4cups)ofjelly,measureintoabowl¾cupsugar,2tablespoonsbottledlemonjuice,and2tablespoonsliquidpectin.
2. Bringjellyonlytoboiloverhighheat,whilestirring.Removefromheatandquicklyaddthesugar,lemonjuice,andpectin.Bringtoafull,rollingboil,stirringconstantly.Boilhardfor1minute.Quicklyskimofffoamandfillsterilejars,leaving¼-inchheadspace.Adjustnewlidsandprocessasrecommended.
ToRemakewithoutAddedPectin1. Foreachquartofjelly,add2tablespoonsbottledlemonjuice.Heatto
boilingandcontinuetoboilfor3to4minutes.2. Totestjellyfordoneness,useoneofthefollowingmethods:
Temperaturetest—Useajellyorcandythermometerandboiluntilmixturereachesthefollowingtemperaturesatthealtitudesbelow:
Sheetorspoontest—Dipacoolmetalspoonintotheboilingjellymixture.Raisethespoonabout12inchesabovethepan(outofsteam).Turnthespoonsotheliquidrunsofftheside.Thejellyisdonewhenthesyrupforms
twodropsthatflowtogetherandsheetorhangofftheedgeofthespoon.
Removefromheat,quicklyskimofffoam,andfillsterilejars,leaving¼-inchheadspace.Adjustnewlidsandprocess.
ProcessTimesforRemadeSoftJelliesinaBoiling-WaterCanner
Vegetables,Pickles,andTomatoes
BeansorPeas,ShelledorDried(AllVarieties)
Shelledordriedbeansandpeasareinexpensiveandeasytobuyorstoreinbulk,buttheyarenotveryconvenientwhenitcomestopreparingthemtoeat.Hydratingandcanningbeansorpeasenableyoutosimplyopenacanandusethemratherthanwaitingforthemtosoak.Sortanddiscarddiscoloredseedsbeforerehydrating.
QuantityAnaverageoffivepoundsisneededpercannerloadofsevenquarts.Anaverageof3¼poundsisneededpercannerloadofninepints—anaverageof¾poundsperquart.
Directions1. Placedriedbeansorpeasinalargepotandcoverwithwater.Soak12to18
hoursinacoolplace.Drainwater.Toquicklyhydratebeans,youmaycoversortedandwashedbeanswithboilingwaterinasaucepan.Boil2minutes,removefromheat,soak1hour,anddrain.
2. Coverbeanssoakedbyeithermethodwithfreshwaterandboil30minutes.Add½teaspoonofsaltperpintor1teaspoonperquarttoeachjar,ifdesired.Filljarswithbeansorpeasandcookingwater,leaving1-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.
ProcessTimesforBeansorPeasinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*
ProcessTimesforBeansorPeasinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*
BakedBeans
BakedbeansareanoldNewEnglandfavorite,buteverycookhashisorherfavoritevariation.Tworecipesareincludedhere,butfeelfreetoalterthemtoyourowntaste.
QuantityAnaverageoffivepoundsofbeansisneededpercannerloadofsevenquarts.Anaverageof3¼poundsisneededpercannerloadofninepints—anaverageof¾poundsperquart.
Directions1. Sortandwashdrybeans.Add3cupsofwaterforeachcupofdriedbeans.
Boil2minutes,removefromheat,soak1hour,anddrain.2. Heattoboilinginfreshwater,andsaveliquidformakingsauce.Makeyour
choiceofthefollowingsauces:
TomatoSauce—Mix1quarttomatojuice,3tablespoonssugar,2teaspoonssalt,1tablespoonchoppedonion,and¼teaspooneachofgroundcloves,allspice,mace,andcayennepepper.Heattoboiling.Add3quartscookingliquidfrombeansandbringbacktoboiling.
MolassesSauce—Mix4cupswaterorcookingliquidfrombeans,3tablespoonsdarkmolasses,1tablespoonvinegar,2teaspoonssalt,and¾teaspoonpowdereddrymustard.Heattoboiling.
3.Placeseven¾-inchpiecesofpork,ham,orbaconinanearthenwarecrock,alargecasserole,orapan.Addbeansandenoughmolassessaucetocoverbeans.
4.Coverandbake4to5hoursat350ºF.Addwaterasneeded—abouteveryhour.Filljars,leaving1-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.
ProcessTimesforBakedBeansinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*
ProcessTimesforBakedBeansinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*
GreenBeans
Thisprocesswillworkequallywellforsnap,Italian,orwaxbeans.Selectfilledbuttender,crisppods,removinganydiseasedorrustypods.
QuantityAnaverageof14poundsisneededpercannerloadofsevenquarts.Anaverageofninepoundsisneededpercannerloadofninepints.Abushelweighs30poundsandyields12to20quarts—anaverageof2poundsperquart.
Directions
1.Washbeansandtrimends.Leavewhole,orcutorbreakinto1-inchpieces.
Hotpack—Coverwithboilingwater;boil5minutes.Filljarsloosely,leaving1-inchheadspace.
Rawpack—Filljarstightlywithrawbeans,leaving1-inchheadspace.Add1teaspoonofsaltperquarttoeachjar,ifdesired.Addboilingwater,leaving1-inchheadspace.
2.Adjustlidsandprocess.
ProcessTimesforGreenBeansinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*
ProcessTimesforGreenBeansinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*
Beets
Youcanpreservebeetswhole,cubed,orsliced,accordingtoyourpreference.Beetsthatare1to2inchesindiameterarethebest,aslargeronestendtobetoofibrous.
QuantityAnaverageof21pounds(withouttops)isneededpercannerloadofsevenquarts.Anaverageof13½poundsisneededpercannerloadofninepints.Abushel(withouttops)weighs52poundsandyields15to20quarts—anaverageofthreepoundsperquart.
Directions1. Trimoffbeettops,leavinganinchofstemandrootstoreducebleedingof
color.Scrubwell.Coverwithboilingwater.Boiluntilskinsslipoffeasily,about15to25minutesdependingonsize.
2. Cool,removeskins,andtrimoffstemsandroots.Leavebabybeetswhole.Cutmediumorlargebeetsinto½-inchcubesorslices.Halveorquarterverylargeslices.Add1teaspoonofsaltperquarttoeachjar,ifdesired.
3. Filljarswithhotbeetsandfreshhotwater,leaving1-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.
ProcessTimesforBeetsinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*
ProcessTimesforBeetsinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*
Carrots
Carrotscanbepreservedslicedordicedaccordingtoyourpreference.Choosesmallcarrots,preferably1to1¼inchesindiameter,aslargeronesareoftentoofibrous.
QuantityAnaverageof17½pounds(withouttops)isneededpercannerloadofsevenquarts.Anaverageof11poundsisneededpercannerloadofninepints.Abushel(withouttops)weighs50poundsandyields17to25quarts—anaverageof2½poundsperquart.
Directions
1.Wash,peel,andrewashcarrots.Sliceordice.
Hotpack—Coverwithboilingwater;bringtoboilandsimmerfor5minutes.Filljarswithcarrots,leaving1-inchheadspace.
Rawpack—Filljarstightlywithrawcarrots,leaving1-inchheadspace.
2.Add1teaspoonofsaltperquarttothejar,ifdesired.Addhotcookingliquidorwater,leaving1-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.
ProcessTimesforCarrotsinaDial-GaugepressureCanner*
ProcessTimesforCarrotsinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*
Corn,CreamStyle
Thecreamytexturecomesfromscrapingthecorncobsthoroughlyandincludingthejuicesandcornpieceswiththekernels.Ifyouwanttoaddmilkorcream,butter,orotheringredients,dosojustbeforeserving(donotadddairyproductsbeforecanning).Selectearscontainingslightlyimmaturekernelsforthisrecipe.
QuantityAnaverageof20pounds(inhusks)ofsweetcornisneededpercannerloadofninepints.Abushelweighs35poundsandyields12to20pints—anaverageof2¼poundsperpint.
Directions
1.Huskcorn,removesilk,andwashears.Cutcornfromcobataboutthecenterofkernel.Scraperemainingcornfromcobswithatableknife.
Hotpack—Toeachquartofcornandscrapingsinasaucepan,add2cupsofboilingwater.Heattoboiling.Add½teaspoonsalttoeachjar,ifdesired.Fillpintjarswithhotcornmixture,leaving1-inchheadspace.
Rawpack—Fillpintjarswithrawcorn,leaving1-inchheadspace.Donotshakeorpressdown.Add½teaspoonsalttoeachjar,ifdesired.Addfreshboilingwater,leaving1-inchheadspace.
2.Adjustlidsandprocess.
ProcessTimesforCream-StyleCorninaDial-GaugePressureCanner
ProcessTimesforCream-StyleCorninaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*
Corn,WholeKernel
Selectearscontainingslightlyimmaturekernels.Canningofsomesweetervarietiesorkernelsthataretooimmaturemaycausebrowning.Trycanningasmallamounttotestcolorandflavorbeforecanninglargequantities.
QuantityAnaverageof31½pounds(inhusks)ofsweetcornisneededpercannerloadofsevenquarts.Anaverageof20poundsisneededpercannerloadofninepints.Abushelweighs35poundsandyields6to11quarts—anaverageof4½poundsperquart.
Directions
1.Huskcorn,removesilk,andwash.Blanch3minutesinboilingwater.Cutcornfromcobataboutthree-fourthsthedepthofkernel.Donotscrapecob,asitwillcreateacreamytexture.
Hotpack—Toeachquartofkernelsinasaucepan,add1cupof
hotwater,heattoboiling,andsimmer5minutes.Add1teaspoonofsaltperquarttoeachjar,ifdesired.Filljarswithcornandcookingliquid,leaving1-inchheadspace.
Rawpack—Filljarswithrawkernels,leaving1-inchheadspace.Donotshakeorpressdown.Add1teaspoonofsaltperquarttothejar,ifdesired.
2.Addfreshboilingwater,leaving1-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.
ProcessTimesforWholeKernelCorninaDial-GaugePressureCanner*
ProcessTimesforWholeKernelCorninaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*
MixedVegetables
Usemixedvegetablesinsoups,casseroles,potpies,orasaquicksidedish.Youcanchangethesuggestedproportionsorsubstituteotherfavoritevegetables,butavoidleafygreens,driedbeans,cream-stylecorn,wintersquash,andsweetpotatoesastheywillruintheconsistencyoftheothervegetables.Thisrecipeyieldsaboutsevenquarts.
Ingredients
6cupsslicedcarrots
6cupscut,whole-kernelsweetcorn
6cupscutgreenbeans
6cupsshelledlimabeans
4cupsdicedorcrushedtomatoes
4cupsdicedzucchini
Directions1. Carefullywash,peel,de-shell,andcutvegetablesasnecessary.Combineall
vegetablesinalargepotorkettle,andaddenoughwatertocoverpieces.2. Add1teaspoonsaltperquarttoeachjar,ifdesired.Boil5minutesandfill
jarswithhotpiecesandliquid,leaving1-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.
ProcessTimesforMixedVegetablesinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*
ProcessTimesforMixedVegetablesinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*
Peas,GreenorEnglish,Shelled
GreenandEnglishpeaspreservewellwhencanned,butsugarsnapandChineseediblepodsarebetterfrozen.Selectfilledpodscontainingyoung,tender,sweetseeds,anddiscardanydiseasedpods.
QuantityAnaverageof31½pounds(inpods)isneededpercannerloadofsevenquarts.Anaverageof20poundsisneededpercannerloadofninepints.Abushelweighs30poundsandyields5to10quarts—anaverageof4½poundsperquart.
Directions
1.Shellandwashpeas.Add1teaspoonofsaltperquarttoeachjar,ifdesired.
Hotpack—Coverwithboilingwater.Bringtoaboilinasaucepan,andboil2minutes.Filljarslooselywithhotpeas,andaddcookingliquid,leaving1-inchheadspace.
Rawpack—Filljarswithrawpeas,andaddboilingwater,leaving1-inchheadspace.Donotshakeorpressdownonpeas.
2.Adjustlidsandprocess.
ProcessTimesforPeasinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*
ProcessTimesforPeasinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*
Potatoes,Sweet
Sweetpotatoescanbepreservedwhole,inchunks,orinslices,accordingtoyourpreference.Choosesmalltomedium-sizedpotatoesthatarematureandnottoofibrous.Canwithinonetotwomonthsafterharvest.
QuantityAnaverageof17½poundsisneededpercannerloadofsevenquarts.Anaverageof11poundsisneededpercannerloadofninepints.Abushelweighs50poundsandyields17to25quarts—anaverageof2½poundsperquart.
Directions1. Washpotatoesandboilorsteamuntilpartiallysoft(15to20minutes).
Removeskins.Cutmediumpotatoes,ifneeded,sothatpiecesareuniforminsize.Donotmashorpuréepieces.
2. Filljars,leaving1-inchheadspace.Add1teaspoonsaltperquarttoeachjar,ifdesired.Coverwithyourchoiceoffreshboilingwaterorsyrup,leaving1-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.
ProcessTimesforSweetPotatoesinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*
ProcessTimesforSweetPotatoesinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*
PumpkinandWinterSquash
Pumpkinandsquasharegreattohaveonhandforuseinpies,soups,quickbreads,orassidedishes.Theyshouldhaveahardrindandstringless,maturepulp.Smallpumpkins(sugarorpievarieties)arebest.Beforeusingforpies,drainjarsandstrainorsievepumpkinorsquashcubes.
QuantityAnaverageof16poundsisneededpercannerloadofsevenquarts.Anaverageof10poundsisneededpercannerloadofninepints—anaverageof2¼poundsperquart.
Directions1. Wash,removeseeds,cutinto1-inch-wideslices,andpeel.Cutfleshinto1-
inchcubes.Boil2minutesinwater.Donotmashorpurée.2. Filljarswithcubesandcookingliquid,leaving1-inchheadspace.Adjust
lidsandprocess.
ProcessTimesforPumpkinandWinterSquashinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*
ProcessTimesforPumpkinandWinterSquashinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*
Succotash
Tospiceupthissimple,satisfyingdish,addalittlepaprikaandcelerysaltbeforeserving.Itisalsodeliciousmadeintoapotpie,withorwithoutaddedchicken,turkey,orbeef.Thisrecipeyieldssevenquarts.
Ingredients
1lbunhuskedsweetcornor3qtscutwholekernels
14lbsmaturegreenpoddedlimabeansor4qtsshelledlimabeans2qtscrushedorwholetomatoes(optional)
Directions
1.Huskcorn,removesilk,andwash.Blanch3minutesinboilingwater.Cutcornfromcobataboutthree-fourthsthedepthofkernel.Donotscrapecob,asitwillcreateacreamytexture.Shelllimabeansandwashthoroughly.
Hotpack—Combineallpreparedvegetablesinalargekettlewithenoughwatertocoverthepieces.Add1teaspoonsalttoeachquartjar,ifdesired.Boilgently5minutesandfilljarswithpiecesandcookingliquid,leaving1-inchheadspace.
Rawpack—Filljarswithequalpartsofallpreparedvegetables,leaving1-inchheadspace.Donotshakeorpressdownpieces.Add1teaspoonsalttoeachquartjar,ifdesired.Addfreshboilingwater,leaving1-inchheadspace.
2.Adjustlidsandprocess.
ProcessTimesforSuccotashinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*
ProcessTimesforSuccotashinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*
Soups
Vegetable,driedbeanorpea,meat,poultry,orseafoodsoupscanallbecanned.Addpasta,rice,orothergrainstosoupjustpriortoserving,asgrainstendtogetsoggywhencanned.Ifdriedbeansorpeasareused,theymustbefullyrehydratedfirst.Dairyproductsshouldalsobeavoidedinthecanningprocess.
Directions1. Select,wash,andpreparevegetables.2. Cookvegetables.Foreachcupofdriedbeansorpeas,add3cupsofwater,
boil2minutes,removefromheat,soak1hour,andheattoboil.Drainandcombinewithmeatbroth,tomatoes,orwatertocover.Boil5minutes.
3. Salttotaste,ifdesired.Filljarshalfwaywithsolidmixture.Addremainingliquid,leaving1-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.
ProcessTimesforSoupsinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*
ProcessTimesforSoupsinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*
MeatStock(Broth)
“Goodbrothwillresurrectthedead,”saysaSouthAmericanproverb.Bonescontaincalcium,magnesium,phosphorus,andothertraceminerals,whilecartilageandtendonsholdglucosamine,whichisimportantforjointsandmusclehealth.Whensimmeredforextendedperiods,thesenutrientsarereleasedintothewaterandbrokendownintoaformthatourbodiescanabsorb.Nottomentionthatgoodbrothisthesecrettodeliciousrisotto,reductionsauces,
gravies,anddozensofothergourmetdishes.
Beef1. Saworcrackfresh,trimmedbeefbonestoenhanceextractionofflavor.
Rinsebonesandplaceinalargestockpotorkettle,coverboneswithwater,addpotcover,andsimmer3to4hours.
2. Removebones,coolbroth,andpickoffmeat.Skimofffat,addmeatremovedfrombonestobroth,andreheattoboiling.Filljars,leaving1-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.
ChickenorTurkey1. Placelargecarcassbonesinalargestockpot,addenoughwatertocover
bones,coverpot,andsimmer30to45minutesoruntilmeatcanbeeasilystrippedfrombones.
2. Removebonesandpieces,coolbroth,stripmeat,discardexcessfat,andreturnmeattobroth.Reheattoboilingandfilljars,leaving1-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.
ProcessTimesforMeatStockinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*
ProcessTimesforMeatStockinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*
FermentedFoodsandPickledVegetables
PickledvegetablesplayavitalroleinItalianantipastodishes,Chinesestir-fries,Britishpiccalilli,andmuchofRussianandFinnishcuisine.And,ofcourse,
theGermanslovetheirsauerkraut,kimcheeisfoundonnearlyeveryKoreandinnertable,andmanyanAmericanwon’teatasandwichwithoutagood,strongdillpickleontheside.
Fermentingvegetablesisnotcomplicated,butyou’llwanttohavethepropercontainers,covers,andweightsreadybeforeyoubegin.Forcontainers,keepthefollowinginmind:
Aonce-galloncontainerisneededforeachfivepoundsoffreshvegetables.Therefore,afive-gallonstonecrockisofidealsizeforfermentingabout25poundsoffreshcabbageorcucumbers.Food-gradeplasticandglasscontainersareexcellentsubstitutesforstonecrocks.Otherone-tothree-gallonnon-food-gradeplasticcontainersmaybeusediflinedinsidewithacleanfood-gradeplasticbag.Caution:Becertainthatfoodscontactonlyfood-gradeplastics.Donotusegarbagebagsortrashliners.Fermentingsauerkrautinquartandhalf-gallonmasonjarsisanacceptablepractice,butmayresultinmorespoilagelosses.
Somevegetables,likecabbageandcucumbers,needtobekept1to2inchesunderbrinewhilefermenting.Ifyoufindthemfloatingtotopofthecontainer,herearesomesuggestions:
Afteraddingpreparedvegetablesandbrine,insertasuitablysizeddinnerplateorglasspieplateinsidethefermentationcontainer.Theplatemustbeslightlysmallerthanthecontaineropening,yetlargeenoughtocovermostoftheshreddedcabbageorcucumbers.Tokeeptheplateunderthebrine,weightitdownwithtwotothreesealedquartjarsfilledwithwater.Coveringthecontaineropeningwithaclean,heavybathtowelhelpstopreventcontaminationfrominsectsandmoldswhilethevegetablesarefermenting.Finequalityfermentedvegetablesarealsoobtainedwhentheplateisweighteddownwithaverylarge,clean,plasticbagfilledwiththreequartsofwatercontaining4½tablespoonsofsalt.Besuretosealtheplasticbag.Freezerbagssoldforpackagingturkeysaresuitableforusewithfive-galloncontainers.
Besuretowashthefermentationcontainer,plate,andjarsinhot,sudsywater,andrinsewellwithveryhotwaterbeforeuse.
DillPickles
Feelfreetoalterthespicesinthisrecipe,butsticktothesameproportionofcucumbers,vinegar,andwater.Checkthelabelofyourvinegartobesureitcontains5percentaceticacid.Fullyfermentedpicklesmaybestoredintheoriginalcontainerforaboutfourtosixmonths,providedtheyarerefrigeratedandsurfacescumandmoldsareremovedregularly,butcanningisabetterwaytostorefullyfermentedpickles.
Ingredients
Usethefollowingquantitiesforeachgalloncapacityofyourcontainer:4lbsof4-inchpicklingcucumbers
2tbspdillseedor4to5headsfreshordrydillweed
½cupsalt
¼cupvinegar(5percentaceticacid)
8cupswaterandoneormoreofthefollowingingredients:
2clovesgarlic(optional)
2driedredpeppers(optional)
2tspwholemixedpicklingspices(optional)
Directions1. Washcucumbers.Cut1⁄16-inchsliceoffblossomendanddiscard.Leave¼
inchofstemattached.Placehalfofdillandspicesonbottomofaclean,suitablecontainer.
2. Addcucumbers,remainingdill,andspices.Dissolvesaltinvinegarandwaterandpourovercucumbers.Addsuitablecoverandweight.Storewheretemperatureisbetween70°Fand75°Fforabout3to4weekswhilefermenting.Temperaturesof55°Fto65°Fareacceptable,butthefermentationwilltake5to6weeks.Avoidtemperaturesabove80°F,orpickleswillbecometoosoftduringfermentation.Fermentingpicklescureslowly.Checkthecontainerseveraltimesaweekandpromptlyremovesurfacescumormold.Caution:Ifthepicklesbecomesoft,slimy,ordevelopadisagreeableodor,discardthem.
3. Oncefullyfermented,pourthebrineintoapan,heatslowlytoaboil,andsimmer5minutes.Filterbrinethroughpapercoffeefilterstoreduce
cloudiness,ifdesired.Filljarswithpicklesandhotbrine,leaving½-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocessinaboilingwatercanner,orusethelow-temperaturepasteurizationtreatmentdescribedhere:
Low-TemperaturePasteurizationTreatment
Thefollowingtreatmentresultsinabetterproducttexturebutmustbecarefullymanagedtoavoidpossiblespoilage.1. Placejarsinacannerfilledhalfwaywithwarm(120°Fto140°F)water.
Then,addhotwatertoalevel1inchabovejars.2. Heatthewaterenoughtomaintain180°Fto185°Fwatertemperaturefor30
minutes.Checkwithacandyorjellythermometertobecertainthatthewatertemperatureisatleast180°Fduringtheentire30minutes.Temperatureshigherthan185°Fmaycauseunnecessarysofteningofpickles.
ProcessTimesforDillPicklesinaBoiling-WaterCanner*
Sauerkraut
Forthebestsauerkraut,usefirmheadsoffreshcabbage.Shredcabbageandstartkrautbetween24and48hoursafterharvest.Thisrecipeyieldsaboutninequarts.
Ingredients
25lbscabbage
¾cupcanningorpicklingsalt
Directions
1. Workwithabout5poundsofcabbageatatime.Discardouterleaves.Rinseheadsundercoldrunningwateranddrain.Cutheadsinquartersandremovecores.Shredorslicetothethicknessofaquarter.
2. Putcabbageinasuitablefermentationcontainer(seepage103forsuggestionsoncontainers,lids,andweights),andadd3tablespoonsofsalt.Mixthoroughly,usingcleanhands.Packfirmlyuntilsaltdrawsjuicesfromcabbage.
3. Repeatshredding,salting,andpackinguntilallcabbageisinthecontainer.Besureitisdeepenoughsothatitsrimisatleast4or5inchesabovethecabbage.Ifjuicedoesnotcovercabbage,addboiledandcooledbrine(1½tablespoonsofsaltperquartofwater).
4. Addplateandweights;covercontainerwithacleanbathtowel.Storeat70°Fto75°Fwhilefermenting.Attemperaturesbetween70°Fand75°F,krautwillbefullyfermentedinabout3to4weeks;at60°Fto65°F,fermentationmaytake5to6weeks.Attemperatureslowerthan60°F,krautmaynotferment.Above75°F,krautmaybecomesoft.
Note:Ifyouweighthecabbagedownwithabrinefilledbag,donotdisturbthecrockuntilnormalfermentationiscompleted(whenbubblingceases).Ifyouusejarsasweight,youwillhavetocheckthekraut2to3timeseachweekandremovescumifitforms.Fullyfermentedkrautmaybekepttightlycoveredintherefrigeratorforseveralmonthsoritmaybecannedasfollows:Hotpack—Bringkrautandliquidslowlytoaboilinalargekettle,stirringfrequently.Removefromheatandfilljarsratherfirmlywithkrautandjuices,leaving½-inchheadspace.
Rawpack—Filljarsfirmlywithkrautandcoverwithjuices,leaving½-inchheadspace.
5.Adjustlidsandprocess.
ProcessTimesforSauerkrautinaBoiling-WaterCanner*
PickledThree-BeanSalad
Thisisagreatsidedishtobringtoasummerpicnicorpotluck.Feelfreetoaddoradjustspicestoyourtaste.Thisrecipeyieldsaboutfivetosixhalf-pints.
Ingredients
1½cupscutandblanchedgreenoryellowbeans(preparedasbelow)1½cupscanned,drainedredkidneybeans
1cupcanned,drainedgarbanzobeans
½cuppeeledandthinlyslicedonion(about1mediumonion)
½cuptrimmedandthinlyslicedcelery(1½mediumstalks)
½cupslicedgreenpeppers(½mediumpepper)
½cupwhitevinegar(5percentaceticacid)
¼cupbottledlemonjuice
¾cupsugar
1¼cupswater
¼cupoil
½tspcanningorpicklingsalt
Directions
1. Washandsnapoffendsoffreshbeans.Cutorsnapinto1-to2-inchpieces.Blanch3minutesandcoolimmediately.Rinsekidneybeanswithtapwateranddrainagain.Prepareandmeasureallothervegetables.
2. Combinevinegar,lemonjuice,sugar,andwaterandbringtoaboil.Removefromheat.Addoilandsaltandmixwell.Addbeans,onions,celery,andgreenpeppertosolutionandbringtoasimmer.
3. Marinate12to14hoursinrefrigerator,thenheatentiremixturetoaboil.Fillcleanjarswithsolids.Addhotliquid,leaving½-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.
ProcessTimesforPickledThree-BeanSaladinaBoilingWaterCanner*
PickledHorseradishSauce
Selecthorseradishrootsthatarefirmandhavenomold,softspots,orgreenspots.Avoidrootsthathavebeguntosprout.Thepungencyoffreshhorseradishfadeswithinonetotwomonths,evenwhenrefrigerated,somakeonlysmallquantitiesatatime.Thisrecipeyieldsabouttwohalf-pints.
Ingredients
2cups(¾lb)freshlygratedhorseradish
1cupwhitevinegar(5percentaceticacid)
½tspcanningorpicklingsalt
¼tsppowderedascorbicacid
Directions1. Washhorseradishrootsthoroughlyandpeeloffbrownouterskin.Gratethe
peeledrootsinafoodprocessororcutthemintosmallcubesandputthroughafoodgrinder.
2. Combineingredientsandfillintosterilejars,leaving¼-inchheadspace.Sealjarstightlyandstoreinarefrigerator.
MarinatedPeppers
Anycombinationofbell,Hungarian,banana,orjalapeñopepperscanbeusedinthisrecipe.Usemorejalapeñopeppersifyouwantyourmixtobehot,butremembertowearrubberorplasticgloveswhilehandlingthemorwashhandsthoroughlywithsoapandwaterbeforetouchingyourface.Thisrecipeyieldsaboutninehalf-pints.
Ingredients
4lbsfirmpeppers
1cupbottledlemonjuice
2cupswhitevinegar(5percentaceticacid)
1tbsporeganoleaves
1cupoliveorsaladoil
½cupchoppedonions
2tbsppreparedhorseradish(optional)
2clovesgarlic,quartered(optional)
2¼tspsalt(optional)
Directions1. Selectyourfavoritepepper.Peppersmaybeleftwholeorquartered.Wash,
slashtwotofourslitsineachpepper,andblanchinboilingwaterorblistertopeeltough-skinnedhotpeppers.Blisterpeppersusingoneofthefollowingmethods:Ovenorbroilermethod—Placepeppersinahotoven(400°F)orbroilerfor6to8minutesoruntilskinsblister.
Range-topmethod—Coverhotburner,eithergasorelectric,withheavywiremesh.Placepeppersonburnerforseveralminutesuntilskinsblister.
2. Allowpepperstocool.Placeinpanandcoverwithadampcloth.Thiswillmakepeelingthepepperseasier.Afterseveralminutesofcooling,peeleachpepper.Flattenwholepeppers.
3. Mixallremainingingredientsexceptgarlicandsaltinasaucepanandheattoboiling.Place¼garlicclove(optional)and¼teaspoonsaltineachhalf-pintor½teaspoonperpint.Filljarswithpeppers,andaddhot,well-mixedoil/picklingsolutionoverpeppers,leaving½-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.
ProcessTimesforMarinatedPeppersinaBoiling-WaterCanner*
Piccalilli
PiccalilliisaniceaccompanimenttoroastedorbraisedmeatsandiscommoninBritishandIndianmeals.ItcanalsobemixedwithmayonnaiseorcrèmefraîcheasthebasisofaFrenchremoulade.Thisrecipeyieldsninehalf-pints.
Ingredients
6cupschoppedgreentomatoes
1½cupschoppedsweetredpeppers
1½cupschoppedgreenpeppers
2¼cupschoppedonions
7½cupschoppedcabbage
½cupcanningorpicklingsalt
3tbspwholemixedpicklingspice
4½cupsvinegar(5percentaceticacid)
3cupsbrownsugar
Directions1. Wash,chop,andcombinevegetableswithsalt.Coverwithhotwaterandlet
stand12hours.Drainandpressinaclean,whiteclothtoremoveallpossibleliquid.
2. Tiespiceslooselyinaspicebagandaddtocombinedvinegarandbrownsugarandheattoaboilinasaucepan.Addvegetablesandboilgently30minutesoruntilthevolumeofthemixtureisreducedbyone-half.Removespicebag.
3. Fillhotsterilejarswithhotmixture,leaving½-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.
ProcessTimesforPiccalilliinaBoiling-WaterCanner
Bread-and-ButterPickles
Theseslightlysweet,spicedpickleswilladdflavorandcrunchtoanysandwich.Ifdesired,slender(1to1½inchesindiameter)zucchinioryellowsummersquashcanbesubstitutedforcucumbers.Afterprocessingandcooling,jarsshouldbestoredfourtofiveweekstodevelopidealflavor.Thisrecipeyieldsabouteightpints.
Ingredients
6lbsof4-to5-inchpicklingcucumbers
8cupsthinlyslicedonions(about3pounds)
½cupcanningorpicklingsalt
4cupsvinegar(5percentaceticacid)
4½cupssugar
2tbspmustardseed
1½tbspceleryseed
1tbspgroundturmeric
1cuppicklinglime(optional—foruseinvariationbelowformakingfirmerpickles)
Directions1. Washcucumbers.Cut inchoffblossomendanddiscard.Cutinto -inch
slices.Combinecucumbersandonionsinalargebowl.Addsalt.Coverwith2inchescrushedorcubedice.Refrigerate3to4hours,addingmoreiceasneeded.
2. Combineremainingingredientsinalargepot.Boil10minutes.Draincucumbersandonions,addtopot,andslowlyreheattoboiling.Filljarswithslicesandcookingsyrup,leaving½-inchheadspace.
3. Adjustlidsandprocessinboiling-watercanner,orusethelow-temperaturepasteurizationtreatmentdescribedbelow.
Low-TemperaturePasteurizationTreatment
Thefollowingtreatmentresultsinabetterproducttexturebutmustbecarefullymanagedtoavoidpossiblespoilage.1. Placejarsinacannerfilledhalfwaywithwarm(120°Fto140°F)water.
Then,addhotwatertoalevel1inchabovejars.2. Heatthewaterenoughtomaintain180°Fto185°Fwatertemperaturefor30
minutes.Checkwithacandyorjellythermometertobecertainthatthewatertemperatureisatleast180°Fduringtheentire30minutes.Temperatureshigherthan185°Fmaycauseunnecessarysofteningof
pickles.
Variationforfirmerpickles:Washcucumbers.Cut inchoffblossomendanddiscard.Cutinto -inchslices.Mix1cuppicklinglimeand½cupsaltto1gallonwaterina2-to3-galloncrockorenamelwarecontainer.Avoidinhalinglimedustwhilemixingthelime-watersolution.Soakcucumberslicesinlimewaterfor12to24hours,stirringoccasionally.Removefromlimesolution,rinse,andresoak1hourinfreshcoldwater.Repeattherinsingandsoakingstepstwomoretimes.Handlecarefully,assliceswillbebrittle.Drainwell.
ProcessTimesforBread-and-ButterPicklesinaBoiling-WaterCanner*
QuickFresh-PackDillPickles
Forbestresults,picklecucumberswithintwenty-fourhoursofharvesting,orimmediatelyafterpurchasing.Thisrecipeyieldsseventoninepints.
Ingredients
8lbsof3-to5-inchpicklingcucumbers
2gallonswater
1¼to1½cupscanningorpicklingsalt
1½qtsvinegar(5percentaceticacid)
¼cupsugar
2to2¼quartswater
2tbspwholemixedpicklingspice
3to5tbspwholemustardseed(2tspto1tspperpintjar)
14to21headsoffreshdill(1½to3headsperpintjar)or
4½to7tbspdillseed(1-½tspto1tbspperpintjar)
Directions1. Washcucumbers.Cut -inchsliceoffblossomendanddiscard,butleave
¼-inchofstemattached.Dissolve¾cupsaltin2gallonswater.Pourovercucumbersandletstand12hours.Drain.
2. Combinevinegar,½cupsalt,sugarand2quartswater.Addmixedpicklingspicestiedinacleanwhitecloth.Heattoboiling.Filljarswithcucumbers.Add1tspmustardseedand1½headsfreshdillperpint.
3. Coverwithboilingpicklingsolution,leaving½-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.
ProcessTimesforQuickFresh-PackDillPicklesinaBoiling-WaterCanner*
PickleRelish
Afoodprocessorwillmakequickworkofchoppingthevegetablesinthisrecipe.Yieldsaboutninepints.
Ingredients
3qtschoppedcucumbers
3cupseachofchoppedsweetgreenandredpeppers
1cupchoppedonions
¾cupcanningorpicklingsalt
4cupsice
8cupswater
4tspeachofmustardseed,turmeric,wholeallspice,andwholecloves2cupssugar
6cupswhitevinegar(5percentaceticacid)
Directions1. Addcucumbers,peppers,onions,salt,andicetowaterandletstand4
hours.Drainandre-covervegetableswithfreshicewaterforanotherhour.Drainagain.
2. Combinespicesinaspiceorcheeseclothbag.Addspicestosugarandvinegar.Heattoboilingandpourmixtureovervegetables.Coverandrefrigerate24hours.
3. Heatmixturetoboilingandfillhotintocleanjars,leaving½-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.
ProcessTimesforPickleRelishinaBoiling-WaterCanner*
QuickSweetPickles
Quickandsimpletoprepare,thesearethesweetpicklestomakewhenyou’reshortontime.Afterprocessingandcooling,jarsshouldbestoredfourtofiveweekstodevelopidealflavor.Ifdesired,addtwoslicesofrawwholeoniontoeachjarbeforefillingwithcucumbers.Thisrecipeyieldsaboutseventoninepints.
Ingredients
8lbsof3-to4-inchpicklingcucumbers
⅓cupcanningorpicklingsalt
4½cupssugar
3½cupsvinegar(5percentaceticacid)
2tspceleryseed
1tbspwholeallspice
2tbspmustardseed
1cuppicklinglime(optional)
Directions1. Washcucumbers.Cut inchoffblossomendanddiscard,butleave¼inch
ofstemattached.Sliceorcutinstrips,ifdesired.2. Placeinbowlandsprinklewithsalt.Coverwith2inchesofcrushedor
cubedice.Refrigerate3to4hours.Addmoreiceasneeded.Drainwell.3. Combinesugar,vinegar,celeryseed,allspice,andmustardseedin6-quart
kettle.Heattoboiling.Hotpack—Addcucumbersandheatslowlyuntilvinegarsolution
returnstoboil.Stiroccasionallytomakesuremixtureheatsevenly.Fill
sterilejars,leaving½-inchheadspace.
Rawpack—Filljars,leaving½-inchheadspace.4. Addhotpicklingsyrup,leaving½-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.
Variationforfirmerpickles:Washcucumbers.Cut inchoffblossomendanddiscard,butleave¼inchofstemattached.Sliceorstripcucumbers.Mix1cuppicklinglimeand⅓cupsaltwith1gallonwaterina2-to3-galloncrockorenamelwarecontainer.Caution:Avoidinhalinglimedustwhilemixingthelime-watersolution.Soakcucumberslicesorstripsinlime-watersolutionfor12to24hours,stirringoccasionally.Removefromlimesolution,rinse,andsoak1hourinfreshcoldwater.Repeattherinsingandsoakingtwomoretimes.Handlecarefully,becauseslicesorstripswillbebrittle.Drainwell.
ProcessTimesforQuickSweetPicklesinaBoiling-WaterCanner*
Reduced-SodiumSlicedSweetPickles
Wholeallspicecanbetrickytofind.Ifit’snotavailableatyourlocalgrocerystore,itcanbeorderedatwww.spicebarn.comoratwww.gourmetsleuth.com.Thisrecipeyieldsaboutfourtofivepints.
Ingredients
4lbs(3-to4-inch)picklingcucumbers
Canningsyrup:1⅔cupsdistilledwhitevinegar(5percentacetic
acid)3cupssugar
1tbspwholeallspice
2¼tspceleryseed
Briningsolution:1qtdistilledwhitevinegar(5percentaceticacid)1tbspcanningorpicklingsalt
1tbspmustardseed
½cupsugar
Directions1. Washcucumbersandcut -inchoffblossomend,anddiscard.Cut
cucumbersinto¼-inchslices.Combineallingredientsforcanningsyrupinasaucepanandbringtoboiling.Keepsyruphotuntilused.
2. Inalargekettle,mixtheingredientsforthebriningsolution.Addthecutcucumbers,cover,andsimmeruntilthecucumberschangecolorfrombrighttodullgreen(about5to7minutes).Drainthecucumberslices.
3. Filljars,andcoverwithhotcanningsyrupleaving½-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.
ProcessTimesforReduced-SodiumSlicedSweetPicklesinaBoiling-WaterCanner*
Tomatoes
Cannedtomatoesshouldbeastapleineverycook’spantry.Theyareeasytoprepareand,whenmadewithgarden-freshproduce,makeordinarysoups,pizza,orpastasintofive-starmeals.Besuretoselectonlydisease-free,preferablyvine-ripened,firmfruit.Donotcantomatoesfromdeadorfrost-killedvines.
Greentomatoesaremoreacidicthanripenedfruitandcanbecannedsafelywiththefollowingrecommendations.
Toensuresafeacidityinwhole,crushed,orjuicedtomatoes,addtwotablespoonsofbottledlemonjuiceor½teaspoonofcitricacidperquartoftomatoes.Forpints,useonetablespoonbottledlemonjuiceor¼teaspooncitricacid.Acidcanbeaddeddirectlytothejarsbeforefillingwithproduct.Addsugartooffsetacidtaste,ifdesired.Fourtablespoonsof5percentacidityvinegarperquartmaybeusedinsteadoflemonjuiceorcitricacid.However,vinegarmaycauseundesirableflavorchanges.Usingapressurecannerwillresultinhigherqualityandmorenutritiouscannedtomatoproducts.Ifyourpressurecannercannotbeoperatedabove15PSI,selectaprocesstimeatalowerpressure.
TomatoJuice
TomatojuiceisagoodsourceofvitaminAandCandistastyonitsownorinacocktail.It’salsothesecretingredientinsomeverydeliciouscakes.Ifdesired,addcarrots,celery,andonions,ortossinafewjalapeñosforalittlekick.
QuantityAnaverageof23poundsisneededpercannerloadofsevenquarts,oranaverageof14poundspercannerloadofninepints.Abushelweighs53poundsandyields15to18quartsofjuice—anaverageof3¼poundsperquart.
Directions1. Washtomatoes,removestems,andtrimoffbruisedordiscoloredportions.
Topreventjuicefromseparating,quicklycutabout1poundoffruitinto
quartersandputdirectlyintosaucepan.Heatimmediatelytoboilingwhilecrushing.
2. Continuetoslowlyaddandcrushfreshlycuttomatoquarterstotheboilingmixture.Makesurethemixtureboilsconstantlyandvigorouslywhileyouaddtheremainingtomatoes.Simmer5minutesafteryouaddallpieces.
3. Pressheatedjuicethroughasieveorfoodmilltoremoveskinsandseeds.Addbottledlemonjuiceorcitricacidtojars.Heatjuiceagaintoboiling.
4. Add1teaspoonofsaltperquarttothejars,ifdesired.Filljarswithhottomatojuice,leaving½-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.
ProcessTimesforTomatoJuiceinaBoiling-WaterCanner*
ProcessTimesforTomatoJuiceinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*
ProcessTimesforTomatoJuiceinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*
CrushedTomatoeswithNoAddedLiquid
Crushedtomatoesaregreatforuseinsoups,stews,thicksauces,andcasseroles.
Simmercrushedtomatoeswithkidneybeans,chilipowder,sautéedonions,andgarlictomakeaneasypotofchili.
QuantityAnaverageof22poundsisneededpercannerloadofsevenquarts.Anaverageof14freshpoundsisneededpercannerloadofninepints.Abushelweighs53poundsandyields17to20quartsofcrushedtomatoes—anaverageof2¾poundsperquart.
Directions1. Washtomatoesanddipinboilingwaterfor30to60secondsoruntilskins
split.Thendipincoldwater,slipoffskins,andremovecores.Trimoffanybruisedordiscoloredportionsandquarter.
2. Heat⅙ofthequartersquicklyinalargepot,crushingthemwithawoodenmalletorspoonastheyareaddedtothepot.Thiswillexudejuice.Continueheatingthetomatoes,stirringtopreventburning.
3. Oncethetomatoesareboiling,graduallyaddremainingquarteredtomatoes,stirringconstantly.Theseremainingtomatoesdonotneedtobecrushed;theywillsoftenwithheatingandstirring.Continueuntilalltomatoesareadded.Thenboilgently5minutes.
4. Addbottledlemonjuiceorcitricacidtojars.Add1teaspoonofsaltperquarttothejars,ifdesired.Filljarsimmediatelywithhottomatoes,leaving½-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.
ProcessTimesforCrushedTomatoesinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*
ProcessTimesforCrushedTomatoesinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*
ProcessTimesforCrushedTomatoesinaBoiling-WaterCanner*
TomatoSauce
Thisplaintomatosaucecanbespicedupbeforeusinginsoupsorinpinkorredsauces.Thethickeryouwantyoursauce,themoretomatoesyou’llneed.
Quantity
Forthinsauce:Anaverageof35poundsisneededpercannerloadofsevenquarts.Anaverageof21poundsisneededpercannerloadofninepints.Abushelweighs53poundsandyields10to12quartsofsauce—anaverageoffivepoundsperquart.
Forthicksauce:Anaverageof46poundsisneededpercannerloadofsevenquarts.Anaverageof28poundsisneededpercannerloadofninepints.Abushelweighs53poundsandyieldsseventoninequartsofsauce—anaverageof6½poundsperquart.
Directions1. Prepareandpressasformakingtomatojuice(seepage109).Simmerina
largesaucepanuntilsaucereachesdesiredconsistency.Boiluntilvolumeisreducedbyaboutone-thirdforthinsauce,orbyone-halfforthicksauce.
2. Addbottledlemonjuiceorcitricacidtojars.Add1teaspoonofsaltperquarttothejars,ifdesired.Filljars,leaving¼-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.
ProcessTimesforTomatoSauceinaBoiling-WaterCanner*
ProcessTimesforTomatoSauceinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*
ProcessTimesforTomatoSauceinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*
Tomatoes,WholeorHalved,PackedinWater
Wholeorhalvedtomatoesareusedforscallopedtomatoes,savorypies(bakedinapastrycrustwithparmesancheese,mayonnaise,andseasonings),orstewedtomatoes.
QuantityAnaverageof21poundsisneededpercannerloadofsevenquarts.Anaverageof13poundsisneededpercannerloadofninepints.Abushelweighs53poundsandyields15to21quarts—anaverageofthreepoundsperquart.
Directions1. Washtomatoes.Dipinboilingwaterfor30to60secondsoruntilskins
split;thendipincoldwater.Slipoffskinsandremovecores.Leavewholeorhalve.
2. Addbottledlemonjuiceorcitricacidtojars.Add1teaspoonofsaltperquarttothejars,ifdesired.Forhotpackproducts,addenoughwatertocoverthetomatoesandboilthemgentlyfor5minutes.
3. Filljarswithhottomatoesorwithrawpeeledtomatoes.Addthehotcookingliquidtothehotpack,orhotwaterforrawpacktocover,leaving½-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.
ProcessTimesforWater-PackedWholeTomatoesinaBoiling-WaterCanner*
ProcessTimesforWater-PackedWholeTomatoesinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*
ProcessTimesforWater-PackedWholeTomatoesinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*
SpaghettiSaucewithoutMeat
Homemadespaghettisauceislikeacompletelydifferentfoodthanstore-boughtvarieties—ittastesfresher,ismoreflavorful,andisfarmorenutritious.Adjustspicestotaste,butdonotincreaseproportionsofonions,peppers,ormushrooms.Thisrecipeyieldsaboutninepints.
Ingredients
30lbstomatoes
1cupchoppedonions
5clovesgarlic,minced
1cupchoppedceleryorgreenpepper
1lbfreshmushrooms,sliced(optional)
4½tspsalt
2tbsporegano
4tbspmincedparsley
2tspblackpepper
¼cupbrownsugar
¼cupvegetableoil
Directions1. Washtomatoesanddipinboilingwaterfor30to60secondsoruntilskins
split.Dipincoldwaterandslipoffskins.Removecoresandquartertomatoes.Boil20minutes,uncovered,inlargesaucepan.Putthroughfoodmillorsieve.
2. Sautéonions,garlic,celery,orpeppers,andmushrooms(ifdesired)invegetableoiluntiltender.Combinesautéedvegetablesandtomatoesandaddspices,salt,andsugar.Bringtoaboil.
3. Simmeruncovered,untilthickenoughforserving.Stirfrequentlytoavoidburning.Filljars,leaving1-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.
ProcessTimesforSpaghettiSaucewithoutMeatinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*
ProcessTimesforSpaghettiSaucewithoutMeatinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*
TomatoKetchup
Ketchupformsthebaseofseveralcondiments,includingThousandIslanddressing,frysauce,andbarbecuesauce.And,ofcourse,it’sanAmericanfavoriteinitsownright.Thisrecipeyieldssixtosevenpints.
Ingredients
24lbsripetomatoes
3cupschoppedonions
¾tspgroundredpepper(cayenne)
4tspwholecloves
3stickscinnamon,crushed
1-½tspwholeallspice
3tbspceleryseeds
3cupscidervinegar(5percentaceticacid)
1-½cupssugar
¼cupsalt
Directions1. Washtomatoes.Dipinboilingwaterfor30to60secondsoruntilskins
split.Dipincoldwater.Slipoffskinsandremovecores.Quartertomatoesinto4-gallonstockpotoralargekettle.Addonionsandredpepper.Bringtoboilandsimmer20minutes,uncovered.
2. Combineremainingspicesinaspicebagandaddtovinegarina2-quartsaucepan.Bringtoboil.Turnoffheatandletstanduntiltomatomixturehasbeencooked20minutes.Then,removespicebagandcombinevinegarandtomatomixture.Boilabout30minutes.
3. Putboiledmixturethroughafoodmillorsieve.Returntopot.Addsugarandsalt,boilgently,andstirfrequentlyuntilvolumeisreducedbyone-halforuntilmixtureroundsuponspoonwithoutseparation.Fillpintjars,leaving1/8-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.
ProcessTimesforTomatoKetchupinaBoiling-WaterCanner*
ChileSalsa(HotTomato-PepperSauce)
Forfantasticnachos,covercornchipswithchilesalsa,addshreddedMontereyjackorcheddarcheese,bakeunderbroilerforaboutfiveminutes,andservewithguacamoleandsourcream.Besuretowearrubbergloveswhilehandlingchilesorwashhandsthoroughlywithsoapandwaterbeforetouchingyourface.Thisrecipeyieldssixtoeightpints.
Ingredients
5lbstomatoes
2lbschilepeppers
1lbonions
1cupvinegar(5percent)
3tspsalt
½tsppepper
Directions1. Washanddrychiles.Sliteachpepperonitssidetoallowsteamtoescape.
Peelpeppersusingoneofthefollowingmethods:Ovenorbroilermethod:
Placechilesinoven(400°F)orbroilerfor6to8minutesuntilskinsblister.Coolandslipoffskins.
Range-topmethod:
Coverhotburner,eithergasorelectric,withheavywiremesh.Placechilesonburnerforseveralminutesuntilskinsblister.Allowpepperstocool.Placeinapanandcoverwithadampcloth.Thiswillmakepeelingthepepperseasier.Afterseveralminutes,peeleachpepper.
2. Discardseedsandchoppeppers.Washtomatoesanddipinboilingwaterfor30to60secondsoruntilskinssplit.Dipincoldwater,slipoffskins,andremovecores.
3. Coarselychoptomatoesandcombinechoppedpeppers,onions,andremainingingredientsinalargesaucepan.Heattoboil,andsimmer10minutes.Filljars,leaving½-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.
ProcessTimesforChileSalsainaBoiling-WaterCanner*
DryingandFreezing
DryingDryingfruits,vegetables,herbs,andevenmeatisagreatwaytopreservefoodsforlonger-termstorage,especiallyifyourpantryorfreezerspaceislimited.Driedfoodstakeupmuchlessspacethantheirfresh,frozen,orcannedcounterparts.Dryingrequiresrelativelylittlepreparationtimeandissimpleenoughthatkidswillenjoyhelping.Dryingwithafooddehydratorwillensurethefastest,safest,andbest-qualityresults.However,youcanalsodryproduceinthesunshine,inyouroven,orstrungupoverawoodstove.
Formoreinformationonfooddrying,checkoutSoEasytoPreserve,5thed.fromtheCooperativeExtensionService,theUniversityofGeorgia.Muchoftheinformationthatfollowsisadaptedfromthisexcellentsource.
DryingwithaFoodDehydrator
Fooddehydratorsuseelectricitytoproduceheatandhaveafanandventsforaircirculation.Dehydratorsareefficientlydesignedtodryfoodsfastataround140ºF.Lookforfooddehydratorsindiscountdepartmentstores,mailordercatalogs,thesmallappliancesectionofadepartmentstore,naturalfoodstores,andseedorgardensupplycatalogs.Costsvarydependingonfeatures.Somemodelsareexpandableandadditionaltrayscanbepurchasedlater.Twelvesquarefeetofdryingspacedriesaboutahalf-bushelofproduce.
DehydratorFeaturestoLookForDouble-wallconstructionofmetalorhigh-gradeplastic.Woodisnotrecommended,becauseitisafirehazardandisdifficulttoclean.EnclosedheatingelementsCountertopdesignAnenclosedthermostatfrom85to160ºFFanorblower
Fourto10openmeshtraysmadeofsturdy,lightweightplasticforeasywashingUnderwritersLaboratory(UL)sealofapprovalAone-yearguaranteeConvenientserviceAdialforregulatingtemperatureAtimer.Oftenthecompleteddryingtimemayoccurduringthenight,andatimerturnsthedehydratorofftopreventscorching.
TypesofDehydrators
Therearetwobasicdesignsfordehydrators.Onehashorizontalairflowandtheotherhasverticalairflow.Inunitswithhorizontalflow,theheatingelementandfanarelocatedonthesideoftheunit.Themajoradvantagesofhorizontalfloware:itreducesflavormixturesoseveraldifferentfoodscanbedriedatonetime;alltraysreceiveequalheatpenetration;andjuicesorliquidsdonotdripdownintotheheatingelement.Verticalairflowdehydratorshavetheheatingelementandfanlocatedatthebase.Ifdifferentfoodsaredried,flavorscanmixandliquidscandripintotheheatingelement.
FruitDryingProcedures
Apples—Selectmature,firmapples.Washwell.Pare,ifdesired,andcore.Cutinringsorslices⅛to¼inchthickorcutinquartersoreighths.Soakinascorbicacid,vinegar,orlemonjuicefor10minutes.Removefromsolutionand
drainwell.Arrangeinsinglelayerontrays,pitsideup.Dryuntilsoft,pliable,andleathery;thereshouldbenomoistareaincenterwhencut.
Apricots—Selectfirm,fullyripefruit.Washwell.Cutinhalfandremovepit.Donotpeel.Soakinascorbicacid,vinegar,orlemonjuicefor10minutes.Removefromsolutionanddrainwell.Arrangeinsinglelayerontrays,pitsideupwithcavitypoppeduptoexposemorefleshtotheair.Dryuntilsoft,pliable,andleathery;thereshouldbenomoistareaincenterwhencut.
Bananas—Selectfirm,ripefruit.Peel.Cutin⅛-inchslices.Soakinascorbicacid,vinegar,orlemonjuicefor10minutes.Removeanddrainwell.Arrangeinsinglelayerontrays.Dryuntiltoughandleathery.
Berries—Selectfirm,ripefruit.Washwell.Leavewholeorcutinhalf.Dipinboilingwater30secondstocrackskins.Arrangeondryingtraysnotmorethantwoberriesdeep.Dryuntilhardandberriesrattlewhenshakenontrays.
Cherries—Selectfullyripefruit.Washwell.Removestemsandpits.Dipwholecherriesinboilingwater30secondstocrackskins.Arrangeinsinglelayerontrays.Dryuntiltough,leathery,andslightlysticky.
Citruspeel—Selectthick-skinnedorangeswithnosignsofmoldordecayandnocoloraddedtoskin.Scruborangeswellwithbrushundercoolrunningwater.Thinlypeelouter to⅛inchofthepeel;avoidwhitebitterpart.Soakinascorbicacid,vinegar,orlemonjuicefor10minutes.Removefromsolutionanddrainwell.Arrangeinsinglelayersontrays.Dryat130°Ffor1to2hours,then
at120°Funtilcrisp.
Figs—Selectfullyripefruit.Washorcleanwellwithdamptowel.Peeldark-skinnedvarietiesifdesired.Leavewholeifsmallorpartlydriedontree;cutlargefigsinhalvesorslices.Ifdryingwholefigs,crackskinsbydippinginboilingwaterfor30seconds.Forcutfigs,soakinascorbicacid,vinegar,orlemonjuicefor10minutes.Removeanddrainwell.Arrangeinsinglelayersontrays.Dryuntilleatheryandpliable.
Grapesandblackcurrants—Selectseedlessvarieties.Wash,sort,andremovestems.Cutinhalforleavewhole.Ifdryingwhole,crackskinsbydippinginboilingwaterfor30seconds.Ifhalved,dipinascorbicacidorotherantimicrobialsolutionfor10minutes.Removeanddrainwell.Dryuntilpliableandleatherywithnomoistcenter.
Melons—Selectmature,firmfruitsthatareheavyfortheirsize;cantaloupedriesbetterthanwatermelon.Scruboutersurfacewellwithbrushundercoolrunningwater.Removeouterskin,anyfibroustissue,andseeds.Cutinto¼-to½-inch-thickslices.Soakinascorbicacid,vinegar,orlemonjuicefor10minutes.Removeanddrainwell.Arrangeinsinglelayerontrays.Dryuntilleatheryandpliablewithnopocketsofmoisture.
Nectarinesandpeaches—Selectripe,firmfruit.Washandpeel.Cutinhalfandremovepit.Cutinquartersorslicesifdesired.Soakinascorbicacid,vinegar,orlemonjuicefor10minutes.Removeanddrainwell.Arrangeinsinglelayerontrays,pitsideup.Turnhalvesoverwhenvisiblejuicedisappears.Dryuntilleatheryandsomewhatpliable.
Pears—Selectripe,firmfruit.Bartlettvarietyisrecommended.Washfruitwell.Pare,ifdesired.Cutinhalflengthwiseandcore.Cutinquarters,eighths,orslices⅛to¼inchthick.Soakinascorbicacid,vinegar,orlemonjuicefor10minutes.Removeanddrain.Arrangeinsinglelayerontrays,pitsideup.Dryuntilspringyandsuede-likewithnopocketsofmoisture.
Plumsandprunes—Washwell.Leavewholeifsmall;cutlargefruitintohalves(pitremoved)orslices.Ifleftwhole,crackskinsinboilingwater1to2minutes.Ifcutinhalf,dipinascorbicacidorotherantimicrobialsolutionfor10minutes.Removeanddrain.Arrangeinsinglelayerontrays,pitsideup,cavitypoppedout.Dryuntilpliableandleathery;inwholeprunes,pitshouldnotslipwhensqueezed.
FruitLeathers
Fruitleathersareatastyandnutritiousalternativetostore-boughtcandiesthatarefullofartificialsweetenersandpreservatives.Blendtheleftoverfruitpulpfrommakingjellyorusefresh,frozen,ordrainedcannedfruit.Ripeorslightlyoverripefruitworksbest.
Chancesarethefruitleatherwillgeteatenbeforeitmakesitintothecupboard,butitcankeepuptoonemonthatroomtemperature.Forstorageuptooneyear,placetightlywrappedrollsinthefreezer.
Ingredients
2cupsfruit2tsplemonjuiceor⅛tspascorbicacid(optional)¼to½cupsugar,cornsyrup,orhoney(optional)
Directions1. Washfreshfruitorberriesincoolwater.Removepeel,seeds,andstem.
2. Cutfruitintochunks.Use2cupsoffruitforeach13x15-inchinchfruitleather.Puréefruituntilsmooth.
3. Add2teaspoonsoflemonjuiceor⅛teaspoonascorbicacid(375mg)foreach2cupslight-coloredfruittopreventdarkening.
4. Optional:Tosweeten,addcornsyrup,honey,orsugar.Cornsyruporhoneyisbestforlongerstoragebecausethesesweetenerspreventcrystals.Sugarisfineforimmediateuseorshortstorage.Use¼to½cupsugar,cornsyrup,orhoneyforeach2cupsoffruit.Avoidaspartamesweetenersastheymaylosesweetnessduringdrying.
5. Pourtheleather.Fruitleatherscanbepouredintoasinglelargesheet(13x15inches)orintoseveralsmallersizes.Spreadpuréeevenly,about⅛inchthick,ontodryingtray.Avoidpouringpuréetooclosetotheedgeofthecookiesheet.
6. Drytheleather.Dryfruitleathersat140ºF.Leatherdriesfromtheoutsideedgetowardthecenter.
Hints:Applesaucecanbedriedaloneoraddedtoanyfreshfruitpuréeasanextender;itdecreasestartnessandmakestheleathersmootherandmorepliable.Todryfruitintheoven,a13x15-inchcookiepanwithedgesworkswell.Linepanwithplasticwrap,beingcarefultosmoothoutwrinkles.Donotusewaxedpaperoraluminumfoil.
Largerfruitleatherstakelongertodry.Approximatedryingtimesare6to8hoursinadehydrator,upto18hoursinanoven,and1to2daysinthesun.Testfordrynessbytouchingcenterofleather;noindentationshouldbeevident.Whilewarm,peelfromplasticandroll,allowtocool,andrewraptherollinplastic.Cookiecutterscanbeusedtocutoutshapesthatchildrenwillenjoy.Roll,andwrapinplastic.
Spices,Flavors,andGarnishes
Toaddinteresttoyourfruitleathers,includespices,flavorings,orgarnishes.
Spicestotry—Allspice,cinnamon,cloves,coriander,ginger,mace,mint,nutmeg,orpumpkinpiespice.Usesparingly;startwith⅛teaspoonforeach2cupsofpurée.Flavoringstotry—Almondextract,lemonjuice,lemonpeel,limejuice,limepeel,orangeextract,orangejuice,orangepeel,orvanillaextract.Usesparingly;try⅛to¼teaspoonforeach2cupsofpurée.Deliciousadditionstotry—Shreddedcoconut,choppeddates,otherdriedchoppedfruits,granola,miniaturemarshmallows,choppednuts,choppedraisins,poppyseeds,sesameseeds,orsunflowerseeds.Fillingstotry—Meltedchocolate,softenedcreamcheese,cheesespreads,jam,preserves,marmalade,marshmallowcream,orpeanutbutter.Spreadoneormoreoftheseontheleatherafteritisdriedandthenroll.Storeinrefrigerator.
VegetableLeathers
Pumpkin,mixedvegetables,andtomatoesmakegreatleathers.Justpuréecookedvegetables,strain,spreadonatraylinedwithplasticwrap,anddry.Spicescanbeaddedforflavoring.
Mixed-VegetableLeather
2cupscored,cut-uptomatoes1smallonion,chopped¼cupchoppedcelerySalttotaste
Combineallingredientsinacoveredsaucepanandcookoverlowheat15to20minutes.Puréeorforcethroughasieveorcolander.Returntosaucepanandcookuntilthickened.Spreadonacookiesheetortraylinedwithplasticwrap.Dryat140ºF.
PumpkinLeather
2cupscannedpumpkinor2cupsfreshpumpkin,cookedandpuréed½cuphoney¼tspcinnamon⅛tspnutmeg⅛tsppowderedcloves
Blendingredientswell.Spreadontrayorcookiesheetlinedwithplasticwrap.Dryat140ºF.
TomatoLeather
Coreripetomatoesandcutintoquarters.Cookoverlowheatinacoveredsaucepan,15to20minutes.Puréeorforcethroughasieveorcolanderandpourintoelectricfrypanorshallowpan.Addsalttotasteandcookoverlowheatuntilthickened.Spreadonacookiesheetortraylinedwithplasticwrap.Dryat140ºF.
VineDrying
Onemethodofdryingoutdoorsisvinedrying.Todrybeans(navy,kidney,butter,greatnorthern,lima,lentils,andsoybeans)leavebeanpodsonthevineinthegardenuntilthebeansinsiderattle.Whenthevinesandpodsaredryandshriveled,pickthebeansandshellthem.Nopretreatmentisnecessary.Ifbeansarestillmoist,thedryingprocessisnotcompleteandthebeanswillmoldifnotmorethoroughlydried.Ifneeded,dryingcanbecompletedinthesun,anoven,oradehydrator.
HowtoMakeaWoodstoveFoodDehydrator1. Collectpliablewiremeshorscreens(availableathardwarestores)anduse
wirecutterstotrimtosquares12to16inchesoneachside.Thetraysshouldbeofthesamesizeandshape.Benduptheedgesofeachsquaretocreateahalf-inchlip.
2. AttachoneShookfromthehardwarestoreoralargepapercliptoeachsideofeachsquare(fourclipspertray)toattachthetraystogether.
3. Cutfourequallengthsofchainortwinethatwillreachfromtheceilingtothelevelofthetoptray.Useawireormetallooptoattachthefourpiecestogetheratthetopandsecuretoahookintheceilingabovethewoodstove.Attachthechainortwinetothehooksonthetoptray.
4. Touse,filltrayswithfoodtodry,startingwiththetoptray.LinktraystogetherusingtheShooksorstrongpaperclips.Whenthefoodsaredried,removetheentirestackanddisassemble.Removethedriedfoodandstore.
Herbs
Dryingistheeasiestmethodofpreservingherbs.Simplyexposetheleaves,
flowers,orseedstowarm,dryair.Leavetheherbsinawell-ventilatedareauntilthemoistureevaporates.Sundryingisnotrecommendedbecausetheherbscanloseflavorandcolor.
Thebesttimetoharvestmostherbsfordryingisjustbeforetheflowersfirstopenwhentheyareinthebursting,budstage.Gathertheherbsintheearlymorningafterthedewhasevaporatedtominimizewilting.Avoidbruisingtheleaves.Theyshouldnotlieinthesunorunattendedafterharvesting.Rinseherbsincoolwaterandgentlyshaketoremoveexcessmoisture.Discardallbruised,soiled,orimperfectleavesandstems.
Dehydratordryingisanotherfastandeasywaytodryhigh-qualityherbsbecausetemperatureandaircirculationcanbecontrolled.Preheatdehydratorwiththethermostatsetto95°Fto115°F.Inareaswithhigherhumidity,temperaturesashighas125°Fmaybeneeded.Afterrinsingundercool,runningwaterandshakingtoremoveexcessmoisture,placetheherbsinasinglelayerondehydratortrays.Dryingtimesmayvaryfromonetofourhours.Checkperiodically.Herbsaredrywhentheycrumble,andstemsbreakwhenbent.Checkyourdehydratorinstructionbookletforspecificdetails.
Less-tenderherbs—Themoresturdyherbs,suchasrosemary,sage,thyme,summersavory,andparsley,aretheeasiesttodrywithoutadehydrator.Tiethemintosmallbundlesandhangthemtoairdry.Airdryingoutdoorsisoftenpossible;however,bettercolorandflavorretentionusuallyresultsfromdryingindoors.
Tender-leafherbs—Basil,oregano,tarragon,lemonbalm,andthemintshaveahighmoisturecontentandwillmoldifnotdriedquickly.Tryhangingthetender-leafherbsorthosewithseedsinsidepaperbagstodry.Tearorpunchholesinthesidesofthebag.Suspendasmallbunch(largeamountswillmold)ofherbsinabagandclosethetopwitharubberband.Placewhereaircurrentswillcirculatethroughthebag.Anyleavesandseedsthatfalloffwillbecaughtinthebottomofthebag.
Anothermethod,especiallyniceformint,sage,orbayleaf,istodrytheleavesseparately.Inareasofhighhumidity,itwillworkbetterthanairdryingwholestems.Removethebestleavesfromthestems.Laytheleavesonapapertowel,withoutallowingleavestotouch.Coverwithanothertowelandlayerofleaves.Fivelayersmaybedriedatonetimeusingthismethod.Dryinaverycooloven.Theovenlightofanelectricrangeorthepilotlightofagasrangefurnishesenoughheatforovernightdrying.Leavesdryflatandretainagoodcolor.
Microwaveovensareafastwaytodryherbswhenonlysmallquantitiesaretobeprepared.Followthedirectionsthatcomewithyourmicrowaveoven.
Whentheleavesarecrispy,dry,andcrumbleeasilybetweenthefingers,theyarereadytobepackagedandstored.Driedleavesmaybeleftwholeand
crumbledasused,orcoarselycrumbledbeforestorage.Huskscanberemovedfromseedsbyrubbingtheseedsbetweenthehandsandblowingawaythechaff.Placeherbsinairtightcontainersandstoreinacool,dry,darkareatoprotectcolorandfragrance.
Driedherbsareusuallythreetofourtimesstrongerthanthefreshherbs.Tosubstitutedriedherbsinarecipethatcallsforfreshherbs,use¼to1⁄3oftheamountlistedintherecipe.
Jerky
Jerkyisgreatforhikingorcampingbecauseitsuppliesproteininaverylightweightform—nottomentionthefactthatitcanbeverytasty.Apoundofmeatorpoultryweighsaboutfourouncesafterbeingmadeintojerky.Inaddition,becausemostofthemoistureisremoved,itcanbestoredforonetotwomonthswithoutrefrigeration.
JerkyhasbeenaroundsincetheancientEgyptiansbegandryinganimalmeatthatwastoobigtoeatallatonce.NativeAmericansmixedgrounddriedmeatwithdriedfruitorsuettomakepemmican.BiltongisdriedmeatorgameusedinmanyAfricancountries.TheEnglishwordjerkycamefromtheSpanishwordcharque,whichmeans“dried,saltedmeat.”
Dryingistheworld’soldestandmostcommonmethodoffoodpreservation.Enzymesrequiremoistureinordertoreactwithfood.Byremovingthemoisture,youpreventthisbiologicalaction.
Jerkycanbemadefromgroundmeat,whichisoftenlessexpensivethanstripsofmeatandallowsyoutocombinedifferentkindsofmeatifdesired.Youcanalsomakeitintoanyshapeyouwant!Aswithstripsofmeat,aninternaltemperatureof160ºFisnecessarytoeliminatedisease-causingbacteriasuchasE.coli,ifpresent.
FoodSafety
TheUSDAMeatandPoultryHotline’scurrentrecommendationformakingjerkysafelyistoheatmeatto160°Fandpoultryto165°Fbeforethedehydratingprocess.Thisensuresthatanybacteriapresentaredestroyedbyheat.Ifyourfooddehydratordoesn’theatupto160°F,it’simportanttocookmeatslightlyintheovenorbysteamingbeforedrying.Afterheating,maintainaconstantdehydratortemperatureof130°Fto140°Fduringthedryingprocess.
AccordingtotheUSDA,youshouldalways:Washhandsthoroughlywithsoapandwaterbeforeandafterworkingwithmeatproducts.Usecleanequipmentandutensils.Keepmeatandpoultryrefrigeratedat40°Forslightlybelow;useorfreezegroundbeefandpoultrywithintwodays,andwholeredmeatswithinthreetofivedays.Defrostfrozenmeatintherefrigerator,notonthekitchencounter.Marinatemeatintherefrigerator.Don’tsavemarinadetore-use.Marinadesareusedtotenderizeandflavorthejerkybeforedehydratingit.Ifyourfooddehydratordoesn’theatupto160°F(or165°Fforpoultry),steamorroastmeatbeforedehydratingit.Drymeatsinafooddehydratorthathasanadjustabletemperaturedialandwillmaintainatemperatureofatleast130°Fto140°Fthroughoutthedryingprocess.
PreparingtheMeat1. Partiallyfreezemeattomakeslicingeasier.Slicemeatacrossthegrain⅛to
¼inchthick.Trimanddiscardallfat,gristle,andmembranesorconnectivetissue.
2. Marinatethemeatinacombinationofoil,salt,spices,vinegar,lemonjuice,teriyaki,soysauce,beer,orwine.
MarinatedJerky
¼cupsoysauce1tbspWorcestershiresauce1tspbrownsugar¼tspblackpepper½tspfreshginger,finelygrated1tspsalt
1½to2lbsofleanmeatstrips(beef,pork,orvenison)1. Combineallingredientsexceptthestrips,andblend.Addmeat,stir,cover,
andrefrigerateatleastonehour.2. Ifyourfooddehydratordoesn’theatupto160°F,bringstripsandmarinade
toaboilandcookfor5minutes.3. Drainmeatinacolanderandabsorbextramoisturewithclean,absorbent
papertowels.Arrangestripsinasinglelayerondehydratortrays,oroncakeracksplacedonbakingsheetsforovendrying.
4. Placetheracksinadehydratororovenpreheatedto140ºF,or160°Fifthemeatwasn’tprecooked.Dryuntilatestpiececracksbutdoesnotbreakwhenitisbent(10to24hoursforsamplesnotheatedinmarinade,3to6hoursforpreheatedmeat).Useapapertoweltopatoffanyexcessoilfromstrips,andpackinsealedjars,plasticbags,orplasticcontainers.
FreezingFoodsManyfoodspreservewellinthefreezerandcanmakepreparingmealseasywhenyouareshortontime.Ifyoumakeabigpotofsoup,serveitfordinner,putasmallcontainerintherefrigeratorforlunchthenextday,andthensticktherestinthefreezer.Afewweekslater,you’llbereadytoeatitagainanditwillonlytakeafewminutestothawoutandserve.Manyfruitsalsofreezewellandareperfectforuseinsmoothiesanddesserts,orservedwithyogurtforbreakfastordessert.Vegetablesfrozenshortlyafterharvestingkeepmanyofthenutrientsfoundinfreshvegetablesandwilltastedeliciouswhencooked.
ContainersforFreezing
Thebestpackagingmaterialsforfreezingincluderigidcontainerssuchasjars,bottles,orTupperware,andfreezerbagsoraluminumfoil.Sturdycontainerswithrigidsidesareespeciallygoodforliquidssuchassouporjuicebecausetheymakethefrozencontentsmucheasiertogetout.Theyarealsogenerallyreusableandmakeiteasiertostackfoodsintherefrigerator.Whenusingrigidcontainers,besuretoleaveheadspacesothatthecontainerwon’texplodewhenthecontentsexpandwithfreezing.Coversforrigidcontainersshouldfittightly.Iftheydonot,reinforcethesealwithfreezertape.Freezertapeisspeciallydesignedtostickatfreezingtemperatures.Freezerbagsoraluminumfoilaregoodformeats,breadsandbakedgoods,orfruitsandvegetablesthatdon’tcontainmuchliquid.Besuretoremoveasmuchairaspossiblefrombagsbeforeclosing.
HeadspacetoAllowBetweenPackedFoodandClosure
Headspaceistheamountofemptyairleftbetweenthefoodandthelid.Headspaceisnecessarybecausefoodsexpandwhenfrozen.
FoodsThatDoNotFreezeWell
Food Usual Use Condit ionAfterThawing
Cabbage*,celery,cress,cucumbers*,
Asrawsalad Limp,waterlogged;quicklydevelops
endive,lettuce,parsley,radishes
oxidizedcolor,aroma,andflavor
Irishpotatoes,bakedorboiled
Insoups,salads,saucesorwithbutter
Soft,crumbly,waterlogged,mealy
Cookedmacaroni,spaghetti,orrice
Whenfrozenaloneforlateruse Mushy,tasteswarmedover
Eggwhites,cooked
Insalads,creamedfoods,sandwiches,sauces,gravy,ordesserts
Soft,tough,rubbery,spongy
Meringue Indesserts Soft,tough,rubbery,spongy
Icingsmadefromeggwhites
Cakes,cookies Frothy,weeps
Creamorcustard Pies,bakedgoods Separates,watery,
Creamorcustardfillings
Pies,bakedgoods Separates,watery,lumpy
Milksauces Forcasserolesorgravies Maycurdleorseparate
Sourcream Astopping,insalads Separates,watery
Cheeseorcrumbtoppings
Oncasseroles Soggy
Mayonnaiseorsaladdressing
Onsandwiches(notinsalads) Separates
Gelatin Insaladsordesserts Weeps
Fruitjelly Sandwiches Maysoakbread
Friedfoods AllexceptFrenchfriedpotatoesandonionrings
Losecrispness,becomesoggy
*Cucumbersandcabbagecanbefrozenasmarinatedproductssuchas“freezerslaw”or“freezerpickles.”Thesedonothavethesametextureasregularslaworpickles.
EffectofFreezingonSpicesandSeasoningsPepper,cloves,garlic,greenpepper,imitationvanilla,andsomeherbstendtogetstrongandbitter.Onionandpaprikachangeflavorduringfreezing.Celeryseasoningsbecomestronger.Currydevelopsamustyoff-flavor.Saltlosesflavorandhasthetendencytoincreaserancidityofanyitemcontainingfat.Whenusingseasoningsandspices,seasonlightlybeforefreezing,andaddadditionalseasoningswhenreheatingorserving.
HowtoFreezeVegetables
Becausemanyvegetablescontainenzymesthatwillcausethemtolosecolorwhenfrozen,youmaywanttoblancheyourvegetablesbeforeputtingtheminthefreezer.Todothis,firstwashthevegetablesthoroughly,peelifdesired,andchopthemintobite-sizepieces.Thenpourthemintoboilingwaterforacoupleofminutes(orcooklongerforverydensevegetables,suchasbeets),drain,andimmediatelydunkthevegetablesinicewatertostopthemfromcookingfurther.Useapapertowelorclothtoabsorbexcesswaterfromthevegetables,andthenpackinresealableairtightbagsorplasticcontainers.
BlanchingTimesforVegetables
Artichokes 3–6minutes
Asparagus 2–3minutes
Beans 2–3minutes
Beets 30-40minutes
Broccoli 3minutes
Brusselssprouts 4–5minutes
Cabbage 3–4minutes
Carrots 2–5minutes
Cauliflower 6minutes
Celery 3minutes
Corn(offthecob) 2–3minutes
Eggplant 4minutes
Okra 3–4minutes
Peas 1–2minutes
Peppers 2–3minutes
Squash 2–3minutes
TurnipsorParsnips 2minutes
HowtoFreezeFruits
Manyfruitsfreezeeasilyandareperfectforuseinbaking,smoothies,orsauces.Wash,peel,andcorefruitbeforefreezing.Toeasilypeelpeaches,nectarines,orapricots,diptheminboilingwaterfor15to20secondstoloosentheskins.Thenchillandremovetheskinsandstones.
Berriesshouldbefrozenimmediatelyafterharvestingandcanbefrozeninasinglelayeronapapertowel-–linedtrayorcookiesheettokeepthemfromclumpingtogether.Allowthemtofreezeuntilhard(about3hours)andthenpourthemintoaresealableplasticbagforlong-termstorage.
Somefruitshaveatendencytoturnbrownwhenfrozen.Topreventthis,youcanaddascorbicacid(crushavitaminCinalittlewater),citrusjuice,plainsugar,orasweetsyrup(1partsugarand2partswater)tothefruitbeforefreezing.Apples,pears,andbananasarebestfrozenwithascorbicacidorcitrusjuice,whileberries,peaches,nectarines,apricots,pineapple,melons,andberriesarebetterfrozenwithasugarysyrup.
HowtoFreezeMeat
Besureyourmeatisfreshbeforefreezing.Trimoffexcessfatsandremovebones,ifdesired.Separatethemeatintoportionsthatwillbeeasytousewhen
preparingmealsandwrapinfoilorplaceinresealableplasticbagsorplasticcontainers.Refertothecharttodeterminehowlongyourmeatwilllastatbestqualityinyourfreezer.
Meat Months
Baconandsausage 1to2
Ham,hotdogs,andlunchmeats 1to2
Meat,uncookedroasts 4to12
Meat,uncookedsteaksorchops 4to12
Meat,uncookedground 3to4
Meat,cooked 2to3
Poultry,uncookedwhole 12
Poultry,uncookedparts 9
Poultry,uncookedgiblets 3to4
Poultry,cooked 4
Wildgame,uncooked 8to12
EdibleWildPlantsandMushrooms
WildVegetables,Fruits,andNuts
Agave
Description:Agaveplantshavelargeclustersofthickleavesthatgrowaroundonestalk.Theygrowclosetothegroundandonlyfloweroncebeforedying.
Location:Agavelikedry,openareasandarefoundinthedesertsoftheAmericanwest.
EdiblePartsandPreparing:Onlyagaveflowersandbudsareedible.Boilthesebeforeconsuming.Thejuicecanbecollectedfromtheflowerstalkfordrinking.
OtherUses:Mostagaveplantshavethickneedlesonthetipsoftheirleavesthatcanbeusedforsewing.
Asparagus
Description:Whenfirstgrowing,asparaguslookslikeacollectionofgreenfingers.Oncemature,theplanthasfernlikefoliageandredberries(whicharetoxicifeaten).Theflowersaresmallandgreenandseveralspecieshavesharp,
thornlikeprojections.
Location:Itcanbefoundgrowingwildinfieldsandalongfences.AsparagusisfoundintemperateareasintheUnitedStates.
EdiblePartsandPreparing:Itisbesttoeattheyoungstems,beforeanyleavesgrow.Steamorboilthemfor10to15minutesbeforeconsuming.Therootsareagoodsourceofstarch,butdon’teatanypartoftheplantraw,asitcouldcausenauseaordiarrhea.
Beech
Description:Beechtreesarelargeforesttrees.Theyhavesmooth,lightgraybark,verydarkleaves,andclustersofpricklyseedpods.
Location:Beechtreesprefertogrowinmoist,forestedareas.ThesetreesarefoundintheTemperateZoneintheeasternUnitedStates.
EdiblePartsandPreparing:Eatmaturebeechnutsbybreakingthethinshellswithyourfingersandremovingthesweet,whitekernelfoundinside.Thesenutscanalsobeusedasasubstituteforcoffeebyroastingthemuntilthekernelturnshardandgoldenbrown.Mashupthekernelandboilorsteepinhotwater.
BlackberryandRaspberry
Description:Theseplantshavepricklystemsthatgrowuprightandthenarchbacktowardtheground.Theyhavealternatingleavesandgrowredorblackfruit.
Location:Blackberryandraspberryplantsprefertogrowinwide,sunnyareasnearwoods,lakes,androads.Theygrowintemperateareas.
EdiblePartsandPreparing:Boththefruitsandpeeledyoungshootscanbeeaten.Theleavescanbeusedtomaketea.
Burdock
Description:Burdockhaswavy-edged,arrow-shapedleaves.Itsflowersgrowinburrlikeclustersandarepurpleorpink.Therootsarelargeandfleshy.
Location:Thisplantpreferstogrowinopenwasteareasduringthespringandsummer.ItcanbefoundintheTemperateZoneinthenorth.
EdiblePartsandPreparing:Thetenderleavesgrowingonthestalkscanbeeatenraworcooked.Therootscanbeboiledorbaked.
Cattail
Description:Theseplantsaregrasslikeandhaveleavesshapedlikestraps.Themaleflowersgrowabovethefemaleflowers;haveabundant,brightyellowpollen;anddieoffquickly.Thefemaleflowersbecomethebrowncattails.
Location:Cattailsliketogrowinfull-sunareasnearlakes,streams,rivers,andbrackishwater.Theycanbefoundalloverthecountry.
EdiblePartsandPreparing:Thetender,youngshootscanbeeateneitherraworcooked.Therhizome(rootstalk)canbepoundedandmadeintoflour.Whenthecattailisimmature,thefemaleflowercanbeharvested,boiled,andeatenlikecornonthecob.
OtherUses:Thecottonyseedsofthecattailplantaregreatforstuffingpillows.Burningdriedcattailshelpsrepelinsects.
Chicory
Description:Thisisquiteatallplant,withclustersofleavesatthebaseofthestemandveryfewleavesonthestemitself.Theflowersareskyblueincolorandopenonlyonsunnydays.Itproducesamilkyjuice.
Location:Chicorygrowsinfields,wasteareas,andalongsideroads.Itgrowsprimarilyasaweedallthroughoutthecountry.
EdiblePartsandPreparing:Theentireplantisedible.Theyoungleavescanbeeateninasalad.Theleavesandrootsmayalsobeboiledasyouwouldregularvegetables.Roasttherootsuntiltheyaredarkbrown,mashthemup,andusethemasasubstituteforcoffee.
Cranberry
Description:Thecranberryplanthastiny,alternatingleaves.Itsstemscrawlalongthegroundanditproducesredberryfruits.
Location:Cranberriesonlygrowinopen,sunny,wetareas.Theythriveinthecolderareasinthenorthernstates.
EdiblePartsandPreparing:Theberriescanbeeatenraw,thoughtheyarebestwhencookedinasmallamountofwater,addingalittlebitofsugarifdesired.
Dandelion
Description:Theseplantshavejaggedleavesandgrowclosetotheground.Theyhavebrightyellowflowers.
Location:Dandelionsgrowinalmostanyopen,sunnyspaceintheUnitedStates.
EdiblePartsandPreparing:Allpartsofthisplantareedible.Theleavescanbeeatenraworcookedandtherootsboiled.Roastedandgroundrootscanmakeagoodsubstituteforcoffee.
OtherUses:Thewhitejuiceintheflowerstemcanbeusedasglue.
Elderberry
Description:Thisshrubhasmanystemscontainingopposite,compoundleaves.Itsfloweriswhite,fragrant,andgrowsinlargeclusters.Itsfruitsareberry-shapedandaretypicallydarkblueorblack.
Location:Foundinopen,wetareasnearrivers,ditches,andlakes,theelderberrygrowsmainlyintheeasternstates.
EdiblePartsandPreparing:Theflowerscanbesoakedinwaterforeighthoursandthentheliquidcanbedrunk.Thefruitisalsoediblebutdon’teatanyotherpartsoftheplant—theyarepoisonous.
Hazelnut
Description:Thenutsgrowonbushesinverybristlyhusks.
Location:HazelnutgrowsindensethicketsnearstreambedsandinopenareasandcanbefoundallovertheUnitedStates.
EdiblePartsandPreparing:Intheautumn,thehazelnutripensandcanbecrackedopenandthekerneleaten.Eatingdriednutsisalsotasty.
Juniper
Description:Alsoknownascedar,thisshrubhasverysmall,scalyleavesthataredenselycrowdedonthebranches.Berrylikeconesontheplantareusuallyblueandarecoveredwithawhitishwax.
Location:Theygrowinopen,dry,sunnyplacesthroughoutthecountry.
EdiblePartsandPreparing:Bothberriesandtwigsareedible.Theberriescanbeconsumedrawortheseedsmayberoastedtomakeasubstituteforcoffee.Driedandcrushedberriesaregoodtoseasonmeat.Twigscanbemadeintotea.
Lotus
Description:Thisplanthaslarge,yellowflowersandleavesthatfloatonorabovethesurfaceofthewater.Thelotusfruithasadistinct,flattenedshapeandpossessesaround20hardseeds.
Location:Foundonfreshwaterinquietareas,thelotusplantisnativetoNorthAmerica.
EdiblePartsandPreparing:Allpartsofthelotusplantareedible,raworcooked.Bakeorboilthefleshypartsthatgrowunderwaterandboilyoungleaves.Theseedsarequitenutritiousandcanbeeatenrawortheycanbegroundintoflour.
MarshMarigold
Description:Marshmarigoldhasround,darkgreenleavesandashortstem.Italsohasbrightyellowflowers.
Location:Theplantcanbefoundinbogsandlakesinthenortheasternstates.
EdiblePartsandPreparing:Allpartscanbeboiledandeaten.Donot
consumeanyportionraw.
Mulberry
Description:Themulberrytreehasalternate,lobedleaveswithroughsurfacesandblueorblackseededfruits.
Location:ThesetreesarefoundinforestedareasandnearroadsidesintemperateandtropicalregionsoftheUnitedStates.
EdiblePartsandPreparing:Thefruitcanbeconsumedeitherraworcookedanditcanalsobedried.Makesurethefruitisripeoritcancausehallucinationsandextremenausea.
Nettle
Description:Nettleplantsgrowseveralfeethighandhavesmallflowers.Thestems,leafstalks,andundersidesoftheleavesallcontainfine,hairlikebristlesthatcauseastingingsensationontheskin.
Location:Thisplantgrowsinmoistareasnearstreamsorontheedgesofforests.ItcanbefoundthroughouttheUnitedStates.
EdiblePartsandPreparing:Theyoungshootsandleavesareedible.Toeat,boiltheplantfor10to15minutes.
Oak
Description:Thesetreeshavealternatingleavesandacorns.Redoakshavebristlyleavesandsmoothbarkontheupperpartofthetreeandtheiracornsneedtwoyearstoreachmaturity.Whiteoakshaveleaveswithnobristlesandroughbarkontheupperpartofthetree.Theiracornsonlytakeoneyeartomature.
Location:Foundinvariouslocationsandhabitatsthroughoutthecountry.
EdiblePartsandPreparing:Allpartsofthetreeareedible,butmostareverybitter.Shelltheacornsandsoaktheminwaterforoneortwodaystoremovetheirtannicacid.Boiltheacornstoeatorgrindthemintoflourforbaking.
PalmettoPalm
Description:Thisisatalltreewithnobranchesandhasacontinualleafbaseonthetrunk.Theleavesarelarge,simple,andlobedandithasdarkblueorblackfruitsthatcontainahardseed.
Location:Thistreeisfoundthroughoutthesoutheasterncoast.
EdiblePartsandPreparing:Thepalmettopalmfruitcanbeeatenraw.Theseedscanalsobegroundintoflour,andtheheartofthepalmisanutritioussourceoffood,butthetopofthetreemustbecutdowninordertoreachit.
Persimmon
Description:Thepersimmontreehasalternating,ellipticalleavesthataredarkgreenincolor,andinconspicuousflowers.Ithasorangefruitsthatareverystickyandcontainmanyseeds.
Location:Growingonthemarginsofforests,itresidesintheeasternpartofthecountry.
EdiblePartsandPreparing:TheleavesprovideagoodsourceofvitaminCandcanbedriedandsoakedinhotwatertomaketea.Thefruitcanbeconsumedeitherbakedorrawandtheseedsmaybeeatenonceroasted.
Pine
Description:Pinetreeshaveneedlelikeleavesthataregroupedintobundlesofonetofiveneedles.Theyhaveaverypungent,distinguishingodor.
Location:Pinesgrowbestinsunny,openareasandarefoundallovertheUnitedStates.
EdiblePartsandPreparing:Theseedsarecompletelyedibleandcanbeconsumedeitherraworcooked.Also,theyoungmaleconescanbeboiledorbakedandeaten.Peelthebarkoffofthintwigsandchewthejuicyinnerbark.Theneedlescanbedriedandbrewedtomaketeathat’shighinvitaminC.
OtherUses:Pinetreeresincanbeusedtowaterproofitems.Collecttheresinfromthetree,putitinacontainer,heatit,anduseitasglueor,whencool,rubitonitemstowaterproofthem.
Plantain
Description:Thebroad-leafedplantaingrowsclosetothegroundandtheflowersaresituatedonaspikethatrisesfromthemiddleoftheleafcluster.Thenarrow-leafspecieshasleavescoveredwithhairsthatformarosette.Theflowersareverysmall.
Location:PlantainsgrowinlawnsandalongthesideoftheroadinthenorthernTemperateZone.
EdiblePartsandPreparing:Young,tenderleavescanbeeatenraw,andolderleavesshouldbecookedbeforeconsumption.Theseedsmayalsobeeateneitherraworroasted.Teacanalsobemadebyboiling1ounceoftheplantleavesinafewcupsofwater.
Pokeweed
Description:Arathertallplant,pokeweedhasellipticalleavesandproducesmanylargeclustersofpurplefruitsinthelatespring.
Location:PokeweedgrowsinopenandsunnyareasinfieldsandalongroadsidesintheeasternUnitedStates.
EdiblePartsandPreparing:Ifcooked,theyoungleavesandstemsareedible.Besuretoboilthemtwiceanddiscardthewaterfromthefirstboiling.Thefruitisalsoedibleifcooked.Nevereatanypartofthisplantraw,asitispoisonous.
PricklyPearCactus
Description:Thisplanthasflat,pad-likegreenstemsandround,furrydotsthatcontainsharp-pointedhairs.
Location:Foundinaridregionsandindry,sandyareasinwetterregions,itcanbefoundthroughouttheUnitedStates.
EdiblePartsandPreparing:Allpartsofthisplantareedible.Toeatthefruit,peelitorcrushittomakeajuice.Theseedscanberoastedandgroundintoflour.
ReindeerMoss
Description:Thisisalowplantthatdoesnotflower.However,itdoesproduce
brightredstructuresusedforreproduction.
Location:Itgrowsindry,openareasinmuchofthecountry.
EdiblePartsandPreparing:Whilehavingacrunchy,brittletexture,thewholeplantcanbeeaten.Toremovesomeofthebitterness,soakitinwaterandthendryandcrushit,addingittomilkorotherfoods.
Sassafras
Description:Thisshrubhasdifferentleaves—somehaveonelobe,otherstwolobes,andothershavenoneatall.Theflowersaresmallandyellowandappearintheearlyspring.Theplanthasdarkbluefruit.
Location:Sassafrasgrowsnearroadsandforestsinsunny,openareas.Itiscommonthroughouttheeasternstates.
EdiblePartsandPreparing:Theyoungtwigsandleavescanbeeateneitherfreshordried—addthemtosoups.Digouttheundergroundportionoftheshrub,peeloffthebark,anddryit.Boilitinwatertomaketea.
OtherUses:Shreddingthetendertwigswillmakeahandytoothbrush.
Spatterdock
Description:Theleavesofthisplantarequitelongandhaveatriangularnotchatthebase.Spatterdockhasyellowflowersthatbecomebottle-shapedfruits,whicharegreenwhenripe.
Location:Foundinfresh,shallowwaterthroughoutthecountry.
EdiblePartsandPreparing:Allpartsoftheplantareedibleandthefruitshavebrownseedsthatcanberoastedandgroundintoflour.Therootstockcanbedugoutofthemud,peeled,andboiled.
Strawberry
Description:Thisisasmallplantwithathree-leavedpattern.Small,whiteflowersappearinthespringtimeandthefruitisredandveryfleshy.
Location:Theseplantsprefersunny,openspaces,arecommonlyplanted,andappearinthenorthernTemperateZone.
EdiblePartsandPreparing:Thefruitcanbeeatenraw,cooked,ordried.Theplantleavesmayalsobeeatenordriedtomaketea.
Thistle
Description:Thisplantmaygrowveryhighandhaslong-pointed,pricklyleaves.
Location:Thistlegrowsinwoodsandfieldsalloverthecountry.
EdiblePartsandPreparing:Peelthestalks,cutthemintosmallersections,andboilthemtoconsume.Therootmaybeeatenraworcooked.
Walnut
Description:Walnutsgrowonlargetreesandhavedividedleaves.Thewalnuthasathick,outerhuskthatneedstoberemovedbeforegettingtothehard,innershell.
Location:Theblackwalnuttreeiscommonintheeasternstates.
EdiblePartsandPreparing:Nutkernelsbecomeripeinthefallandthemeatcanbeobtainedbycrackingtheshell.
WaterLily
Description:Withlarge,triangularleavesthatfloatonwater,theseplantshavefragrantflowersthatarewhiteorred.Theyalsohavethickrhizomesthatgrowinthemud.
Location:Waterliliesarefoundinmanytemperateareas.
EdiblePartsandPreparing:Theflowers,seeds,andrhizomescanbeeateneitherraworcooked.Peelthecorkyrindoffoftherhizomeandeatitraworsliceitthinly,dryit,andgrindintoflour.Theseedscanalsobemadeintoflourafterdrying,parching,andgrinding.
WildGrapevine
Description:Thisvinewillclimbontendrils,andmostoftheseplantsproducedeeplylobedleaves.Thegrapesgrowinpyramidalbunchesandareblack-blue,amber,orwhitewhenripe.
Location:Climbingoverothervegetationontheedgesofforestedareas,theycanbefoundintheeasternandsouthwesternpartsoftheUnitedStates.
EdiblePartsandPreparing:Onlytheripegrapecanbeeaten.
WildOnionandGarlic
Description:Thesearerecognizedbytheirdistinctiveodors.
Location:Theyarefoundinopenareasthatgetlotsofsunthroughouttemperateareas.
EdiblePartsandPreparing:Thebulbsandyoungleavesareedibleandcanbeconsumedeitherraworcooked.
WildRose
Description:Thisshrubhasalternatingleavesandsharpprickles.Ithasred,pink,oryellowflowersandfruit(rosehip)thatremainsontheshruballyear.
Location:Theseshrubsoccurindryfieldsthroughoutthecountry.
EdiblePartsandPreparing:Theflowersandbudsareedibleraworboiled.Boilfresh,youngleavestomaketea.Therosehipscanbeeatenoncetheflowersfallandtheycanbecrushedoncedriedtomakeflour.
Violets
Violetscanbecandiedandusedtodecoratecakes,cookies,orpastries.Picktheflowerswithatinybitofstem,wash,andallowtodrythoroughlyonapapertowelorarack.Heat½cupwater,1cupsugar,and¼teaspoonalmondextractinasaucepan.Usetweezerstocarefullydipeachflowerinthehotliquid.Setonwaxpaperanddustwithsugaruntileveryfloweristhoroughlycoated.Ifdesired,snipoffremainingstemswithsmallscissors.Allowflowerstodryforafewhoursinawarm,dryplace.
EdibleWildMushroomsAwalkthroughthewoodswilllikelyrevealseveralvarietiesofmushrooms,andchancesarethatsomearethetypesthatareedible.However,becausesomemushroomsareverypoisonous,itisimportantnevertotryamushroomofwhichyouareunsure.Nevereatamushroomwithgills,or,forthatmatter,anymushroomthatyoucannotpositivelyidentifyasedible.Also,nevereatmushroomsthatappearwilted,damaged,orrotten.
Herearesomecommonediblemushroomsthatyoucaneasilyidentifyandenjoy.
Chanterelles
Thesetrumpet-shapedmushroomshavewavyedgesandinterconnectedblunt-ridgedgillsunderthecaps.Theyarevariedshadesofyellowandhaveafruityfragrance.Theygrowinsummerandfallonthegroundofhardwoodforests.Becausechanterellestendtobetough,theyarebestwhenslowlysautéedoraddedtostewsorsoups.
Notes:BewareofJackO’Lanternmushrooms,whichlookandsmellsimilarlytochanterelles.JackO’Lanternshavesharp,knifelikegillsinsteadofthebluntgillsofchanterelles,andgenerallygrowinlargeclustersatthebaseoftreesorondecayingwood.
CoralFungi
Thesefungiareaptlynamedfortheirbunchesofupward-facingbranchingstems,whichlookstrikinglylikecoral.Theyarewhitish,tan,yellowish,orsometimespinkishorpurple.Theymayreach8inchesinheight.Theygrowinthesummerandfallinshady,woodedareas.
Notes:Avoidcoralfungithatarebitter,havesoft,gelatinousbases,orturnbrownwhenyoupokeorsqueezethem.Thesemayhavealaxativeeffect,thougharenotlife-threatening.
Morels
Morelsaresometimescalledsponge,pinecone,orhoneycombmushroomsbecauseofthepatternofpitsandridgesthatappearsonthecaps.Theycanbeanywherefrom2to12inchestall.Theymaybeyellow,brown,orblackandgrowinspringandearlysummerinwoodedareasandonriverbottoms.Tocook,cutinhalftocheckforinsects,wash,andsauté,bake,orstew.
Chanterelles.
Corelfungi.
Notes:Falsemorelscanbepoisonousandappearsimilartomorelsbecauseoftheirbrainlike,irregularlyshapedcaps.However,theycanbedistinguishedfromtruemorelsbecausefalsemorelcapsbulgeinwardinsteadofoutward.Thecapshavelobes,folds,flaps,orwrinkles,butnotpitsandridgeslikeatruemorel.
Puffballs
Theseroundorpear-shapedmushroomsareoftenmistakenforgolfballsoreggs.Theyarealwayswhitish,tan,orgrayandsometimeshaveathickstem.Youngpuffballstendtobewhiteandolderonesyelloworbrown.Fullymaturedpuffballshavedarksporesscatteredoverthecaps.Puffballsaregenerallyfoundinlatesummerandfallonlawns,inthewoods,oronoldtreestumps.Toeat,peelofftheouterskinandeatraworbatter-fried.
Notes:Sliceeachpuffballopenbeforeeatingtobesureitiscompletelywhiteinside.Ifthereisanyyellow,brown,orblack,orifthereisadevelop-ingmushroominsidewithastalk,gills,andcap,donoteat!Amanitas,whichareverypoisonous,canappearsimilartopuffballswhentheyareyoung.Donoteatifthemushroomgivesoffanunpleasantodor.
ShaggyManeMushrooms
Thismushroomgotitsnamefromitscap,whichisawhitecylinderwithshaggy,upturned,brownishscales.Asthemushroommatures,thebottomoutsidecircumferenceofthecapbecomesblack.Shaggymanesaregenerally4to6inchestallandgrowinallthewarmseasonsinfieldsandonlawns.
Shaggymanesaretastiesteatenwhenyoung,butthey’reeasiesttoidentifyoncethebottomsofthecapsbegintoturnblack.Theyaredelicioussautéedinbutteroroliveoilandlightlyseasonedwithsalt,garlic,ornutmeg.
Morels
Puffballs
Poisonousamanitamushroom
Shaggymanemushroom
MakeYourOwnFoods
MakeYourOwnButterMakingbuttertheold-fashionedwayisincrediblysimpleandverygratifying.It’sagreatprojecttodowithkids,too.Allyouneedisajar,amarble,somefreshcream,andabout20minutes.1. Startwithabouttwiceasmuchheavywhippingcreamasyou’llwantbutter.
Pouritintothejar,dropinthemarble,closethelidtightly,andstartshaking.
2. Checktheconsistencyofthecreameverythreetofourminutes.Theliquidwillturnintowhippedcream,andtheneventuallyyou’llseelittleclumpsofbutterforminginthejar.Keepshakingforanotherfewminutesandthenbegintostrainouttheliquidintoanotherjar.Thisisbuttermilk,whichisgreatforuseinmakingpancakes,waffles,biscuits,andmuffins.
3. Thebutterisnowready,butitwillstorebetterifyouwashandworkit.Add½cupofice-coldwaterandcontinuetoshakefortwoorthreeminutes.Strainoutthewaterandrepeat.Whenthestrainedwaterisclear,mashthebuttertoextractthelastofthewater,andstrain.
4. Scoopthebutterintoaramekin,mold,orwaxpaper.
Ifdesired,addsaltorchoppedfreshherbstoyourbutterjustbeforestoringorserving.Buttercanalsobemadeinafoodprocessororblendertospeeduptheprocessingtime.
MakeYourOwnYogurtYogurtissimpletomakeandisdeliciousonitsown,asadessert,inbakedgoods,orinplaceofsourcream.Yogurtisbasicallyfermentedmilk.YoucanmakeitbyaddingtheactiveculturesStreptococcusthermophilusandLactobacillusbulgaricustoheatedmilk,whichwillproducelacticacid,creatingyogurt’startflavorandthickconsistency.
YogurtisthoughttohaveoriginatedmanycenturiesagoamongthenomadictribesofEasternEuropeandWesternAsia.Milkstoredinanimalskinswould
acidifyandcoagulate.Theacidhelpedpreservethemilkfromfurtherspoilageandfromthegrowthofpathogens(disease-causingmicroorganisms).
Ingredients
Makes4to5cupsofyogurt1quartmilk(cream,whole,low-fat,orskim)—Ingeneralthehigherthemilkfatlevelintheyogurt,thecreamierandsmootheritwilltaste.Note:Ifyouusehome-producedmilkitmustbepasteurizedbeforepreparingyogurt.Seethecenterboxfortipsonpasteurizingmilk.Nonfatdrymilkpowder—Use⅓cuppowderwhenusingwholeorlow-fatmilk,oruse⅔cuppowderwhenusingskimmilk.Thehigherthemilksolids,thefirmertheyogurtwillbe.Forevenmorefirmnessaddgelatin(directionsbelow).Commercial,unflavored,culturedyogurt—Use¼cup.Besuretheproductlabelindicatesthatitcontainsaliveculture.Alsonotethecontentoftheculture.L.bulgaricusandS.thermophilusarerequiredinyogurt,butsomemanufacturersmayaddL.acidophilusorB.bifidum.Thelattertwoareusedforslightvariationsinflavor,butmorecommonlyforhealthreasonsattributedtotheseorganisms.Allculturevariationswillmakeasuccessfulyogurt.
2to4tablespoonssugarorhoney(optional)1teaspoonunflavoredgelatin(optional)—Forathick,firmyogurt,swell1teaspoongelatininalittlemilkfor5minutes.Addthistothemilkandnonfatdrymilkmixturebeforecooking.
SuppliesDoubleboilerorregularsaucepan—1to2quartsincapacitylargerthanthevolumeofyogurtyouwishtomake.Cookingorjellythermometer—Athermometerthatcancliptothesideofthesaucepanandremaininthemilkworksbest.Accuratetemperaturesarecriticalforsuccessfulprocessing.MixingspoonYogurtcontainers—cupswithlidsorcanningjarswithlids.Incubator—ayogurt-maker,oven,heatingpad,orwarmspotinyourkitchen.Touseyouroven,placeyogurtcontainersintodeeppansof110°Fwater.Watershouldcomeatleasthalfwayupthecontainers.Setoventemperatureatlowestpointtomaintainwatertemperatureat110°F.Monitortemperaturethroughoutincubation,makingadjustmentsasnecessary.
Processing1. Combineingredientsandheat.Heatingthemilkisnecessarytochange
themilkproteinssothattheysettogetherratherthanformcurdsandwhey.Donotsubstitutethisheatingstepforpasteurization.Placecold,pasteurizedmilkinadoubleboilerandstirinnonfat,drymilkpowder.Addingnonfat,drymilktoheatedmilkwillcausesomemilkproteinstocoagulateandformstrings.Addsugarorhoneyifasweeter,lesstartyogurtisdesired.Heatmilkto200°F,stirringgentlyandholdfor10minutesforthinneryogurt,orhold20minutesforthickeryogurt.Donotboil.Becarefulandstirconstantlytoavoidscorchingifnotusingadoubleboiler.
2. Coolandinoculate.Placethetopofthedoubleboilerincoldwatertocoolmilkrapidlyto112°Fto115°F.Removeonecupofthewarmmilkandblenditwiththeyogurtstarterculture.Addthistotherestofthewarmmilk.Thetemperatureofthemixtureshouldnowbe110°Fto112°F.
3. Incubate.Pourimmediatelyintoclean,warmcontainers;coverandplaceinpreparedincubator.Closetheincubatorandincubateabout4to7hoursat110°F,±5°F.Yogurtshouldsetfirmwhentheproperacidlevelisachieved(pH4.6).Incubatingyogurtforseveralhourspastthetimeaftertheyogurthassetwillproducemoreacidity.Thiswillresultinamoretartoracidicflavorandeventuallycausethewheytoseparate.
4. Refrigerate.Rapidcoolingstopsthedevelopmentofacid.Yogurtwillkeepforabout10to21daysifheldintherefrigeratorat40°Forlower.
YogurtTypes
Setyogurt:Asolidsetwheretheyogurtfirmsinacontainerandisnotdisturbed.
Stirredyogurt:Yogurtmadeinalargecontainerthenspoonedorotherwisedispensedintosecondaryservingcontainers.Theconsistencyofthe“set”isbrokenandthetextureislessfirmthansetyogurt.Thisisthemostpopularformofcommercialyogurt.
Drinkingyogurt:Stirredyogurtintowhichadditionalmilkandflavorsaremixed.Addfruitorfruitsyrupstotaste.Mixinmilktoachievethedesiredthickness.Theshelflifeofthisproductisfourto10days,sincethepHisraisedbytheadditionoffreshmilk.Somewheyseparationwilloccurandisnatural.Commercialproductsrecommendathoroughshakingbeforeconsumption.
Fruityogurt:Fruit,fruitsyrups,orpiefillingcanbeaddedtotheyogurt.Placethemontop,onbottom,orstirthemintotheyogurt.
TroubleshootingIfmilkformssomeclumpsorstringsduringtheheatingstep,somemilkproteinsmayhavejelled.Takethesolidsoutwithaslottedspoonor,indifficultcases,aftercookingpourthemilkmixturethroughacleancolanderorcheeseclothbeforeinoculation.
HowtoPasteurizeRawMilk
Ifyouareusingfreshmilkthathasn’tbeenprocessed,youcanpasteurizeityourself.Heatwaterinthebottomsectionofadoubleboilerandpourmilkintothetopsection.Coverthemilkandheatto165°Fwhilestirringconstantlyforuniformheating.Coolimmediatelybysettingthetopsectionofthedoubleboilerinicewaterorcoldrunningwater.Storemilkintherefrigeratorincleancontainersuntilreadyformakingyogurt.
Whenyogurtfailstocoagulateproperly,it’sbecausethepHisnotlowenough.MilkproteinswillcoagulatewhenthepHhasdroppedto4.6.Thisisdonebytheculturegrowingandproducingacids.Addingculturetoveryhotmilk(+115°F)cankillbacteria.Useathermometertocarefullycontroltemperature.Ifyogurttakestoolongtomake,itmaybebecausethetemperatureisoff.Toohotortoocoldofanincubationtemperaturecanslowdownculturegrowth.Useathermometertocarefullycontroltemperature.Ifyogurtjustisn’tworking,itmaybebecausethestarterculturewasofpoorquality.Useafresh,recentlypurchasedculturefromthegrocerystoreeachtimeyoumakeyogurt.Ifyogurttastesorsmellsbad,it’slikelybecausethestartercultureiscontaminated.Obtainnewcultureforthenextbatch.Ifyogurthasover-setorincubatedtoolong,refrigerateyogurtimmediatelyafterafirmcoagulumhasformed.Ifyogurttastesalittleodd,itcouldbeduetooverheatingorboilingofthemilk.Useathermometertocarefullycontroltemperature.Whenwheycollectsonthesurfaceoftheyogurt,it’scalledsyneresis.Somesyneresisisnatural.Excessiveseparationofwhey,however,canbecausedbyincubatingyogurttoolongorbyagitatingtheyogurtwhileitissetting.
StoringYourYogurtAlwayspasteurizemilkorusecommerciallypasteurizedmilktomakeyogurt.Discardbatchesthatfailtosetproperly,especiallythoseduetocultureerrors.Yogurtgenerallyhasa10-to21-dayshelflifewhenmadeandstoredproperlyintherefrigeratorbelow40°F.Alwaysusecleanandsanitizedequipmentandcontainerstoensurealong
shelflifeforyouryogurt.Cleanequipmentandcontainersinhotwaterwithdetergent,thenrinsewell.Allowtoairdry.
MakeYourOwnCheeseThereareendlessvarietiesofcheeseyoucanmake,buttheyallfallintotwomaincategories:softandhard.Softcheeses(likecreamcheese)areeasiertomakebecausetheydon’trequireacheesepress.Thecurdsinhardcheeses(likecheddar)arepressedtogethertoformasolidblockorwheel,whichrequiresmoretimeandeffort,buthardcheeseswillkeeplongerthansoftcheeses,andgenerallyhaveamuchstrongerflavor.
Cheeseisbasicallycurdledmilkandismadebyaddinganenzyme(typicallyrennet)tomilk,allowingcurdstoform,heatingthemixture,strainingoutthewhey,andfinallypressingthecurdstogether.Cheesessuchasquesofrescoorquesoblanco(traditionallyeateninLatinAmericancountries)andpaneer(traditionallyeateninIndia),aremadewithanacidsuchasvinegarorlemonjuiceinsteadofbacterialculturesorrennet.
Youcanuseanykindofmilktomakecheese,includingcow’smilk,goat’smilk,sheep’smilk,andevenbuffalo’smilk(usedfortraditionalmozzarella).Fortherichestflavor,trytogetrawmilkfromalocalfarmer.Ifyoudon’tknowofonenearyou,visitrealmilk.com/where.htmlforalistingofrawmilksuppliersinyourstate.Youcanusehomogenizedmilk,butitwillproduceweakercurdsandamilderflavor.Ifyourmilkispasteurized,you’llneedto“ripen”itbyheatingitinadoubleboileruntilitreaches86°Fandthenadding1cupofunpasteurized,preservative-free,culturedbuttermilkpergallonofmilkandlettingitstand30minutestothreehours(thelongeryouleaveit,thesharpertheflavorwillbe).Ifyoucannotfindunpasteurizedbuttermilk,diluting1/8teaspooncalciumchloride(availablefromonlinecheesemakersuppliers)in¼cupofwaterandaddingittoyourmilkwillcreateasimilareffect.
Rennet(alsocalledrenninorchymosin)issoldonlineatcheesemakingsitesintabletorliquidform.YoumayalsobeabletofindJunketrennettabletsnearthepuddingandgelatininyourgrocerystore.Oneteaspoonofliquidrennetistheequivalentofonerennettablet,whichisenoughtoturn5gallonsofmilkintocheese(estimatefourdropsofliquidrennetpergallonofmilk).Microbialrennetisavegetarianalternativethatisavailableforpurchaseonline.
Preparation
It’simportanttokeepyourhandscleanandallequipmentsterilewhenmakingcheese.1. Washhandsandallequipmentwithsoapydetergentbeforeandafteruse.2. Rinseallequipmentwithcleanwater,removingallsoapyresidue.3. Boilallcheesemakingequipmentbetweenuses.4. Forbest-qualitycheese,usenewcheeseclotheachtimeyoumakecheese.
(Sterilizecheeseclothbyfirstwashing,thenboiling.)5. Squeakycleanisclean.Ifyoucanfeelaresidueontheequipment,itisnot
clean.
YogurtCheese
Thissoftcheesehasaflavorsimilartosourcreamandatexturelikecreamcheese.Apintofyogurtwillyieldapproximately¼poundofcheese.Theyogurtcheesehasashelflifeofapproximatelysevento14dayswhenwrappedandplacedintherefrigeratorandkeptatlessthan40°F.
Ingredients
Plain,whole-milkyogurt
Directions1. Linealargestrainerorcolanderwithcheesecloth.2. Placethelinedstraineroverabowlandpourintheyogurt.Donotuse
yogurtmadewiththeadditionofgelatin,asgelatinwillinhibitwheyseparation.
3. Letyogurtdrainovernight,coveredwithplasticwrap.Emptythewheyfromthebowl.
4. Fillastrong,plasticstoragebagwithsomewater,seal,andplaceoverthecheesetoweighitdown.Letthecheesestandanother8hoursandthenenjoy!
QuesoBlanco
Quesoblancoisawhite,semi-hardcheesemadewithoutcultureorrennet.Itiseatenfreshandmaybeflavoredwithpeppers,herbs,andspices.Itisconsidereda“fryingcheese,”meaningitdoesnotmeltandmaybedeepfriedorgrilled.Quesoblancoisbesteatenfresh,sotrythissmallrecipethefirsttimeyoumakeit.Ifitdisappearsquickly,nexttimedoubleortripletherecipe.Thisrecipewillyieldabout½cupofcheese.
Ingredients
2cupsmilk4tspwhitevinegarSalt
Mincedjalapeño,blackpepper,chives,orotherherbstotasteDirections1. Heatmilkto176°Ffor20minutes.2. Addvinegarslowlytothehotmilkuntilthewheyissemi-clearandthecurd
particlesbegintoformstretchyclumps.Stirfor5to10minutes.Whenit’sready,youshouldbeabletostretchapieceofcurdabout⅓inchbeforeitbreaks.
3. Allowtocool,andstrainoffthewheybyfilteringthroughacheesecloth-linedcolanderoraclothbag.
4. Workinsaltandspicestotaste.5. Pressthecurdinamoldorsimplyleaveinaball.6. Quesoblancomaykeepforseveralweeksifstoredinarefrigerator,butis
besteatenfresh.
RicottaCheese
Makingricottaisverysimilartomakingquesoblanco,thoughittakesabitlonger.Startthecheeseinthemorningforuseatdinner,ormakeadayahead.Useitinlasagna,indesserts,orallonitsown.
Ingredients
1gallonmilk⅓cupplus1tspwhitevinegar¼tspsaltDirections1. Pourmilkintoalargepot,addsalt,andheatslowlywhilestirringuntilthe
milkreaches180°F.2. Removefromheatandaddvinegar.Stirforoneminuteascurdsbeginto
form.3. Coverandallowtositundisturbedfortwohours.4. Pourmixtureintoacolanderlinedwithcheesecloth,andallowtodrainfor
twoormorehours.5. Storeinasealedcontainerforuptoaweek.
Mozzarella
Thismildcheesewillmakeyourhomemadepizzaespeciallydelicious.Orsliceitandeatwithfreshtomatoesandbasilfromthegarden.Freshcheesecanbestoredinsaltwaterbutmustbeeatenwithintwodays.
Ingredients
1gallon2percentmilk¼cupfresh,plainyogurt(seerecipeonpage130)
Onetabletrennetor1tspliquidrennetdissolvedin½cuptapwaterBrine:use2poundsofsaltpergallonofwaterDirections1. Heatmilkto90°Fandaddyogurt.Stirslowlyfor15minuteswhilekeeping
thetemperatureconstant.2. Addrennetmixtureandstirfor3to5minutes.3. Cover,removefromheat,andallowtostanduntilcoagulated,about30
minutes.4. Cutcurdinto½-inchcubes.Allowtostandfor15minuteswithoccasional
stirring.5. Returntoheatandslowlyincreasetemperatureto118°Foveraperiodof45
minutes.Holdthistemperatureforanadditional15minutes.6. Drainoffthewheybytransferringthemixturetoacheesecloth-lined
colander.Useaspoontopresstheliquidoutofthecurds.Transferthematofcurdtoaflatpanthatcanbekeptwarminalowoven.Donotcutmat,butturnitoverevery15minutesfora2-hourperiod.Matshouldbetight
whenfinished.7. Cutthematintolongstrips1to2incheswideandplaceinhotwater
(180°F).Usingwoodenspoons,tumbleandstretchitunderwateruntilitbecomeselastic,about15minutes.
8. Removecurdfromhotwaterandshapeitbyhandintoaballoraloaf,kneadinginthesalt.Placecheeseincoldwater(40°F)forapproximately1hour.
9. Storeinasolutionof2teaspoonssaltto1cupwater.
CheddarCheese
CheddarisaNewEnglandandWisconsinfavorite.Thelongeryouageit,thesharpertheflavorwillbe.Tryaslicewithawedgeofhomemadeapplepie.
Ingredients
1gallonmilk¼cupbuttermilk1tabletrennet,or1tspliquidrennet1½tspsalt
Directions1. Combinemilkandbuttermilkandallowthemixturetoripenovernight.2. Thenextday,heatmilkto90ºFinadoubleboilerandaddrennet.3. Afterabout45minutes,cutcurdsintosmallcubesandletsit15minutes.4. Heatveryslowlyto100ºFandcookforaboutanhouroruntilacooled
pieceofcurdwillkeepitsshapewhensqueezed.5. Draincurdsandrinseoutthedoubleboiler.
6. Placearacklinedwithcheeseclothinsidethedoubleboilerandspreadthecurdsonthecloth.Coverandreheatatabout98ºFfor30to40minutes.Thecurdswillbecomeonesolidmass.
7. Removethecurds,cuttheminto1-inchwidestrips,andreturnthemtothepan.Turnthestripsevery15to20minutesforonehour.
8. Cutthestripsintocubesandmixinsalt.9. Letthecurdsstandfor10minutes,placethemincheesecloth,andpressina
cheesepresswith15poundsfor10minutes,thenwith30poundsforanhour.
10. Removethecheesefromthepress,unwrapit,dipinwarmwater,andfillinanycracks.
11. Wrapagainincheeseclothandpresswith40poundsfor24hours.12. Removefromthepressandletthecheesedryaboutfivedaysinacool,
well-ventilatedarea,turningthecheesetwiceadayandwipingitwithacleancloth.Whenahardskinhasformed,rubwithoilorsealwithwax.Youcaneatthecheeseaftersixweeks,butforthestrongestflavor,allowcheesetoageforsixmonthsormore.
MakeYourOwnSimpleCheesePress
1. Removebothendsofalargecoffeecanorthoroughlycleanedpaintcan,savingoneend.Useanawlorahammerandlongnailtopiercethesidesinseveralplaces,piercingfromtheinsideout.
2. Placethecanonacoolingrackinsidealargerbasin.Leavethebottomofthecaninplace.
3. Useasawtocuta¾-inch-thickcircleofwoodtocreatea“cheesefollower.”Itshouldbesmallenoughindiametertofiteasilyinthecan.
4. Placecheesecurdsinthecan,andtopwiththecheesefollower.Placeseveralbrickswrappedinclothorfoilontopofthecheesefollowertoweighdowncurds.
5. Oncethecheeseisfullypressed,removethebricksandbottomofthecan.Usethecheesefollowertopushthecheeseoutofthecan.
MakeYourOwnIceCreamSupplies
1-poundcoffeecan3-poundcoffeecanDucttape1cupsalt
Ingredients
2cupshalfandhalf½cupsugar1tspvanillaIce
Directions1. Mixalltheingredientsinthe1-poundcoffeecan.Coverthelidwithduct
tapetoensureitistightlysealed.2. Placethesmallercaninsidethelargercanandfillthespacebetweenthe
twowithiceandsalt.
3. Coverthelargecanandsealwithducttape.Rollthecanbackandforthfor15minutes.Toreducenoise,placeatowelonyourworkingsurface,orworkonarug.
4. Dumpouticeandwater.Stircontentsofsmallcan.Storeicecreaminaglassorplasticcontainer(ifyouleaveitinthecanitmaytakeonametallicflavor).
Ifdesired,addcocoapowder,coffeegranules,crushedpeppermintsticksorothercandy,orfruit.
BrewYourOwnBeerMakingyourownbrewisnotdifficult,butbesuretousewaterthatisnotheavilychlorinatedorthathasastrongmineralflavor.Thesweetnessofmalt(frombarley)andthebitternessofhops(thefemaleflowerofthehopvine)balanceeachothertocreatebeer’srichflavor.Thefermentationiscausedbytheyeastconsumingthesugar,whichproducescarbondioxideandalcohol.
Maltisbarleythathasbeguntogerminate,whichcreatesenzymesnecessaryforconvertingstarchtosugar.Whenyou’refirstexperimentingwithbrewingbeer,usestore-boughtmaltandhops,astheywillhavemorepredictableresults.Ifyouwanttomakeyourownmalt,letthebarleygrainssprout.Oncetheshootsarethesamelengthasthekernels,stopthegrowthbyheatingthebarleyto
between185°Fand230°F.Atthatpoint,thebarleyismaltedandmustbecrackedandsoakedin150°Fwaterforaboutsixhours.Finally,strainthebarleyandusetheliquidforyourbeer.
Supplies
10-gallonpailHydrometerSiphonandclamp122-literbottles,sterilized
Ingredients
Water40-ozcanpre-hoppedmaltextract6to7cupswhitesugaror8to9cupscornsugar1tspbrewer’syeast24tspwhitegranulatedsugar
Directions1. Cleanpail,hydrometer,andsiphonwithwarm,soapywaterandrinse
thoroughly.Thensterilizebyrinsingwithamixof1tablespoonhouseholdbleachand1gallonwater.Rinseafinaltimewithcleanwater.
2. Pour2½to3gallonscoldwaterinthepail.3. Bring7½quartsofwatertoaboilinalargepot.Addmaltextractvery
slowly,stirring,andthensimmeruncoveredfor20minutes.4. Addsugarandstiruntildissolved.5. Dumpthehotmixtureintothepailcontainingthecoldwater,splashingitin
toincreasetheoxygenintheliquid(yeastneedsoxygentodoitsjob).6. Addicewateruntilmixtureisabout70°F(waterthatistoohotcankillthe
yeast).7. Addtheyeastandstirwell.8. Coverloosely(ifthelidistootight,thepailcouldexplode)andallowtosit
inamoderatetocoolplace(around62°Fto68°F)for6to10days.Don’topenthepail,tipit,orshakeitforatleast6days.
9. Placethehydrometerinthebeerandgiveitaspintoreleaseairbubbles.Thehydrometershouldreadabout1.008fordarkbeersand1.010to1.105forlightbeers.
10. Whenthebeerisready,placethebucketonabenchorsturdytableandplacethesterilizedbottlesonthefloorbelow.Addabout2teaspoonsofwhitegranulatedsugartoeachbottletohelpcarbonatethebeer.
11. Usethesiphonandclamptosiphonthebeerintothebottles,screwonthelids,givethebottlesaquickshake,andstorethebottlesinawarm,darkareaforafewdays,andthenmoveintocool,darkarea.Storeatleastthreeweeksbeforedrinking.
MakeYourOwnWineSupplies
ColanderorstrainerLargebowlorpot1-galloncontainerwithasecurelidSpoonPotatomasherFunnel
Ingredients
1qtfruit2cupssugar1gallonwater,divided1packageactiveyeast
Directions1. Thoroughlycleanallyourcookingutensilswithwarm,soapywaterand
rinsethoroughly.Thensterilizebyrinsingwithamixof1tablespoonhouseholdbleachand1gallonwater.Rinseafinaltimewithcleanwater.
2. Inabowl,crushthefruitwithapotatomasher(oruseafoodprocessor)untilsmooth.
3. Dissolvethesugarin1cupofhotwater.Allowtocooltoroomtemperatureandaddtothefruit.
4. Dissolvetheyeastin2cupsofwarmwaterandaddtothefruit,alongwiththeremainingwater.Stironceeverydayforaweek.
5. Strainthroughacolanderintoyour1-galloncontainer,closelidsecurely,andallowtorestinacool,darkplacefor6weeks.
6. Strainthewineintoyoursterilizedbottles(leavingoneempty)andcorklightly.Afterthreedays,strainthewinefromonebottleintotheemptyone,leavingabout1inchheadspacebelowthecork.Repeatuntilbottlesarefull.
7. Soaknewcorksinwarmwaterforabout2hours,rinseseveraltimes,placesecurelyinbottles,andsealwithparaffin.
DandelionWine
Ingredients
4qtsdandelionblossoms(usethefulldandelionheads—notjustthepetals)4qtsboilingwater2oranges2lemons4lbssugar2tbspyeast
Directions1. Washdandelionblossomsandplacetheminalargepot.Pour4quartsof
boilingwateroverthemandletstand24hours.2. Strainthroughcheeseclothandaddgratedrindandjuiceoftwoorangesand
twolemons,fourpoundsofgranulatedsugar,andtwotablespoonfulsyeast.3. Letstandoneweek,thenstrainandfillbottles.
PARTTHREE
TheBackyardFarm
“Thegreatnessofanationanditsmoralprogresscanbejudgedbythewayitsanimalsaretreated”
—MahatmaGandhi
Theprospectofraisingfarmanimalsinyourbackyarddoesnotneedtobeoverwhelming.Ifyou’reconcernedaboutnothavingenoughland,keepinmindthatafewchickenscanberaisedonlessthananeighthofanacre;youmaybeabletohaveabeehiveonyourrooftop;andacoupleofgoatsorsheepwillbeperfectlycontentonaquarterofanacre.Worriedaboutthecost?Withchickens,thesmallamountyouwillinvestinbuyingchickswillquicklypayitselfbackinfresheggsormeat,andsincechickenfeedisveryinexpensive,theupkeepcostsareminimal.Ifyousheeryoursheeporllamas,youcanspinthewoolandsellitatalocalmarketoronlinetomakeaprofit.However,iftimeisyourconcern,youshouldstoptothinkbeforepurchasinganimalsorrescuingthemfromshelters.Anyanimalyoubringontoyourpropertydeservesaportionofyourtimeeveryday.Youcertainlydon’thavetospendeverywakingmomentwithyouranimals,butyouwillneedtoprovidefood,water,shelter,andafewothernecessities.Ifyoudon’thavethetimeforthisonaregularbasis,considerhelpingoutatalocalfarmorshelter,orsimplysupportotherfarmersbyshoppingatfarmer’smarkets.Ifyoudohavethetimetocareproperlyforanimals,veryoftenyouwillfindthattheygiveyoufarmorethanyougivethem.
Chickens
Raisingchickensinyouryardwillgiveyouaccesstofresheggsandmeat,andbecausechickensaresomeoftheeasiestcreaturestokeep,evenfamiliesinveryurbanareasareabletoraiseafewinasmallbackyard.Fourorfivechickenswillsupplyyourwholefamilywitheggsonaregularbasis.
HousingYourChickensYouwillneedtohaveastructureforyourchickenstoliveintoprotectthemfrompredatorsandinclementweather,andtoallowthehensasafeplacetolaytheireggs.See“PoultryHouses”onpage175toseeseveraltypesofstructuresyoucanmakeforhousingchickensandotherpoultry.
Placingyourhenhousecloseenoughtoyourownhomewillremindyoutovisititfrequentlytofeedthechickensandtogathereggs.Itisbesttoestablishthehouseandyardindrysoil,awayfromareasinyouryardthatarefrequentlydampormoist,asthisistheperfectbreedinggroundforpoultrydiseases.Thehenhouseshouldbewell-ventilated,warm,protectedfromthecoldandrain,haveafewwindowsthatallowthesunlighttoshinein(especiallyifyouliveinacolderclimate),andhaveasoundroof.
Theperchesinyourhenhouseshouldnotbemorethan2½feetabovethefloor,andyoushouldplaceasmoothplatformundertheperchestocatchthedroppingssotheycaneasilybecleaned.Nestingboxesshouldbekeptinadarkerpartofthehouseandshouldhaveamplespacearoundthem.
Theperchesinyourhenhousecanberelativelynarrowandshouldn’tbemorethanafewfeetfromthefloor.
SelectingtheRightBreedofChickenTakethetimetoselectchickensthatarewell-suitedforyourneeds.Ifyouwantchickenssolelyfortheireggs,lookforchickensthataregoodegg-layers.Mediterraneanpoultryaregoodforfirst-timechickenownersastheyareeasytocareforandonlyneedtheproperfoodtolaymanyeggs.Ifyouarelookingtoslaughterandeatyourchickens,youwillwanttohaveheavy-bodiedfowl(Asiaticpoultry)inordertogetthemostmeatfromthem.Ifyouarelookingtohavechickensthatlayagoodamountofeggsandthatcanalsobeusedformeat,investintheWyandottesorPlymouthRockbreeds.Thesechickensarenotincrediblybulkybuttheyaregoodsourcesofbotheggsandmeat.
Wyandotteshavesevendistinctbreeds:Silver,White,Buff,Golden,andBlackarethemostcommon.ThesebreedsarehardyandtheyareverypopularintheUnitedStates.Theyarecompactlybuiltandlayexcellentdarkbrowneggs.Theyaregoodsittersandtheirmeatisperfectforbroilingorroasting.
PlymouthRockchickenshavethreedistinctbreeds:Barred,White,andBuff.
TheyarethemostpopularbreedsintheUnitedStatesandarehardybirdsthatgrowtoamediumsize.Thesechickensaregoodforlayingeggs,roostwell,andalsoprovidegoodmeat.
Plymouthrockchickensaregoodall-aroundfarmchickenswiththeirdociledispositions,hardiness,tendencytobeveryproductiveegg-layers,andgoodmeat.
Buildingachickencoopclosetoyourhousewillmakeiteasiertotendthechickensandgathereggsininclementweather.
FeedingYourChickens
Chickens,likemostcreatures,needabalanceddietofprotein,carbohydrates,vitamins,fats,minerals,andwater.Chickenswithplentyofaccesstograssyareaswillfindmostofwhattheyneedontheirown.However,ifyoudon’thavethespacetoallowyourchickenstoroamfree,commercialchickenfeedisreadilyavailableintheformofmash,crumbles,pellets,orscratch.Oryoucanmakeyourownfeedoutofacombinationofgrains,seeds,meatscrapsorprotein-richlegumes,andagrittysubstancesuchasbonemeal,limestone,oystershell,orgranite(toaiddigestion,especiallyinwinter).Thecorrectratiooffoodforawarm,securechickenshouldbe1partproteinto4partscarbohydrates.Donotrelytooheavilyoncornasitcanbetoofatteningforhens;combinecornwithwheatoroatsforthecarbohydrateportionofthefeed.Cloverandothergreenfoodsarealsobeneficialtofeedyourchickens.
Asimplemovablechickencoopcanbeconstructedoutoftwo-by-foursandtwowheels.Thefloorofthecoopshouldhaveopenslatssothatthemanurewillfallontothegroundandfertilizethesoil.Anevensimplermethodistoconstructapenthatsitsdirectlyontheground,makingsurethatithasarooftoofferthechickenssuitableshade.Thepencanbemovedoncetheareaiswell-fertilized.
Howmuchfoodyourchickensneedwilldependonbreed,age,theseason,andhowmuchroomtheyhavetoexercise.Oftenit’seasiestandbestforthechickenstoleavefeedavailableatalltimesinseverallocationswithinthechickens’range.Thiswillensurethateventhelowestchickensinthepeckingordergetthefeedtheyneed.
WyandottesoriginatedintheUnitedStatesandwerefirstbredinthe1870s.Thisoneisagoldenlacedwyandott.
ThisoneisabarredPlymouthrockchicken.
ChickenFeed
4partscorn(ormoreincoldmonths)
3partsoatgroats
2partswheat
2partsalfalfamealorchoppedhay
1partmeatscraps,fishmeal,orsoybeanmeal
2to3partsdriedsplitpeas,lentils,orsoybeanmeal
2to3partsbonemeal,crushedoystershell,granitegrit,orlimestone
½partcod-liveroil
Youmayalsowishtoaddsunflowerseeds,hulledbarley,millet,kamut,amaranthseeds,quinoa,sesameseeds,flaxseeds,orkelpgranules.Ifyoufindthatyoureggsarethin-shelled,tryaddingmorecalciumtothefeed(intheformoflimestoneoroystershell).Storefeedinacoveredbucket,barrel,orothercontainerthatwillnotallowrodentstogetintoit.Aplasticorgalvanizedbucketisgood,asitwillalsokeepmold-causingmoistureoutofthefeed.chicks.Tohatchachick,aneggmustbeincubatedforasufficientamountoftimewiththeproperheat,moisture,andposition.Theperiodforincubationvariesbasedonthespeciesofchicken.Theaverageincubationperiodisaround21daysformostcommonbreeds.
HatchingChicksIfyouarelookingtoincreasethenumberofchickensyouhave,orifyouplantosellsomechickensatthemarket,youmaywantyourhenstolayeggsandhatch
Chickensthatareallowedtoroamfreely(“free-range”chickens)willbeableto
scavengemostofthefoodtheyneed,aslongasthereisplentyofgrassorothervegetationavailable.
Ifyouareonlyhousingafewchickensinyourbackyard,naturalincubationistheeasiestmethodwithwhichtohatchchicks.Naturalincubationisdependentupontheinstinctofthemotherhenandthebreedofhen.PlymouthRocksandWyandottesaregoodhenstoraisechicks.Itisimportanttoseparatethesettinghenfromtheotherchickenswhilesheisnestingandtoalsokeepthehencleanandfreefromlice.Thenestshouldalsobekeptclean,andthehensshouldbefedgrainfood,grit,andclean,freshwater.
Anestingboxshouldhaveplentyofcleanhayorstrawforthehentorestin.
Itisimportant,whenyouareconsideringhatchingchicks,tomakesureyourhensarehealthy,haveplentyofexercise,andarefedabalanceddiet.Theyneedmaterialsonwhichtoscratchandshouldnotbeinfestedwithliceandotherparasites.Free-rangechickens,whicheatprimarilynaturalfoodsandgetlotsofexercise,laymorefertileeggsthandotightlyconfinedhens.Theeggsselected
forhatchingshouldnotbemorethan12daysoldandtheyshouldbeclean.
You’llneedtoconstructanestingboxfortheroostinghenandtheincubatedeggs.Theboxshouldberoomyanddeepenoughtoretainthenestingmaterial.Treattheboxwithadisinfectantbeforeusetokeepoutlice,mice,andothercreaturesthatcouldinfectthehenortheeggs.
BacteriaAssociatedwithChickenMeat
Salmonella—Thisisprimarilyfoundintheintestinaltractofpoultryandcanbefoundinrawmeatandeggs.Campylobacterjejuni—Thisisoneofthemostcommoncausesofdiarrhealillnessinhumansandisspreadbyimproperhandlingofrawchickenmeatandnotcookingthemeatthoroughly.Listeriamonocytogenes—Thiscausesillnessinhumansandcanbedestroyedbykeepingthemeatrefrigeratedandbycookingitthoroughly.
Makethenestofdampsoilafewinchesdeep,placedinthebottomofthebox,andthenlaysweethayorcleanstrawontopofthat.
Placethenestingboxinaquietandsecludedplaceawayfromtheotherchickens.Ifspacepermits,youcanconstructasmallershedinwhichtohouseyournestinghen.Ahencangenerallysitonanywherebetween9and15eggs.Thehenshouldonlybeallowedtoleavethenesttofeed,drinkwater,andtakeadustbath.Whenthehendoesleaveherbox,checktheeggsanddisposeofanydamagedones.Anolderhenwillgenerallybemorecarefulandapttoroostthanayoungerfemale.
Oncethechicksarehatched,theywillneedtostaywarmandclean,getlotsofexercise,andhaveaccesstofoodregularly.Makesurethefeedisgroundfinelyenoughthatthechickscaneasilyeatanddigestit.Theyshouldalsohaveclean,freshwater.
Ifaneggbreaks,useitimmediatelyordiscardit.Oncetheeggisexposedtotheairitspoilsmuchmorequickly
StoringEggs
Eggsareamongthemostnutritiousfoodsonearthandcanbepartofahealthydiet.Henstypicallylayeggsevery25hours,soyoucanbesuretohaveafreshsupplyonadailybasis,inmanycases.Buteggs,likeanyotheranimalbyproduct,needtobehandledsafelyandcarefullytoavoidrottingandspreadingdisease.Hereareafewtipsonhowtobestpreserveyourfarm-fresheggs:
1. Makesureyoureggscomefromhensthathavenotbeenrunningwithmaleroosters.Infertileeggslastlongerthanthosethathavebeenfertilized.
2. Keepthefresheggstogether.3. Chooseeggsthatareperfectlyclean.4. Makesurenottocracktheshells,asthiswilltaintthetasteand
maketheeggrotmuchmorequickly.5. Placeyoureggsdirectlyintherefrigeratorwheretheywillkeep
forseveralweeks.
Washfresheggsandthenrefrigeratethemimmediately.
Ducks
Duckstendtobesomewhatmoredifficultthanchickstoraise,buttheydoprovidewonderfuleggsandmeat.Duckstendtohavepleasanterpersonalitiesthanchickensandareoftenprolificlayers.Theeggstastesimilartochickeneggs,butareusuallylargerandhaveaslightlyricherflavor.Ducksarehappiestandhealthiestwhentheyhaveaccesstoapoolorpondtopaddlearoundinandwhentheyhaveseveralotherduckstokeepthemcompany.
BreedsofDucksTherearesixcommonbreedsofducks:WhitePekin,WhiteAylesbury,ColoredRouen,BlackCayuga,ColoredMuscovy,andWhiteMuscovy.Eachbreedisuniqueandhasitsownadvantagesanddisadvantages.1. WhitePekin—Themostpopularbreedofduck,thesearealsotheeasiestto
raise.Theseducksarehardyanddowellincloseconfinement.Theyaretimidandmustbehandledcarefully.Theirlargeframegivesthemlotsofmeat,andtheyarealsoprolificlayers.
2. WhiteAylesbury—ThisbreedissimilartothePekinbuttheplumageismuchwhiterandtheyareabitheavierthantheformer.TheyarenotaspopularintheUnitedStatesastheWhitePekinduck.
3. ColoredRouens—Thesedarklyplumedducksarealsoquitepopularandfatteneasilyformeatpurposes.
4. BlackCayugaandMuscovybreeds—TheseareAmericanbreedsthatareeasilyraisedbutarenotasproductiveastheWhitePekin.
HousingDucksYouneitherneedalotofspaceinwhichtoraiseducksnordoyouneedwatertoraisethemsuccessfully,thoughtheywillbehappierifyoucanprovideatleastasmallpoolofwaterforthemtobatheandpaddlearoundin.Housingforducksisrelativelysimple.Thehousesdonothavetobeaswarmordryasforchickensbuttheduckscannotbeconfinedforaslongperiodsaschickenscan.Theyneedmoreexerciseout-of-doorstobehealthyandtoproducemoreeggs.Ahousethat
isprotectedfromdampnessorexcessrainwaterandthathasstraworhaycoveringthefloorisadequateforducks.Ifyouwanttokeepyourduckssomewhatconfined,asmallfenceabout2½feethighwilldothetrick.Ducksdon’trequirenestingboxes,astheylaytheireggsonthefloorofthehouseorintheyardaroundthehouse.
Ducksaresocialbirds;theyarehappiestingroups.
WhitePekinswereoriginallybredfromtheMallardinChinaandcametothe
UnitedStatesin1873.
Ducksshouldhaveaccesstoalake,pond,oratleastasmallpool.
FeedingandWateringDucksDucksrequireplentyoffreshwatertodrink,astheyhavetodrinkregularlywhileeating.Duckseatbothvegetableandanimalfoods.Ifallowedtoroamfreeandtofindtheirownfoodstuff,duckswilleatgrasses,smallfish,andwaterinsects(ifstreamsorpondsareprovided).
AccordingtoMrs.BeetoninherBookofHouseholdManagementpublishedin1861,“[Aylesburyducks’]snowyplumageandcomfortablecomportmentmakeitacredittothepoultry-yard,whileitsbroadanddeepbreast,anditsampleback,conveytheassurancethatyoursatisfactionwillnotceaseatitsdeath.”
Ducksneedtheirfoodtobesoftandmushyinorderforthemtodigestit.Ducklingsshouldbefedequalpartscornmeal,wheatbran,andflourforthefirstweekoflife.Forthenextfiftydaysorso,theducklingsshouldbefedthatmixtureinadditiontoalittlegritorsandandsomegreenfoods(greenrye,oats,clover)allmixedtogether.Afterthistime,ducksshouldbefedonamixtureoftwopartscornmeal,onepartwheatbran,onepartflour,somecoarsesand,andgreenfoods.
HatchingDucklingsThenaturalprocessofincubation(hatchingducklingsunderneathahen)isthepreferredmethodofhatchingducklings.Itisimportanttotakegoodcareofthesettinghen.Feedherwholecornmixedwithgreenfood,grit,andfreshwater.Placingthefeedandwaterjustinfrontofthenestforthefirstfewdayswillencouragethehentoeatanddrinkwithoutleavingthenest.Henswilltypicallylaytheireggsontheground,instraworhaythatisprovidedforthem.Makesuretocleanthehousesandpensoftensothelayingduckshavecleanareasinwhichtoincubatetheireggs.
ABlackCayuga(right)standswithtwoSaxonyducks.
CaringforDucklingsYoungducklingsareverysusceptibletoatmosphericchanges.Theymustbekeptwarmandfromgettingchilled.Theducklingsaremostvulnerableduringthefirstthreeweeksoflife;afterthattime,theyaremoreikelytothrivetoadulthood.Constructbroodersfortheyoungducklingsandkeepthemverywarmbyhangingstripsofclothoverthedoorcracks.Afterthreeweeksinthewarmbrooder,movetheducklingstoacoldbrooderastheycannowwithstandfluctuatingtemperatures.
CommonDiseasesOnawhole,ducksarenotaspronetothetypicalpoultrydiseases,andmanyofthediseasestheydocontractcanbepreventedbymakingsuretheduckshaveacleanenvironmentinwhichtolive(bycleaningouttheirhouses,providingfreshdrinkingwater,andsoon).
Twocommonailmentsfoundinducksarebotulismandmaggots.Botulismcausestheduck’snecktogolimp,makingitdifficultorevenimpossiblefortheducktoswallow.Maggotsinfesttheducksiftheydonothaveanycleanwaterinwhichtobathe,andaretypicallycontractedinthehotsummermonths.Bothoftheseconditions(aswellaswormsandmites)canbecuredwiththepropercare,medications,andveterinaryassistance.
Turkeys
Turkeysaregenerallyraisedfortheirmeat(especiallyforholidayroasts)thoughtheireggscanalsobeeaten.Turkeysareincrediblyeasytomanageandraiseastheyprimarilysubsistonbugs,grasshoppers,andwastedgrainthattheyfindwhilewanderingaroundtheyard.Theyare,inasense,self-sustainingforagers.
IfyouarelookingtoraiseaturkeyforThanksgivingdinner,itisbesttohatchtheturkeychickinearlyspring,sothatbyNovember,itwillbeabout14to20pounds.
BreedsofTurkeysThelargestbreedsofturkeysfoundintheUnitedStatesaretheBronzeandNarragansett.Otherbreeds,thoughnotaspopular,includetheWhiteHolland,Blackturkey,Slateturkey,andBourbonRed.
BronzebreedsaremostlikelyacrossbetweenawildNorthAmericanturkeyanddomesticturkey,andtheyhavebeautifulrichplumage.Thisisthemostcommontypeofturkeytoraise,asitisthelargest,isveryhardy,andisthemostprofitable.TheWhiteHollandandBourbonRed,however,aresaidtobethemost“domesticated”intheirhabitsandareeasiertokeepinasmallerroamingarea.
HousingTurkeysTurkeysflourishwhentheycanroostintheopen.Theythriveintheshelteroftrees,thoughthiscanbecomeproblematicastheyaremorevulnerabletopredatorsthaniftheyareconfinedinahouse.Ifyoudobuildahouseforthem,itshouldbeairy,roomy,andveryclean.
Itisimportanttoallowturkeysfreedomtoroam;ifyouliveinamoresuburbanorneighborhoodarea,raisingturkeysmaynotbethebestoptionoryou,asyourturkeysmaywanderintoaneighboringyard,upsettingyourneighbors.Turkeysneedlotsofexercisetobehealthyandvigorous.Whenturkeysareconfinedforlongperiodsoftime,itismoredifficulttoregulatetheirfeeding(turkeysarenaturalforagersandthrivebestonnaturalfoods),andthey
aremorelikelytocontractdiseasethaniftheyareallowedtorangefreely.
HatchingTurkeyChicksTurkeyhenslayeggsinthemiddleofMarchtothefirstofApril.Ifyouarelookingtohatchandraiseturkeychicks,itisvitaltowatchthehencloselyforwhenshelaystheeggs,andthengatherthemandkeeptheeggswarmuntiltheweatherismorestable.Turkeyhensgenerallyaimtohidetheirnestsfrompredators.Itisbest,forthehen’ssake,toprovideherwithacoopofsomesort,whichshecanfreelyenterandleave.Or,ifnocoopisavailable,encouragethehentolayhereggsinanestclosetoyourhouse(puttingalargebarrelonitssideandheapingupbrushnearthehousemayenticethehentonestthere).Thisway,youcankeepaneyeontheeggsandhatchlings.
Hensarewell-adaptedtohatchalloftheeggsthattheylay.Ittakes27to29daysforturkeyeggstohatch.Whilethehensareincubatingtheeggs,theyshouldbegivenadequatefoodandwater,placedclosetotheirnest.Wheatandcornarethebestfoodduringthelayingandincubationperiod.
RaisingthePoultsTurkeychicks,alsoknownas“poults,”canbedifficulttoraiseandrequirelotsofcareandattentionfortheirfirstfewweeksoflife.Inthissense,aturkeyraisermustbe“oncall”tocometotheaidofthehenandherpoultsatanytimeduringthedayforthefirstmonthorso.Manytimes,thehenscanraisethepoultswell,butitisimportantthattheyreceiveenoughfoodandwarmthintheearlyweekstoallowthemtogrowhealthyandstrong.Thepoultsshouldstaydry,astheybecomechilledeasily.Ifyouareable,encouragingthepoultsandtheirmotherintoacoopuntilthepoultsarestrongerwillaidtheirgrowthtoadulthood.
WhatDoTurkeysEat?
Turkeysgainmostoftheirsustenancefromforaging,eitherinlawnsorinpastures.Theytypicallyeatgreenvegetation,berries,weedseeds,wastegrain,nuts,andvariouskindsofacorns.Inthesummermonths,turkeysespeciallyliketoeatgrasshoppers.Duetotheirloveofeatinginsectsthatcandamagecropsandgardens,turkeysarequiteusefulinkeepingyourgrowingproducefreefromharmfulinsectsandparasites.
Turkeysmaybefedgrain(similartoamixturegiventochickens)iftheyaregoingtobeslaughtered,inordertomakethemlarger.
Poultsshouldbefedsoftandeasilydigestiblefoods.Stalebread,dippedinmilkandthendrieduntilitcrumbles,isanexcellentsourceoffoodfortheyoungturkeys.
DiseasesTurkeysarehardybirdsbuttheyaresusceptibletoafewdebilitatingorfataldiseases.Itisafactthatthemortalityrateamongyoungturkeys,eveniftheyare
givenallthecareandexerciseandfoodneeded,isrelativelyhigh(usuallyduetoenvironmentalandpredatoryfactors).
Themostcommondiseaseinturkeysisblackhead.Blackheadtypicallyinfectsyoungturkeysbetween6weeksand4monthsold.Thisdiseasewillturntheheaddarkercoloredorevenblackandthebirdwillbecomeveryweak,willstopeating,andwillhaveaninsatiablethirst.Blackheadisusuallyfatal.
Anotherdiseasethatturkeysoccasionallycontractisroup.Roupgenerallyoccurswhenaturkeyhasbeenexposedtoextremedampnessorcolddraftsforlongperiodsoftime.Roupcausestheturkey’sheadtoswellaroundtheeyesandishighlycontagioustootherturkeys.NutritionalroupiscausedbyavitaminAdeficiency,whichcanbealleviatedbyaddingvitaminAtotheturkey’sdrinkingwater.Itisbesttoconsultaveterinarianifyourturkeyseemstohavethisdisease.
SlaughteringPoultry
Ifyouareraisingyourownpoultry,youmaydecidethatyou’dliketousethemforconsumptionaswell.Slaughteringyourownpoultry
enablesyoutoknowexactlywhatisinthemeatyouandyourfamilyareconsuming,andtoensurethatthepoultryiskepthumanelybeforebeingslaughtered.Herearesomeguidelinesforslaughteringpoultry:1. Toprepareafowlforslaughter,makesurethebirdissecured
wellsoitisunabletomove(eitherhangingdownfromapoleorlaidonablockthatisusedforchoppingwood).
2. Killingthefowlcanbedoneintwoways:onewayistohangthebirdupsidedownandtocutthejugularveinwithasharpknife.Itisagoodideatohaveafunnelorvesselavailabletocollectthedrainingbloodsoitdoesnotmakeamessandcanbedisposedofeasily.Theotheroptionistoplacethebird’sheadonachoppingblockandthen,inonecleanmovement,chopitsheadoffatthemiddleoftheneck.Then,hangthebirdupsidedownandlettheblooddrainasdescribedearlier.
3. Oncethebirdhasbeenthoroughlydrainedofblood,youcanbegintopluckit.Haveapotofhotwater(around140degreesFahrenheit)ready,intowhichtodipthebird.Holdingthebirdbythefeet,dipitintothepotofhotwaterandleaveitforabout45seconds—youdonotwantthebirdtobegintocook!Then,removethebirdfromthepotandbeginpluckingimmediately.Thefeathersshouldcomeofffairlyeasily,butthisprocesstakestime,sobepatient.Discardthefeathers.
4. Oncethebirdhasbeencompletelyridoffeathers,slipbacktheskinfromtheneckandcuttheneckoffclosetothebaseofthebody.Removethecrop,trachea,andesophagusfromthebirdbylooseningthemandpullingthemoutthroughtheholecreatedbychoppingofftheneck.Cutofftheventtoreleasethemainentrails(beingcarefulnottopuncturetheintestinesorbacteriacouldbereleasedintothemeat)andmakeahorizontalslitaboutaninchaboveitsoyoucaninserttwofingers.Removetheentrails,liver(carefullycuttingoffthegallbladder),gizzard,andheartfromthebirdandsetthelastthreeasideifyouwanttoeatthemlaterormakethemintostuffing.Ifyouaregoingtosavetheheart,slipoffthemembraneenclosingitandcutofftheveinsandarteries.Makesuretocleanoutthegizzardaswellifyouwillbeusingitlater.
5. Washthebirdthoroughly,insideandout,andwipeitdry.
6. Cutoffthefeetbelowthejointsandthencarefullypulloutthetendonsfromthedrumsticks.
7. Oncethecarcassisthoroughlydryandclean,storeitintherefrigeratorifitwillbeusedthatsamedayorthenext.Ifyouwanttosavethebirdforlateruse,placeitinamoisture-proofbagandsetitinthefreezer(alongwithanyinnardsthatyoumayhavesaved).
8. Makesureyoucleananddisinfectanysurfaceyouwereworkingontoavoidthespreadofbacteriaandotherdiseases.
Beekeeping
Beekeeping(alsoknownasapiculture)isoneoftheoldesthumanindustries.Forthousandsofyears,honeyhasbeenconsideredahighlydesirablefood.BeekeepingisascienceandcanbeaveryprofitableoccupationitisalsoawonderfulhobbyformanypeopleintheUnitedStates.Keepingbeescanbedonealmostanywhere—onafarm,inaruralorsuburbanarea,andeveninurbanareas(evenonrooftops!).Anywheretherearesufficientflowersfromwhichtocollectnectar,beescanthrive.
Apiculturereliesheavilyonthenaturalresourcesofaparticularlocationandtheknowledgeofthebeekeeperinordertobesuccessful.Collectingandsellinghoneyatyourlocalfarmers’marketorjusttofamilyandfriendscansupplyyouwithsomeextracashifyouarelookingtomakeaprofitfromyourapiary.
WhyRaiseBees?Beesareessentialinthepollinationandfertilizationofmanyfruitandseedcrops.Ifyouhaveagardenwithmanyflowersorfruitplants,havingbeesnearbywillonlyhelpyourgardenflourishandgrowyearafteryear.Furthermore,nothingismoresatisfyingthanextractingyourownhoneyforeverydayuse.
HowtoAvoidGettingStungThoughittakessomeskill,youcanlearnhowtoavoidbeingstungbythebeesyoukeep.Herearesomewaysyoucankeepyourbeestingstoaminimum:1. Keepgentlebees.Havingbeesthat,bysheernature,arenotasaggressive
willreducethenumberofstingsyouarelikelytoreceive.Carniolanbeesareoneofthegentlestspecies,andsoaretheCaucasianbeesintroducedfromRussia.
2. Obtainagood“smoker”anduseitwheneveryou’llbehandlingyourbees.Pumpingsmokeofanykindintoandaroundthebeehivewillrenderyourbeeslessaggressiveandlesslikelytostingyou.
3. Purchaseandwearaveil.Thisshouldbemadeoutofblackbobbinetandwornoveryourface.Also,rubbergloveshelpprotectyourhandsfrom
stings.4. Usea“beeescape.”Thisdeviceisfittedintoaslotmadeinaboardthe
samesizeasthetopofthehive.Sliptheboardintothehivebeforeyouopenittoextractthehoney,anditallowstheworkerbeestoslipbelowitbutnottoreturnbackup.So,byplacingthe“beeescape”intothehivethedaybeforeyouwanttogainaccesstothecombsandhoney,youwillmostlikelytrapallthebeesundertheboardandleaveyoufreetoworkwiththehoneycombswithoutfearofstings.
Wearingahatandveilwillhelptopreventstingsonyourfaceandhead.
WhatTypeofHiveShouldIBuild?Mostbeekeeperswouldagreethatthebesthiveshavesuspended,movableframeswherethebeesmakethehoneycombs,whichareeasytoliftout.Theseframes,calledLangstrothframes,arethemostpopularkindofframeusedbyapiculturistsintheUnitedStates.
Whetheryoubuildyourownbeehiveorpurchaseone,itshouldbebuiltstronglyandshouldcontainaccuratebeespacesandaclose-fitting,rainproofroof.Ifyouarelookingtohavehoneycombs,youmusthaveahivethatpermitstheinsertionofuptoeightcombs.
WhereShouldtheHiveBeSituated?Hivesandtheirstandsshouldbeplacedinanenclosurewherethebeeswillnotbedisturbedbyotheranimalsorhumansandwhereitwillbegenerallyquiet.Hivesshouldbeplacedontheirownstandsatleast3feetfromeachother.Donotallowweedstogrownearthehivesandkeepthehivesawayfromwallsandfences.You,asthebeekeeper,wanttobeabletoeasilyaccessyourhivewithoutfearofobstacles.
SwarmingSwarmingissimplythemigrationofhoneybeestoanewhiveandisledbythequeenbee.Duringswarmingseason(thewarmsummerdays),abeekeepermustremainveryalert.Ifyouseeswarmingabovethehive,takegreatcareandactcalmlyandquietly.Youwanttogettheswarmintoyourhive,butthiswillbetricky.Ittheylandonanearbybranchorinabasket,simplyapproachandthen“pour”themintothehive.Keepinmindthatbeeswillmorelikelyinhabitacool,shadedhivethanonethatisbakinginthehotsummersun.
Asmokerwillhelptorelaxyourbeesandmakethemlessagressive.
Sometimesitisbeneficialtotrytopreventswarming,suchasifyoualreadyhavecompletelyfullhivesFrequentlyremovingthenewhoneyfromthehivebeforeswarmingbeginswilldeterthebeesfromswarming.Shadingthehivesonwarmdayswillalsohelpkeepthebeesfromswarming.
BeePasturesBeeswillflyagreatdistancetogatherfoodbutyoushouldtrytocontainthem,aswellaspossible,toanareawithin2milesofthebeehive.Makesuretheyhaveaccesstomanyhoney-producingplantsthatyoucangrowinyourgarden.Alfalfa,asparagus,buckwheat,chestnut,clover,catnip,mustard,raspberry,roses,andsunflowersaresomeofthebesthoney-producingplantsandtrees.Alsomakesurethatyourbeesalwayshaveaccesstopure,cleanwater.
PreparingYourBeesforWinterIfyouliveinacolderregionoftheUnitedStates,keepingyourbeesalivethroughoutthewintermonthsisdifficult.Ifyourqueenbeehappenstodieinthefall,beforeayoungqueencanbereared,yourwholecolonywilldiethroughoutthewinter.However,thequeen’sdeathcanbeavoidedbytakingsimpleprecautionsandgivingcarefulattentiontoyourhivecomeautumn.
Framefromahealthybeehive.
Rawhoneyisananti-bacterial,anti-uiral,andanti-fungalsubstance—besidesbeingdelicious.
Coloniesareusuallylostinthewintermonthsduetoinsufficientwinterfoodstorages,faultyhiveconstruction,lackofprotectionfromthecoldanddampness,notenoughortoomuchventilation,ortoomanyolderbeesandnotenoughyoungones.
Ifyouliveinaregionthatgetsafewweeksofsevereweather,youmaywanttomoveyourcolonyindoors,oratleasttoanareathatisprotectedfromtheoutsideelements.Buttheessentialcomponentsofhavingacolonysurvivethroughthewinterseasonaretohaveagoodqueen;afairratioofhealthy,young,andoldbees;andaplentifulsupplyoffood.Thehiveneedstoretainaliberalsupplyofripenedhoneyandathicksyrupmadefromwhitecanesugar(youshouldfeedthistoyourbeesearlyenoughsotheyhavetimetotakethesyrupandsealitoverbeforewinter).
Tomakethissyrup,dissolve3poundsofgranulatedsugarin1quartofboilingwaterandadd1poundofpureextractedhoneytothis.Ifyouliveinan
extremelycoldarea,youmayneedupto30poundsofthissyrup,dependingonhowmanybeesandhivesyouhave.Youcaneitheruseatopfeederoraframefeeder,whichfitsinsidethehiveintheplaceofaframe.Filltheframewiththesyrupandplacesticksorgrassinittokeepthebeesfromdrowning.
ExtractingHoneyToobtaintheextractedhoney,you’llneedtokeepthehoneycombsinoneareaofthehiveorpackedoneabovetheother.Beforeremovingthefilledcombs,youshouldallowthebeesampletimetoripenandcapthehoney.Touncapthecombcells,simplyuseasharpknife(apiarysupplierssellknivesspecificallyforthispurpose).Thenputthecombsinamachinecalledahoneyextractortoextractthehoney.Thehoneyextractorwhipsthehoneyoutofthecellsandallowsyoutoreplacethefairlyundamagedcombintothehivetoberepairedandrefilled.
Theextractedhoneyrunsintoopenbucketsorvatsandisleft,coveredwithateatowelorlargercloth,tostandforaweek.Itshouldbeinawarm,dryroomwherenoantscanreachit.Skimthehoneyeachdayuntilitisperfectlyclear.Thenyoucanputitintocans,jars,orbottlesforsellingorforyourownpersonaluse.
Beesthriveonsweetflowers,suchasclover.
MakingBeeswaxBeeswaxfromthehoneycombcanbeusedformakingcandles,canbeaddedtolotionsorlipbalm,andcanevenbeusedinbaking.Renderingwaxinboilingwaterisespeciallysimplewhenyouonlyhaveasmallapiary.
Collectthecombs,breakthemintochunks,rollthemintoballsifyoulike,andputtheminamuslinbag.Putthebagwiththebeeswaxintoalargestockpotandbringthewatertoaslowboil,makingsurethebagdoesn’trestonthebottomofthepotandburn.Themuslinwillactasastrainerforthewax.Useclean,sterilizedtongstooccasionallysqueezethebag.Afterthewaxisboiledoutofthebag,removethepotfromtheheatandallowittocool.Then,removethewaxfromthetopofthewaterandthenre-meltitinanotherpotonverylowheat,soitdoesn’tburn.
Pourthemeltedwaxintomoldslinedwithwaxpaperorplasticwrapandthencoolitbeforeusingittomakeotheritemsorsellingitatyourlocalfarmers’market.
ExtraBeekeepingTips
GeneralTips1. Cliptheoldqueen’swingsandgothroughthehivesevery10daysto
destroyqueencellstopreventswarming.2. Alwaysactandmovecalmlyandquietlywhenhandlingbees.
Beesliveoffofthehoneystoredinthecombs.Inwintermonthstheyneedasupplyofripehoneyandbenefitfromextrasugarysyrup.
Abeekeepercarefullyremovesframesfromthehive.
3. Keepthehivescoolandshaded.Beeswon’tenterahothive.
WhenOpeningtheHive1. Haveasmokerreadytouseifyoudesire.2. Donotstandinfrontofthehivewhilethebeesareenteringandexiting.3. Donotdropanytoolsintothehivewhileit’sopen.4. Donotrunifyoubecomefrightened.
5. Ifyouareattacked,moveawayslowlyandsmokethebeesoffyourselfasyouretreat.
6. Applyammoniaorapasteofbakingsodaandwaterimmediatelytoanybeestingtorelievethepain.Youcanalsoscrapetheareaofthebeestingwithyourfingernailorthedulledgeofaknifeimmediatelyafterthesting.
WhenFeedingYourBees
1. Keepaclosewatchoveryourbeesduringtheentireseason,toseeiftheyarefeedingwellornot.
2. Feedthebeesduringtheevening.
BeeHiveStack
CornerSectionofaHive
BeeHiveCrossSection
ShallowSuperCrossSection
3. Makesurethebeeshaveamplewaterneartheirhive,especiallyinthespring.
MakingaBeehiveThemostimportantpartsofconstructingabeehivearetomakeitsimpleandsturdy.Justaplainboxwithafewframesandacoupleofotherloosepartswillmakeasuccessfulbeehivethatwillbeeasytouseandmanipulate.Itiscrucialthatyourbeehivebewell-adaptedtothenatureofbeesandalsotheclimateinwhichyoulive.Framedhivesusuallysufficeforthebeginningbeekeeper.Belowisadiagramofasimplebeehivethatyoucaneasilyconstructforyourbackyardbeekeepingpurposes.
Goats
Goatsprovideuswithmilkandwoolandthriveinarid,semitropical,andmountainousenvironments.Inthemoretemperateregionsoftheworld,goatsareraisedassupplementaryanimals,providingmilkandcheeseforfamiliesandactingasnaturalweedkillers.
BreedsofGoatsTherearemanydifferenttypesofgoats.Somebreedsarequitesmall(weighingroughly20pounds)andsomeareverylarge(weighingupto250pounds).Dependingonthebreed,goatsmayhavehornsthatarecorkscrewinshape,thoughmanydomesticgoatsaredehornedearlyontolessenanypotentialinjuriestohumansorothergoats.Thehairofgoatscanalsodiffer—variousbreedshaveshorthair,longhair,curlyhair,silkyhair,orcoarsehair.Goatscomeinavarietyofcolors(solidblack,white,brown,orspotted).
FeedingGoatsGoatscansustainthemselvesonbushes,trees,shrubs,woodyplants,weeds,briars,andherbs.Pastureisthelowest-costfeedavailableforgoats,andallowinggoatstograzeinthesummermonthsisawonderfulandeconomicwaytokeepgoats,evenifyouryardissmall.Goatsthrivebestwheneatingalfalfaoramixtureofcloverandtimothy.Ifyouhavealawnandafewgoats,youdon’tneedalawnmowerifyouplantthesetypesofplantsforyourgoatstoeat.Theonedrawbacktothisisthatyourgoats(dependingonhowmanyyouown)mayquicklydepletethesenaturalresources,whichcancauseweedgrowthanderosion.Supplementingpasturefeedwithotherfood-stuff,suchasgreenchop,rootcrops,andwetbrewerygrainswillensurethatyouryarddoesnotbecomeovergrazedandthatyourgoatsremainwell-fedandhealthy.Itisalsobeneficialtosupplyyourgoatswithunlimitedaccesstohaywhiletheyaregrazing.Makesurethatyourgoatshaveeasyaccesstoshadedareasandfreshwater,andoffera-salt-andmineralmixonoccasion.
SixMajorU.S.GoatBreeds
Alpine—OriginallyfromSwitzerland,thesegoatsmayhavehorns,areshorthaired,andareusuallywhiteandblackincolor.Theyarealsogoodproducersofmilk.
Alpinegoat
Anglo-Nubian—AcrossbetweennativeEnglishgoatsandIndianandNubianbreeds,thesegoatshavedroopyears,spiralhorns,andshorthair.Theyarequitetallanddobestinwarmerclimates.Theydonotproduceasmuchmilk,thoughitismuchhigherinfatthanothergoats’.TheyarethemostpopularbreedofgoatintheUnitedStates.
Anglo-Nubiangoat
LaMancha—AcrossbetweenSpanishMurcianaandSwissandNubianbreeds,thesegoatsareextremelyadaptable,havestraightnoses,shorthair,mayhavehorns,anddonothaveexternalears.TheyarenotasgoodmilkproducersastheSaanenandToggenburgbreeds,andtheirmilkfatcontentismuchhigher.
LaManchagoats
Pygmy—OriginallyfromAfricaandtheCaribbean,thesedwarfedgoatsthriveinhotterclimates.Fortheirsize,theyarerelativelygoodproducersofmilk.
Pygmygoat
Saanen—OriginallyfromSwitzerland,thesegoatsarecompletelywhite,haveshorthair,andsometimeshavehorns.Goatsofthisbreedarewonderfulmilkproducers.
Saanengoat
Toggenburg—OriginallyfromSwitzerland,thesegoatsarebrownwithwhitefacial,ear,andlegstripes;havestraightnoses;mayhavehorns;andhaveshorthair.ThisbreedisverypopularintheUnitedStates.Thesegoatsaregoodmilkproducersinthesummerandwinterseasonsandsurvivewellinbothtemperateandtropicalclimates.
Toggenburggoat
Goatsenjoyhavingobjectstoclimbon.
Dryforageisanothergoodsourceoffeedforyourgoats.Itisrelativelyinexpensivetogroworbuyandconsistsofgoodqualitylegumehay(alfalfaorclover).Legumehayishighinproteinandhasmanyessentialmineralsbeneficialtoyourgoats.Tomakesureyourforagesarehighlynutritious,besurethattherearemanyleavesthatprovideproteinandmineralsandthattheforagehadanearlycuttingdate,whichwillallowforeasierdigestionofthenutrients.Ifyourforageisgreenincolor,itmostlikelycontainsmorevitaminA,whichisgoodforpromotinggoathealth.
GoatMilkGoatmilkisawonderfulsubstituteforthosewhoareunabletotoleratecow’smilk,orfortheelderly,babies,andthosesufferingfromstomachulcers.MilkfromgoatsisalsohighinvitaminAandniacinbutdoesnothavethesameamountofvitaminsB6,B12,andCascow’smilk.
Lactatinggoatsdoneedtobefedthebestqualitylegumehayorgreenforagepossible,aswellasgrain.Givethegraintothedoeataratethatequals½pound
grainforeverypoundofmilksheproduces.
CommonDiseasesAffectingGoatsGoatstendtogetmoreinternalparasitesthanotherherdanimals.Somegoatsdevelopinfectiousarthritis,pneumonia,coccidiosis,scabies,liverflukedisease,andmastitis.Itisadvisablethatyouestablisharelationshipwithagoodveterinarianwhospecializesinsmallfarmanimalstoperiodicallycheckyourgoatsforvariousdiseases.
MilkingaGoatMilkingagoattakessomepracticeandpatience,especiallywhenyoufirstbegin.However,onceyouestablisharoutineandrhythmtothemilking,thewholeprocessshouldrunrelativelysmoothly.Themainthingtorememberistokeepcalmandneverpullontheteat,asthiswillhurtthegoatandshemightupsetthemilkbucket.Thegoatwillpickuponanyanxiousnessornervousnessonyourpartanditcouldaffecthowcooperativesheisduringthemilking.
SuppliesAgrainbucketandgrainforfeedingthegoatwhilemilkingistakingplaceMilkingstandMetalbuckettocollectthemilkAstooltositon(optional)Awarm,sterilizedwipeorcloththathasbeenboiledinwaterTeatdipsolution(2tbspbleach,1quartwater,onedropnormaldishdetergentmixedtogether)
Directions1.Readyyourmilkingstandbyfillingthegrainbucketwithenoughgraintolastthroughouttheentiremilking.Thenretrievethegoat,separatingher
lastthroughouttheentiremilking.Thenretrievethegoat,separatingherfromanyothergoatstoavoiddistractionsandunsuccessfulmilking.Placethegoat’sheadthroughtheheadholdofthemilkingstandsoshecaneatthegrainandthenclosetheleversoshecannotremoveherhead.
2.Withthewarm,sterilizedwipeorcloth,cleantheudderandteatstoremoveanydirt,manure,orbacteriathatmaybepresent.Then,placethemetalbucketonthestandbelowtheudder.
3.Wrapyourthumbandforefingeraroundthebaseofoneteat.Thiswillhelptrapthemilkintheteatsoitcanbesquirtedout.Then,startingwithyourmiddlefinger,squeezethethreeremainingfingersinonesingle,smoothmotiontosquirtthemilkintothebucket.Besuretokeepatightgriponthebaseoftheteatsothemilkstaysthereuntilextracted.Remember:Thefirstsquirtofmilkfromeitherteatshouldnotbeputintothebucketasitmaycontaindirtorbacteriathatyoudon’twantcontaminatingthemilk.
4.Releasethegripontheteatandallowittorefillwithmilk.Whilethisishappening,youcanrepeatthisprocessontheotherteatandalternatebetweenteatstospeedupthemilkingprocess.
6.Whentheteatsbegintolookempty(theywillbesomewhatflatinappearance),massagetheudderjustalittlebittoseeifanymoremilkremains.Ifso,squeezeitoutinthesamemannerasaboveuntilyoucannotextractmuchmore.
7.Removethemilkbucketfromthestandandthen,withyourteatdipmixtureinadisposablecup,dipeachteatintothesolutionandallowtoairdry.Thiswillkeepbacteriaandinfectionfromgoingintotheteatandudder.
8.Removethegoatfromthemilkstandandreturnhertothepen.
MakingCheesefromGoatMilkMostvarietiesofcheesethatcanbemadefromcow’smilkcanalsobesuccessfullymadeusinggoats’milk.Goats’milkcheesecaneasilybemadeathome.Tomakethecheese,however,atleastonegallonofgoatmilkshouldbeavailable.Makesurethatallofyourequipmentiswashedandsterilized(usingheatisfine)beforeusingit.
CottageCheese1. Collectsurplusmilkthatisfreeofstrongodors.Coolittoaround40ºFand
keepitatthattemperatureuntilitisused.2. Skimoffanycream.Usetheskimmilkforcheeseandthecreamforcheese
dressing.
3. Ifyouwishtopasteurizeyourmilk(whichwillallowittoholdbetterasacheese)collectallthemilktobeprocessedintoaflat-bottomed,straight-sidedpanandheatto145ºFonlowheat.Holditatthistemperatureforabout30minutesandthencooltoaround80ºF.Useadairythermometertomeasurethemilk’stemperature.Then,inoculatethecheesemilkwithadesirablelacticacid–fermentingbacterialculture(youcanusecommercialbuttermilkfortheinitialsource).Addabout7ouncesto1gallonofcheesemilk,stirwell,andletitsitundisturbedforabout10to16hours,untilafirmcurdisformed.
Cottagecheese
4. Whenthecurdisfirmenough,cutthecurdintouniformcubesnolargerthan½inchusingaknifeorspatula.
5. Allowthecurdtositundisturbedforacoupleofminutesandthenwarmitslowly,stirringcarefully,atatemperaturenogreaterthan135ºF.Thecurdshouldeventuallybecomefirmandfreefromwhey.
6. Whenthecurdisfirm,removefromtheheatandstopstirring.Siphonofftheexcesswheyfromthetopofthepot.Thecurdshouldsettletothebottomofthecontainer.Ifthecurdisfloating,bacteriathatproducesgashasbeenreleasedandanewbatchmustbemade.
7. Replacethewheywithcoldwater,washingthecurdandthendrainingthewater.Washagainwithice-coldwatertochillthecurd.Thiswillkeepthe
flavorfresh.8. Usingadrainingboard,draintheexcesswaterfromthecurd.Nowyour
curdiscomplete.9. Tomakethecurdintoacottagecheeseconsistency,separatethecurdas
muchaspossibleandmixwithamilkorcreammixturecontainingsalttotaste.
DomiatiCheese
ThistypeofcheeseismadethroughouttheMediterraneanregion.Itiseatenfreshoragedtwotothreemonthsbeforeconsumption.1. Coolagallonoffresh,qualitymilktoaround105ºF,adding8ouncesofsalt
tothemilk.Stirthesaltuntilitiscompletelydissolved.2. Pasteurizethemilkasdescribedinstep3ofthecottagecheeserecipe.3. Thistypeofcheeseiscoagulatedbyaddingaproteaseenzyme(rennet).
Thisenzymemaybepurchasedatalocaldrugstore,healthfoodstore,oracheesemakerinyourarea.Dissolvetheconcentrateinwater,addittothecheesemilk,andstirforafewminutes.Use1milliliterofdilutedrennetliquidin40millilitersofwaterforevery2½gallonsofcheesemilk.
4. Setthemilkataround105ºF.Whentheenzymeiscompletelydispersedinthecheesemilk,allowthemixtositundisturbeduntilitformsafirmcurd.
5. Whenthedesiredfirmnessisreached,cutthecurdintoverysmallcubes.Allowforsomewheyseparation.After10to20minutes,removeandreserveabout1⁄3thevolumeofsaltedwhey.
Damiaticheese
6. Putthecurdandremainingwheyintocloth-linedmolds(thebestarerectangularstainlesssteelcontainerswithperforatedsidesandbottom)with
acover.Themoldsshouldbebetween7and10inchesinheight.Fillthemoldswiththecurd,foldtheclothoverthetop,allowthewheytodrain,anddiscardthewhey.
7. Oncethecurdisfirmenough,applyaddedweightfor10to18hoursuntilitisasmoistasyouwant.
8. Oncethepressingiscompleteandthecheeseisformedintoablock,removethemoldsandcuttheblocksinto4-inch-thickpieces.Placethepiecesinplasticcontainerswithairtightseals.Fillthecontainerswithreservedsaltedwheyfromstep5,coveringthecheesebyaboutaninch.
Fetacheese
9. Placethesecontainersatatemperaturebetween60ºFand65ºFtocurefor1to4months.
FetaCheese
Thistypeofcheeseisverypopulartomakefromgoats’milk.ThesameprocessisusedastheDomiaticheeseexceptthatsaltisnotaddedtothemilkbeforecoagulation.Fetacheeseisagedinabrinesolutionafterthecubeshavebeensaltedinabrinesolutionforatleast24hours.
AngoraGoats
Angoragoatsmaybethemostefficientfiberproducersintheworld.Thehairofthesegoatsismadeintomohair:along,lustroushairthat
iswovenintofinegarments.AngoragoatsarenativetoTurkeyandwereimportedtotheUnitedStatesinthemid-1800s.Now,theUnitedStatesisoneofthetwobiggestproducesofmohaironearth.
Angoragoatsaretypicallyrelaxedanddocile.Theyaredelicatecreatures,easilystrainedbytheiryear-roundfleeces.Angoragoatsneedextraattentionandaremorehigh-maintenancethanotherbreedsofgoat.Whilethesegoatscanadapttomanytemperateclimates,theydoparticularlywellinthearidenvironmentofthesouthwesternstates.
Angoragoatscanbeshearedtwiceyearly,beforebreedingandbeforebirthing.Thehairofthegoatwillgrowabout¾inchpermonthanditshouldbeshearedonceitreaches4to6inchesinlength.Duringtheshearingprocess,thegoatisusuallylyingdownonacleanfloorwithitslegstied.Whenthefleeceisgathered(itshouldbeshearedinonefullpiece),itshouldbebundledintoaburlapbagandshouldbefreeofcontaminants.Markyournameonthebagandmakesurethereisonlyonefleeceperbag.Formorethoroughrulesandregulationsaboutsellingmohairthroughthegovernment’sdirect-paymentprogram,contacttheUSDAAgriculturalStabilizationandConservationServiceonlineorinoneoftheirmanyoffices.
Shearingcanbeaccomplishedwiththeuseofaspecialgoatcomb,whichleaves¼inchofstubbleonthegoat.Itisimportanttokeepthefleecescleanandtoavoidinjuringtheanimal.Theshearingseasonsareinthespringandfall.Afteragoathasbeensheared,itwillbemoresensitivetochangesintheweatherforuptosixweeks.Makesureyouhaveproperwarminghutsforthesegoatsinthewinterandadequateshelterfromrainandinclementweather.
Sheep
Sheepwerepossiblythefirstdomesticatedanimalsandarenowfoundallovertheworldonfarmsandsmallerplotsofland.AlmostallthebreedsofsheepthatarefoundintheUnitedStateshavebeenbroughtherefromGreatBritain.Raisingsheepisrelativelyeasy,astheyonlyneedpasturetoeat,shelterfrombadweather,andprotectionfrompredators.Sheep’swoolcanbeusedtomakeyarnorotherarticlesofclothingandtheirmilkcanbemadeintovarioustypesofcheesesandyogurt,thoughthisisnotnormallydoneintheUnitedStates.
Sheeparenaturallyshycreaturesandareextremelydocile.Iftheyaretreatedwell,theywilllearntobeaffectionatewiththeirowner.Ifasheepiscomfortablewithitsowner,itwillbemucheasiertomanageandtocorralintoitspenifit’sallowedtograzefreely.Startwithonlyoneortwosheep;theyarenotdifficulttomanagebutdorequirealotofattention.
BreedsofSheepTherearemanydifferentbreedsofsheep—someareusedexclusivelyfortheirmeatandothersfortheirwool.Sixqualitywool-producingbreedsareasfollows:1. CotswoldSheep—Thisbreedisverydocileandhardyandthriveswellin
pastures.Itproducesaround14poundsoffleeceperyear,makingitaveryprofitablebreedforanyonewantingtosellwool.
2. Leicestersheep—Thisisahardy,docilebreedofsheepthatisaverygoodgrazer.Thisbreedhas6-inch-long,coarsewoolthatisdesirableforknitting.ItisaverypopularbreedintheUnitedStates.
3. Merinosheep—IntroducedtotheUnitedStatesintheearlytwentiethcentury,thissmall-tomedium-sizedsheephaslotsofrollsandfoldsoffinewhitewoolandproducesafleeceanywherebetween10and20pounds.Itisconsideredafine-woolspecialist,andthoughitsfleeceappearsdarkincolor,thewoolisactuallywhiteorbuff.Itisawonderfulforagingsheep,ishardy,andhasagentledisposition,butisnotaverygoodmilkproducer.
4. OxfordDownsheep—Amorerecentbreed,thesedark-facedsheephavehardyconstitutionsandgoodfleece.
5. Shropshiresheep—Thisbreedhaslonger,moreopen,andcoarserfleecethanotherbreeds.ItisquitepopularintheUnitedStates,especiallyinareasthataremoremoistanddamp,astheyseemtobebetterintheseclimatesthanotherbreedsofsheep.
6. Southdownsheep—Oneoftheoldestbreedsofsheep,thesesheeparepopularfortheirgoodqualitywoolandaredeemedthestandardofexcellenceformanysheepowners.Docile,hardy,andgoodgrazingonpastures,theircoarseandlight-coloredwoolisusedtomakeflannel.
HousingSheepSheepdonotrequiremuchshelter—onlyasmallshedthatisopenononeside(preferablytothesouthsoitcanstaywarmerinthewintermonths)andisroughly6to8feethigh.Thesheltershouldbeventilatedwelltoreduceanyunpleasantsmellsandtokeepthesheepcoolinthesummer.Feedingracksormangersshouldbeplacedinsideoftheshedtoholdthefeedforthesheep.Ifyouliveinacolderregionofthecountry,buildingasturdier,warmershedforthesheeptoliveinduringthewinterisrecommended.
Cotswoldsheep
Merinosheep
Southdownsheep
Strawshouldbeusedforthesheep’sbeddingandshouldbechangeddailytomakesurethesheepdonotbecomeillfromanuncleanshelter.Especiallyforthewintermonths,adrypenshouldbeerectedforthesheeptoexercisein.Thefencesshouldbestrongenoughtokeepoutpredatorsthatmayenteryouryardandtokeepthesheepfromescaping.
WhatDoSheepEat?Sheepgenerallyeatgrassandarewonderfulgrazers.Theyutilizeroughand
scantypasturagebetterthanothergrazinganimalsand,duetothis,theycanactuallybequitebeneficialincleaningupayardthatisovergrownwithundesirableherbage.Allowingsheeptograzeinyouryardorinasmallpasturefieldwillprovidethemwithsufficientfoodinthesummermonths.Sheepalsoeatavarietyofweeds,briars,andshrubs.Freshwatershouldalwaysbeavailableforthesheep.
Leicestersheep
Shropshiresheep
Especiallyduringthewintermonths,whengrassisscarce,sheepshouldbefedhay(alfalfa,legume,orcloverhay)andsmallquantitiesofgrain.Cornisalsoagoodwinterfoodforthesheep(itcanalsobemixedwithwheatbran),andstraw,salt,androotscanalsobeoccasionallyaddedtotheirdiet.Goodfood
duringthewinterseasonwillhelpthesheepgrowahealthierandthickerwoolcoat.
ShearingSheepSheeparegenerallyshearedinthespringorearlysummerbeforetheweathergetstoowarm.Todoyourownshearing,investinaqualityhandshearerandascaleonwhichtoweighthefleece.Anexperiencedshearershouldbeabletotaketheentirewooloffinonepiece.
Youmaywanttowashthewoolafewdaystoaweekbeforeshearingthesheep.Todoso,corralthesheepintoapenonawarmspringday(makesurethereisn’tacoldbreezeblowingandthatthereisalotofsunshinesothesheepdoesnotbecomechilled).Dousethesheepinwarmwater,scrubthewool,andrinse.Repeatthisafewtimesuntilmostofthedirtanddebrisisoutofthewool.Diffusesomenaturaloilthroughoutthewooltomakeitsofterandreadyforshearing.
Oxforddownsheep
Thesheepshouldbecompletelydrybeforeshearingandyoushouldchooseawarm—butnotoverlyhot—day.Ifyouareabeginneratshearingsheep,trytofindanexperiencedsheepownertoshowyouhowtoproperlyholdandshearasheep.Thisway,youwon’tcauseundueharmtothesheep’sskinandwillgetthebestfleecepossible.Whenyouarehand-shearingasheep,remembertokeeptheskinpulledtautonthepartwhereyouareshearingtodecreasethepotentialofcuttingtheskin.
Oncethewoolissheared,tagitandrollitupbyitself,andthenbinditwithtwine.Besurenottofolditorbindittootightly.Separateandremoveanydirtyorsoiledpartsofthefleecebeforebinding,asthesepartswillnotbeabletobecardedandused.
CardingandSpinningWoolTomaketheshearedwoolintoyarnyouwillneedonlyafewtools:aspinningwheelordropspindleandwool-cards.Wool-cardsarerectangularpiecesofthinboardthathavemanywireteethattachedtothem(theylooklikecoarsebrushesthataresometimesusedfordogs’hair).Tobegin,youmustcleanthewoolfleeceofanydebris,feltings,orotherimperfectionsbeforecardingit;otherwiseyouryarnwillnotspincorrectly.Alsowashittoremoveanyadditionalsandordirtembeddedinthewoolandthenallowittodrycompletely.Then,allyouneedistogatheryoursuppliesandfollowthesesimpleinstructions:
Wod-cardsareusedtosoftenandcleanthewodfibers.
Sheeryoursheepinthespringorearlysummer,beforetheweathergetshot.
CardingWool1. Greasethewoolwithrapeoiloroliveoil,justenoughtoworkintothe
fibers.2. Takeonewool-cardinyourlefthand,restitonyourknee,gatheratuftof
woolfromthefleece,andplaceitontothewool-cardsoitiscaughtbetweenthewiredteethofthecard.
Spinningonatraditionalspinningwheel
3. Takethesecondwool-cardinyourrighthandandbringitgentlyacrosstheothercardseveraltimes,makingabrushingmovementtowardyourbody.
4. Whenthefibersareallbrushedinthesamedirectionandthewoolissoftandfluffytothetouch,removethewoolbyrollingitintoasmall,fleecyball(roughlyafootormoreinlengthandonly2inchesinwidth)andputitinabaguntilitisusedforspinning.
Note:Cardedwoolcanalsobeusedforfelting,inwhichcasenospinningisneeded.Tofeltasmallblanket,placelargeamountsofcardedwooloneithersideofaburlapsack.Usingfeltingneedles,weavethewoolntotheburlapuntilitistightlyheldbythejuteorhempabricsoftheburlap.
SpinningWool1. Takeonelongrollofcardedwoolandwindthefibersaroundthespindle.2. Movethewheelgentlyandholdthespindletoallowthewoolto“draw,”or
starttopulltogetherintoasinglethread.3. Keepmovingthewheelandallowtheyarntowindaroundthespindleora
separatespool,ifyouhaveamorecomplexspinningwheel.4. Keepaddingrollsofcardedwooltothespindleuntilyouhavethedesired
amountofyarn.
Note:Ifyouareunabletoobtainaspinningwheelofanykind,youcanspinyourcardedwoolbyhand,althoughthiswillnotproducethesametightnessinyouryarnasregularspinning.Allyouneedtodoistakethecardedwool,holditwithonehand,andpullandtwistthefibersintoone,continuouspiece.Windingtheendoftheyarnaroundastick,spindle,orspoolandsecuringitinplaceattheendwillhelpkeepyourfiberstightandyouryarntwisted.
Ifyouwantyouryarntobedifferentcolors,trydyingitwithnaturalberryjuicesorwithspecialwooldyesfoundinartsandcraftsstores.
MilkingSheepSheep’smilkisnottypicallyusedintheUnitedStatesfordrinking,makingcheese,orotherfamiliardairyproducts.Sheepdonottypicallyproducemilkyear-round,ascowsdo,somilkwillonlybeproducedifyoubredyoursheepandhadalambproduced.Ifyoudohaveasheepthathasgivenbirthandthelambhasbeensoldortakenaway,itisimportanttoknowhowtomilkhersoheruddersdonotbecomecaked.Someeweswillstillhaveanabundanceofmilkevenaftertheirlambshavebeenweanedandthisexcessmilkshouldberemovedtokeeptheewehealthyandherudderfreefrominfection.
Tomilkanewe,bringherrearuptoafencesoshecannotstepbackwardsand,placingtwokneesagainsthershoulderstopreventherfrommovingforward,reachunderwithbothhandsandsqueezethemilkintoabucket.Whentheudderisstillsoftbuttheewehasbeenpartlymilkedout,setherlooseandthenmilkheragainafewdayslater.Ifthereisstillmilktobehad,waitanotherthreedaysandthenmilkheragain.Bymilkingtheewesinthismanner,youcanpreventtheiruddersfrombecominginfectedandthemilkfromspoiling.
DiseasesThemaindiseasestowhichsheeparesusceptiblearefootrotandscabs.Thesearecontagiousandbothrequirepropertreatment.Sheepmayalsoacquirestomachwormsiftheyeathaythathasgottentoodamporhasbeenlyingontheflooroftheirshelter.Asalways,itisbesttoestablisharelationshipwithaveterinarianwhoisfamiliarwithcaringforsheepandhaveyourflockregularlycheckedforanyparasitesordiseasesthatmayarise.
Llamas
Llamasmakeexcellentpetsandareagreatsourceofwoolyfiber(theirwoolcanbespunintoyarn).LlamasarebeingkeptmoreandmorebypeopleintheUnitedStatesascompanionanimals,sourcesoffiber,packandlightplowanimals,therapyanimalsfortheelderly,“guards”forotherbackyardanimals,andgoodeducationaltoolsforchildren.Llamashaveaneventemperamentandareveryintelligent.Theirintelligenceandgentlenaturemakethemeasytotrain,andtheirhardinessallowsthemtothrivewellinbothcoldandwarmerclimates(althoughtheycanhaveheatstressinextremelyhotandhumidpartsofthecountry).
Beforeyoudecidetopurchaseallamaortwoforyouryard,checkyourstaterequirementsregardinglivestock.Insomeplaces,yourpropertymustalsobezonedforlivestock.
Llamascomeinmanydifferentcolorsandsizes.Theaverageadultllamaisbetween5½and6feettallandweighsbetween250and450pounds.Llamas,beingherdanimals,likethecompanyofotherllamas,soitisadvisablethatyouraiseapairtokeepeachothercompany.Ifyouonlywanttocareforonellama,thenitwouldbebesttoalsohaveasheep,goat,orotheranimalthatcanbepennedwiththellamaforcamaraderie.Althoughllamascanbeledwellonaharnessandlead,nevertieoneupasitcouldpotentiallybreakitsownnecktryingtobreakfree.
Llamastendtomaketheirowncommunaldungheapinaparticularpartoftheirpen.Thisisquiteconvenientforcleanupandallowsyoutocollectthemanure,compostit,anduseitasafertilizerforyourgarden.
FeedingLlamasLlamascansubsistfairlywellongrass,hay(anadultmalewilleataboutonebaleperweek),shrubs,andtrees,muchlikesheepandgoats.Iftheyarenotreceivingenoughnutrients,theymaybefedamixtureofrolledcorn,oats,andbarley,especiallyduringthewinterseasonwhengrazingisnotnecessarilyavailable.Makesurenottooverfeedyourllamas,though,ortheywillbecome
overweightandconstipated.Youcanoccasionallygivecornstalkstoyourllamasasanaddedsourceoffiber,andyoumayaddmineralsupplementstothefeedmixtureorhayifyouwant.Saltblocksarealsoacceptabletohaveinyourllamapen,andaconstantsupplyoffreshwaterisnecessary.Nursingfemalellamasshouldreceiveagrainmixtureuntilthecria(baby)isweaned.
Besuretokeepfeedandhayofftheground.Thiswillhelpwardoffparasitesthatestablishthemselvesinthefeedandaretheningestedbythellamas.
HousingYourLlamasLlamasmaybeshelteredinasmallstableorevenaconvertedgarage.Thereshouldbeenoughroomtostorefeedandhay,andthesheltershouldbeabletobeclosedoffduringwet,windy,andcoldweather.Llamaspreferlight,openspacesinwhichtolive,somakesureyourshedorshelterhaslargedoorsand/orbigwindows.Thefeedersforthehayandgrainmixtureshouldberaisedabovetheground.Addingaplacewhereallamacanbesafelyrestrainedfortoenailclippingsandvetcheckupswillhelpfacilitatetheseprocessesbutisnotabsolutelynecessary.
Thellamasshouldbeabletoenterandexitthesheltereasilyanditisagoodideatobuildafenceorpenaroundthesheltersotheydonotwanderoff.Afenceaboutfourfeettallshouldbeenoughtokeepyourllamassafeandenclosed.Ifyouhappentohavebothamaleandfemalellama,itisnecessarytohaveseparateenclosuresforthemtostaveoffunwantedpregnancies.
Alpacas,likellamas,aresocialcreaturesandarehappiestwithotheralpacas.
ToenailTrimmingLlamasneedtheirtoenailstobetrimmedsotheydonottwistandfoldunderthetoe,makingitdifficultforthellamatomovearound.Layinggravelintheareawhereyourllamasfrequentlywalkwillhelptokeepthetoenailsnaturallytrimmed,butifyouneedtocutthem,becarefulnottocuttoodeeplyoryoumaycausethetipofthetoetobleedandthiscouldleadtoaninfectioninthetoe.Useshearsdesignedforthispurposetocutthenails.Useonehandtoholdthellama’s“ankle”justabovewherethefootbends.Holdtheclippersinyourotherhand,cuttingawayfromthefoottowardthetipofthenail.Thenail’sareeasiest
toclipintheearlymorningorafterarain,sincethewetnessofthegroundwillsoftenthem.
ShearingItisimportanttogroomandshearyourllama,especiallyduringhotweather.Brushingthellama’scoattoremovedirtandkeepitfrommattingwillnotonlymakeyourllamaslookcleanandhealthybutitwillalsoimprovethequalityoftheircoats.Ifyouwanttosavethefibersforspinningintoyarn,itisbesttobrush,comb,anduseahairdryertoremoveanydustanddebrisfromthellama’scoatbeforeyoubeginshearing.
Llamasenjoyhay,butkeepitoffthegroundtohelppreventyourllamasfromingestingparasites.
Shearingisnotnecessarilydifficult,butifyouareafirst-timellamaowner,youshouldaskanotherllamafarmertoteachyouhowtoproperlyshearyourllama.Toshearyourllama,youcanpurchasebattery-operatedshearstoremovethefibersforsaleoruse.Differentllamaswillrespondindifferentwaystoshearing.Tryholdingthellamawithahalterandleadinasmallerareatobegintheshearingprocess.Donotcompletelyremovethellamafromanyotherllamasyouhave,though,astheirpresencewillhelpcalmthellamayouareshearing.Itisbesttohaveanotherpersonwithyoutoaidintheshearing(toholdthellama,giveittreats,andofferanyotherhelp).Whenshearingallama,don’tshearallthewaydowntotheskin.Allowingathincoatingofhairtocoverthellama’sbodywillhelpprotectitfromthesunandfrombeingscratchedwhenitrollsinthedirt.
Startbyshearingaflattopthelengthofthellama’sback.Next,takingthe
shearsinonehand,movetheminadownwardpositiontoremovethecoat.Shearastripthelengthoftheneckfromthechintothefrontlegsabout3incheswidetohelpcoolthellama.Shearingcantakealongtime,soitmaybenecessaryforbothyouandthellamatotakeabreak.Takethellamaforaquietwalkandallowittogotothebathroomsoitwillnotbecomeantsyduringtherestoftheshearingprocess.
Collecttheshearedfibersinacontainerandmakesureyouareworkingonacleanfloorsoyoucancollectanyexcessfibersandusethemforspinning.Donotstorethefiberinaplasticbag,asmoisturecaneasilyaccumulate,ruiningthefiberandmakingitunusableforspinning.
CaringfortheCriaBabyllamasrequiresomeadditionalcareintheirfirstfewdaysoflife.Itisimportantforthecriatoreceivethecolostrummilkfromtheirmothers,butyoumayneedtoaidinthisprocess.Approachthemotherllamaandpullgentlyoneachteattoremovethewaxyplugscoveringthemilkholes.Sometimes,youmayneedtoguidethecriaintopositionunderitsmotherforitstartnursing.
Babyllamasandalpacasarecalled“Crias.”
Weighthecriaoften(atleastforthefirstmonth)toseethatit’sgainingweightandgrowingstrongandhealthy.Abathroomscale,hangingscale,orlargergrainscalecanbeusedforthis.
Ifthecriaseemstoneedextranourishment,goatorcowmilkcanbesubstitutedduringtimeswhenthemotherllamacannotproduceenoughmilkforthecria.Feedthisadditionalmilktothecriainsmalldoses,severaltimesaday,fromamilkingbottle.
DiseasesLlamasarepronetogettingwormsandshouldbecheckedoftentomakesuretheydonothaveanyoftheseparasites.Thereisspecialwormingpastethatcanbemixedinwiththeirfoodtopreventwormsfrominfectingthem.Youshouldalsoestablisharelationshipwithagoodveterinarianwhoknowsaboutcaringforllamasandcandetermineifthereareanyothervaccinationsnecessaryinordertokeepyourllamashealthy.Otherdiseasesandpeststhatcanaffectllamasaretuberculosis,tetanus,ticks,mites,andlice.
UsingLlamaFibersLlamafiberisuniquefromotheranimalfibers,suchassheep’swool.Itdoesnotcontainanylanolin(anoilfoundinsheep’swool);thus,itishypoallergenicandnotasgreasy.Howoftenyoucanshearyourllamawilldependonthevarietyofllama,itshealth,andenvironmentalconditions.Typically,though,everyyear
llamasgrowafleecethatis4to6incheslongandthatweighsbetween3and7pounds.Llamafibercanbeusedlikeanyotheranimalfiberorwool,makingittheperfectsubstituteforallofyourfabricandspinningneeds.
Llamafiberismadeupoftwoparts:theundercoat(whichprovideswarmthforthellama)andtheguardhair(whichprotectsthellamafromrainandsnow).Theundercoatisthemostdesirableparttouseduetoitssoft,downytexture,whilethecoarserguardhairisusuallydiscarded.
Gatheringllamahairiseasy.Toharvestthefiber,youmustshearthellama.However,thestepsinvolvedinshearingwhenyouaregatheringthefiberareslightlydifferentthanwhenyouaresimplyshearingtokeepthellamacoolerinthesummermonths.Toshearallamaforfibercollection:1. Cleanthellamabyblowingandbrushinguntilthecoatisfreefromdirtand
debris.2. Washthellama.Besuretorinseoutallofthesoapfromthehairandletthe
llamaair-dry.3. Youcanusescissorsorcommercialclipperstoshearthellama.Startatthe
topoftheback,behindtheheadandneckandworkbackwards.Ifusingclippers,shearwithlongsweepingmotions,notshortjerkyones.Ifusingscissors,alwayspointthemdownward.Leaveaboutaninchofwoolonthellamaforprotectionagainstthesunandinsectbites.Youcanshearjusttheareaaroundthebackandbelly(infrontofthehindlegsandbehindthefrontlegs)ifyourmainpurposeistoofferthellamarelieffromtheheat.Oryoucansheartheentirellama—fromjustbelowthehead,downtothetail—togetthemostwool.Oncetheshearingiscomplete,skirtthefleecebyremovinganylittlepiecesorbellyhairfromtheshornfleece.
Thefibercanbehand-processedorsenttoamill(thoughsendingthefiberstoamillismuchmoreexpensiveandisnotnecessaryifyouhaveonlyoneortwollamas).Processingthefiberbyhandisdefinitelymorecost-effectivebutyouwillinitiallyneedtoinvestinsomeequipment(suchasaspinningwheel,dropspindle,orfeltingneedle).
Llamafibercanbedyedandspuntobeusedforknitting.
Llamasshouldbewashedandallowedtoairdrybeforeshearing.
Toprocessthefiberbyhand:1. Pickoutanyremainingdebrisandunwanted(coarse)fibers.2. Cardthefiber.Thishelpstoseparatethefiberandwillmakespinningmuch
easier.Tocardthefiber,putabitoffiberononeendofthecards(standardwool-cardsdothetricknicely)andgentlybrushituntilitseparates.Thiswillproducearolag(log)offiber.
3. Oncethefiberiscarded,youcanuseitinafewdifferentways:a. Wetfelting:Towetfelt,laythefiberoutinadesignbetween2pieces
ofmaterialandsoakitinhot,soapywater.Then,agitatethefiberbyrubbingorrollingit.Thiswillcauseittosticktogether.Rinsethefiberincoldwater.Whenitdries,youwillhaveproducedastrongpieceoffeltthatcanbeusedinmanycraftingprojects.
b. Needlefelting:Forthistypeofmanipulation,youwillneedafeltingneedle(availableatyourlocalartsandcraftsorfabricstore).LayoutapieceofanymaterialyouwantoverapilloworStyrofoampiece.Placethefiberontopofthematerialinanydesignofyourchoosing.Push
theneedlethroughthefiberandthebottommaterialandthengentlydrawitbackout.Continuethisprocessuntilthefiberstaysonthematerialofitsownaccord.Thisisagreatwaytomaketablerunnersorhangingclothsusingyourllamafiber.
c. Spinning:Spinningisagreatwaytoturnyourllamafiberintoyarn.Spinningcanbeaccomplishedbyusingeitheraspinningwheelordropspindle,andapieceoffiberthatiseitherinabatt,rolag,orroving.Aspinningwheel,whilelargerandmoreexpensive,willeasilyhelpyoutoturnthefiberintoyarn.Adropspindleisconvenientbecauseitissmallerandeasiertotransport,andifyouhavetimeandpatience,itwilldojustasgoodajobasthespinningwheel.Tomakeyarn,twisttwoormorepiecesofspunwooltogether.
d. Otheruses:cardedwoolcanalsobeusedtoweave,knit,orcrochet.
Ifyoubecomeverycomfortableusingllamafibertomakeclothingorothercraftitems,youmaywanttotrytosellthesecrafts(oryourllamafiberdirectly)toconsumers.Fibercraftsmaybeparticularlysuccessfulifsoldatlocalcraftmarketsorevenatfarmers’marketsalongsideyourgardenproduce.
PARTFOURSimpleStructuresforYourLand
“Regarditasjustasdesirabletobuildachickenhouseastobuildacathedral.”
—FrankLloydWright
“Developaninfallibletechniqueandthenplaceyourselfatthemercyofinspiration.”
—Lao-Tzu
Evenifyouonlyhaveasmallplotofland,itmaybehelpfultohaveamodestpottingshednearyourgardenoraworkshopwhereyoucankeepyourtools.Ifyou’llberaisinganimals,you’llneedshelterforthem—evenadogdeservesahouseitcancallitsown.Someoftheprojectsinthischapterofferstep-by-stepinstructionsthatwillguideyouthroughtheentirebuildingprocess.Othersaremeanttoofferguidelinesforastructure,whichyoucanthenaltertomeetyourownwantsandneeds.Ifyouarenewtowoodworking,youmaywanttostartoffwithoneofthesimplerprojects,suchasabirdhouse,andthenprogresstomorecomplexstructuresasyoubuildconfidence.Followthedirectionsclosely,measurematerialscarefully,andcross-referencewithsimilarplansfoundonlineorinotherbookswhenneeded.Ifyou’reanexperiencedbuilder,usethedirectionsandillustrationshereasinspirationtocreateyourownuniquemasterpieces.Whateveryourskilllevel,aswitheverything,trytoenjoytheprocessasmuchastheendresult.
Doghouses
Doghousesandkennelsareeasytoconstructandareespeciallyusefulifyouhavedogsthatprimarilyliveoutofdoors.Adogkennelneedstoprotectthedogfromharshwindsandheavyrainsandshouldbespaciousenoughforthedogtomovearoundincomfortably.Doghousesshouldbelocatedneartoyourownhouse,soyoucanhaveeasyaccesstoyourpet,andshouldbesituatedonasideofyourhousethatcreatesanaturalbarrierfromthewindandweather.Dogsshouldnotbeleftoutsideovernightinverycoldweather,evenwithaccesstoadoghouse.Belowareacoupleofdoghousesandkennelsthatcanbeeasilyconstructedforyouroutdoorpet.
StandardDogKennelThiskennelisconstructedtobewarmandwindproof,todirecttherainawayfromthebasebycreatinglargeroofoverhangs,andtobeeasilycleaned.
MaterialsMatchedboardsforthesides,ends,andbottom(standardmeasurementsforthekennelare30incheslong,20incheswide,and30inchestall)WeatherboardsfortheroofStripofsheetmetalWoodenbeading
Directions1. Maketheendsfirstbynailinglengthsofmatchingboardsacrossuprightsof
2x1-inchbatten(f).Atthetop,halvethebattensintothetworoofpieces.Setthetwoouteruprights,XX,inabout¾inchfromtheedgestoallowthesidestobeflushwiththeoutsideoftheends.Placethesefouruprightsontheinside.
2. Itisadvisabletocutoutthedoor—usingapad-sawforthesemicirculartop—beforenailingonYY,whichshouldbealittlenearertooneanotherthanaretheroughedgesofthedoor.Twoshortverticalsontheoutside,alsoprojectingbeyondtheedges,preventthedoginjuringhiscoatonthem.PiecesZZgivethedooraneatfinish.
Thedoghouseiswiderandhasthedoorsetofftooneside,whichallowsforevenmoreprotectionfromtheelements.
3. Thebattensmaybeomittedfromthebackendofthekennel,buttheyultimatelyhelpstrengthenthestructureandsoareadvisabletoinclude.
4. Whentheendsarefinished,thehorizontalboardsforthesidesarenailedontoeachend(b).Beginatthebottom,arrangingthelowestboardwithitstonguepointingupwardsandaddtheupperboardsonebyone.Thedirectioninwhichthetonguepointsisanimportantdetail—iftheboardsareputonthewrongway,waterwillleakmoreeasilyintothekennel,rottingtheboardsandmakingyourdogwet.
5. Battens(d)and(e)arenailedinsidealongthesidesofthekennelandathirdisnailedacrosstheback,atadistanceabovethebottomedgeequaltothethicknessofthebottomboardsandofthebattens(b)and(c),towhichtheyareattached.Ateachenda2x2-inchdeal,(f),isscrewedto(b)and(c)toraisethebottomclearofftheground.
6. Theroofweatherboardsmustbelongenoughtoprojectatleast6inchesbeyondthedoorend,topreventrainfromcomingthroughtheentrance.Theeavesoverhang3inchesandaresupported,asshownin(a),bythreebracketscutoutofhardwood.Beginlayingontheboards,startingattheeavesandfinishingattheridge,whichisclosedwitha6-inchstripofsheetmetalplacedontopofawoodenbeading.
7. Stainalltheexteriorsurfaces,includingthebottom,andfillinthecrackswithcaulkingtokeepthewaterfromseepingthrough.
Theinsidepartofthekennelshouldbeexposedtothesunoccasionallybybeingturnedonitsend,andthebottomshouldbecleanedoften.
Modifythedogkennelplansheretofityourdogifitisalargerbreed.
Refertothisillustrationwhenmakingthedogkennel.Thekennelraisedoffthegroundisshownby(c);(d)illustratesthepartsincontact;(e)isavertical
sectionofthebackend.
Thiskennelhasafloorthatis2feetsquare,is3feet4incheshighinfront,andtheroofhasanoverhangof8inches.
Birdhouses
Ifyouarelookingtoattractbirdstoyouryardduringthespring,summer,andfallmonths,inparticular,itisimportanttohaveshelterforthebirds.Birdhousesdonotneedtobeveryelaborateandtheyshouldberatherinconspicuoussobirdscaneasilycomeandgowithoutattractingpredatorstotheirhouseandnest.Allthatisreallyrequiredofabirdhouseisagoodhidingplace,withanopeningjustlargeenoughforthebirdtofitthrough,andastrongroofthatkeepsouttherain.
Birdhousescanbemadefromavarietyofmaterials—evenanoldhattackedtothesideofashedwithaholecutinthetopcansufficeforabirdhouse.Otherusablematerialsincludetincans,barrels,flowerpots,woodenbuckets,andsmallboxes(preferablywoodenormetal).
Moststandardbirdhousesaremadeofwoodpiecesnailedtogethertolooklikeaminiaturehouse.Ifyouarelookingtohavemanybirdsnestinginyouryard,youmaywanttobuildafewbirdhousesduringthewintersotheycanbereadyforspringtime,whenbirdsarebeginningtonest.Toattractaparticularkindofbirdtoyourbirdhouse,youmustmakethesizeoftheholeappropriateforthetypeofbird.Forwrens,maketheholeabout1inch;forbluebirdsandtree-swallows,theholeshouldbe1½inches;formartins,itshouldbe2½inches.Belowareafewexamplesofbirdhousesyoucaneasilymaketoattractbeautifulbirdstoyouryard.
Becreativewithyourbirdhousedesigns,experimentingwithdifferentshapesandmaterials.
Abirdarkbirdhouse
BirdArkBirdhouseThisbirdhouseisconstructedofthreetincansjoinedtogether.Bothendsofthecentercanareremoved,butthebottomisleftonbothendcans.Tomakethebirdark,simply:1. Cutaholeintothesideofthecentercanandanotherthroughthebottomof
eachcan.Donotremovethepiecesoftinbutbendthemouttoserveasperches.
2. Cuttheroofboardsofthecorrectsizetoprojectovertheendsandsidesabout1inch,nailthemtogether,andthenfastentheminplacebynailingtheboardstotheconnectingblocksbetweenthecans.
3. Fastenthearkbetweentheblocksonaplatformorboardandthenmounttheplatformonpostsupportsandbraceitwithbrackets,asseeninthepictureabove.Attachseveralsticksforperches.
LogCabinBirdhouseThisbirdhousecanbemadeoutofanysizedbox.Nailpiecestogethertoformtheroof,andthenthatchtheroofingitselftoblendintothesurroundingenvironment.Themoreslopedtheroof,theeasiertheraincanfalloffandnotpenetrateintothehouse.Thishouseisslightlymoreelaborateinthesensethatthesupportpolepassesthroughthehousetoforma“chimney.”Thewindowscanbecutoutandfakedoorspaintedonforaestheticpurposes.Smallbranchesshouldbecuttotheproperlengths,split,andthennailedallovertheexteriorofthehousetoproduceasortof“logcabin”look—thisalsohelpsthebirdhousetobetterblendintothesurroundingtreesandfoliageinyouryard.
Crosssectionofalogcabinbirdhouse
TempleBirdhouseThisisasmallbirdhouse,perfectforwrens.Thisbirdhousehangsfromatreebranch.
MaterialsLargetincanWoodenboardabout7inchessquareCarpetorupholsterytacksEarthenflowerpotSmallcorktopluguptheflowerpotholeEyescrewShortstickWireSmallnails
Templebirdhouse
Directions1. Markthedoorwayonthesideofthecanandcuttheopeningwithacan
opener.2. Fastenthecantothesquarebaseboard(A)bydrivinglargecarpettacks
throughthebottomofthecanintotheboard.3. Inverttheflowerpottomaketheroof.Plugupthedrainholetomakethe
housewaterproof(useacorkorothermeansofstoppingupthehole)(B).4. Screwtheeyescrewintothetopoftheplugtoattachthesuspendingwire.
Drillasmallholethroughthelowerendoftheplugsothatashortnailcanbepushedthroughaftertheplughasbeeninsertedtokeepitfromcomingout.
5. Fastentheflowerpotoverthecanwithwire,passingtheloopofwireentirelyaroundthepotandthenrunningshortwiresfromthiswiredowntosmallnailsdrivenintothefourcornersofthebase,(C).
6. Nowthebirdtemplecanbepaintedandhungonatree.
BirdhousesforSpecificBirdSpecies
SimpleStables
Ifyouareraisinglargerlivestock—sheep,goats,horses,orllamas,forexample—youwillneedasmallstablewheretheycangoforprotectionduringinclementweatherandespeciallyduringthewintermonthsincoolerregions.Buildingstablescanbedonerelativelyeasilyandinexpensively,anddoingityourselfmeansthatyoucancustomizethedesigntofityourandyouranimals’needs.
Stablesshouldbebuiltonrelativelyflatgroundthatdoesnotbecomeexcessivelywetorfloodedduringheavyrains.Layingdownathickbedofgravelorsandbelowthestablefloorwillhelpkeepsurfacewaterdrained.Alsoconsiderthepositioningofthestable;trytofindanareathatisprotectedfromstrongwindsbutalsonearyourownhomesoyoudon’thavetogotoofartotendtheanimalsduringbadweather.Facingthestabletowardthesouthorwestwillhelpkeepanicebreezeflowingthroughyourstablewhileprotectingitfromharshnortherlywinds.Aplacetostorefeedandhayforyouranimalsisalsoaworthwhileadditionwhenplanningandbuildingasimplestable.
GeneralStableConstructionWhenbuildingastableforyourlivestock,makesurethattheinteriorwallsareweatherproofandfreeofdampness.Tokeepmoistureoutofthestable,thebuildingshouldbesituatedonslightlyhighergroundthanthatsurroundingit.Thiswillkeepthegroundfromgettingtoodamp,andvaporswillnotbeaslikelytorisethroughthefloorandfoundationwalls.Ifpossible,itisbesttomakethestableflooroutofconcretebetween4and6inchesthick.
Thestablewallsshouldbebuiltsolid.Brickandstonearepreferabletowood,butwoodenstablesalsodoanadequatejobofprovidingshelterandaremuchmorecommonintheUnitedStates,duetotheavailabilityofwood.Ifyoudecidetobuildyourstableusingbricks,buildingthewallsonebrick(9inches)thickshouldbesuitable.Internalwallsshouldbebuiltsolid,andthefoundationmustbedeepandwideenoughtogivethewholestructurestability.Ifonesideofyourstablegetsthebruntofdrivingrainormoisture,itisagoodideatocoveritwithanextralayerofcementorstucco,orhangshinglestoprotectthewall.
TheDutchdooronthisstablecankeepanimalsenclosedwhileallowingfreshairtocirculate.
Plansforasmallstable
Theexternalanglesofallofthedoorsandwindowsshouldberounded.Thiscanbedonebyusingbull-nosedbricks.Thisway,horsesandotherlivestockwillnotbeinjuredbycomingintocontactwithanysharpanglesorledges.
ASmallStableforHorses,Llamas,orSheepThissimplestableisinexpensivetobuildandhasplentyofroomfortwohorses,
llamas,orsheep,alongwithfeedandtack.Hayandgraincanbekeptintheloft.Placethewindowsashighupaspossibleandhingethematthebottomsothey’llopeninwardlytopermittheairtopassovertheanimalswithoutblowingdirectlyonthem.Makethestabledoora“Dutchdoor”;thatis,adoordividedhorizontallyinthemiddlesothattheupperhalfmaybeopenedandthelowerhalfremainclosed.
Astablecanbemadeoutofavarietyofmaterials,includingbrickandwood.
PoultryHouses
Poultryhousesshouldbewarm,dry,well-lighted,andventilatedshelterswithconvenientarrangementsforroosts,feedingspace,andnestboxes.Inwinter,ifyou’relivinginacoolclimate,lightandwarmthareoftheupmostimportance.Fowlwillstoplayingeggsandtheirhealthwillsufferwhenconfinedincold,wet,anddarkconditions.Windowsfacingthesouthorsoutheast,largeenoughtoadmitthesunfreely,shouldbeprovidedandmadetoslideopentoincreasecirculationduringthesummer.
Beyondthesefewrequirements,housesforyourpoultrycanbemadeinavarietyofwaysandare,generally,relativelyeasytoconstruct.Belowaremanydifferenttypesofpoultryhousesthatcanbeusedtokeepyourfowlwarm,dry,andhealthy.
SimplestPoultryHouseWhilepoultrycansurviveinthistypeofcheaplyandsimplybuiltcoop,itisbestusedinwarmerclimates,wherethewintermonthsdonotbecomeincrediblycoldandnotmuch,ifany,snowfalls.Also,thistypeofcoopisbestsuitedforonlyoneortwochickensorducks.
MaterialsFourpiecesof1x2-inchboardsforthestudsandraftersStrongnailsWirenettingTarredpaper1. TaketwooftheboardsandnailthemtogetherinaTshape.Repeat
withtheothertwo.Settheseapartfromeachotherabout2feet10inchesonthecenters,andcoverthemwithtightlydrawnwirenetting(cuttosize).
2. Coverthewirenettingwithtarredpaper,creatingabarrierbetweentheoutsidewindsandweatherandthefowlinside.
YoungPoultryCoopsChicksneedextrawarmthandprotectionfrompredators.Thiscoop,ifithousessmallchicks,shouldnotholdtheotherfowl,astheymaybullyorevenharmtheyoungchicks.
Thispitchedroofchickencoopconsistsofapitchedroofmountedonthreeboards,6feethigh.Thiscoopis3feetwideand2feetdeep.Nailslatsacrossthefronttopreventthehenfromgettingoutbuttoallowthechickstoenterandexitfreelyintoasmallfenced-inareasurroundingthecoop.
Thecooppicturedaboveissimilartothepitchedroofchickencoopexceptthatthereisacanopythatkeepstherainoutandshadestheinteriorofthecoopsoitdoesnotbecometoowarm.Thiscoopis3feetlong,2feetwide,and30incheshighatthefrontand24incheshighintheback.Thecoopcanbeconstructedfromboardswithmatchededgesandshouldberaisedaninchortwoabovethegroundtoensurethefloorremainsdry.Tackapieceoflightcanvasormuslintotherooftoserveastheawning.
Apitchedroofchickencoop
Chickencoopwithcanopy
Thishenhousehasascratchingshed,whichallowsthechickensaccesstotheopenairwhilestillbeingprotectedfromtheelements.
PracticalHenhouseThissimpleandefficienthenhousehasashedroofand,asmostpoultryhousesshould,facestowardthesouth.Thishousecanbeupto10feetwideandaslongasyouneedtoaccommodateyourchickens.
Ascratchingshedisinthecenterofthebuildingandhaswindowsthatletsunlightin.Thesleepingquartersshouldbekeptwarm.Anopen,wire-enclosedfrontforthescratchingshedshouldbeincluded,too.Theroostsshouldbemademoveableandfreshbeddingshouldbekeptonthefloorofthehenhouse.
Theroofofthehenhouseshouldprojectout1footoverthesouth,east,andwestsides.Itshouldalsobe5incheshigherthanthesiding,allowingforfreeventilation.Twolargewindowswilladmitlightandwarmthintothehenhouse.
Alayingboxshouldextendtheentirelengthoftheroomandmustbedividedintocompartmentsandcoveredwithahingedlid.Thisallowstheeggstobegatheredsimplybyraisingthelidfromtheoutside.Makesuretheflooriscleanedweeklytokeepoutdisease.Theinsideofthewallsshouldbewhitewashedoftentokeepoutmoistureandpests.
Two-RoomHenhouseThistwo-roomhenhousehasasouth-facingfronttoallowamplesunlightandwarmthintothehouse.Itcanbemadeaslargeas10x12feetandshouldbeconstructedofwoodortimberplanks.Itisdividedintotworoomsbyapartitionmadeoutofwirenetting.Thishenhousecanservetwoseparateyards.Afenceconstructedinthemiddleofthehouseyardshouldjointhecenterofthefrontofthebuilding(andatthebackaswellifyousodesire).Inthishouse,bothhensandroosterscanbekeptandareeasilyseparatedwhileallowingeachenoughspaceandexercise.
Atwo-roomhenhousewithasouth-facingfront
Youcanbuildasimpleramptogiveyourchickenseasyaccesstothecoop
Thesepicturesshowhowtheperchescanbemovedtoallowforeasycleaning
Theplatformandperchesshouldbeconstructedinsideofeachroom.Whentheperchesareinneedofcleaning,theyareraisedupagainstthewallinthehouse,inaperpendicularposition.Tocleanthetrough,theperchesandplatformareraisedperpendiculartothefloor.
DuckHousesDucks,whiletheycansurviveratherwellinanytypeofpoultryhouse,arehappiestwhentheyhaveeitherastreamorpondinwhichtoswim,bathe,andgatherfood.Ifyouhaveastreamorpondonyourproperty,situatingaduckhousenearbywillhelpensurethattheduckeggsaresafeandsecure.
Ifyouareraisingagoodnumberofducks,yourduckhouseshouldbeabout30feetlongand12feethigh.Doorsshouldbesituatedinthefrontofthehouseandthehouseshouldhaveafewsmallwindowsthatcanbeslidopentoallowfreshairtocirculatewithintheduckhouse.Therearofthehouseshouldholdthenests(boxesopenatthefront).Asmalldoorshouldbesituatedbehindeachnestsotheeggscanbeeasilyremoved.
Youcanuseastripofwirenettingtoencloseasmall,narrowyardinthefrontofthehouse.Donotusetwinenetting,however,astheduckscouldgettheirheadstwistedinitandstranglethemselves.
Easy,CreativeCoopsIfyoudon’thavemuchspaceinyouryardandonlyhaveafewchickenstokeep,verygoodcoopscanbemadeataverysmallcostfromitemsfoundaroundyour
house,yard,oratrummagesales:1. BarrelCoop
a. First,driveshinglenailsthroughthehoopsonbothsidesofeachstaveandclinchthemdownontheinside.
b. Dividethebarrelinhalf,ifitisbigenough,bycuttingthroughthehoopsandthebottom.
c. Drivesticksintothegroundtoholdthecoopinplace,anddrivealongstickateachsideoftheopenedendjustfarenoughfromthecooptoallowthefrontdoortobeslippedinandout.
d. Thenightdoorcanbemadefromtheheadofthebarreloranysolidboard,andtheslatteddoor,usedtoconfinethehen,canbemadebynailinguprightstripsoflathtoacrosslathattopandbottom.
2. BoxCoopa. Findaboxthatisroughly2to2½feetlong,16inchesdeep,and2feet
highandsawahole,d,inoneend.b. Strengthentheboxwithnarrowstripsofwood,b,c,oneachsideof
thehole.Thisactsasagrooveforthedoor,a,toslidein.Bydoingso,youwillhaveaslidingdoorthatopensandshutseasily.
c. Thefrontofthecoopisenclosedwithlath,ornarrowstrips,placed2½to3inchesapart.Thetopshouldbecoveredwithagoodgradeofroofingpapertomakeitcompletelywaterproof.
3. PortableCoop—Thistypeofcoopwillallowyoutohaveafreshyardforyourchickensandotherpoultrytoscroungeinandiseasilytransportedtoanyplaceonyourproperty.a. ThecoopisbuiltofordinarymaterialonabaseframeandwithaV-
shapedroofandsideframes.Thepreferredlengthofthecoopisabout2feetandtheyardshouldbearound3to4feet.
b. Theridgepoleisextended,asshownateachend,toformahandle.c. Ifdesired,thehenmaybeallowedtofreelyroamtheyardorcanbe
containedwithinthecoopbyslats,asispicturedinthedrawing.
Afoldingchickenroost
Abarrelchickencoop
Floorplanfortheduckhouse.
Aportablechickencoop
Asimpleboxcoop
PoultryHouseAidsandOtherConsiderations
FoldingChickenRoost
Thisroostismadeof3-inchboardscuttoanydesiredlengththatwillfitwithinyourpoultryhouse.Asmallboltfastenstheuprightpiecesattheirtopendsandthehorizontalpiecesarefastenedonwithnails.Thisroostcanbekeptatanyangleandmaybequicklytakenoutofthehousewhenitistimetoclean.Thissortofroostwillaccommodatemorefowlinthesamespacethantheflatkind.
KeepingRatsandMiceOutofthePoultryHouse
Ifyouarebuildingapermanentpoultryhouse,youshouldtrytomakeitasrodent-proofaspossible.Ifratsandmicecaneasilyenteryourpoultryhouse,theywillnotonlystealeggsandspreaddiseases,buttheycouldscareorevenharmthefowl.Cheapandefficientwallscanbemadeofsmallfieldstonesinthisway:1. Digtrenchesforthewallsbelowthefrostline.2. Drivetworowsofstakesintothetrenches,onerowateachsideofthe
trench.3. Setupboardsinbetweenthestakes.Theboardswillholdthestonesand
cementinplaceuntilthecementhardens.Thetopboardsshouldhaveastraightupperedgeandshouldbeplacedleveltodeterminethetopofthewall.
4. Placetwoorthreelayersofstoneinthebottomofthetrench,pourinthinlymixedcement,andpounditin.Repeatthisuntilthedesiredheightisreached.
5. Thetopofthewallshouldbesmoothedoffwithatrowelandleftuntilthecementcompletelyhardens.Thesideboardscannowberemovedandthepoultryhousebuilt.
WinterCareofFowl
Ifchickensandotherfowlarenotkeptwarminthewinter,theywillstopgrowing,ceaselayingeggs,andcanbecomeill.Thereareseveralwaysyoucanwinterizechickencoopstoensureyourbirds’comfortandwell-being.
Especiallyifyouliveincolderclimates,havingahousewithhollowordoublesidewallswillhelpkeepyourfowlwarmduringthewinterseason.Buildingswithhollowsidewallsarewarmerinthewinterandarealsocoolerinthesummer.Theydonotcollectasmuchseverefrostandresultinlessmoistureseepingintothehenhouseoncethefrostmelts.
Theoutsidewallsofchickencoopscanbeplasteredorlinedwithmatchedboardsandthespacesbetweentheboardsfilledwithwoodshavings,sawdust,orhay.Thefloorshouldbecoveredwithseveralinchesofdrysand,woodshavings,orstraw,andtheventilatingholesneartheroofshouldbepartlystoppeduporshuttersarrangedtoclosemostoftheminverycoldweather.Youdon’twanttosealtheplaceupcompletely,though.Nothingismoreimportanttothehealthoffowlthanpureair.Birdsbreathewithgreatrapidityandmaintainarelativelyhighbodytemperature,sotheyneedplentyofoxygen.
Constructingasolid,insulatedroofforyourpoultryhouseforthewinterisveryimportant.Aroofcanbebuilteitherbysealingtheinsidewithmaterialtoexcludedraughtsorbyplacingroofboardsclosetogetherandcoveringthemthoroughlywithtarredpaperbeforeshingling.Anordinaryshingledroofallowstoomuchwindtocomeintothehouseandcouldcauseyourfowltogetfrostedcombsorwattles.Ifthishappens,therewillnotbemuch,ifany,eggproductioninthewintermonths.
Hangingcurtainsinfrontoftheperchesisalsoagreatwaytokeepyourfowlwarmduringthewintermonths.Makethesecurtainsofburlapandhangthemfromtheroofinsuchawaythattheperchesareenclosedinalittleroom.Make
surethecurtainsarelongenoughtotouchthefloorallaround,andsewtheedgesoftheburlaptogether,exceptatthecorners.Atnight,thecornerscanbepinnedtogethertokeepthebirdsfromleavingtheirshelteredperches.Thispseudo-sleepingroomallowsairtomoveinwithoutcreatingdraftsanditalsohelpsretainthebirds’bodyheat.Thismaintainsacomfortabletemperatureforthebirdsduringcold,winternights.
Adrinkingfountainforyourchickenscanbemadewithacanorbucketandatray.Cutoutoneendofthecanandpokeholesalongtheedgeasshown.Fillwithwater,coverwithashallowtray,andturnthewholethingoverquickly.
Chickswillbeabletodrinkwatereasilywithoutriskofdrowning.
Fences,Gates,andPens
Whetheryouarelookingtoaddalovelyfenceandgatearoundyourgardenplantsoryouhavepoultryorotherlivestocktokeepincheck,youmayneedtobuildafence,gate,oranimalpen.Thesestructurescanbeattractiveifwellbuiltandshouldbeabletostanduptoallkindsofweatherandanimals.Dependingonyourneeds,herearesomevariousfences,gates,andpensyoucaneasilyconstructinyouryardoronyourproperty.
FencesFencesareperfectforkeepinganimalsoryoungchildreninaconfinedspaceorfordrawingboundariesbetweenyoursandyourneighbor’spropertylines—butcheckwithyourneighborsbeforeyouconstructyourfencetomakesuretheydon’tmind.Alsocallyourlocalutilitycompaniestomakesurethatyouwillnotbedigginguppowerorgaslines.
WoodenFences
Woodenfencesallowforgoodventilationandanopen,airyfeel.Theycanprovideprotectionforyoungshrubsandplantsaswellaskeepanimalsandchildrensafewithintheyardorfenced-inspace.
Themostcommontypeofwoodenfenceconsistsofhorizontalrailsnailedtopostsorstakesthatareplacedverticallyintotheground.Thesefencescanbeconstructedwiththreeorfourhorizontalrailsthataremadeoutofsplitwood,spruce,orpinewoodplanks.Thepostsareusuallyabout6feetlongandsharpenedattheendthatwillbedrivenintotheground(toadepthofroughly8inches).Thesepostsshouldbespacedabout6feetapart.
Inordertokeepthepointed,earth-boundendsfromrotting,diptheminmeltedpitchbeforeinsertingthemintotheground.Todothis,boillinseedoilandstirinpulverizedcoaluntilitreachestheconsistencyofpaint.Brushacoatofthisonthewoodenpost.Makesurethepostsarecompletelydrybeforepaintingthem.Ifproperlydone,thisshouldkeepmoisturefromseepingintotheburiedpartsofthepostsandwillkeepyourfenceuprightformany,manyyears.
Asimplewoodenfenceisenoughtokeepmostanimalsintheirpastures.
Inordertodrivethepostsintotheground,youwillneedeitheraverygoodshoveloraheavywoodenmallet.Forlongerpoles,useapost-holeborer.Thissaveslotsoftimeandenergyandwillworkwithalmostalltypesofsoil.
Toconstructabasicwoodenfence,you’llneed:
MaterialsPost-holediggers,apost-holeborer,orashovel4x4woodenposts(woodthathasbeentreatedwilllastlongerbutisnotnecessary)2x4lumber(thistoocanbetreatedbutdoesnotneedtobe)orfenceboards(whichcanbepurchasedatyourlocalhomeandgardeningcenter)Thick,longnails
Directions1. Decidewherethefencewillbeconstructedandthenlayalineoftwineor
stringtomarkouttheborder.2. Decidehowtallyouwantyourfencetobe.Takeintoconsiderationwhat
thefenceisbeingusedfor(ifit’sforlargeranimals,suchasllamas,youmaywanta6-foot-tallfence;iffordecoration,ashorterfencemaydothetrick).
3. Digholesforyourendposts(inallfourcornersofyourfence).Makesuretheholesaredeepenoughtobeabletosupporttheendposts.Fillindirtaroundthepostsandpackinthesoilverywell.
Youcannailwiremeshtotherailsofawoodenfenceforextrasecurityortoallowvinesorotherclimbingplantstogrowupalongtheposts.
Aholeborerliftsthesoilfromtheholewithouthavingtousespades.Theseborerscanbeusedbyhandorelectricmodelscanbepurchasedforthe
samepurpose.
Apicketfenceisconstructedbynailingtwoormorelongboardstoposts,andthennailingnarrowverticalboardstothehorizontalones.
4. Startdiggingtheremainingholes,tryingtokeeptheminalignmentwiththeendposts.
5. Inserttheremainingpostsintotheholes,pilinginthedirtandpackingitdownasbefore.
6. Nailonyourfenceboards,leavingalittlespaceinbetween.Paintorstainthefinishedfenceifyouwish.
Note:Ifyouwantaprivacyfence,youcannailthickerboardshorizontallyorverticallybetweeneachpost,makingsurethespaceinbetweenisquitesmall.
WireFences
Wirefencesarebothportableanddurable,makingthemconvenientandeconomicaltobuild.Wirefencesusuallyhavealongerstayingpowerthanwoodenfencessincetheyarelesspronetodeteriorationorrot.
Themostcommontypeofwirefenceisonethathaswirelinesstrungbetweenwoodenposts.Thewiresarefastenedtothepostsbygalvanizedwirestaples.Thewoodenpostsshouldbespacedroughly6feetapartandshouldusefivesinglewires.
AmoresubstantialwirefencecanbemadewithG-linewires.Eachlineconsistsofathree-plystrand.Insteadofthewiresbeingfastenedtothepostbystaples,holesareboredthroughthepostsandthelinespassthrough.Strainingeyeboltswithnutsandwashersareattachedfortighteningupthefence.Thistypeoffence,however,ismuchmoreexpensivetobuildand,unlessyoudesireafencethatisincrediblystrong,isprobablynotnecessary.
Awirenettingfence
[onlyoneexamplebelow(andsomepicturesthathavealreadybeenexplained)]
WireNettingFence
Galvanizedwirenettingfencesareusedforenclosingrootgardensandforpoultryfences.Thestandardtypeofnettingusedwhenmakingthisfenceis3-inchmeshnettingthatis3feetx3feet,andisratherinexpensivetobuy.
Aseparatestripof2-inchgalvanizedwirenettingthatis6incheswidecanbelaidflatonthegroundonthesideofthefencewherethepoultryare—thiswaytheycannotdigunderneath,especiallyoncegrassandothernaturalmaterialshidethewirenetting.
Todiginthistypeoffence,makeatrenchabout6inchesdeep,dropthenettingintoit,andthenfillthetrenchupwithdirt,stones,orevenconcrete,dependingonhowpermanentyouwantthefencetobe.
PortableFences
Ifyouneedatemporaryfenceorifyouwanttobeabletoeasilymoveyourlivestockfencetonewgrazingareasonyourproperty,youmaywanttoconsideroneoftheseeasilymademoveablefences.Belowareafewtypesofportablefencesthatcanbetailoredtoyourspecificneeds.
ConvenientandPortableFence
Oftenitishelpfultohaveafencethatcanbequicklyerectedanddisassembled.Thisfenceisverycheap,strong,andconvenienttouse.Itisbuiltoutofpine(anyotherwoodcanbesubstituted,butpineistypicallylighterandeasiertomove),1x6inchesforthebottomrailand1x4inchesforthetoprails.The
bracesthatholdituprightare2x4inchesandthebase(crosspiece)is2x6inches.Thebaseisnotched2inchesandthebottomboardsarenotchedwithholes.
Thebasepiece,whichismoresusceptibletorot,couldbemadeoutofastrongerwood,suchasoak.
Driveyourfencepolesfarenoughintothegroundthattheystandfirmlyuprightevenwhenmoderatepressureisappliedtooneside.
AG-linewirefenceconsistsofthree-plystrandsofwire.
Makesurethepanelsaren’ttoolongortheymightwarpoutofshape.Thisfencecanbeputupveryquicklyandtakendownagainwitheaseifyouwanttomoveittoanotherpartofyouryardorgetridofitforawhile.
ScotchHurdleFence
Thismoveablefenceconsistsoftwoposts,each2x3inchesand4½feetlong.Thelowerendsarelongandpointed—thisallowsthemtoeasilyenterthegroundandpropupthefence.Thebraceandtwodiagonalsaremadeoflarchorfirwood.Thisfenceisaround9feetlongand4feethigh.
Aportablefence
TheScotchHurdlefenceiseasytosetup.Theinclineshouldbefacingawayfromanylivestockyoumighthavecontainedinsideofit.Astayshouldbeplacedbetweeneverytwohurdlestokeeptheminposition.Onewoodenpegshouldbefastenedtooneendofthehurdleandanotherpegdriventhroughtheotherendandintotheground.
EnglishHurdlePortableFence
Thismoveablefenceismuchlighter,cheaper,andmoreconvenientthantheScotchhurdlefence.Usuallymadeofsplitoak,thisfenceistoughandimpenetrable.Itconsistsoftwouprightendpiecesthatarejoinedbyfourorfivemortisedbars7to9feetlong.Thesearestrengthenedbyanuprightbarinthemiddleandtwo
ThisScotchhurdlefenceisgoodfortemporaryuse.Ifyouliveinaverywindyarea,however,thisfencemaynotsuityouwell,astheydohaveatendencytofalloverinverystronggales.ormorediagonals.Theendpiecesarelongandpointedforsettingintotheground.Tosettheseintotheearth,useanironcrowbartoavoidsplittingthetopofthewoodenpiece.
Anenglishhurdleportablefence
Thesefencesareseterectandnostayisneeded.Thetwoadjoiningendsofthefencesareconnectedwithabandthatispassedoverthem.
GatesGatesareanecessarypartofanyfenceorpenandtheycanbesituatedinthefencewherevertheycanbeeasilyaccessed.Ifyouhaveafield,yourgateshouldberoughly10feetwidetoallowsmallmachinerythrough.
Mostgatesaremadeofeitherwoodoriron(thoughironisobviouslymuchmoreexpensiveandmorecomplicatedtoworkwith).Woodengateswillsufficeformostofyourhomesteadingneeds.Thefollowingareafewsimplegatesthatcanbeusedforyourgarden,yourbackyardfences,andyourpenshousinglivestock.
Inexpensive,SimpleGate
Alight,useful,anddurablegatecanbemadeofsassafraspoles(orothertallgrasspoles)andwire.Digandplaceastrongpost4feetinthegroundinthemiddleofthegatewayandbalancethegateonit.Thelowerrailismadeoftwoforkedsassafraspolessecurelynailedtogethersotheycanbecoiledbackoverthepost.
Gatescanbeusefulforentrancestoayardorwalkway,aswellasforanimalpensorpastures.
Abasicwiregatecanbeconstructedwhenyouneedanopeninginyourfence.
Aneasilyopenedgate
EasilyOpenedGate
Toconstructthissimplegate,takeanoldwheel(possiblyfoundatanantiquestoreorrummagesale)andfastenittomakeagatethatyouwillbeopeningfrequently.Thepieceofboard(C)dropsbetweenthespokesofthewheelandholdsthegateeitheropenorclosed.
SimpleGate
Thisisasimpleandappealinggate,especiallyforfencesleadingintopastures.Thematerialsrequiredtomakethisgatevarydependingonwhatpurposethegatewillserve.
Forapaddockorpasturegate,makeitoutofseasonedboards,1x6inchesand12to14feetlong.Thepostssupportingthegateshouldbeplacedabout5inchesapart,theoneontheinsidebeingabout8inchesaheadoftheother.Thesearejoinedtogetherbycleatsorrollersthatsupportthegateandallowittobepushedbackandswingopen.Ifrollersarenotobtainable,cleatsmadeofanyhardwoodareacceptable.
Asimpleslidinggatecanbemadeforanymodernorwirefence.
Thiswiregateishungonordinaryironposts.Theheelofthegate,madeofangleiron,isfittedwithwindingbracketsfortighteningthewirebars.
PensIfyouhavebuiltasimplestabletohouseyourllamas,sheep,orotheranimals,itwillbebeneficialtobuildasmallfencearounditasanoutdoorpen.Abasicwoodenfenceorasimplewirefencewillenclosemostofyourlivestockinanareaaroundthestableorshelter.Ifyouhaveallamaortwo,itisbesttohaveatleasta4-footfencesotheycannotescape.Ifyouhaveamplespace,havingapathwayintoalargergrazingfieldorpasturefromyourpenwillallowyouranimalstocomeandgoastheyplease.Or,ifyouwanttokeepthemconfinedin
thepen,asimplegatewillsufficeforwhentheanimalsneedtoberemovedorrelocated.
Abamboofenceorgatecanbeconstructedbylashingthebambootogetherwithstrongrope.
BasicBridges
Ifyouhaveariverorbrookonyourproperty,youmaywanttoconstructasimplebridge.Buildingthesebridgescanbequiteeasy,especiallyifyoudon’tplanontransportingveryheavymachineryorcarsoverthem.Hereareafewdifferentwaystobuildbasicbridgesoverstreams,creeks,orotherrathernarrowwaterways.
FootbridgeThisnatural-lookingfootbridgecanbebuiltbetween8feetand12feetlong.
Excavatethebanksofthestreamorcreektoallowforthebuildingofasmall,lowrubbleorstonewall.Thesleeperswillrestonthiswall.Thegirdersareformedofwoodenspars(fourareusedinthisplan).Thegirdersshouldbebetween8and10inchesindiameter.Laythegirdersdownandboltthemtogetherinpairswithsix¾-inch-diametercoachbolts.Wedgethepoststofitmortisesinthegirders.
Thepostsandtoprailsshouldberoughly4½to5½inchesindiameterandtheintermediaterails3inchesindiameter.Finally,jointherailstotheposts.
Thebridgeshouldbeanchoredwellifit’sinaplacewherefloodingisfrequent,asyoudon’twantyourfootbridgefloatingawayinthestream.Todoso,drivefourshortpilesintothesoilontheinsideofthegirders,neartheirends.Fastenthegirderstothepileswithcoachbolts.Thepiletopsarehiddenbytheendsofthefloorbattens.
Now,ifyouwanttodecorateyourfootbridge,youcanusesmalltwigsandnailstomakepatternsonyourbridge.
SmallStreamBridgeIfyouhaveasmallcreekorstreamonyourproperty,youmaywanttoconstructasimplebridgeforeasyaccesstotheotherside.Tobuildthisbridge,you’llneedlumberthatis6incheswideand2inchesthick,andadditionallumberforthefloorandfoursidebraces.
Directions1. Saw11piecesofwoodthelengthrequiredforthetwosides.
Bridgecanbefashionedinarangeofshapes,styles,andsizestomeetyourneeds.
2. Boreboltholes1½inchesfromeachend.Use5/8-inchbolts8½incheslongforwherefourpiecescometogether,anduse6½-inchboltswherethreepiecesmeet.
3. BoltontheA-shapedsupportsandpiecesfortheapproachesatonetime,andthenputonthesidebraces.
4. Thesidesofthebridgearemadeoftriangles.Thefirsttriangleismadeofpiecesa,b,andc.Thesecondtriangleismadeofpiecesb,d,ande.
5. Thepiersforthisbridgemaybemadeofposts,stone,orevenconcrete,dependingonhowpermanentyouwishyoursmallstreambridgetobe.
Acrosssectionofthefootbridge
Jointherailsofthefootbridgetothepostsasshownhere.
Abridgeforasmallstream
Awoodenfootbridge
AVerySimpleBridgeAnotherverysimplewayofbuildingabridgeacrossacreekorstreamistofindanarrowpartofthewaterwayandthenfindtwologsthatarelongerthanthecreekiswide.Theselogsshouldbeverysturdy(notrottedout)andthick.Placethemacrossthecreek,sotheymakeanarrowbeamoverthewater.Eachlogshouldhaveanextrafootateachendofthecreek,sotheycanbesecurelywalkeduponwithnodangerofslippingintothecreekbed.Placethelogsroughlytwofeetapart.
Ifthewatercomesupclosetothebottomofthelogs,raisethemsothebridgedoesnotgetwashedawayinheavystormsorduringthecourseofthestreamrising.Toraisethebridgewillrequireabitmorework,aseachlogwillneedtobesetintoanotherlogontheedgeofthestreambedorevenintostonetomakeitmorepermanent.
Afteryouhavethetwobaselogssecured,findsomesticksthatarelongenough(andrelativelythick)tolayacrossthetopsofthetwologs.Or,ifyouhaveextraplywoodorotherboards,thosecanbeusedaswell.Justmakesuretoplacethesticksorboardsfairlyclosetooneanother,leavingonlylittlegapsbetweenthem.Then,onceallthestickshavebeenlaiddown,securethesebytyingtwineorropetothemandthebaselogs.
Ifyou’dlikeyourbridgetolastalittlelonger,youcanpaveitwithclayorfinecement.Usingashovel,coatthebridgewiththeclayorcementuntilit’sabout2inchesthick.Thenshoveldirtontotheclaymixture,packingitdownallover,andmakethebridgeasthickasyoulike.However,forjustasimplebridgeacrossanarrowstreamorcreek,thewoodensticksorboardswillworkjustfineandwon’trequirequiteasmuchtimeandenergy.
ToolShedsandWorkshops
Beforebuildingatoolshed,thinkaboutwhatyouwanttohouseinit.Ifyoujustneeditforsmalltools,suchasshovels,buckets,andawheelbarrow,asmallershedwillbefine.However,ifyouplantohouseyourmachinerythere,suchasatractor,lawnmower,chainsaw,orrototiller,you’llneedalargershedandyoumaywanttoplanforaslidinggaragedoor–styleentrance.Willyouwantaworkbench,spacetopotplants,shelving,anddrawers?Doyouwantelectricaloutletsforpowertoolsandlights?Alsoconsiderlocation:Itmaybemoreconvenienttohaveitclosetoyourhouse,oryoumayprefertohaveitnearerthegarden.Belowareacoupleofexamplesoftoolshedsthatyoucanmodifytomeetyourneeds.
Medium-sizedToolShedandWorkshopThisshedislargeenoughtoeasilystoreyourbasicfarmmachinery.Theshedisbasicallyagiantumbrellawithposts30feetapartinonedirectionand12or16feetapartintheother.Therearenosidestothisshedatall(thoughyoucouldmodifythisifyouwanttostoreothertoolshere).Ifyouparkyourmainmachinery(tractor,lawnmower,andsoon)intheinnermostpartoftheshed,youshouldstillhaveanoverhangof10feet.Thisshedwouldbemostbeneficialifitwere10feethigh—thatway,mostanykindofmachineyouwanttohouseunderitwillfitwell.Boardingupone,two,orthreesideswillhelppreventsnowfromdriftinginduringthewinterandrainfromrustingyourequipment.Makingwallswillalsoallowyoutohangtoolsontheinsideoftheshed,suchasclippers,weedwhackers,orhoses.
Theworkshophousedabovewillholdalotofsmallertoolsandisagoodplacetomendharnesses,makerepairs,andstoregrain.Theworkshopgivesabouta30-footclearancespacefortheshedbelow.Theentirebuildingisbuilttogetherusingthefollowingmaterials:
2x8-inchpostsThreepiecesof2x12-inchwoodmaterials(spacethese2inchesapart)2x10-inchboxplates6x6-inchbridgetruss
2x4-inchor2x6-inchbeamsfortherafters(dependingonhowmuchweighttheymusthold)
Thefloorofyourshedshouldbeeitherharddirtorcementandthepostsshouldbeanchoredfirmlyintothegroundoronstonepillars.Ashingleroofwillensureyoursmallerworkshoptoolsarekeptsafefromtherainandsnow.
Decidewhatyouwillwanttostoreinyourshedbeforeyoubeginbuildingsoyouknowwhatsizetomakeit.
Plansforamedium-sizedtoolshedandworkshop.
Small,RusticToolShedThissmall,rustictoolshedismadefrom“slabs”or“roughplanks.”Ifyouareusingtreesfromyourownpropertytobuildtheshed,youwon’thavetobotherpeelingthebarkfromthelogsorcuttingthemasexactly.Slabsarecheaptobuy(theycanbefoundatsawmillsandsometimesathomecenters),andcreateanattractive,“woodsy”look.Althoughtheboardsaretypicallynotuniforminsize(somearewiderthanothers),youcanpositiontheminsuchawayastominimizethenumberoflargecracksinyourshed.
Theseboardsmayneedtobestraightened(especiallytheedges)withasaworaxe,andtheinteriorofthetoolshedshouldbelinedwiththinboardstocoverupcracksandtokeepoutinsectsandanimals.
Whenbeginningconstructiononthistypeofshed,searchforboardsthatlendthemselvesbettertobeingendpostsandthosethatarebettersuitedforthewalls.Thecornersofthefourmainposts(4inchessquare)constructabuildingroughly7x5feet.Digholes2feetintothegroundandfitintheendposts.
Onthetopsoftheseposts,restthewallplates—theseshouldbe3inchesdeep.Theseboardswillbeatthebackandsidesoftheshedonly.Thesideswillalsoneedcrossrailsthatarearound2to3inchesthickwithendsflushtothecornerposts.Nailthesideandbackboardstothesecrossboardstosecurethem.
Placetwodoorpostsinthefrontoftheshed.Theyshouldstand2feet8inchesapartandshouldbeabout
Plansfortheinsideofarustictoolshed.
3inchessquare.Theyshouldriseabout6feetorsotoattachtotherafters.Fillinthespacebetweenthedoorandcornerpostswithextraboards.
Theroofforthistoolshedcanbethatchedormadeofboardsandshingles,whicheveryouprefer.Makeraftersandlathsoutofregularboards,arrangingthemabout1footapart,andthelathsshouldbeplaced6inchesapartforthatching.Theshedcanalsobecheaplyroofedwithgalvanizedironortinroofing.
Thedoorofthetoolshedhastheslabsnailedtoitontheoutsideonly,tomakeitaestheticallyconsistent.Attachhingesandthedoorshouldbeready.Insidetheshed,setsofshelvesmaybehunginwhichtoolsandotheritemscanbestored(c).Awheelbarrowcanbestoreduprightattheback(d)andtoolshungfromhookscomingdownfromtherafters.Gardeningtoolsandrakescanbestoredontheright-handside(e)andachaircansitnearthefrontofthedoor(f).
Afinishedsmall,rustictoolshed.
Smokehouses
Ifyouareslaughteringyourownpoultryorotherlivestock,orifyoujustlikethetasteofsmokedmeat,trymakingyourownsmokehouse.Smokehouseshelpexposemeatstotheactionofcreosoteandempyreumaticvaporsresultingfromtheimperfectcombustionofwood.Thepeculiartasteofsmokedmeatisfromthecreosote—thisalsohelpspreservethemeat.Otherflavorsarealsoimpartedontothemeatbythechoiceofwoodthatisburnedinthesmokehouse,suchashickory.
Tomakeasmokehouseyou’llneedaspace(anythingfromthesizeofabarreltoabarn-sizedareawillwork)thatcanbefilledwithsmokeandcloseduptightly.You’llalsoneedawaytohangthemeatthatneedstobecured.Incommonsmokehouses,afireismadeonastoneslabinthemiddleofthefloor.Inotherinstances,apitisdugaboutafootdeepintothegroundandthefireisbuiltwithinit.Sometimesastoneslabcoversthefirelikeastandardtable.Thepossibilitiesaremany,dependingonyourspaceandneeds.Belowareafewexamplesofsmokehousesthatcanbebuiltandusedforsmokingyourownmeats.
StandardSmokehouseThissmokehousediffusestherisingsmokeandpreventsthedirectheatofthefirefromaffectingthemeatsthatarehungdirectlyaboveit.Inthepicture,asectionofthesmokehouseisshown.
Thisstandardsmokehouseis8feetsquareandbuiltofbricks—makingitasomewhatpermanentstructureinyouryard.Ifyouwanttomakeitoutofwood,besuretoplasteriscompletelyontheinside.Thechimney,(c),hasan8-inchflueandthefireplace,(b),isoutside,belowthelevelofthefloor.Fromthispoint,aflue,(f),iscarriedunderneaththechimneyintothemiddleofthefloorwhereitopensupunderastonetable,(e).
Tokindlethefire,avalveisdrawntodirectlydraftupthroughthechimney.Thewoodchipsarethrownontothefireandthevalveisthenplacedsotodirectthesmokeintothebricksmokehouse.Thereareopenings,(g,g),inboththe
upperandlowerpartsofthechimneythatareclosedbyvalves(thesecanbemanipulatedfromoutsidethesmokehouse.Thedoorofthesmokehouseshouldbemadetoshutverytightlyand,whenbuildingthesmokehouse,besurethattherearenotanycracksinthebrickormortarthroughwhichsmokecaneasilyescape.
Smokehousescanbemadeoutofstucco,brick,orwood.
Thisisasectionalviewofabricksmokehousethatcanbebuilttoanysize.
Thistypeofsmokehouseisnicebecausethesmokecoolsbeforeitispumpedintothechamberandnoashesrisewiththesmoke.Meatmaybekeptinthissmokehouseallyearwithouttastingtoosmoky.
AnotherBrickSmokehouseAsmokehouseofthiskind,built7x9feet,willbesufficientforprivateuse.Thebottomofthissmokehousehasabrickarchwithbricksleftoutsporadically.Thisistoallowtheextractionofsmokefromthehouse.
Locatedabovethearcharetwoseriesofironrodsthathavehookswithgroovedwheels.Youcanfindtheseatmostlocalhardwarestores.Theopenarchwayisforhousingthefireandthereisadoorwithstepsleadinguptoit.Aseriesofventilatingholesaresituatedabovethelowerbarandbelowtheupperbar.Theseholesaremeanttoallowthesmoketoescapefromthehouse.Byreinsertingbricksintotheseholes,thesmokewillstaymostlyconfinedtotheinsideofthesmokehouse.
Thearchconfinesthefireandashes,preventinganymeatthatmightfallfrombeingruinedorburned.Thearchismadeoverawoodenframeofafewpiecesofregularwoodboard,cutintoanovalarchshape.Stripsofwoodarethennailedtothis.Whenthebrickworkisdry,thecenterisknockedoutandremoved.Asmalldoorcanbefashionedtocloseupthearchwhenthefireisbeingkilned.
Interiorviewofastandardsmokehouse
Thedrawingshowsacommonsmokehousethatisbuiltonabrickwallandoverabrickarch.Thereareanumberofholesleftinitforsmoketoescape.Theashpitislocatedbeneaththearch,andthereisalsoadoorthatopenstothispit.To
reachthemeatroomdoor,useasturdyladder.
Theinteriorofasmokehouse
Asmokebarrelisasimplemethodforsmokingmeats.
SimpleWaytoSmokeMeatsIfyoudon’twanttocommittobuildingapermanentsmokehouseinyouryardbutyouwouldliketosmokemeatsoccasionally,youcanusedalargecaskorbarrelasasmokehousesubstitute.
Tomakethebarrelintoaneffectivesmokehouse,justfollowthesesteps:1. Digasmallpitandplaceaflatstoneorabrickacrossit.Thisiswherethe
edgeofthecaskwillrest.2. Makingsurethathalfofthepitisbeneaththebarrelandhalfisoutside,
removetheheadandbottomofthebarrel(orcutaholeintothebottomslightlylargerthantheportionofthepitbeneathit).
3. Removethetopofthebarrelandthenhangthemeatoncross-sticks.Restthesecross-sticksoncrossbarsthataremadetofitintoholesboredintothesidesofthebarrel,closetothetop.
4. Putthelidontopofthebarrelandcoveritwithasacktoconfinethesmokeinside.
5. Putcoalsintothepitoutsideofthecask,andthenfeedthefirewithdampcorncobsorafinebrush.
6. Coverthepitwithaflatstonethatwillhelpregulatethefireandcanberemovedwhenmorefuelisneeded.
Fishthatarehungandreadytobesmoked
RootCellars
Whilemostmodernhouseshavebasementsorcrawlspacesinwhichtokeepfreshvegetablesandpreservescoolanddry,youmaywanttoconstructanadditionalrootcellarifyou’llbestoringsignificantamountsoftheseitems.Arootcellarshouldbelocatedneartoyourhomeandshouldbedry,wellventilated,andfrostproof.Creatingyourownrootcellarisnotterriblyexpensiveandwillgiveyouryardandpropertyatrueback-to-basicsfeel.
RootCellarIfyouhaveahillyareainyouryard,thisistheperfectplacetomakearootcellar.Toconstructtherootcellar,followthesesimplesteps:1. Makeanexcavationinthesideofthehill,determininghowlargeyou’dlike
yourrootcellartobe.2. Intheexcavation,erectasturdyframeoftimberandplanks,orevenof
logs.Putupplankstostandassidewalls,andbuildastrongroofovertheframe.
3. Throwtheexcavatedearthoverthestructureuntilitiscompletelycoveredbyatleast2feetofsoil.
4. Ontheexposedend,makeadoorthatislargeenoughforyoutoenterwithoutducking.Or,ifyoulike,youcanmakeasortof“manhole”throughwhichyoucanenter—thiswillactuallyprotectyourrootcellarfromthefrostmuchbetterthanafull-sizeddoor.
Ifthesoilinthehilliscomposedofstiffclay,youmaynotevenneedtoconstructanysidewalls,andtheroofcanbefitteddirectlyintotheclay.Thenbuildupthefrontofthecellarwithplanks,bricks,orstone,andcreateadoor.
Arootcellarcanbebuiltintothesideofahillusingstone,bricks,orwood.
RootHouseIfyoudonothavealargehillonyourpropertyandwouldstillliketoconstructarootcellar,findaknollorotherdryplaceandremovethesoiloveraspacethatisslightlylargerthanthesizeofthecellar(orroothouseifthestructureisnotbuiltintoahill)andabout2feetdeep.Toconstructthisroothouse:1. Selectpolesorlogsoftwodifferentsizes.Thewideronesshouldbeshorter
thantheothertwo.2. Cuttheendsofthelogsveryflatsotheywillfitcloselytogetherandmake
averytightpen-likestructure.3. Cuttwologsineachlayerlongenoughtopassthroughandfitintotheouter
pen.Thiswillhelpfastenthetwowallstogether.4. Buildthedoorwayupwithshortlogspassingfromonelayerofpolestothe
other.Theseserveassupportstotheendsofthewallpoles.5. Fillinthespacebetweenthesetwowallswithsoil.Itisimportantthatthese
arefilledinfully(sodmayalsobeusedtopackinspacesbetweenthelogs)toprotecttheinsidestorageitemsfromfrostandtokeepthewholestructurecool.Packupthesoilasyouconstructthewallssoyoucanmoreeasilycompactitasyoubuildup.
6. Whenthewallsareabout5or6feetononesideand2or3feetontheother,puttheroofon.Theroofismadeofpolesplacedclosetogether,securedtothelogs,andcoveredwithsod,then18inchesofsoil.Itisthenfinishedoffwithsodonceagain.
Thebaseoftheroothouse.
Thefinishedroothouse.
Rootcellarsorhousesaregreatforkeepingvegetableslikepotatoesorcarrotsandforapples,whichcankeepformonthsincool,drystorage.
PARTFIVEEnergy
“Energyconservationisthefoundationofenergyindependence.”
—ThomasH.Allen
Withtheextremefluctuationinoilpricesandever-growingconcernsaboutthestateofourenvironment,it’snowonderthatmoreandmorepeopleareturningtothenaturalelementsforpower.Sun,wind,water,andearthhaveprovidedforthebasicneedsofhumanitysincethebeginningoftimeanditonlymakessensetolearnhowtoworkwiththemmoreefficiently.Theterm“self-sufficiency,”asitiscommonlyused,issomethingofamisnomer.Wewillneverbeabletomeetallofourownneedsalone.Wedon’tcreatethenaturalworldthatsuppliesuswiththelight,heat,andotherresourcesthatwedependon.Butwecanlearnhowtomakegooduseofthosegifts.Inthesepagesyouwillfindbothsimpleandadvancedprojectstodoso,fromfashioningandusingsolarcookerstobuildingandinstallingwindturbinestoutilizinggeothermalsystems.There’salothere,butit’sonlyasamplingofthemethodsavailableforharnessingnaturalenergy.Lookonlineorvisityourlibraryformoreideas,plans,andtips;you’llalsofindanextensivelistofresourcesinthebackofthisbook.Rememberthatthesimplestandperhapsmosteffectivewaytobeenergy-efficientistouselessofit.Thesimplethings,liketurningoffalightwhenyou’renotintheroom—orevenusingcandlelightintheevenings—canmakeabigdifference.Themoreyouunderstandabouttheprocessofturningthenaturalelementsintousableenergy,themoreyou’llappreciatethevalueofelectricityandwanttoconserveitinanywayyoucan.
SolarEnergy
Solarenergyis,initssimplestform,thesun’sraysthatreachtheearth(alsoknownassolarradiation).Whenyoustepoutsideonahot,sunnysummerday,youcanfeelthepowerofthesun’sheatandlight.Solarenergycanbeharnessedtodoavarietyofthingsinyourhome.Theseinclude:
HeatingyourhomethroughpassivesolardesignorthroughactivesolarheatingsystemsGeneratingelectricityHeatingwaterinyourhomeHeatingswimmingpoolwaterLightingyourhomebothinsideandoutDryingyourclothesviaaclotheslinestrungoutsideindirectsunlightSolarenergycanalsobeconvertedintothermal(heat)energyandusedtoheatwaterforuseinhomes,buildings,orswimmingpoolsandalsotoheatspacesinsidehomes,greenhouses,andotherbuildings.
Photovoltaicenergyistheconversionofsunlightdirectlyintoelectricity.Aphotovoltaiccell,knownasasolarorPVcell,isthetechnologyusedtoconvertsolarenergyintoelectricalpower.APVcellisanon-mechanicaldevicemadefromsiliconalloys.PVsystemsareoftenusedinremotelocationsthatarenotconnectedtoanelectricgrid.Thesesystemsarealsousedtopowerwatches,calculators,andlightedroadsigns.
SolarThermalEnergySolarthermal(heat)energyisusedmostoftenforheatingswimmingpools,heatingwatertobeusedinhomes,andheatingspecificspacesinbuildings.Solarspaceheatingsystemsareeitherpassiveoractive.
PassiveSolarSpaceHeating
Passivespaceheatingiswhathappensinacaronasunnysummerday—thecargetshotinside.Inbuildings,airiscirculatedpastasolarheatsurfaceand
throughthebuildingbyconvection—lessdense,warmairtendstorisewhilethedenser,coolerairmovesdownward.Nomechanicalequipmentisneededforpassivesolarheating.
PVSystemComponents.
AdvantagesofSolarEnergyIt’sfree.Itssuppliesareunlimited.Solarheatingsystemsreducetheamountofairpollutionandgreenhousegasesthatresultfromusingfossilfuels(oil,propane,andnaturalgas)forheatingorgeneratingelectricityinyourhome.Solarheatingsystemsreduceheatingandfuelbillsinthewinter.Itismostcost-effectivewhenusedfortheentireyear.
DisadvantagesofSolarEnergyTheamountofsunlightthatarrivesattheearth’ssurfaceisnotconstantanddependsonlocation,timeofdayandyear,andweatherconditions.Alargesurfaceareaisrequiredtocollectthesun’senergyatausefulrate.
Passivesolarspaceheatingtakesadvantageofthewarmthfromthesunthroughdesignfeatures,suchaslarge,south-facingwindowsandmaterialsinthefloorsand/orwallsthatabsorbwarmthduringthedayandreleaseitatnightwhentheheatisneededmost.Sunspacesandgreenhousesaregoodexamplesofpassivesystemsforsolarspaceheating.
Passivesolarsystemsusuallyhaveoneofthesedesigns:1. Directgain—Thisisthesimplestsystem.Itstoresandslowlyreleasesheat
energycollectedfromthesunshiningdirectlyintothebuildingandwarmingupthematerials(tileorconcrete).Itisimportanttomakesurethespacedoesnotbecomeoverheated.
2. Indirectgain—Thisissimilartodirectgaininthatitusesmaterialstohold,store,andreleaseheat.Thismaterialisgenerallylocatedbetweenthesunandthelivingspace,usuallyinthewall.
3. Isolatedgain—Thiscollectssolarenergyseparatelyfromtheprimarylivingarea(asunroomattachedtoahousecancollectwarmerairthatflowsthroughtherestofthehouse).
ActiveSolarSpaceHeating
Activeheatingsystemsrequireacollectortoabsorbthesolarradiation.Fansorpumpsareusedtocirculatetheheatedairortheheat-absorbingfluid.Thesesystemsoftenincludesometypeofenergystoragesystem.
Therearetwobasictypesofactivesolarheatingsystems.Thesearecategorizedbasedonthetypeoffluid(liquidorair)thatisheatedintheenergycollectors.Thecollectoristhedeviceinwhichthefluidisheatedbythesun.Liquid-basedsystemsheatwateroranantifreezesolutioninahydroniccollector.Air-basedsystemsheatairinanaircollector.Bothofthesesystemscollectandabsorbsolarradiation,transferringsolarheattotheinteriorspaceortoastoragesystem,wheretheheatisthendistributed.Ifthesystemcannotprovideadequateheating,anauxiliaryorbackupsystemprovidesadditionalheat.
Liquidsystemsareusedmoreoftenwhenstorageisincludedandarewellsuitedforradiantheatingsystems,boilerswithhotwaterradiators,andabsorptionheatpumpsandcoolers.Bothliquidandairsystemscanadequatelysupplementforcedairsystems.
Activesolarspaceheatingsystemsarecomprisedofcollectorsthatabsorb
solarradiationcombinedwithelectricfansorpumpstodistributethesolarheat.Thesesystemsalsohaveanenergy-storagesystemthatprovidesheatwhenthesunisnotshining.
Anothertypeofactivesolarspaceheatingsystem,themediumtemperaturesolarcollector,isgenerallyusedforsolarspaceheating.Thesesystemsoperateinmuchthesamewayasindirectsolarwaterheatingsystemsbuthavealargercollectorarea,largerstorageunits,andmuchmorecomplexcontrolsystems.Theyareusuallyconfiguredtoprovidesolarwaterheatingandcanprovidebetween30and70percentofresidentialheatingrequirements.Allactivesolarspaceheatingsystemsrequiremoresophisticateddesign,installation,andmaintenancetechniquesthanpassivesystems.
PassiveSolarWaterHeaters
Passivesolarwaterheatersrelyongravityandonwater’snaturaltendencytocirculateasitisheated.Sincetheseheaterscontainnoelectricalcomponents,passivesystemsaremorereliable,easiertomaintain,andworklongerthanactivesystems.Twopopulartypesofpassivesystemsare:1. Integral-collectorstoragesystems—Theseconsistofoneormorestorage
tanksthatareplacedinaninsulatedboxwithaglazedsidefacingthesun.Thesolarcollectorsarebestsuitedforareaswheretemperaturesdonotoftenfallbelowfreezing.Theyworkwellinhouseholdswithsignificantdaytimeandeveninghot-waterneedsbuttheydonotworkasefficientlyinhouseholdswithonlymorninghot-waterdrawsastheylosemostofthecollectedenergyovernight.
Acombinationofanindirectwaterheaterandahighlyefficientboilercanprovideaveryinexpensivemethodofwaterheating.
2. Thermospyhonsystems—Theseareaneconomicalandreliablechoiceparticularlyinnewerhomes.Thesesystemsrelyonnaturalconvectionofwarmwaterrisingtocirculatethewaterthroughthecollectorsandintothetank.Aswaterinthecollectorheats,itbecomeslighterandrisestothetankaboveitandthecoolerwaterflowsdownthepipestothebottomofthecollector.Infreeze-proneclimates,indirectthermosyphons(usingglycolfluidinthecollectorloop)canbeinstalledonlyifthepipingisprotected.
ActiveSolarWaterHeaters
Activesolarwaterheatersrelyonelectricpumpsandcontrollerstocirculatethewater(orotherheat-transferfluids).Twotypesofactivesolarwaterheatingsystemsare:1. Directcirculationsystems—Theseusepumpstocirculatepressurized
potablewaterdirectlythroughthecollectors.Thesesystemsaremostappropriateforareasthatdonothavelongfreezesorhard/acidicwater.
2. Indirectcirculationsystems—Thesepumpsheattransferfluidsthroughthecollectors.Theseheatexchangersthentransfertheheatfromthefluidtopotablewater.Someoftheseindirectcirculationsystemshaveoverheatprotectorssothecollectorandglycolfluiddonotbecomesuperheated.Commonindirectsystemsincludeantifreeze,inwhichtheheattransferfluidisusuallyaglycolwatermixture,anddrainback,inwhichpumpscirculatethewaterthroughthecollectorsandthenthewaterinthecollectorloopdrainsbackintoareservoirtankwhenthepumpstops.
InstallingaPassiveSolarSpaceHeater
Apassivesolarspaceheaterworkswhenthesunshinesthroughthesolarpanelstoheattheairinsideabox.Astheairheatsupinthebox,itrisesandmovesintothehouse.Coolairmovesintotheboxandoutofthehouse—inthisway,thehouseisheatedwithouttheuseofamechanizedheatingsystem.Usingapassivesolarheaterworksbestifyouhaveahousethatfacessouthandhasbothbasementandfirstfloorwindowsonthatsideofthehouse.Ifyourhousemeetstheserequirements(andtherearen’ttoomanyobstructionsthatwouldimpedethesunfromshiningontheheater),thenyoucanbeginconstruction.
Thepassivesolarspaceheaterismadeupofafloorandtwotriangularendwalls,allofwhichcanbemadesimplyoutofplywood.Inbetweentheopenspace,insulationcanbeplaced.Alidcanalsobeaddedtocovertheheaterinthesummer.
Tobuildsuchasolarspaceheater,firstdecidewhereonthesouthernwallyourcollectorwillbelocated.Ifyoucanplacetheheaterinbetweenwindows,thatisthebestoption.Youmayneedtocutthroughthewallnearawindowtoallowfortheproperventilationbutifyoudon’twanttodothis,youcanalsopurchaseadetachableplywood“chimney”tomovetheheatedairintothehouse.Next,findthestudsthatwillsupportthefiberglasspanelandfindapanelthatwillbeoftheappropriatesize.
Apassivesolarspaceheater.
Asolarwaterheater
Next,makethebaseforyoursolarheatingsystem.Thebasecanbemadeof3/8-inchplywoodboard.Nailtheboardtoa2x4andlevelit.Next,addinsulation(thekindfoundonrollsisbest),nailingittotheplywood.Then,nailthewholeboardtothesideofthehouse.Makeslopingsupportsoutof2x4s.Makesuretheendwallstuddingisnailedin,andthenattachtheoutsidepaneltoit.
Undertheshingles,installflashingorsomethingelsethatwillkeepwateroutofthetopofthesolarheater.Then,installthefiberglasspanels,makingsuretheedgesarecaulkedsonowatercancomein.Enclosetheedgesofthefiberglasswithsmallstripsofplywood.Then,installtheouterfiberglasspanelsothatitisflushwiththetopsurfaceandcaulkit.Tofinishup,painttheinsideoftheplywoodsurfacesblacktoabsorbtheheat.Theinsideofthecoverpanelshouldbepaintedwhitetoreflectthelight.
BuildingYourOwnSolarWaterHeaterThisverysimpleandbasicsolarwaterheaterisalowpressuresystemandsoshouldnotbecombinedwithyourhomeplumbingsystem.Thistypeofheaterisperfectforcampingtripsorothersmallerwaterheatinguses.Findthesuppliesonlineoratahardwarestore.
SuppliesCorrugated,highdensitypolyethylenedrainingtube(4inchesispreferred)
AnEPDMrubbercapwithclamp(availableathardwarestoresoronline)Polyethyleneterephthalatebottles(3-literarepreferred—sodabottlesarefine)
Toconstructthewaterheater,simplystretchtheEPDMrubbercapoveroneendofthedrainingtubeandmakecertaintheclampistight.Cuttheendsoffthebottlesandfitthemovertheotherendofthedrainagepipe.Thiswillserveastheglazingtoheatthewater.Eachbottleshouldbeabletofittightlyovertheotherbottleifyoucutasmallholeinthebottomofeach.Fillthetubewithwater,placeitinthesun,andallowthewaterinsidethebottlesanddrainagetubetoheatup.Onceit’swarm(around120°Fisthemaximumitwillheatthewater),itcanbeusedtowashdishesorclothes,orforasmallbath.
HeatingaRoomUsingCollectorsAircollectorscanbeinstalledonarooforanexterior,south-facingwalltofacilitatetheheatingofoneormoreroomsinahouse.Factory-builtcollectorscanbeusedbutyoucanalsomakeandinstallyourownaircollector,thoughnotethatthisisnotalwayscost-efficient.
Theaircollectorshouldhaveanairtightandinsulatedmetalframeandablackmetalplate.Thiswillabsorbtheheatthroughtheglazingonthefront.Thesun’sraysheattheplate,whichthenheatstheairinthecollector.Afanorblowercanpulltheairfromtheroomthroughtothecollectorandblowitintotheroom.
RoomAirHeatingwithCollectors
Aircollectorscanbeinstalledonarooforanexterior(southfacing)wallforheatingoneormorerooms.Althoughfactory-builtcollectorsforon-siteinstallationareavailable,do-it-yourselfersmaychoosetobuildandinstalltheirownaircollectors.Asimplewindowairheatcollectorcanbemadeforafewhundreddollars.Simplewindowboxcollectorfanswillfitinawindowopening.Thesefanscanbeactiveorpassive.Apassivecollectorfanallowsairtoenterthebottomofthecollector,riseasitheats,andentertheroom.Adamperkeepstheroomairfromflowingbackintothepanelonovercastorcloudydays.Windowboxsystemsonlyprovideasmallamountofheatasthecollectorsarequitesmall.
Solarcollectorsonaroof
RoofAreaNeededinSquareFeet(showninBoldType)
SolarCollectors
Solarcollectorsareanessentialpartofactivesolarheatingsystems.Thesecollectorsharnessthesun’senergyandtransformitintoheat.Then,theheatistransferredtowater,solarfluid,orair.Solarcollectorscanbeoneoftwotypes:1. Nonconcentratingcollectors—Thesehaveacollectorareathatisthesame
sizeastheabsorptionarea.Themostcommontypeisflat-platecollectorsandtheseareusedwhentemperaturesbelow200°Faresufficientforspaceheating.
2. Concentratingcollectors—Theareaofthesecollectorsgatheringthesolarradiationismuchgreaterthantheabsorberarea.
Solarthermalenergycanbeusedforsolarwaterheatingsystems,solarpoolheaters,andsolarspaceheatingsystems.Therearemanytypesofsolarcollectors,suchasflatplatecollectors,evacuatedtubecollectors,andintegralcollectorstoragesystems.
CalculatingElectricityBillSavingsforaNet-MeteredPVSystem
Firstdeterminethesystem’ssizeinkilowatts(kW).Areasonablerangeis1to5kW.Thisvalueisthe“kWofPV”inputintheequations.Next,basedonyourgeographiclocation,selecttheenergyproductionfactorfromthemapbelowfor
thekWh/kW-yearinputfortheequations.
EnergyfromthePVsystem=(kWofPV)x(kWh/kW-year)=kWh/year.(Dividethisnumberbytwelveifyouwanttodetermineyourmonthlyenergyreduction.)
Energybillssavings=(kWh/year)x(ResidentialRate)/100=$/yearsaved.(ResidentialRateinthisaboveequationshouldbeindollarsperkWh;for
example,arateof10centsperkWhisinputas$0.10/kWh.)
Forexample,a2-kWsysteminDenver,CO,ataresidentialenergyrateof$0.07/kWhwillsaveabout$266peryear(1,900kWh/kW-yearx$0.07/kWhx
2kW=$266/year).
Includingplentyofenergy-efficientwindowsinyourhomewillallowsunlighttowarmyourroomsnaturally.
AnotherFormofSolarHeating:DaylightingSolarcollectorpanelsarenottheonlywayinwhichthesun’sheatcanbeharnessedforenergypurposes.Daylightinguseswindowsandskylightstobringsunlightintoyourhome.Usingenergy-efficientwindows,aswellascarefullythought-outlightingdesign,reducestheneedforartificiallightingduringthedaytime.Thesewindowsalsocutdownonheatingandcoolingproblems.
Theeffectivenessofdaylightinginyourhomewilldependonyourclimateandthedesignofyourhouse.Thesizesandlocationsofwindowandskylightsshouldbebasedonthewayinwhichthesunhitsyourhomeandnotontheoutwardaestheticsofyourhouse.Facingwindowstowardthesouthismostadvantageousfordaylightingandformoderatingseasonaltemperatures.
Asimplesolaroven
Placingwindowsthatfacetowardthesouthwillallowmoresunlightintoyourhomeduringthewintermonths.North-facingwindowsarealsousefulfordaylightingastheyallowarelativelyeven,naturallightintoaroom,producelittleglare,andcapturenoundesirablesummerheat.
MakeYourOwnSolarCookingOvenThistypeofsimple,portablesolarovenisperfectforcampingtripsorifyouwanttodoanoutdoorbarbequewithadditionalcookedfoodsinthesummer.Thishomemadesolarovencanreacharound350ºFwhenplacedindirectsunlight.
SuppliesAreflectivecarsunshadeoranysturdybutflexiblematerial(suchascardboard)coveredwithtinfoilandcuttothenotchedshapeofacarsunshadeVelcroAbucketAcookingpotAwiregrillAbakingbag
Directions1. Placethecarsunshadeontheground.CuttheVelcrointothreeseparate
piecesandstickonhalfofeachpieceontotheedgenearthenotch.Then,testtheshadetoseeiftheVelcropieces,whenbroughttogether,formafunnel.Placethefunnelatopthebucket.
2. Placethecookingpotonthewiregrill.Putthisallinthebakingbagandputitinsidethefunnel.Therackshouldnowbelyingontopofthebucket.Nowplacethewholecookerindirectsunlightandanglethefunnelinthe
directionofthesun.Adjusttheangleasthesunmoves.
MakeYourOwnSolarPanelsMakingyourownsolarpanelscanbetrickyandtime-consuming,butwiththerightmaterialsandlotsofpatience,youcancertainlycreateaneffectivesolarenergypanel.
SuppliesPegboardSolarcells(quantitywillbedeterminedbyhowmuchpoweryouwanttogetfromyoursolarpanel)ContactwireWirecuttersSolderSolderingironBoltswithwashersandwingnutsPlexiglass
Solarovenscanbefashionedinavarietyofways.Thegoalistohaveasmuchsurfaceareaaspossiblereflectingthesuntowardyourfood.
AluminumframingSiliconecaulking
Screws
Directions1. Applysiliconecaulkinginverticalstripsbetweentherowsofholesonthe
pegboard.Placethesolarcellsfaceupalongthecaulkinginstraightrows,carefullyaligningthemsothatthewirespokethroughtheholes.Thesolarcellsshouldcompletelycovertheboard.
2. Placeasoftsheetorblanketonthegroundortable(topreventthecellsfromscratching)andcarefullyflipthebaordsothatitisfacedown.Soldertogetherthewirescomingouttocreateonethickwirestemmingfromeachhole.Thenuseconnectingwireormetalstripstoconnectthewiresalonghorizontallines.Besuretoconnectallpositivewirestogetherandallnegativewirestogether,withoutmixingthetwo.
Refertotheseillustrationswhileconstructingyourownsolarpanel.
3. Drilltwoholesinthebackofyourpanelandattachapositiveandnegativebolt,washer,andwingnut.Solderthepositivewirestothepositiveboltandthenegativewirestothenegetaivebolt.
4. Buildawatertightframetosize,usingaluminumframingforthesides,plywoodforthebacking,andaplexiglassfacetoallowthesunlighttoshinethrough.Sealallcracksandedgeswithsiliconesealant.
InstallingYourHeatCollectorIfpossible,installyourownsolarheatcollectoronthesouthsideofyourhouse(thesidethatreceivesthemostsunlightduringtheday).Itcanbeplacedinawindowtohelpminimizeyourheatingcostsduringthewintermonths.
Asolarheatcollectorcanbemadefromheavy-dutyfoaminsulation,windowglass,sealant,aluminumfoil,andheavy-dutytape.Paintthefoampanel,orbothsidesofthealuminumsheets,blackandthenmountitoncubesthatarecementedtothesideofyourhousenearawindow.Thiswillallowtheairtocomeinonbothsidesoftheheatcollector.
Allsidesofthefoamshouldbecoveredwithaluminumfoilandthenadheredtothefoamboard.Thenplaceandsealtheglasspanelsoverthefoam,sealingitwiththesealantandheavy-dutytapeifneeded.Anotherpieceoffoamcanbeutilizedasacoverfortheductatnightorduringthewarm,sunnysummermonths.Hingethisonwithhingebracketsorclasps.
Themoresurfaceareayoucoverwithsolarpanels,themorepoweryou’llget.It’sbesttoinstallyourpanelsonthesouthsideofyourhome.
Alternatesolarheatingpanel
AnAlternativeSolarHeatingPanelThistypeofsolarpanelisquitedifferentfromtheexpensive,manufacturedpanelsyoucanpurchaseandhaveinstalledonyourrooforthesideofyourhouse.Itisgreatforheatingairbutcannotproduceelectricity.Youcaneithersituatethisheaterinasouth-facingwindowofyourhomeorplaceitontheoutside,southernwallorontheroof.Heatingpanelsthatareontheoutsideofahousegenerallycreatemoreheatandaremuchmoreeffectiveinheatingaroomorareaofyourhome.
Tostart,youwillneedtopurchaseglassorPlexiglasforyoursolarheatingpanel.Eitheroneshouldbedouble-panedtokeepoutmoisture.Tobuildtheframeforyoursolarheatingpanel,use2x4sandcreateasquareorrectanglethatwillfityourpaneofglass.Nailplywoodtothebackoftheframe.Next,takeapieceofinsulationboardandputitatthebackofthepanel.Heatabsorptioncanbegainedthroughaluminumflashingorcopper.Afterthisisinserted,screwdownthewindowframe,ifyouareusingone,andmakesureitiscaulkedwelltokeepoutanyleakingwater.
Solarpanelscanbeplacedinafieldorothersunnyareatocollectenergy,whichisstoredandthenusedasneeded.
Addtheinteriorboardsthatlinetheframeandthebafflestosealthetopoftheglass.Screwtheseinteriorboardstothesidesofthepaneltokeepthemsecure.Then,cutouttheairopeningsusingajigsaw.Onecircularopeningshouldbeinthelowerleftandtheotherintheupperrightofyourheatingpanel.Beforehangingthepanelup,youwillneedtodeterminewherethestudsareinthewallorwheretheroofraftersarelocated(ifyouareinstallingonyourroof).Itisalso
importantthatyouropeningsdonotfallontopofastudorrafterasthiswilldefeattheirabilitytodirectairflow.Screwinboardsalongthestudsorrafters,onwhichyouwillthenmountthepanel.
RegulationsforInstallingandBuildingSolarHeatingSystems
Beforeyouinstallasolarenergysystem,itisimportanttolearnaboutthelocalbuildingcodes,zoning,andneighborhoodcovenantsastheyapplytothesesystems.Youwillmostlikelyneedtoobtainabuildingpermittoinstallasolarenergysystemontoanexistingbuilding.Commonproblemsyoumayencounterasahomeownerininstallingasolarenergysystemare:exceedingroofload,unacceptableheatexchangers,improperwiring,tamperingwithpotablewatersupplies,obstructingpropertyandyards,andplacingthesystemtooclosetothestreetorlotlines.Therearealsolocalcompliancesthatmustbefactoredinbeforeinstallingyoursystem.Contactyourlocaljurisdictionzoningandbuildingenforcementdivisionsandanyhomeowner’s,neighborhood,orcommunityassociationsbeforebuildingandinstallinganysolarheatingequipment.
Oncethepanelissecuredtothewallorroof,begintoinstalltheairdeliverysystemsothehotaircanbecirculatedthroughoutyourhome.Youmaywanttoaddasmallfan(oneusedinacomputerwillbefine)toyourheatingpanelsoyoucanbettercirculatetheairthroughoutthesystem,thoughthisisnotnecessarytooperateyourheatingpaneleffectively.Ifyoudochoosetouseafan,itmustbeabletofitinsidethewallplate.Youwillneedtodrillaholeinyourwallwherethepanelholesaresituatedontheoutside.Cuttheholeandaddtheconnectortotheductwork,slidingitthroughtheholeintotheroom,andsealofftheedgesofthehole.
Placethefanwithinthewallplateintheroom,andplaceanelectricalboxnearthefantoturnitonandoff.Ifyouaren’tfamiliarwithelectricalwork,youmaywanttoaskanelectriciantohelpyouwithconnectingtheelectricalwiring.Next,mountthesolarpanelsoitfacestothesouth,runningawireintothe
electricalboxinsidetheroom.Thiswillsaveyoumoneyandenergywhilerunningyourfan.Nowturnonthefanandfeelthewarmairstartingtoblowthroughyourroom.
Tofinishyouroutsidepanel,simplypainttheinsideblacktoabsorbmoreheat,addsomeweatherstrippingtosealtheglasstightly,andscrewtheglasspiecetothepanel.
SolarGreenhouseGreenhousescollectsolarenergyonsunnydaysandthenstoretheheatforuseintheeveningandondayswhenitisovercast.Asolargreenhousecanbesituatedasafreestandingstructure(likeashedorlargerenclosure)orinanundergroundhole.
Forgardenerswhowanttogrowsmallamountsofproduce,passivesolargreenhousesareagoodoptionandhelpextendthegrowingseason.Activesystemstakesupplementalenergysourcestomovethesolarheatedairfromitsstoragefacilitytootherpartsofthegreenhouse.Solargreenhousescanutilizemanyofthesamefeaturesandinstallationtechniquesaspassivesolarheatingsystemsusedinhomestostayheated.
Whilestandardgreenhousesalsorelyonthesun’sraystoheattheirinteriors,solargreenhousesaredifferentbecausetheyhavespecialglazingthatabsorbslargeamountsofheatduringthewintermonthsandalsouse
Asolargreenhouse
materialstostoretheheat.Solargreenhouseshavealotofinsulationinareaswithlittlesunlighttokeepheatlossataminimum.
TypesofSolarGreenhouses
Twocommontypesofsolargreenhousesaretheattachedsolargreenhouseandthefreestandingsolargreenhouse.Attachedsolargreenhousesaresituatednexttoahouseorshedandaretypicallylean-tostructures.Theyarelimitedintheamountofproducetheycangrowandhavepassivesolarheatingsystems.
Freestandingsolargreenhousesarelargestructuresthatarebestsuitedforproducingalargevarietyandquantityofproduce,flowers,andherbs.Theycanbeconstructedintheformofeitherashedstructureorahoophouse.Inashedgreenhouse,thesouthwallisglazedtomaximizetheheatingpotentialandthenorthwallisextremelywellinsulated.Hoophousegreenhousesareroundedinsteadofshapedlikeanelongatedshed.Solarenergyiscollectedandstoredinearththermalstorageandinwater.Thesesystems,whilecommon,arenotaseffectiveinutilizingsolarenergyastheshedandlean-tostructures.
Bothflowersandvegetablescanthriveingreenhouses.
SitesforSolarGreenhouses
Theglazingportionofthesolargreenhouseshouldideallyfacedirectlysouthtogainthemaximumexposuretothesun’sheat.Situatingthesolargreenhouseonaslightslopefacingupwardwillmaximizetheamountofsolarenergyitcanabsorb.
MaterialsUsedinSolarGreenhouseConstruction
Forasolargreenhousetobeabletocollect,circulate,andmaintainthegreatestamountofheat,itisimportantthatitisconstructedoutofthepropermaterials.Glazingmaterialsneedtoallowphotosyntheticradiationtogetthroughsoitcanreachtheplants.Clearglassallowsdirectlightintothegreenhouseandsoshouldbeusedasaglazingmaterial.Itisalsoimperativethatwhentheglazingmaterialsaremountedonthegreenhouse,therearenocracksorholesthatcanallowforheattoescape.Thus,glazingmaterialshouldhavehighheatefficiencyandbemadeofresistantmaterialtoholdupininclementweatherandhail.
Solargreenhousesalsoneedtobeabletostoretheheatthatiscollectedforuseoncloudydaysoratnight.Theeasiestmethodforstoringheatistosituaterocks,concrete,and/orwaterinthepathofthesunlightthatisenteringthegreenhouse.Thesematerialswillabsorbtheheatduringthedayandreleaseitduringtheeveninghours.Poolsofwater,rocks,andconcreteslabsorsmallwallsshouldbelargeenoughtoabsorbandemitenoughheattolastforthenightorforafewcloudydays.
Phase-changematerialsmayalsobeusedtoeffectivelystoreheatinyoursolargreenhouse.Thesematerialsconsistofparaffin,fattyacids,andGlauber’ssalt.
Thesematerialsstoreheatastheychangeintoliquidandreleaseitastheyturnbackintoasolidform.Theyarekeptinsealedtubesandmanyareneededtoprovideenoughheat.
Greenhousescanbemadeinarangeofshapesandsizesandcanbeattachedtoyourhomeorseparatefromit.
Allareasofthegreenhousethatarenotglazedneedtobeinsulatedtokeepinthemaximumamountofheat.Weatherstrippingishelpfulinsealingdoorsandvents;foaminsulationishelpfulforwalls.Placeapolyethylenefilmbetweentheinsulationandthegreenhousewallstokeepthesematerialsdry—iftheybecometoowetorsaturated,theywillbelesseffectiveandmaystarttomold.Thefloorsofasolargreenhousecanalsoloseheatsotheyshouldbemadeoutofbrickorflagstone(withinsulationfoamunderneath)tokeeptheheatin.
Thesolargreenhouseneedsoutdoorinsulationaswell,whichcanbeattainedbyplacinghaybalesalongtheedgesofthegreenhouse,orthegreenhousecanbesituatedslightlyunderground(apitgreenhouse).Ofcourse,ifagreenhouseisdugintothesoil,itneedstobeinanareathatisabovethewaterleveltominimizeleakage.
Asolargreenhouse,likeanyothergreenhouse,alsoneedsproperventilationforthewarmersummermonths.Ventsinthesidesofthegreenhousewillhelpcreateairflow.Ridgeventsintheroofwillallowthehottestairtoescapeoutofthetopofthegreenhouseaswell.Ifagreenhouseneedsmoreventilation,asolarchimneycanbehookeduptothepassivesolarcollectorstoreleaseextraheatoutintotheair.
WindEnergy
WindenergyiscreatednaturallybycirculationpatternsintheEarth’satmospheredrivenbytheheatfromthesun.Thesewindsarecausedbytheunevenheatingoftheatmospherebythesun,theirregularitiesoftheearth’ssurface,andtherotationoftheearth.Windpatternsaremodifiedbytheearth’sterrain,bodiesofwater,andvegetation.Sincetheearth’ssurfaceismadeofverydifferenttypesoflandandwater,itabsorbsthesun’sheatatdifferentrates.Duringtheday,theairabovethelandheatsupveryquickly.Thewarmairoverthelandexpandsandrisesandtheheavier,coolerairrushesintotakeitsplace,creatingwinds.Atnight,thewindsarereversedastheaircoolsrapidlyoverland.Thisairflowisusedformanypurposes:sailing,flyingkites,andgeneratingelectricity.
SmallWindElectricSystemsSmallwindelectricsystemsareoneofthemostcost-effective,home-basedrenewableenergysystems.Thesesystemsarenonpollutingandarefairlyeasytosetup.Asmallwindelectricsystemcaneffectively:
Loweryourelectricitybillsby50to90percentHelpyouavoidhighcostsofhavingutilitypowerlinesextendedtoaremotelocationHelpuninterruptiblepowersuppliesridethroughextendedutilityoutages
HowDoSmallWindElectricSystemsWork?Whenthewindspinsawindturbine’sblades,arotorcapturesthekineticenergyofthewind,convertingitintorotarymotiontodrivethegenerator.Mostturbineshaveautomaticoverspeed-governingsystemstokeeptherotorfromspinningoutofcontrolonverywindydays.
Asmallwindsystemcanbeconnectedtoanelectricdistributionsystem(grid-connected)oritcanstandalone(off-grid).Tocaptureandconvertthewind’skineticenergyintoelectricity,ahomewindenergysystemmustgenerallybecomprisedofthefollowing:
Warmairoverthelandrises
1. Awindturbine—Thisconsistsofbladesattachedtoarotor,agenerator/alternatormountedonaframe,andatail
2. Atower3. Balance-of-systemcomponents—i.e.,controllers,inverters,and/orbatteries
Awind-electricturbinegenerator,morecommonlyknownasa“windturbine,”convertskineticenergyinthewindintomechanicalpower.Thispowercanbeuseddirectlyforspecifictasks,likegrindinggrainsorpumpingwater.Ageneratorcanalsoconvertthismechanicalpowerintoahigh-value,highlyflexibleandusefulformofenergy—electricity.
Windturbinesmakeelectricitybyworkingintheoppositewayasafan.Insteadofusingelectricitytomakewind,asafandoes,turbinesusewindtomakeelectricity.Thewindturnstheblades,spinningashaftthatconnectstoagenerator,whichmakeselectricity.
Thebasicpartsofasmallwindelectricsystem
ABriefHistoryofWindEnergy
Peoplehavebeenharnessingenergyfromthewindsinceancienttimes.Windwasusedtosailshipsandwindmillswerebuildtohelpgrindwheat,corn,andothergrains.WindmillswerealsousedtopumpwaterandtocutwoodatsawmillsintheformativeyearsoftheAmericancolonies.Evenintotheearlytwentiethcentury,windmillswerebeingusedtogenerateelectricityinruralpartsofAmerica.Thewindmillagaingainednationalattentionintheearly1980swhenwindenergywasfinallyconsideredarenewableenergysource.ItcontinuestobeagrowingindustrythroughouttheUnitedStates.
InstallingaSmallElectricWindSystem
Smallwindelectricsystems,withtheproperinstallationandmaintenance,canlastover20years.Beforeinstallingyoursystem,firstfindthebestsite,determinetheappropriatesizeofyourwindturbine,decidewhetheryouwantagrid-connectedorstand-alonesystem,andfindoutaboutyourlocalzoning,permitting,andneighborhoodcovenantrequirements.
Manypeopledecidetoinstallthesesystemsontheirown(thoughthemanufacturerand/ordealershouldalsobeabletohelpyouinstallthesmallwindelectricsystem).However,beforeyouattempttoinstallthewindturbine,makesureyoucananswerthesedo-it-yourselfquestions:1. CanIpourapropercementfoundation?2. DoIhaveaccesstoalift,ladder,oranotherwaytoerectthetowersafely?3. DoIknowthedifferencebetweenalternatingcurrent(AC)anddirect
current(DC)wiring?4. DoIknowenoughaboutelectricitytosafelywiremyturbine?5. DoIknowhowtosafelyhandleandinstallbatteries?
Iftheanswertoanyofthesequestionsis“No,”thenyoushouldhavesomeonehelpyouinstallthesystem(contactthemanufactureroryourstateenergyoffice).
EvaluatingaPotentialSiteforYourSmallWindTurbineThesiteonwhichyouchoosetoinstallyoursystemshouldmeetthefollowingcriteria:
Yourpropertyhasagoodwindresource—goodannualwindspeedsandaprevailingdirectionforthewind.
InsideaWindTurbine
Partsofawindturbine:Anemometer:measuresthewindspeedandtransmitswindspeeddatatothecontroller.Blades:mostturbineshaveeithertwoorthreebladesandthewindblowsovertheblades,causingthebladestoliftand
rotate.Brake:adiscbrake,appliedmechanically,electrically,orhydraulically,andstopstherotorinemergencies.Controller:startsupthemachineatwindspeedsofabout8to16mphandshutsoffthemachineatabout55mphwindspeeds.Turbinesdonotoperateatwindspeedsabove55mphbecausetheymaybedamaged.Gearbox:gearsconnectthelow-speedshafttothehigh-speedshaftandincreasetherotationalspeedsfromabout30to60rotationsperminute(rpm)toabout1000to1800rpm—therotationalspeedrequiredbymostgeneratorstoproduceelectricity.Thegearboxisacostlyandheavypartofthewindturbine.Generator:usuallyanoff-the-shelfinductiongeneratorthatproduces60-cycleACelectricity.High-speedshaft:drivesthegenerator.Low-speedshaft:turnedbytherotoratabout30to60rpm.Nacelle:sitsatopthetowerandcontainsthegearbox,low-andhigh-speedshafts,generator,controller,andbrake.Somenacellesarelargeenoughforahelicoptertolandon.Pitch:Turnsthebladesoutofthewindtocontroltherotorspeedandkeeptherotorfromturninginwindsthataretoohighortoolowtoproduceelectricity.Rotor:thebladesandhub.Tower:madefromtubularsteel,concrete,orsteellattice.Sincewindspeedincreaseswithheight,tallertowersenableturbinestocapturemoreenergyandgeneratemoreelectricity.Winddirection:an“upwind”turbineoperatesfacingintothewindwhileotherturbinesaredesignedtoface“downwind”orawayfromthewind.Windvane:measureswinddirectionandcommunicateswiththeyawdrivetoorienttheturbineproperlywithrespecttothewind.Yawdrive:usedtokeeptherotorfacingintothewindasthewinddirectionchanges(notrequiredfordownwindturbines).Yawmotor:powerstheyawdrive.
Yourhomeislocatedonatleastoneacreoflandinaruralarea.Yourlocalzoningcodesandcovenantsdonotprohibitconstructionofawindturbine.Youraverageelectricitybillis$150permonthormore.
Ifyouliveinanareathathascomplexterrain,becarefulwhenselectinganinstallationsite.Ifyouplaceyourwindturbineonthetopofahilloronanexceptionallywindyside,youwillhavemoreaccesstoprevailingwindsthaninagullyorontheshelteredsideofahill.Additionally,itisimportanttoconsideranyexistingobstacles—trees,houses,sheds—thatmaybeinthewayofthewind’spath.Youshouldalsoplanforfutureobstructions,suchasnewbuildingsorlandscaping.Yourturbineneedstobepositionedupwindofanybuildingsandtrees,anditneedstobe30feetaboveanythingwithin300feetofitssite.
Whendeterminingthesuitabilityofyoursiteforasmallelectricwindsystem,estimateyoursite’swindresource.Windresourcecanvarysignificantlyoveranareaofjustafewmilesbecauseoflocalterrain’sinfluenceonwindflow.Usethefollowingmethodstohelpestimateyourwindresourcebeforeinstallingyoursmallelectricwindsystem:1. Consultawindresourcemap.Thisisusedtoestimatethewindresourcein
yourarea.YoucanfindaspecificmapforyourstateattheU.S.DepartmentofEnergy’sWindPoweringAmericaProgramWebsite.A
generalU.S.mapisshowninthefigure.2. Obtainwindspeeddata.Theeasiestwaytoquantifythewindresourcein
yourareaisbyobtainingtheaveragewindspeedinformationfromalocalairport.Airportwinddataaretypicallymeasured20to33feetaboveground.Averagewindspeedsincreasewithheightandmaybeasmuchas15to25percentgreateratausualwindturbinehub(80feethigh)thanthosemeasuredatairports.
3. Watchvegetationflagging.Flaggingistheeffectofstrongwindsonanareaofvegetation.Forexample,ifagroupoftreesonflatgroundisleaningsignificantlyinonedirection,chancesarethey’vebecomethatwayduetostrongwinds.
4. Useameasurementsystem.Directmonitoringusingameasurementsystematacertainsiteprovidesthebestpictureoftheavailablewindresource.Theseareveryexpensive,however,andsomaynotbepracticaltouse.
5. Obtaindatafromalocalsmallwindsystem—ifthereisasmallwindturbinenearyourarea,youmaybeabletoobtaininformationontheannualoutputofthesystem,aswellaswindspeeddata.
WindPowerClassification
SmallWindTurbinesUsedforHomesSingle,small,stand-aloneturbinesthataresizedbelow100kilowattsareusedforhomes,telecommunicationdishes,andwaterpumping.Usedinresidentialapplications,thesesmallwindturbinescanrangefrom400wattsto20kilowatts.Inadditiontobeingusedforgeneratingelectricityandpumpingwater,theycanbeusedforchargingbatteries.MostU.S.manufacturersratetheirsmallwindturbinesbytheamountofpowertheycansafelyproduceatwindspeedsbetween24and36mph.
Anaveragehomeusesabout9,400kilowatthoursofelectricityperyear.Thus,awindturbineratedinthe5-to15-kilowattrangewouldmakeasignificantcontributiontothisenergydemand.Beforedecidingonawindturbineyoushould:1. Establishanenergybudget.Trytoreducetheelectricityuseinyourhome
soyouwillonlyneedasmallturbine.
Vegetationflaggingistheeffectofstrongwindsonvegetation.It’sagoodindicatorofhowstrongthewindsareinthatarea.
2. Determineanappropriateheightforthewindturbine’stowersoitwillgeneratethemaximumamountofenergy.
3. Rememberthatasmallhome-sizedwindmachinehasrotorsthatarebetween8and25feetindiameterandstandaround30feettall.Ifyourpropertydoesnothaveenoughspacetoaccommodatethis,youmaynotbeabletohaveapowerfulenoughturbinetohelpsignificantlyreduceyourenergycosts.
Windmillbladescanvaryinshapebutshouldalwaysbeangledtocatchthemostwind.
MaintainingYourSmallWindTurbineInordertokeepyourturbinerunningsmoothlyandefficiently,doanannualcheckofthefollowing:
Checkandtightenboltsandelectricalconnectionsasnecessary.Checkmachinesforcorrosion.Checktheguywiresforpropertension.Checkforandreplaceanywornleading-edgetapeontheturbineblades.Replacetheturbinebladesand/orbearingsafter10years.
TypesofWindTurbinesModernwindturbinesfallintotwobasiccategories:horizontal-axisvarietiesandvertical-axisdesigns.
Horizontal-axisWindTurbines
Mostwindmachinesusedtodayfallintothiscategory.Horizontal-axiswindmachineshavebladeslikeanairplanepropeller.Astandardhorizontalwindmachinestandsabout20storiestallandhasthreebladesspanning200feetacross.Thesearethemachinesmostreadilyfoundinlargefieldsandonwind
farms.
Themajorityofsmallwindturbinesmadetodayareofthehorizontal-axisstyle.Theyhavetwoorthreebladesmadeofcompositematerial,suchasfiberglass.Theturbine’sframeisastructuretowhichtherotor,generator,andtailareallattached.Thediameteroftherotorwilldeterminetheamountofenergytheturbinewillproduce.Thetailhelpskeeptheturbinefacingintothe
Stand-AloneandSmallHybridSystems
Asolarandwindhybridenergysystem
Windpowercanalsobeusedinoff-gridsystems.Thesearecalledstand-alonesystemsbecausetheyarenotconnectedtoanelectricdistributiongrid.Inthesesystems,smallwindturbinescanbeusedincombinationwithothercomponents,suchassmallsolarelectricsystems,tocreateahybridpowersystem.Hybridpowersystemsprovidereliableoff-gridpowerforhomes(andevenforentirecommunitiesincertaininstances)thatarefarfromlocalutilitylines.
Ahybridelectricsystemmaybeapracticalsystemforyouif:Youliveinanareawithaverageannualwindspeedofatleastninemph.Agridconnectionisnotavailableorcanonlybemadethrough
averycostlyextension.Youwouldliketobecomeindependentfromyourenergyutilitycompany.Youwouldliketogeneratecleanpower.
Smallhybridsystemsthatcombinewindandsolartechnologiesofferseveraladvantagesovereithersinglesystem.InmanypartsoftheUnitedStates,windspeedsarelowinthesummerwhenthesunshinesthebrightestandforthelongesthours.Conversely,thewindisstrongerinthewinterwhenlesssunlightisavailable.Thesehybridsystems,therefore,aremorelikelytoproducepowerwhenyouneedit.
Iftherearetimeswhenneitherthewindnorthesolarsystemsareproducingenergy,mosthybridsystemswillthenprovidepowerthroughbatteriesoranenginegeneratorpoweredbydieselfuel(whichcanalsorechargethebatteriesiftheyrunlow).
Hybridpowersystemscombinemultiplesourcestodelivernonintermittentelectricpower.
wind.Mountedonatower,thewindturbinehasbetteraccesstostrongerwinds.
Thesemachinesalsorequirebalance-of-systemcomponents.Thesepartsarerequiredforwaterpumpingsystemsandotherresidentialusesofyourwindturbine.Thesealsovarybasedonthetypeofsystemyouareusing:eitheragrid-
connected,stand-alone,orhybrid.
Forexample,ifyouhavearesidentialgrid-connectedwindturbinesystem,yourbalance-of-systemspartswillinclude:
AcontrollerStoragebatteriesApowerconditioningunit(inverter)Wiring
Ahorizontal-axiswindturbine
Ahybridwindandsolarenergysystem
ElectricaldisconnectswitchGroundingsystemFoundationforthetower
Vertical-axisWindTurbines
Thesemachineshavebladesthatgofromtoptobottom.Themostcommontypelookslikeagianttwo-bladedeggbeater.Vertical-axiswindmachinesaregenerally100feettalland50feetwide.Thoughthesewindturbineshavethepotentialtoproduceagreatdealofenergy,theymakeuponlyasmallpercentageofthewindmachinesthatareinusecurrentlyduetothecostandeffortrequiredtosetthemup.Inaddition,theyproduceagreatdealofnoise,canbeunsightly,hurtthebirdpopulation,andrequirelargeroadsandheavy-dutyequipmenttogetthemupandrunning.
Grid-ConnectedSmallWindElectricSystemsSmallwindenergysystemscanbeconnectedtotheelectricitydistributionsystemtobecome“grid-connectedsystems.”Thesewindturbinescanhelpreduceyourconsumptionofutility-suppliedelectricityforappliances,electricheat,andlighting.Theutilitywillmakeupthedifferenceforanyenergythat
yourturbinecannotmake.Anyexcesselectricitythatisproducedbythesystem,andcannotbeusedbythehousehold,canoftenbesentorsoldtotheutility.Onedrawbacktothissystem,however,isthatduringpoweroutages,thewindturbineisrequiredtoshutdownforsafetyreasons.
Grid-connectedsystemsareonlypracticalif:Youliveinanareawithaverageannualwindspeedsofatleast10mph.Utility-suppliedelectricityisexpensiveinyourarea.Theutility’srequirementsforconnectingyoursystemtoitsgridarenotexceedinglyexpensive.Therearegoodincentivesforthesaleofexcesselectricity.
MountingYourSmallWindElectricSystemonaTowerSincewindspeedsincreasewithheight,itisessentialthatyoursmallwindturbinebemountedonatower.Thehigherthetower,themorepowerthewindsystemwillbeabletoproduce.Todeterminethebestheightforyourtower,youwillneedtoknowtheestimatedannualenergyoutputandthesizeofyourturbine.
Therearetwotypesoftowers:self-supporting(free-standing)andguyed.Mosthomewindpowersystemsuseaguyedtowerasitistheleastexpensive.Guyedtowersconsistoftheseparts:
Latticesections
Agrid-connectedsmallwindelectricsystem
PipeTubing(dependingonthedesign)Supportingguywires
Thesetowersareeasiertoinstallbuttheydorequirelotsofspace—theradius
ofthetowermustbe½to¾ofthetowerheight.
Tilt-downtowers,whilemoreexpensive,offeraneasywaytomaintainsmaller,lightweightturbinesthatarelessthan10kilowatts.Thesetowerscanbeloweredtothegroundduringsevereweatherorunusuallyhighwinds.
Generally,itisagoodideatoinstallasmallwindturbineonatowerwiththebottomoftherotorbladesaround30feetaboveanyobstaclethatiswithin300feetfromthetower.
WindmillsWindmillsareusedforpumpingwater,milling,andoperatinglightmachineryallaroundtheworld.Theyareconstructedinavarietyofshapesandsomearequitepicturesque.Whensetupproperly,windmillscostnothingtooperateandifthewheelismadewell,itwilllastformanyyearswithoutneedformajorrepairs.Tomakeawindmillrequiresagoodunderstandingofcarpentryandworkmanshipbutitisnotincrediblydifficultorexpensivetodo.
Detailsofthewindmill.Figure(a)showsageneralviewwiththetailturnedto“off”position.Figure(b)showsdetailsofthetail,and(c)showsacross-piece
ofthetail.
ConstructingaWindmill
Windmillscanbeofallsizes,thoughthelargerthewindmill,themorepoweritcangenerate.Thiswindmillandtowercanbeeasilyconstructedoutofwood,anoldwheel,andafewironfittingsyoumaybeabletofindatahardwarestoreorhomecenter.Constructingthewindmillinsectionsistheeasiestwaytocreatethisstructure.Simplyfollowthesedirectionstomakeyourownenergy-producingwindmill:
TheTower1. Thetoweristhefirstparttobebuiltandshouldbeconstructedoutoffour
sprucesticksthatare16feetlongand4inchessquare,inaconfigurationthatmeasures30inchessquareatthetopand72inchessquareatthebase.
2. Thedeckshouldbe36inchessquareandshouldproject2inchesoverthetoprails.
3. Therailsandcrossbracescanbespruceorpinestripsandshouldmeasure4incheswideand7/8inchthick.Attachthesetothecornerpostswithsteel-
wirenails.4. Embedthecornerposts2feetintotheground,leaving14feetabovethe
surface.Therailatthebottom,whichisattachedtothefourposts,shouldmeasure3feetabovetheground.Midwaybetween
Beveledcrossbracesfitsnuglyagainstthecorners.
thisandthetoprailofthedeck,runamiddlerailaroundthepost.Makesurethatwhereyourwheelwillbeattached,thispointrisesatleast2feetaboveanyobstructions(buildings,trees,etc.)soitcanhaveaccesstotheblowingwind.
5. Thecrossbracesshouldbebeveledattheendssotheyfitsnuglyagainstthecorner.
6. Theposts,rails,andbracesshouldbeplanedsotheypresentaniceappearanceattheendofthebuilding.Aladdercanalsobeconstructedatonesideofthetowertoalloweasyaccesstothemill.
7. Nailaboardacrosstwooftherailshalfwayupthetower.Securethelowerendofatrunktightlyhereifyouareconstructingapumpingmill.However,ifawoodenmilliswhatyouareafter,youcanuseanoldwheelfromawagonandsixbladesofwood.
Thewindmillturntable(d,e,andf)holdsthewheelandtail.Theflange(detaileddrawingsgandh)formsasupportforthetimberframing.
TheTurntable1. Theturntableholdsthewheelandtail.Itshouldbebuiltof2½x2-inch
timberand2-inchgalvanizedwroughtiron“water”tubeandflanges.2. Theupperflangesupportsthetimberframing.Itshouldbecountersunk,
usingahalf-roundfile,andscrewedtightlyontothetubeasfaraspossible.Theendofthetubeshouldprojectjustslightlybeyondthefaceoftheflangesothatitcanberivetedovertofillthecountersink.
3. Boltthetwolooseflangestotheframeworkofthetower.Usethemwith2-inchpipewiththethreadfiledawaysotheymayslidefreelyontothetube.Theupperlooseflangeshouldformafootstepbearingandthelowerflangeaguidefortheturntable.
4. Nowmounttheturntableontheballbearingtomakesurethemillheadcanturnfreely.Screwontwobacknutstoguardagainstanypossibilityoftheturntablebeingliftedoutofplacebyastrongwind.
TheHead1. Thisisthepartthatwillcarrythewheelspindle.2. Notchthejointsandsecurethemwith2-inchbolts.3. Theupright,whichcarriesaboltorpinforthespur-wheeltorevolveupon,
iskeptinplaceinthefrontandatthesidesbyapieceofhoopiron.
Detailsofthewheelshaftframe(i,j);frontandsideviews,(k,l);axleof
wheel(m);attachmentofinnerendofvanetoinnerringofframe(n);vaneonrings(o);attachmentofvanetoouterbracketsbybracket(p).
4. Thetailvaneswivelisapieceof5-inchboretubewithbacknutsandwashers.Passanironboltorotherpieceofironthroughthis,screwittoeachend,andfititwithfournutsandwashers.
TheWheelShaft1. Usewrought-irontubingandflangestocreatethewheelshaft.Theboreof
thetubeisatleast5inches,andtheoutsidediametershouldberoughly1½inches.Boththetubeandthefittingsshouldbeofgoodqualityandathickgauge(steamqualityispreferred).
2. Iflatheisavailable,lightlyskimitoverthetubing.However,ifit’snot,acarefulfilingwilldojustaswelltosmoothdowntheedges.
3. Screwthetubehigherupononeendtoreceivetheflangesformingthehub.Screwtheseonandsecurethemononesidewithbacknutsandontheotherwithadistancepiecemadeoutofa1½-inchboretube.Fitacaptoclosetheopenfrontendofthetube.
4. Greasetwoplummerblockswithsomeformoflubrication.Thesewillbethebearingsfortheshaft.
5. Apinionisneededofatleast2½inchesindiameteratthepitchcircle.Boreittofitthewheelshaft.Aspurwheelof7inchesindiametershouldfollowthat(gearwheelsfromalawnmowercanbeusedifavailable).
TheWheel1. Thewheelshouldbeatleast5feetindiametertoproduceagoodamountof
energy.Theframingconsistsofaninnerandouterringandfourdoublearmswithcrossstaysanddiagonals(aregularwoodenwheelwillbesufficient,oryoucanfindonemadeofgalvanizedsteel).
2. Cuteachspokeatanangleononesidesothatthebladeswillhavethenecessarypitchtomakethewindturnthem.
3. Thebladesshouldbe18incheslong,12incheswideattheouterends,and6incheswidenexttothehub.Eachbladeshouldbeonly¾inchthick.Attachthemtothespokeswithsimplescrews.
4. Ifyoudesire,youcanstringawirebetweentheouterendofeachbladetotheendofthenextspoke.Thiswillhelpsteadytheblades.
TheTail1. Runafinesawcutupabout2feet6inchesfromtheouterendtoreceive
thevane(optional).2. Passacordovertwopulleysanddowntheturntabletube.Itisnecessaryto
attachtheendofthecordtoashortcylinderofhardwoodormetal(about2to3inchesindiameter).Thisrevolveswiththeturntablebutcanbeslidupordown.
Eachspokeshouldbecutatananglesothatthebladeswillhavethepitchtomakethewindturnthem.
3. Ifyouplanonusingapump,itisimportanttocutaholethroughtheaxisofthecylindertofitthepumprod.
4. Cutagrooveinthecircumferenceofthecylinder,andbendtwopiecesofironintoshapeandplacethemintothegrooves.Nowtakethecordsfromthetwobolts,untyingthestraps.Jointhesetwocordstoanothercord,whichactsasareelorleveratthebaseofthetower.Inthisway,thepositionofthetailcanberegulatedfromastationarypoint.
AddingPumpstoYourWindmill
Ifyouwanttousethiswindmilltopumpwater,thenyoumayneedtodosomeexperimentingwithdifferentlengthsofpumpstroke.Belowisatableindicatingwhatshouldbeexpectedfromthepump,andalsoprovidingthesizeofthesingle-actionpumpsuitableforagivenlift(usingaratioof1to3).
Makesurethatyourpumpisnottoolarge;otherwise,itmaynotstartinalightwindorbreeze.
Thepumpisdrivenbyapinscrewedintothesideofthespurwheelandissecuredwithalocknut.Drillandtapthreeorfourholesatdifferentdistancesfromthecenterofthewheelsothelengthofthestrokecanbeadjusted.Ifthespokesonthewheelaretoothinfordrilling,youcanuseaclampwithaprojectingpininstead.
Apumprod—acontinuouswoodenrodabout1inchsquareandthickeratthetopend—canbeusedinconnectingthebottomend(bybolting)tothe“bow”suppliedwiththepump.Intermediatejoints,ifneeded,canbefashionedwith1x½-inchfishplatesroughly6incheslong.Ifthepumpisnomorethan12feetbelowthecrankpin,oneguidewillbeadequate.Thepumprodmustbeabletorevolvewiththeheadandwillbeneedtobethickenedupinacircularsectionwhereitpassesthroughtheguide.Maketheguideintwohalvesandscreworboltittoabarrunningacrossthetower.
FinalTouches
Whenconstructionisfinished,paintallofthewoodworkanycolorthatcomplementsyouryardorpropertyand,ifdesired,lacquerittoprotectthewoodfromrainandsnow.Awindmillofthissizewillcreateatleastaonequarterhorsepowerina15mphwind.
BuildingaSmallWindMotorThissmallwindmotorcaneasilybemadetogenerateenergyforsmallmachines,toolshedlightbulbs,andothersmallmechanics.Thefoundationforthiswind-wheelcanbemadeoutofthefrontwheelofanoldbicyclewiththefrontspindleandconescompletelyintact.
Detailsofsmallwindmotor
Attacheightto12vanesofstoutsheettintotherim.Thesesheetsshouldbearound8incheslongand4to6incheswideandshouldlieata30-degreeangletotheplaneoftherim.Thevaneswillbemuchmoreefficientiftheyarecurvedinacirculararcaboutthesameradiusasthewheel.Theconcavesideshouldbepositionedtofacetowardthewind.
Onthebackofeachvane,rivetaribofstripiron½inchthick.Thisstripshouldprojectabout½inchbeyondthetipand1½inchesattheotherend.There,twistandbendittomakeabracketandthenboltthevanetothecenterlineoftherim.
Theillustrationaboveshowsasideviewofthemotorwithitsgearingandsupports.Aistherimandpartofthespokesofatoothedwheelthatareattachedatseveralpointstothespokesofthebicyclewheel.Itislooselyfixedandadjusteduntilitrunswellwhenthewheelismoved.Itshouldnotwobble.Adrivesasmallercog,B,mountedonthesamespindle,a.Thisspindlerevolvesaroundtwoplates,PP,screwedtoF.Cdrivesalargecog,D,andaneccentric,E,whichmovestheeccentricrod,R,upanddown.Thisworksthesmallpumpat
thefootofthemastthatsupportsthewindmill.Ecanbequicklymadeoutofathickdiscwithtwolargerdiscssolderedtoit.RisapieceofstoutbrassstripbentaroundEandclosedwithascrew.
Zoning,Permitting,andCovenant
Requirements
Beforeyouinvestinormakeyourownsmallwindenergysystem,youshouldresearchanyzoningandneighborhoodcovenantissuesthatmaydeteryourinstallingawindturbinesystem.Youcanfindoutaboutlocalzoningrestrictionsbycontactingalocalbuildinginspector,boardofsupervisors,orplanningboard.Theywillinformyouwhetherornotyou’llneedabuildingpermitandwillprovideyouwithalistofotherrequirements.Further,yourneighborsorhomeowners’associationmayobjecttoawindmachinethatwillblocktheirvieworasystemthatwillbetoonoisy.
Whenallofthevanesareinposition,connectthetipsoftheribsandvanestogetherwithringsofstoutwireandsolderthemonatallthecontactpoints.Screwoneofthespindlenutstightlyagainstitscone.Theotherendofthespindleshouldpassthroughonearmofthestirrup(F)madeoutof½-inchiron1½incheswide.Thisisthensecuredbyawasherandnutontheinside.Thestirrupandcircularplate(V)areboredtoaccommodatetheendoftheironpipe
(T).
Closeoffthetopofthehole(F)andheatthetopofthepipetoexpandittofitintothechamber.Cleanthesepartswellandweldthemtogether.ItisimportantthattheTissquarewiththestirrup.Then,cutthepipeoff9inchesbelowV.SolderasmallringtotheundersideofVtopreventmoisturefromworkingitswayalongTandruiningyourmotor.
Thetailsparisawoodenbar1½x2½incheswideand40incheslong.Itisnotchedtofitthestirrupandtaperedofftowardthetail.Asheetofsturdyiron,15x12inches,isthenfittedintothesawcut.Twoboltsclipthewingsoftheforkedendtightlyagainstthesidesofthestirrup.ThetailshouldbeabletobalancethewheelontheverticalpivottoavoidstressingthejointatthetopofT.
Awind-wheelthissizewillspinquiteeffectivelyinablusterywindbutwillprobablyonlygenerateenoughenergytopowerasmallpump.Thiswilldonicelytofillawateringcanforyourgardenorforpoweringotherlightmachinery.
APumpingWindmillApumpingwindmillcanhelpyoupumpwaterfromawellorotherundergroundreservoirintoasuctionpump.Thiswindmillhasasimplewheelwithspokesandsails.Itconsistsofahub,sixspokes,afantail,andatrunkorpoleforattachingthewheel.
Apumpingwindmill
Windmillpumpdetails
Thehubisahexagon6x6inches.Onespokecanbedrivenintoaholemadeoneitherside(Figure1).Thespokesshouldbe3feetlong,3x1½inchesatthehubend,and1x1½inchesontheouterend.Thespokesaredrivenintotheholesinthehubandpinnedtoholdtheminplace.
Thehubshouldbemadeofhardwoodandtheholesmaybecutwithamortisechiselandmallet.Makesuretheholesarespacedevenlysothespokeswilllightupproperly.
Attachtriangularpiecesoftwilledmuslinsheetingtothefaceofeachspoke.Theloosecornerofeachcanbeattachedtothenextspokeendwithapieceofstring.Thiscreatesanoutletbetweentheleechandthespokeofeachspacebetweenthespokesothatthewindcanpassthrough.This,ineffect,makesthewheelturn.
Thewheelshouldbeheldinplaceatthetopofthesupportingpostbyashaftpassingthroughthehubandboltedtothefrontofthewheelwithanut.Figure2isagoodexampleofwhatthisshouldlooklike.Theshaftshouldbeabout1inchsquarewhereitpassesthroughthehub.Atthefrontend,itshouldbetightenedwithanutandwasher.Thesquarepart,A,wheretheendofthehubwillbe,shouldbeweldedatBtoholdthehubintheproperplace.Aboutaninchbeyondthesquareshoulder,anotherone,C,shouldbeweldedtotheshaft.Thishelpsbalancethewheel.
Nowacrankcanbeformed,2incheswideand3inchesoutfromtheshaft.Anothercollar,C,C,shouldbeweldedontothecrankandthen,beyondthispoint,theshaftshouldstickoutabout6inches.
Thetotallengthoftheshaftis15inches,andthewholedevicecanbepainted.Toattachthefantail,aheadmadeoutoftwoblocksofwoodshouldbeattachedandfastened5inchesapartonthelowerrails(Fig.3).Theupperendsoftheblocksshouldbecutsoastoallowtheshafttoenterthem.Thecollars,CandC,C,areplacedattheinsideoftheblocks.Toholdtheshaftinplace,smallironstrapscanbescrewedtightlyoverthetopofeachblock.
Whatwouldhappenifweusedmorewindenergy?
AccordingtotheAmericanWindEnergyAssociation,ifweincreaseournation’swindenergycapacityto20percentby2030,itwouldhavethefollowingeffects:
ReduceGreenhouseGasEmission:Acumulativetotalof7,600milliontonsofCO2wouldbeavoidedby2030,andmorethan15,000milliontonsofCO2wouldbeavoidedby2050.ConserveWater:Reducecumulativewaterconsumptionintheelectricsectorby8percentor4trilliongallonsfrom2007through2030.LowerNaturalGasPrices:Significantlyreducenaturalgasdemandandreducenaturalgaspricesby12percent,savingconsumersapproximately$130billion.ExpandManufacturing:Toproduceenoughturbinesandcomponentsforthe20percentwindscenario,theindustrywouldrequiremorethan30,000directmanufacturingjobsacrossthenation(assumingthat30to80percentofmajorturbinecomponentswouldbemanufactureddomesticallyby2030).GenerateLocalRevenues:Leasepaymentsforwindturbineswouldgeneratewellover$600millionforlandownersinruralareasandgenerateadditionallocaltaxrevenuesexceeding$1.5billionannuallyby2030.From2007through2030,cumulativeeconomicactivitywouldexceed$1trillionormorethan$440billioninnetpresentvalueterms.
Theuseoflargescalewindmillsisoftencontroversial.Theycanprovideasignificantamountofcleanenergy,buttheyalsoclutterridgelines,producealot
ofnoise,andhurtthebirdpopulation.
Thisheadrestsonthetopofahollowsquarepostthroughwhichtherodpasses,connectingthecrankwiththepiston-rodofthepump(Fig.4A).Aflatironcollar,B,shouldbescrewedtightlyatthetop.Tokeeptheheadproperlysecured,fourironcleats(Fig.4C)shouldbescrewedtightlyunderthecornersoftheheadtohelpgriptheprojectingedgeofthecollar.Thiswillholdtheheadrigidwhileallowingittomoveaboutwiththeforceofthewind.
ApplyalittlebitofgreaseorVaselinetothetopofthecollarsotheheadwillmoveeasily.Thetopoftheconnectingrodshouldbeattachedtothecrankandboltedtothetopofthehardwoodrod(Fig.4D).
Thetail,whichis33incheslongand24incheswideattheend,ismadeofboardsthatare¾inchthick.Thetailshouldbeattachedtothehead(Fig.5).
Toplacethewindmilloverapump,buildaplatformthatisbracedwithpiecesofwood(seetheillustration).Wirescanalsoberunfromtheupperpartofthetrunkdowntopegsdrivenintotheground.Thiswilladdadditionalsupportandsteadinesstotheuprightshaft.
Tostartthewheel,snaptheendsofthesheetstothespokeends.Tostopthewheel,unsnaptheendsandfurlthesailsaroundthespokes,tyingthemsecurelywithapieceofyarnoracottoncord.
Hydropower
Waterisconstantlymovingthroughavastglobalcycle,evaporatingfromlakesandoceans,formingclouds,precipitating,andthenflowingbackintotheocean.Theenergyofthiswatercycle,whichismainlydrivenbythesun,canbetappedtoproduceelectricityortopowermachines—aprocesscalledhydropower.Hydropoweruseswaterasatypeoffuelthatisneitherreducednorusedupintheprocess.Sincethewatercycleisendlessandwillconstantlyrechargethesystem,hydropowerisconsideredarenewableenergy.
Hydropower(alsoknownashydroelectricpower)ismadewhenflowingwateriscapturedandturnedintoelectricity.Therearemanytypesofhydroelectricfacilitiesthatareallpoweredbythekineticenergyderivedfromflowingwaterasitmovesdownstream.Generatorsandturbinesconvertthisenergyintoelectricity.Thisisthenfedintotheelectricalgridforuseinhomes,businesses,andotherindustries.
TypesofHydropowerPlantsTherearethreetypesofhydropowerplants:1. Impoundment—Impoundmentfacilitiesarethemostcommontypeof
hydroelectricpowerplants.Thisfacility,typicallyalargehydropowersystem,usesadamtostoreriverwaterinareservoir.Waterthatisreleasedfromthereservoirflowsthroughaturbine,spinningit.Thisactivatesageneratortoproduceelectricity.Thewatermaybereleasedeithertomeetthechangingelectricityneedsortomaintainaconstantreservoirlevel.
2. Diversion—Adiversionfacility,sometimesreferredtoasarun-of-riverfacility,channelsaportionofariverthroughacanalorpenstock.Thisdoesnotalwaysrequiretheuseofadam.
3. Pumpedstorage—Apumpedstoragefacilitystoresenergybypumpingwaterfromalowerreservoirtoanupperreservoirwhenelectricitydemandsarelow.Duringtimeswhenelectricaldemandsarehigh,wateristhenreleasedbackintothelowerreservoirtogenerateelectricity.
Somehydropowerplantsusedamsandothersdonot.Manydamswere
originallybuiltforotherpurposesandthenhydropowerwasaddedatalaterdate.IntheUnitedStates,only2,400ofthe80,000damsproducepower—therestareusedforrecreation,farmponds,floodcontrol,watersupply,andirrigation.
SizeofHydropowerPlantsHydropowerplantsrangeinsizefromsmallandmicrosystems,whichareoperatedforindividualneedsortosellthepowertoutilities,tolargerprojectsthatproduceelectricityforutilities,supplyingmanyconsumerswithelectricity.
Microhydropowerplantshaveacapacityofupto100kilowatts.Smallhydropowerplantshaveacapacitybetween
ABriefHistoryofHydropowerHumanshavebeenusingwatertohelpthemperformworkforthousandsofyears.Waterwheelshavebeenemployedforgrindinggrainsintoflour,tosawwood,andtopowertextilemills.Thetechnologytouserunningwatertocreatehydroelectricityhasbeenaroundforoverahundredyears.Themodernhydropowerturbinewascreatedinthemiddleoftheeighteenthcenturyanddevelopedintodirectcurrenttechnology.Today,analternatingcurrentisinuseandcameaboutwhentheelectricgeneratorwascombinedwiththeturbine.ThefirsthydroelectricplantintheUnitedStateswasbuiltinAppleton,Wisconsinin1882.
Water’sneverendingcycle
100kilowattsand30megawatts.Largehydropowerplantshaveacapacityofmorethan30megawatts.Thesmallandmicrosystemscanproduceenoughelectricityforahome,farm,orevenasmallvillage.
Diagramofahydropowerplant
HydropowerTurbinesTherearetwomaintypesofhydropowerturbines:impulseandreaction.Thetypeofturbineselectedforaprojectisbasedontheheightofthestandingwater(the“head”)andtheflow(volume)ofthewaterataparticularsite.Itisalsodeterminedbyhowdeeptheturbinemustbeset,itsefficiency,anditscost.
Amicrohydropowerplant.
ImpulseTurbine
Animpulseturbinetypicallyusesthevelocityofwatertomovetherunnerand
dischargestoatmosphericpressure.Thewaterstreamthenhitseachbucketontherunner.Thewaterflowsoutofthebottomoftheturbineafterhittingtherunner.Theseturbinesaresuitableforhighhead,lowflowapplications.
AdvantagesofHydropower
Itisfueledbywater,makingitacleanenergysource.Itdoesnotpollutetheairsinceitdoesnotburnanyfossilfuels.Itisadomesticenergysource.Itreliesonthewatercycleandisarenewableenergysource.Itisusuallyavailableasneeded.Thewaterflowcanbecontrolledthroughtheturbinetoproduceenergyondemand.Theplantsprovidereservoirsforrecreation(fishing,swimming,boating),watersupply,andfoodcontrol.
DisadvantagesofHydropower
Itcannegativelyimpactfishpopulationsbyhamperingfishmigrationupstreampastdams,thoughtherearewaystoallowforpassagebothup-anddownstream.Itcanimpactthequalityandflowofwater,causinglowdissolvedoxygenlevelsthatcannegativelyimpacttheriverbankhabitats.Theplantscanbeimpactedbydrought,andiftheyarenotreceivingadequatewater,theycannotproduceelectricity.Theplantscompeteforlanduseandcancausehumans,plants,andanimalstolosetheirnaturalhabitat.
ReactionTurbine
Areactionturbinegeneratespowerbythecombinedactionofpressureandmovingwater.Therunnerisplacedinthewaterstream,whichflowsoverthebladesinsteadofstrikingeachoneseparately.Theseturbinesareusedforsiteswithlowerheadandhigherflows.
Diagramofahydroelectricmotor
Evenasmallwaterfallcanprovidealotofpower.
GeothermalEnergy
Geothermalenergy(theheatfromtheEarth)isaccessibleasanalternativesourceofheatandpower.Geothermalenergycanbeaccessedbydrillingwaterorsteamwellsusingaprocessmuchlikedrillingforoil.Thisresourceisenormousbutissadlyunderusedasanenergysource.Whenitisemployed,though,itprovestobeclean(emittinglittleornogreenhousegases),reliable,economical,anddomesticallyfound(geothermalenergycanbeharnessedfromalmostanywhereandthusmakescountrieslessdependentonforeignoil).
Wellsamileormoredeepcanbedrilledintoundergroundreservoirstotapsteamandveryhotwater.Thiscanthenbebroughttothesurfaceandusedinavarietyofways—suchastodriveturbinesandelectricitygenerators.IntheUnitedStates,mostgeothermalreservoirsarelocatedinthewesternstates,inAlaska,andinHawaii.Peopleinmorethan120locationsintheUnitedStatesareusinggeothermalenergyforspaceanddistrictheating.
Geothermalresourcescanrangefromshallowgroundwatertohotwaterfoundinrocksseveralmilesbelowthesurfaceoftheearth.Itcanevenbeharnessed,insomecases,frommagma(hotmoltenrockneartheearth’score).Geothermalreservoirsoflowtomoderatetemperature(roughly68to302ºF)canbeusedtoheathomes,office,andgreenhouses.Curiously,thedehydrationofonionsandgarliccomprisesthelargestindustrialuseofgeothermalenergyintheUnitedStates.
ThreeMainUsesofGeothermalEnergySometypesofgeothermalenergyusagedrawfromtheearth’stemperaturesclosertothesurfaceandothersrequire,asnotedabove,drillingmilesintotheearth.Thethreemainusesofgeothermalenergyare:1. DirectUseandDistrictHeatingSystems—Theseusehotwaterfrom
springsandreservoirsneartheearth’ssurface.2. ElectricityGeneration—Typicallyfoundinpowerplants,thistypeof
energyrequireshigh-temperaturewaterandsteam(generallybetween300and700ºF).Geothermalpowerplantsarebuiltwherereservoirsare
positionedonlyamileortwofromtheearth’ssurface.3. GeothermalHeatPumps—Theseusestablegroundorwatertemperatures
neartheearth’ssurfacetocontrolbuildingtemperaturesabovetheground.
Ageothermalpowerplantinaction
AdditionalResources
TheU.S.DepartmentofEnergy,inconjunctionwiththeGeo-HeatCenter,conductsresearch,providestechnicalsupport,anddistributesinformationonawiderangeofgeothermaldirect-useapplications.Someinformationthatisprovidedrevolvesaroundgreenhouseinformationalpackages,costcomparisonsofheatpumps,lowtemperatureresourceassessments,costanalysisforhomeowners,andinformationdirectedtoaquaculturedevelopers.
Thegreenhouseinformationalpackageprovidesinformationforpeoplewhoarelookingtodevelopgeothermalgreenhouses.Thispackageincludescropmarketpricesforvegetablesandflowers,operatingcosts,heatingsystemspecifications,greenhouseheatingequipmentselectionspreadsheets,andvendorinformation.
Groundwaterheatpumpshavealsobeenidentifiedasofferingsubstantialsavingsoverothertypesofpumpsystems.Informationalpacketsaboutheatpumpsystemsareprovidedtoanswerfrequentlyaskedquestionsconcerningtheapplicationandusageofgeothermalheatpumps.
TheGeo-HeatCenterexaminedthecostsassociatedwiththeinstallationofdistrictheatingsystemsinsingle-familyresidentialsectors.Theydiscoveredthatcost-savingareasincludedinstallationinunpavedareas,usingnon-insulatedreturnlines,andinstallationinareasthatareunencumberedbyexistingburiedutilitylines.
DirectUseGeothermalEnergySinceancienttimes,peoplehavebeendirectlyusinghotwaterasasourceofenergy.TheChinese,NativeAmericans,andRomansusedhotmineralspringsforbathing,cooking,andheatingpurposes.Currently,anumberofhotspringsarestillusedforbathingandmanypeoplebelievethesehot,mineral-richwaterspossessnaturalhealingpowers.
Ageothermalpowerplant
Youcancombinesolarandgeothermalenergytoproducemoreconsistentpowerinyourhome.
Besidesbathing,themostcommondirectuseofgeothermalenergyisforheatingbuildings.Thisisthroughdistrictheatingsystems—thesetypesofsystemsprovideheatforroughly95percentofthebuildingsinReykjavik,Iceland.Districtheatingsystemspipehotwaterneartheearth’ssurfacedirectlyintobuildingsinordertoprovideadequateheat.
Directuseofgeothermalresourcesisaproven,economic,andcleanenergyoption.Geothermalheatcanbepipeddirectlyintofacilitiesandusedtoheatbuildings,growgreenhouseplants,heatwaterforfishfarming,andevenpasteurizemilk.SomenorthernU.S.citiespipehotwaterunderroadsandsidewalkstomeltthesnow.
GeothermalHeatPumpsEventhoughtemperaturesabovethesurfaceoftheearthchangedailyandseasonally,ingeneral,temperaturesinthetop10feetoftheEarth’ssurfacestayfairlyconstantataround50to60ºF.Thismeansthat,inmostplaces,soiltemperaturesaretypicallywarmerthanairtemperaturesinthewinterandcoolerinthesummer.Geothermalheatpumps(GHPs)usethisconstanttemperaturetoheatandcoolbuildings.Thesepumpstransferheatfromtheground(orundergroundwatersources)intobuildingsduringthewinteranddothereverseprocessinthesummermonths.
Ahorizontalclosed-loopheatpumpsystem
Averticalclosed-loopheatpumpsystem
Geothermalheatpumps,accordingtotheU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA),arethemostenergy-efficient,environmentallyclean,andcost-effectivesystemsformaintainingaconsistenttemperaturecontrol.Thesepumpsarebecomingmorepopular,eventhoughmosthomesstillusefurnacesandairconditioners.Sometimesreferredtoasearth-coupled,ground-source,orwater-sourceheatpumps,GHPsusetheconstanttemperatureoftheearthastheexchangemedium(usinggroundheatexchangers)insteadoftheoutdoorairtemperature.Inthisway,thesystemcanbequiteefficientoncoldwinternightsincomparisontoair-sourceheatpumps.
Geothermalheatpumpscanheat,cool,and,insomecases,evensupplyhotwatertoahouse.Thesepumpsarerelativelyquiet,long-lasting,needlittletonomaintenance,anddonotrelyonoutsidetemperaturestofunctioneffectively.Whilegeothermalsystemsareinitiallymoreexpensivetoinstall,thesecostsarequicklyreturnedinenergysavingsinaboutfiveto10years.Systemshavealife-spanofroughly25yearsforinsidecomponentsandmorethan50yearsforgroundloopsystems.Eachyear,about50,000geothermalheatpumpsareinstalledintheUnitedStates.
TypesofGeothermalHeatPumpSystemsTherearefourbasictypesofgroundloopheatpumpsystems:horizontal,vertical,pond/lake,andopen-loopsystems.Thefirstthreeareclosed-loopsystemswhilethefourthis,asitsnamesuggests,open-loop.Thetypeofsystemusedisgenerallydeterminedbasedontheclimate,soilconditions,landavailability,andlocalinstallationcostsofthesiteforthepump.Allfourtypesofgeothermalheatpumpsystemscanbeusedforbothresidentialandcommercialbuildingapplications.
HorizontalHeatPumpSystem
Thisclosed-loopinstallationisextremelycost-effectiveforresidentialheatpumpsandiswellsuitedfornewconstructionwhereadequatelandisavailableforthesystem.Horizontalheatpumpsystemsneed4-foottrenchestobeinstalled.Thesesystemsaretypicallylaidoutusingtwopipes—oneburied6feetandtheotherburied4feetbelowtheground—orbyplacingtwopipessidebysideat5feetundergroundina2-foot-widetrench.
VerticalHeatPumpSystem
Schoolsandlargercommercialbuildingsuseverticalheatpumpsystemsbecausetheyrequirelesslandtobeeffectivelyused.Thesesystemsarebestusedwherethesoilistooshallowfortrenching.Theyalsominimizeanydisturbancetoestablishedlandscaping.Toinstallaverticalsystem,holesthatareroughly4inchesindiameteraredrilledabout20feetapartand100to400feetdeep.TwopipesareinsertedintotheseholesandareconnectedatthebottomwithaU-bend,formingaloop.Theverticalloopsarethenconnectedwithahorizontalpipe,placedinthetrenches,andconnectedtotheheatpumpinthebuilding.
Pond/LakeHeatPumpSystem
Anotherclosed-loopsystemisthepond/lakeheatpumpsystem.Ifasitehasenoughwater—usuallyintheformofapondorevenalake—thissystemmaybethemostcost-effective.Thisheatpumpsystemworksbyrunningasupplylinepipeundergroundfromabuildingtothewatersource.Thepipingiscoiledintocirclesnolessthan8feetunderthesurface—thispreventsthewaterinthepipesfromfreezing.Thecoilsshouldbeplacedonlyinawatersourcethatmeetstheminimumvolume,depth,andqualitycriteria.
Open-LoopHeatPumpSystem
Anopen-loopsystemuseswellorsurfacebodywaterastheheatexchangefluidthatwillcirculatedirectlythroughthegeothermalheatpumpsystem.Oncethiswaterhascirculatedthroughthesystem,itisreturnedtothegroundthrougharechargewellorassurfacedischarge.Thesystemisreallyonlypracticalwherethereisasufficientsupplyofcleanwater.Localcodesandregulationsforpropergroundwaterdischargemustalsobemetinorderfortheheatpumpsystemtobeutilized.
SelectingandInstallingaGeothermalHeatPumpSysteminYourHomeTheheatingefficiencyofcommercialground-sourceandwater-sourceheatpumpsisindicatedbytheircoefficientofperformance(COP)—theratioofheatprovidedinBtuperBtuofenergyinput.Thecoolingefficiencyismeasuredbytheenergyefficiencyratio(EER)—theratioofheatremovedtotheelectricityrequired(inwatts)toruntheunit.ManygeothermalheatpumpsystemsareapprovedbytheU.S.DepartmentofEnergyasbeingenergyefficientproductsandso,ifyouarethinkingofpurchasingandinstallingthistypeofsystem,youmaywanttochecktoseeifthereisanyspecialfinancingorincentivesforpurchasingenergyefficientsystems.
Aclosed-looppond/lakeheatpumpsystem
Anopen-loopheatpumpsystem
EvaluatingYourSite
Beforeinstallingageothermalheatpump,considerthesitethatwillhousethesystem.Thepresenceofhotgeothermalfluidcontaininglowmineralandgascontent,shallowaquifersforproducingthefluid,spaceavailabilityonyourproperty,proximitytoexistingtransmissionlines,andavailabilityofmake-upwaterforevaporativecoolingareallfactorsthatwilldetermineifyoursiteisgoodforgeothermalelectricdevelopment.Asaruleofthumb,geothermalfluidtemperatureshouldbenolessthan300ºF.
InthewesternUnitedStates,Alaska,andHawaii,hydrothermalresources(reservoirsofsteamorhotwater)aremorereadilyavailablethantherestofthecountry.However,thisdoesnotmeanthatgeothermalheatcannotbeusedthroughoutthecountry.ShallowgroundtemperaturesarerelativelyconstantthroughouttheUnitedStatesandthismeansthatenergycanbetappedalmostanywhereinthecountrybyusinggeothermalheatpumpsanddirect-usesystems.
Todeterminethebesttypeofgroundloopsystemsforyoursite,youmustassessthegeological,hydrological,andspatialcharacteristicsofyourlandinordertochoosethebest,mosteffectiveheatpumpsystemtoheatandcoolyourhome:1. Geology—Thisincludesthesoilandrockcompositionandpropertieson
yoursite.Thesecanaffectthetransferratesofheatinyourparticularsystem.Ifyouhavesoilwithgoodheattransferproperties,yoursystemwillrequirelesspipingtoobtainagoodamountofheatfromthesoil.Furthermore,theamountofsoilthatisavailablealsocontributestowhichsystemyouwillchoose.Forexample,areasthathavehardrockorshallowsoilwillmostlikelybenefitfromaverticalheatpumpsysteminsteadofasystemrequiringlargeanddeeptrenches,suchasthehorizontalheatpumpsystem.
2. Hydrology—Thisreferstotheavailabilityofgroundorsurfacewater,whichwillaffectthetypeofsystemtobeinstalled.Factorssuchasdepth,volume,andwaterqualitywillhelpdetermineifsurfacewaterbodiescanbeusedasasourceofwaterforanopen-loopheatpumpsystemoriftheywouldworkbestwithapond/lakesystem.Beforeinstallinganopen-loopsystem,however,itisbesttodetermineyoursite’shydrologysopotential
problems(suchasaquiferdepletionorgroundwatercontamination)canbeavoided.
3. Availableland—Theacreageandlayoutofyourland,aswellasyourlandscapingandthelocationofundergroundutilities,alsoplayanimportantpartinthetypeofheatpumpsystemyouchoose.Ifyouarebuildinganewhome,horizontalgroundloopsareaneconomicalsystemtoinstall.Ifyouhaveanexistinghomeandwanttoconvertyourheatandcoolingtogeothermalenergy,verticalheatpumpsystemsarebesttominimizethedisturbancetoyourexistinglandscapingandyard.
InstallingtheHeatPumps
Geothermalheatpumpsystemsaresomewhatdifficulttoinstallonyourown—thoughitcancertainlybedone.Makesure,beforeyoubeginanydigging,tocontactyourlocalutilitycompanytomakesureyouwillnotbediggingintogaspipesorelectricalwires.
Thegroundheatexchangerinageothermalheatpumpsystemismadeupofclosed-oropen-looppipe—dependingonwhichtypeofsystemyou’vedeterminedisbestsuitedforyoursite.Sincemostsystemsemployedareclosed-loopsystems,highdensitypolyethylenepipeisusedandburiedhorizontallyat4to6feetdeeporverticallyat100to400feetdeep.Thesepipesarefilledwithanenvironmentallyfriendlyantifreeze/watersolutionthatactsasaheatexchanger.Youcanfindthisatyourlocalhomestoreorcontactacontractortoseewhereitisdistributed.Thissolutionworksinthewinterbyextractingheatfromtheearthandcarryingitintothebuilding.Inthesummertime,thesystemreverses,takingheatfromthebuildinganddepositingitintotheground.
Airdeliveryductworkwilldistributethehotorcoldairthroughoutthehouse’sductworkliketraditional,conventionalsystems.Anairhandler—aboxthatcontainstheindoorcoilandfan—shouldbeinstalledtomovethehouseairthroughtheheatpumpsystem.Theairhandlercontainsalargeblowerandafilter,justlikestandardairconditioningunits.
Averticalclosed-loopsystem
Cost-EfficiencyofGeothermalHeatPumpSystems
Byinstallingandusingageothermalheatpumpsystem,youwillsaveonthecostsofoperatingandmaintainingyourheatingandcoolingsystem.Whilethesesystemsaregenerallyabitpriciertoinstall,theyprovetobemoreefficientandthussaveyoumoneyonamonthlyandyearlybasis.Especiallyinthecolderwintermonths,geothermalheatpumpsystemscanreduceyourheatingcostsbyabouthalf.Annualenergysavingsbyusingageothermalheatpumpsystemrangefrom30to60percent.
BenefitsofUsingGeothermalEnergyItiscleanenergy.Geothermalenergydoesnotrequiretheburningoffossilfuels(coal,gas,oroil)inordertoproduceenergy.Geothermalfieldsproduceonlyabout⅙thofthecarbondioxidethatnaturalgas-fueledpowerplantsdo.Theyalsoproducelittletonosulfur-bearinggases,whichreducestheamountofacidrain.Itisavailableatanytimeofday,allyearround.Geothermalpowerishomegrown,whichreducesdependenceonforeignoil.Itisarenewablesourceofenergy.Geothermalenergyderives
itssourcefromanalmostunlimitedamountofheatgeneratedbytheearth.Andevenifenergyislimitedinanarea,thevolumetakenoutcanbereinjected,makingitasustainablesourceofenergy.Geothermalheatpumpsystemsuse25to50percentlesselectricitythanconventionalheatingandcoolingsystems.Theyreduceenergyconsumptionandemissionsbetween44and72percentandimprovehumiditycontrolbymaintainingabout50percentrelativehumidityindoors(GHPsareveryeffectiveforhumidpartsofthecountry).Heatpumpsystemscanbe“zoned”toallowdifferentpartsofyourhometobeheatedandcooledtodifferenttemperatureswithoutmuchaddedcostorextraspacerequired.Geothermalheatpumpsystemsaredurableandreliable.Undergroundpipingcanlastfor25to50yearsandtheheatpumpstendtolastatleast20years.Heatpumpsystemsreducenoisepollutionsincetheyhavenooutsidecondensingunit(likeairconditioners).
Alternate“Geothermal”CoolingSystem
Truegeothermalenergysystemscanbeveryexpensivetoinstallandyoumaynotbeabletouseoneinyourhomeatthistime.However,hereisafunalternativewaytousetheconceptsofgeothermalsystemstokeepyourhousecoolerinthesummerandyourairconditioningbillslower.Allyouneedareabasement,smallwindowfan,anddehumidifier.
Yourbasementisawonderfulexampleofhowthetoplayersofearthtendtoremainatastabletemperaturethroughouttheyear.Inthewinter,yourbasementmayfeelsomewhatwarm;inthesummer,it’sniceandrefreshinglycool.Thisisduetothetemperatureofthesoilpermeatingthroughthebasementwalls.Andthiscoolbasementaircanbeusedtoeffectivelyreducethetemperatureinyourhomebyuptofivedegreesduringthesummermonths.Herearethestepstoyouralternative“geothermal”coolingsystem:1. Runthedehumidifierinyourbasementduringthenight,
bringingthehumiditydowntoabout60percent.
2. Keepyourblindsandcurtainsclosedinthesunniestroomsinyourhome.
3. Inthemorning,whenthetemperatureinsidethehousereachesabout77ºF,openasmallwindowinyourbasement,justacrack,andopenoneoftheupstairswindows,placingasmallfaninitanddirectingtheroomairoutofthewindow.
4. Withallotherwindowsandoutsidedoorsclosed,thefanwillsuckthecoolbasementairthroughyourhomeandouttheopenwindow.Doingthisforaboutanhourwillbringdownthetemperatureinsideyourhome,buyingyouacoupleofhoursofreprievebeforeswitchingontheAC.
ThehotspringsatYellowstoneareanaturalexampleofgeothermalheating.
CompostingToilets
Toiletscomeinthreecommonvarieties:siphon-jetflushvalvetoilets(commoninmosthomes),pressurizedtanktoilets,andgravityflow.Thesetoilets,generallyspeaking,useuplargeamountsofwaterandthewasteisflushedintoasewersystemandthendumpedinavarietyoflocations.Compostingtoiletsrequirelittletonowater,whichprovidesasolutiontosanitationandenvironmentalproblemsinareasthatarerural,withoutsewers,andinthesuburbsthroughouttheworld.Althoughcompostingtoiletsarerareinprivatehomes—theyaregenerallyfoundinparkfacilitiesandsmallhighwayreststops—thesewaterlesstoiletscanbeutilizedbytheregularhomeowner.
ItisastonishingthatAmericansflushabout4.8billiongallonsofwaterdowntoiletseveryday,accordingtotheU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.JustreplacingallexistingU.S.toiletswith1.6-gallon-per-flush,ultralow-flow(ULF)modelswouldsaveabout5,500gallonsofwaterperpersonperyear!So,ifyouareunabletoinstallacompostingtoiletinyourhomeoronyourproperty,youmaychoosetoinstallULFmodelsinyourhometohelpconservewaterusage.
TheBasicsoftheCompostingToiletComposting(orbiological)toiletsystemscontainandprocessexcrement,toiletpaper,carbonadditive,and,attimes,foodwastes.Thesesystemsrelyonunsaturatedconditionswhereaerobicbacteriabreakdownwaste—unlikesepticsystems—muchlikeacompostheapforyourgardeningnecessities.Theresultingsoil-likematerial—humus—mustbeburiedorremoved.It’sagoodideatocheckstateandlocalregulationsregardingproperhandlingmethods.
Inmanypartsofthecountry,publichealthofficialsarerealizingthatthereisadefiniteneedforenvironmentallysoundhumanwastetreatmentandrecyclingmethods,andcomposttoiletsareaneasywaytoworktowardtheseneeds.Becausetheydon’trequireanywatertobeused,compostingtoiletsareidealforremoteareasandplacesthathavehighwatertables,shallowsoil,androughterrain.Thesesystemssavewaterandallowforvaluableplantnutrientstoberecycledintheprocess.
Compostingtoiletsarebeingusedmoreregularlyinparksaroundtheworld.
Acompostingtoilet
Thereareafewkeycomponentsforestablishingacompostingtoilet:CompostingreactorthatisconnectedtoamicroflushtoiletScreenedairinletandexhaustsystemtoremoveodorsandheat,plusCO2andotherdecompositionbyproductsMechanismtoprovideproperventilationthatwillhelpaerobicorganismsinthecompostheapProcesscontrols
Accessdoorfortheremovaloftheendproduct
Itisimportantthatthecompostingtoiletseparatesthesolidfromtheliquidwasteandproducesahumus-likematerialwithlessthan200MPNpergramoffecalcoliform.Thecompostchambercanbesolarorelectricallyheatedtomaintaintherighttemperatureforyear-rounduseandbacterialdecomposition.
MainObjectiveoftheCompostingToiletThesesystemsaredesignedtocontain,immobilize,anddestroypathogens.Thisreducestheriskofhumaninfectionandensuresthatthetoiletsdonotpollutetheenvironment.Ifdonecorrectly,thecompostedmaterialshouldbeabletobehandledwithlittletonoriskofharmingtheindividualworkingwithit.
Acompostingtoiletconsistsofawell-ventilatedcontainerthatbreedsagoodenvironmentforunsaturated,moisthumanexcrementthatcanbedecomposedundersanitaryconditions.Acompostingtoiletcanbelargeorsmall,dependingonthespaceanditsuse.Organicmatteristransformedintoahumus-likeproductthroughthenaturalbreakingdownfrombacteriaandfungi.Mostsystemslikethisusetheprocessofcontinuouscomposting,whichincludesasinglechamberwheretheexcrementisaddedtothetopandtheendproductistakenfromthebottom.
FactorsthatAffecttheRateofComposting
1. Microorganisms—Amixofbacteriaandfungineedtobepresentinorderfortheexcrementtoturnintocompostedmaterial.
2. Moisture—Thishelpsthemicroorganismstomakesimplercompoundsbeforetheyaremetabolized.Moistureshouldbekeptbetween40and70percent.
3. pH—ThebestpHforthecompostingtoiletmaterialshouldbebetween6.5and7.5.
4. Carbontonitrogenratio—Itisimportanttobalanceoutthenitrogenfoundinurinewithaddedcarboninyourcompostingtoilet.
5. Propercare—Managingyourcompostingtoiletwellwillhelp
keepitefficientandproductive.
AdvantagesofUsingaCompostingToiletCompostingtoiletscanbeusedpracticallyanywhereaflushtoiletcanbe.Theyaremostlikelytobeusedinhomesinruralareas,seasonalcabins,recreationareas,andotherplaceswhereflushtoiletsareeitherunnecessaryorimpractical.Theyaremorecost-effectivethanestablishingacentralsewagesystemandthereisnowaterwasted.Thesesystems—sincetheyaren’tusingcopiousamountsofwater—alsoreducethequantityofwastewaterthatisdisposedofonadailybasis.Thesetoiletscanalsobeusedtorecycleandcompostfoodwastes,thusreducingtheamountofhouseholdgarbagethatisdumpedeveryday.Finally,thesetoiletsystemsarebeneficialtotheenvironmentastheydivertnutrientandpathogen-containingeffluentfromthesoil,surfacewater,andthegroundwater.
DisadvantagesofUsingaCompostingToiletCompostingtoiletsareabigresponsibility;theownerofacompostingtoiletmustbecommittedtomaintainingthesystem.Removingthecompostcanbeunpleasantifthetoiletisnotproperlysetupandtheycouldenduphavingodorissues.
SuccessfulManagementoftheCompostingToiletCompostingtoiletsdonotrequirehighlytrainedpeopletodealwiththesewageasitisrelativelyharmlesstohandle.Butitisimportanttomaintainyourcompostingtoiletsoitcanbeeffectiveandsafe.Somecompostingtoiletsmayneedorganicbulkingagentsadded
Compostwillenrichthesoilinyourgardentohelpgrowhealthierplants.
toaidthecompostingprocess.Addinggrassclippings,sawdust,andleavestoyourcompostingtoiletreservoirwillhelpaidtheprocess.Theendproductshouldberemovedeverythreemonthsforsmallersystemsand,ifcompostedcorrectly,shouldnotsmellandshouldnotbetoxictohumansoranimals.Besuretodisposeofthewastematerialsinaccordancewithyourparticularstateandlocalregulations.
MakingYourOwnCompostingToiletBuildingyourowncompostingtoiletcanbequiteinexpensiveandtakesonlyashortamountoftimetoassemble.Inordertoconstructacompostingtoilet,youwillneedthefollowingmaterials:
Twoorthree5-gallonbucketswithlidsAstandardtoiletseat(ausedonewillworkjustfine)withlid3/4x3x18-inchplywoodsheetsBoardstobecutandusedforthesidesofthetoiletboxandforthelegsTwohingesScrewsSawandmeasuringtapeBagofsawdust,tobeusedforsoakingupexcessmoistureinthecompositingbucket
Tobegin,cutaholeinoneofthepiecesofplywoodsothatitfitsthesizeofthebucket.Then,attachthepiecesofplywoodtogetherusingthehinges.Buildaboxwiththeboardsandthenscrewinthesolidpieceofplywoodtothebox,allowingforthepartwiththeholetoremainonthetop.Attachlegstothebox,allowingthebuckettoliftjustslightlyabovetheholecutinthetoppieceofplywood.Then,attachthetoiletseattotheplywoodtop,makingsurethatitfitssecurelyovertherimofthebucket.Finally,stainorpainttheentirecompostingtoiletsoitwilllastlongerandmatchthedécorofyourbathroom.
Beforeusingyourhomemadecompostingtoilet,sprinkle1to2inchesofsawdustintothebottomofthebucket.Thiswillhelpabsorbextramoistureandwillalsoaddanecessarycarbonelementthatisusefulincomposting.Sprinklesawdustintothetoiletaftereachusetofacilitatethecompostingprocessandtominimizeodors.Whenthefirstbucketisfull,removeandcover(allowingthecompostingprocesstocontinue),insertanotherbucket,andcontinueuse.Whenbothbucketsarefull,removethemtoyourcompostingpileinyouryard.Makeasmallindentinthecenterofyourcompostingpileanddumpthenewcompostintothedepression,layingoldcompostandotherorganicmaterialsontopofthenewaddition.Ifusedproperly,yourcompostingtoiletwillbeodorlessandyourcompostwillberichandreadyforuseinyourgarden.
Thepretreatmentofgreywater
Greywater
Greywaterisjustwastewater.Greywater,however,doesnotincludetoiletwastewater,whichisknownasblackwater.Thesetwodifferentkindsofwatershouldnotbemixedtogetherforbasichealthreasons.Themaindifferencesbetweengreywaterandblackwaterare:
Greywatercontainslessnitrogenthanblackwater(andabouthalfofthenitrogenthatisfoundingreywaterisorganicnitrogenthatcanbefilteredoutandusedbyplants).Greywatercontainsfewerpathogensthanblackwaterandthusisnotaslikelytospreadorganismsthatcouldbepotentiallyharmfultohumans.Greywaterdecomposesfasterthanblackwaterandislesslikelytocausewaterpollutionbecauseofthisfactor.
Greywaterisnotnecessarilysewagetobeginwith,butifleftuntreatedforacoupleofdays,itwillbecomelikeblackwaterandthuswillbeunusable.Therefore,itisimportanttoknowhowbesttotreatandmanagegreywatersoitcanbesuccessfullyandsafelyreused.
WhatisGreywater?Simplyspeaking,greywateriswashwater—bath,dish,andlaundrywaterthatisfreefromtoiletwasteandgarbagedisposalremnants.Greywater,whenitismanagedproperly,canbequiteusefulforgrowingthingsinyourgardenoryard.Greywater,ineffect,isanexcellentsourceofnutrientsforplantswhenusedproperly.
GreywaterIrrigationSystemsThepracticeofirrigatingwithgreywateriscommoninareaswherethewatersupplyisshort.Tohaveeffectivegreywaterirrigationthatsuccessfullyutilizesthenutrientsinthegreywater,itisimportanttotakeprecautionsbeforeusingitinirrigation.
Planningagreywatersystemrequireseitheranassumptionthatthesystemisrightforyouandyourfamilyoranunderstandingthatthesystemisneededfor
thehouseindependentofwholivesinit.
Toassesswhetheryourhouseholdcouldbenefitfromagreywatersystem,itisimportanttotakeinventoryofallthesourcesofgreywaterinthehouse.Lookathowmanygallonsofwateryouuse,perperson,perday,whendoingthelaundry,runningthedishwasher,andtakingabathorshower,andthenaddupthesenumbers.Rememberthatthetypicalwashingmachineuses30gallonsofwaterpercycle,adishwasherusesbetween3and5gallonspercycle,andsimplywashingyourhandsandbrushingyourteethdailywastesabout1to5gallonsofwaterperday.Ifyouareabletorecycleandreuseallofthatwastedwater,youcaneffectivelyreducetheamountofwaterconsumptionyourfamilyhaseverydayandeveryyear.
Onceyou’vedecidedtouseyourgreywater,itisimportanttocheckwithyourlocalauthoritiestoseeifthereareanystateorlocalregulationsforgreywaterusageinyourarea.Onceyouhavethego-aheadtoproceed,youcanbeginreusingyourgreywatertothebenefitofyourgardenandhousehold.
Greywaterpretreatment
Aplantersoilbox
AerobicPretreatment
Thistypeofgreywatertreatmentissuitableforshower,hand-washing,andlaundrywater.Aerobicpretreatmentisastretchfiltertechniquethatremoveslargeparticlesandfiberstoprotectthepipesfromcloggingandtransfersthe
greywaterintoabiologicallyactive,aerobicsoilzoneenvironment.Heremicroorganismscansurviveandflourish.Stretchfiltersretainfibersandlargeparticlesandallowtherestofthematerialstotraveltothenextprocessingstage.Thefilterisgoodforsinksandshowersatpublicwaterfacilities.
AnaerobictoAerobicPretreatment
Ifyouhavefoodwasteenteringthewatersystemfromdishwashersandkitchensinks,thisisthebetteroptionfortreatingyourgreywater.Thissystemshouldhaveathree-stageseptictanktoseparatethesludgeandgreasefromthewater.Thiswastecanthenberemovedeasily.Theoutgoingwaterwillbeanaerobicandwillneedasandfiltertorestoretheaerobicconditionstothegreywater.Thefinaltreatmentleadsthepurifiedwatertobetreatedinaplanterbed.Thesystem,whilenotinexpensive,isquiteeffectiveandissimpletomaintain.Aplanforthissystemcanbeseenabove.
PlanterSoilBox
Since1975,soilboxeshavebeenusedtopurifygreywater.Whenusingasoilbox,however,itisvitalthattheplanterbedbewelldrainedtopreventwater-loggedzonesfromforming.Therefore,thebottomofthesoilboxshouldcontainalayerofpolyethylenepeagraveltoprovideforeffectivedrainage.Alayerofplasticmosquitonettingshouldbeplacedoverthegraveltopreventthelayerofcoarsesandfromfallingthrough.Atopthecoarsesandshouldbealayerofconcrete-mixsandandthetop2feetshouldconsistofhumus-richtopsoil.Claysoilsshouldnotbeusedinsoilboxesastheydonoteffectivelyallowwatertopassthroughanddrain.
Pipingcanusuallybefoundin5-footsections.
Pressureinfiltrationpipesshouldbedesignedtoallowfortheevendistributionofwaterinbothlevelanduneventerrain.Thesepipesareeasytocleanandshouldbeplacedonthesoilsurfaceafterplanting.Then,theyshould
becoveredbya2-to4-inchlayerofwoodchipmulch.Thepressureinfiltrationpipesconsistoftwoconcentricpipesthatexpandslightlyduetothewaterpressurewhenthesystemisturnedon.Thiscausesthewatertorunoutalongtheslotatthebottomofthesoilbox.Whenthewaterpressureisturnedoff,thiscausesthesleevetocloseandpreventsworms,insects,androotsfromenteringandcloggingthepipe.
Gravity/PressureLeachingChambers
Leachingchamberscanbesuccessfulinloadingandreceiving2.4gallonspersquarefootperdayofgreywaterfromathree-bedroomhome.UsinghalfofaPVCpipethatis6inchesindiameter,thisleachingchambercanbeplacedwithinatrenchona1-to2-inchmeshplasticnettingtopreventthewallsfromsinkingintothesoil.Nopre-filtrationisusedinthesechambers.Allthatisrequiredisadosingpumpchambertopumpeveryeighthours.Thetrenchshouldhaveaminimumsurfaceareaofabout100squarefeet—thiswillallowforaloadingrateofaround2to2½gallonspersquarefootperdayforanaverage-sizedhome.
GravityandAutomaticSwitch
Theillustrationbelowshowsanexampleofanautomaticswitchsystemfromashallowleachchambertoonethatisbelowthefrostline—animportantfeatureof
Aleachingchamber
anygreywatersysteminthenorthernUnitedStates.Ifashallowtrenchfreezesandbecomescloggedwithice,thewaterwillbackupandspilloverintothepipe
tothedeeper,below-the-frost-linetrench.Itisworthnotingthatgreywateristypicallywarmerthancombinedsewageandthattheshallowleachzonesthatareoperatinginyoursystemtendtostayfreeroficeforlongerperiodsoftimethaninplaceswithcombinedwastewater.
Anautomaticswitchsystem
About3feetofwaterisagoodmarginforthisautomaticswitchsystem.
Automaticswitchingusingpumppressureisdifferentthangravitypressureswitching.Inanautomaticswitchsystem,aloopmustbearrangedindoorswherethepressureneededfortheshallowinfiltrationisnormallylowerthanthepressurerequiredtoforcethewateruptothetopoftheloop.Thetopoftheloopmust,then,benohigherthantheshut-offheadofthepump.About3feetofwaterisagoodmarginforthissystem.Thesystemcanalsobedesignedtobeswitchedmanuallybytheopeningandclosingofthevalvesthatfeedthedifferentzonesandlevelsofthegreywaterbox.
Anactivecooling/passiveheatinggreywater-irrigatedgreenhouse
OptionsforUsingGreywaterinColdWeatherThroughoutNewEngland,thereareseveralgreywater-irrigatedgreenhousesthatfeatureacombinationofautomaticallyirrigatedandfertilizedgrowingbedsthatprovideeffectivegreywatertreatment.Sincethesegreenhousesarefoundincolder,northernstates,itisimportantthatthesesoilbedsbedeepertostoreheatfromboththesunandthegreywater.
Thegreenhouseshownhereprovidesenoughsaladgreensforafamilyoffourtosixpeoplethroughoutthelong,coldnortheasternwinters.Growingbroccoli,spinach,lettuce,mustardgreens,andsorrelinthesecolderclimategreywatersystemscanbequiteeffectiveandprofitable.Tofacilitatebetterdistributionofgreywaterinthesoilbed,apipe-loopsystemcanalsobesimplyconstructedtofeedthebedfrombothsides.
OutdoorPlantersTherearemanyvariationsofoutdoorraisedsoilbedsthatareeffectiveinreplacingthesoilneededforsuccessfulleachfieldtreatmentofgreywater.Housesonledgesorinverysandysoilscanbefittedwithmasonrysoilboxesthatservetobuildupthesite’ssoilprofile.Suchastrategyhasbeenusedinmoundsorevapo-transpirationbeds(anamederivedfromtheassumptionthatallofthewaterwillevaporatetotheatmosphereeveninwetandcoldclimates).
Inpartsofthecountrywhereconstructiondensitymakesitverydifficulttobuildalargemoundortolocateplantersfortreatingasignificantvolumeofgreywater,twoadjacentneighborscanagreetobuildpropertydividersandplant
hedgesintheirleachingarea.Thisalternativecombinesprivacy,landscapingaesthetics,andgoodenvironmentalprotection.Greywatergardensoffertheaddedbenefitofbeingabletogardenatahigherelevationandinaraisedgardenbed.
Outdoorplanterswillhavealesseffectivetreatmentduringthewinterseasonsandduringdeepfreezes.Yet,
Greywaterisespeciallyusefulinareasthatareverydry.
whenrelativelywarmgreywaterisinjectedintothesoil,increasedbiologicalactivityaswellaswarmingofthesoiltendstokeeptheinjectionareaunfrozenforlongerperiodsoftimethanthesurroundingarea.Raisedbedsorplanterscanalsobeidealforcompostbinsinthefall.Thedecomposingleavesandgrassesactasaninsulatoraswellasacompostingfuelsourcethatfurtherinsuresthatthesoilbeneathdoesnotgointoadeepfreeze.
ShallowSubsoilIrrigation
Thistypeofirrigation(2to6inchesbelowthesoillevel)ispreferabletosurfaceirrigationwhenthesefactorsareinplay:
Thewaterusedis“grey”(neithercleannorfreeofsalts)TheirrigationsystemislocatedinahighevaporationlocalewithwatershortagesItisdesiredtoproduceleaforgardenwastecompostquicklySelectiveirrigationisneeded(foraflowerborder,shrub,bush,tree,etc.)Youwanttoautomaticallyirrigateadrainedplanterindoorsoroutdoors
Aninjectorpipeforkinthesoilbed.Use1-inchpipinganddrill¼-inchholesoneachside.Coverwithcanvasandalayerofsoiltohidethepipearrangement.
PARTSIXCrafts
“Craftsmakeusfeelrooted,giveusasenseofbelonging,andconnectuswithourhistory.Ourancestorsusedtocreatethesecraftsoutofnecessity,andnowwedothemforfun,tomakemoneyandtoexpressourselves.”
—PhyllisGeorge
“Theartistmustcreateasparkbeforehecanmakeafireandbeforeartisborn,theartistmustbereadytobeconsumedbythefireofhisowncreation.”
—AugusteRodin
Manypeoplethinkofartsandcraftsassomethinginvolvingmarkersandconstructionpaperthatthekidsdoatsummercamp.Certainly,thecreativitythatchildrenexpresswithscissors,tape,coloredpencils,orclayisattheheartofcrafting,butthere’smoretoitthanthat.Mostcraftprojectsdoneforpleasurenowwereoncedoneoutofnecessity—makingcandles,soaps,orbaskets,forexample—andmanyarestillusefultoday.Beyondthat,makingthingswithyourhandscanbesoothing,stimulating,orevenenlightening,dependingontheprojectandyourframeofmind.Manypeoplefindknittingespeciallyrelaxing,andpottersoftendiscoverwithintheirartphilosophicalprinciplesofintentionality,change,flexibility,andacceptance.Inaddition,craftingcanbecomealucrativeandfulfillingbusiness;handmadeitemsaresought-aftergifts
andcanbesoldforsignificantlymorethantheirfactory-producedcounterparts.Inthesepagesyou’llfindanintroductiontoseveraldiverseformsofcrafting,frommakingsoapandcandlestopotteryandeventyingknots.Usethedirections,descriptions,andimagesasajumping-offpointforyourowncreativeendeavors,alteringtheprojectsasyou’reinspiredinordertocreateone-of-a-kindpiecestouse,giveaway,orsell...orjustbecausethey’refuntodo.
HandmadeCandles
Beforethedaysofelectricity,candleswereanecessityineveryhome.Nowtheyareenjoyedprimarilyfortheuniquewaythattheycreateambience,or,forcandlesmadewithessentialoils,fortheiraromaticproperties.Turningoffthelightsforafewhoursandenjoyingtheeveningbycandlelightcansavemoneyonyourelectricbill,too,andisapleasantreminderofdaysgoneby.
Whenmakingcandlesoutofhotwax,it’sagoodideatokeepsomebakingsodanearby.Ifwaxlightsonfire,itreactssimilarlytoagreasefire,whichisonlyaggravatedbywater.Douseawaxfirewithbakingsoda,anditwillextinguishquickly.Ratherthanpouringleftoverwaxdownthedrain(whichwillclogyourdrainandisbadfortheenvironment),dumpitintoajarandsetitaside.Ifyoucontinuetomakecandles,eventuallyyourleftoverswillbecomeauniquelayeredjarcandle.
RolledBeeswaxCandleThisisthesimplesttypeofcandleyoucanmakeandonethatisgreattodowithchildren.Beeswaxcandlesarecheap,eco-friendly,non-allergenic,dripless,andnon-toxic,andtheyburncleanlyandbeautifully.Andyoucanmakeabeeswaxcandleinabout20minutes!So,ifyouarepressedfortimeandwanttomakeanicehomemadegift—oryou’djustliketohavesweet-smellingcandlesinyourhome—makingbeeswaxcandlesisthewaytogo.
Materials
Sheetsofbeeswax,anycoloryouwant(youcanfindthisatyourlocalartsandcraftsstoreorevenfromabeekeeperoratafarmers’market)Wick(youcanpurchasecandlewicksatyourlocalartsandcraftsstore)Supplies
Scissors(tocutthewickandexcessbeeswax)Hairdryer(optional)
Directions1. Takeonesheetofbeeswaxandfolditinhalf.Cutalongthefoldededgeso
youhavetwoseparatepieces.2. Cutyourwicktobeabout2incheslongerthanthelengthofthebeeswax
sheet.
Beeswaxcandlesareeasytomake,non-allergenic,anddripless.
Purchasebeeswaxinsheetsfromcraftsstoresorgatherthemfromyourownhives.
3. Laythewickontheedgeofthebeeswaxsheet,closesttoyou.Makesurethewickhangsoffofeachendofthesheet.
4. Startrollingthebeeswaxoverthewick,makingsureitistuckedtightlyaroundthewick.Thetighteryoubeginrollingthebeeswax,themoresturdyyourcandlewillbeandthebetteritwillburn.
5. Carefullyrollupthewickinthebeeswax(asyouwouldrollmodelingclay).Stopabout2inchesfromtheothersideandmakesuretheendsaresmoothandstraight.Applyslightpressureasyourolltokeepthewaxtightlybound.
6. Whenyoureachtheend,youmustsealoffyourcandle.Todoso,startinthemiddleoftheedgeandgentlypressitintothecandle,lettingyourbodyheatmeltthewaxintotherolledcandle.
7. Trimthewickonthebottom(youmayalsowanttocutthebottomslightlysoitwillstandupstraight)andthencutthewicktoabout½inchatthetop.
Note:Ifyouarehavingtroubleusingthebeeswaxandwanttofacilitatetheadheringprocess,youcanuseahairdryertosoftenthewaxandtohelpyourollit.Startattheendwiththewickand,movingthehairdryeroverthewax,heatitup.Keeprollinguntilyoureachasectionthatisnotaswarm,heatthatup,andcontinueallthewaytotheend.
TaperCandlesTapercandlesareperfectforcandlesticks,andtheycanbemadeinavarietyofsizesandcolors.
Materials
Wick(besuretofindaspoolofwickthatismadespecificallyfortapercandles)Wax(paraffinisidealformakingtapercandles)Candlefragrancesanddyes(optional)
Supplies
Pencilorchopstick(towindthewickaroundtofacilitatedippinganddrying)Weight(suchasafishinglure,bolt,orwasher)Dippingcontainer(thisshouldbetallandskinny.Youcanfindthesecontainersatyourlocalartsandcraftsstore,oryoucansubstituteaspaghettipot)Stove
Largepotforboilingwater
Smalltrivetorrack
Newspaper(topreventspills)
Glassorcandlethermometer
Dryingrack
Directions1. Cutthewicktothedesiredlengthofyourcandle,leavingabout5additional
inchesthatwillbetiedontothepencilorchopstickfordippinganddryingpurposes.It’salsoagoodideatoputaweightonthedippingendofthewick(afishinglure,bolt,orheavymetalwasher)tohelpwiththefirstfewdipsintothewax.
2. Readyyourdippingcontainer.Putthewax(preferablyinsmallerchunkstospeedupthemeltingprocess)intothecontainerandsetaside.
3. Inalargepot,starttoboilwater.Beforeputtingthedippingcontainerfullofwaxintothelargerpot,placeasmalltrivet,rack,orotherelevatingdeviceintothebottomofthelargerpot.Thiswillkeepthedippingcontainerfromtouchingthebottomofthelargerpotandwillpreventthewaxfromburningandpossiblycombusting.
4. Putthedippingcontainerintothepotandstarttomeltthewax,keepingathermometerinthewaxatalltimes.Thewaxshouldbeheatedandmeltedbetween150°Fand165°F.Stirfrequentlytokeepthechunksofparaffinfromburningandtoensureallthewaxisthoroughlymelted.(Ifyouwanttoaddfragranceordye,dosowhenthewaxiscompletelymeltedandstiruntiltheadditivesaredissolved.)
5. Onceyourwaxiscompletelymelted,it’stimetostartthedippingprocess.Removingthecontainerfromthestove,takeyourwickthat’stiedontoastickanddipitintothewax,leavingitthereforafewminutes.Continuetolowerthewickinandoutofthedippingcontainer,andbytheeighthorninthdip,cutofftheweightfromthebottomofthewick—thecandleshouldbeheavyenoughnowtodipwellonitsown.
6. Tospeedupthecoolingprocess—andtohelpthewaxcontinuetoadhereandbuilduponthewick—blowonthehotwaxeachtimeyouliftthecandleoutofthedippingpot.
7. Whenthecandleisatthedesiredlengthandthickness,youmaywanttolayitdownonaverysmoothsurface(suchasacountertop)andgentlyrollitintoshape.
8. Onadryingrack(whichcanbemadefromaboxlongenoughsothecandlesdonottouchthebottomorfromanotherdevice),carefullyhangyourtapercandletodryforagood24hours.
9. Oncethecandleiscompletelyhardened,trimthewicktojustabovethewax.
JarredSoyCandlesSoycandlesareenvironmentallyfriendlyandeasycandlestomake.Youcan
findmostoftheingredientsandmaterialsneededtomakesoycandlesatyourlocalartsandcraftsstore—oreveninyourownkitchen!
Materials
1lbsoywax(eitherinbarsorflakes)1ounceessentialoil(forfragrance)
Naturaldye(tryusingdriedandpowderedbeetsforred,turmericforyellow,orblueberriesforblue)Supplies
Stove
Pantoheatwax(adoubleboilerisbest)Spoon
Glassthermometer
Candlewick(youcanfindthisatyourlocalartsandcraftsstore)Metalwashers
Pencilsorchopsticks
Heatproofcuptopouryourmeltedwaxintothejar(s)Jartoholdthecandle(jellyjarsorotherglassjarsworkwell)
Directions1. Putthewaxinapanoradoubleboilerandheatitslowlyovermedium
heat.Heatthewaxto130°Fto140°Foruntilit’scompletelymelted.2. Removethewaxfromtheheat.Addtheessentialoilanddye(optional)and
stirintothemeltedwaxuntilcompletelydissolved.3. Allowthewaxtocoolslightly,untilitbecomescloudy.4. Whilethewaxiscooling,prepareyourwickintheglasscontainer.Itisbest
tohaveawickwithametaldiskontheend—thiswillhelpstabilizeitwhilethecandleishardening.Ifyourwickdoesnotalreadyhaveametaldiskattheend,youcaneasilyattachathinmetalwashertotheendofthewick,tyingaknotuntilthewickcannolongerpassthroughthewasher.Positionthewickintheglasscontainerand,usingapencilorchopstick,wraptheexcesswickaroundthemiddleandthen,layingthepencilorchopstickontherimofthecontainer,positionthewicksoitfallsinthecenter.
5. Usingaheatproofcuporthecontainerfromthedoubleboiler,carefullypourthecloudywaxintotheglasscontainer,beingcarefulnottodisturbthewickfromthecenter.
6. Allowthecandletodryforatleast24hoursbeforecuttingofftheexcesswickandusing.
Jellyjarsworkwellforpouredcandles.
MakingYourOwnSoap
Makingyourownsoapcanbeaveryrewardingprocess.Itdoes,however,requireagoodamountoftime,patience,andcaution,becauseyou’llbeusingsomecausticandpotentiallydangerousingredients—themainonebeinglye(sodiumhydroxide).Itisimportant,wheneveryouaremakingsoap,thatyouarecarefultoavoidcomingintodirectcontactwiththelye.Weargoggles,rubbergloves,andlongsleeves,andworkinawell-ventilatedarea.Besure,aswell,thatyouneverbreatheinthefumesproducedbythelyeandwatermixture.
Soapismadeupofthreemainingredients:water,lye,andfatsoroils.Whilelardandtallowwereonceusedexclusivelyformakingsoaps,itisperfectlyacceptabletouseacombinationofpureoilsforthe“fat”neededtomakesoap.Fortheseingredientstobecomesoap,theymustgothroughaprocesscalledsaponification,inwhichthemixturebecomescompletelyblendedandthechemicalreactionsbetweenthelyeandtheoils,overtime,turnthemixtureintoahardenedbarofusablesoap.
Onceyou’vebecomecomfortablewiththebasicsoap-makingprocess,youcanexperimentwithaddingdifferentcoloreddyes,essentialoils,andotheringredientstomakeapersonalizedandinterestingbarofsoap—perfectforyourownuseorforgivingasagift.
BasicRecipeforCold-PressedSoapIngredients
6.9ounceslye(sodiumhydroxide)
2cupsdistilledwater,cold(fromtherefrigeratoristhebest)2cupscanolaoil
2cupscoconutoil
2cupspalmoil
Supplies
Goggles,gloves,andmasktowearwhilemakingthesoapMoldforthesoap(acakeorbreadloafpanwillworkjustfine;youcanalsofindflexibleplasticmoldsatyourlocalartsandcraftsstore)PlasticwraporwaxpapertolinethemoldsGlassbowltomixthelyeandwater
Woodenspoonformixing
2thermometers(oneforthelyeandwatermixtureandonefortheoilmixture)StainlesssteelorcastironpotforheatingoilsandmixinginlyemixtureHandheldstickblender(optional)
Youcanpouryoursoapintomolds,usestamps,orcarvethefinishedbarstomakethemunique.
Directions1. Putonthegogglesandglovesandmakesureyouareworkinginawell-
ventilatedroom.2. Readyyourmold(s)byliningwithplasticwraporwaxpaper.Setthem
aside.3. Addthelyetothecold,distilledwaterinaglassbowl(neveraddthewater
tothelye)andstircontinuallyforatleastaminute,oruntilthelyeiscompletelydissolved.Placeonethermometerintotheglassbowlandallowthemixturetocooltoaround110°F(thechemicalreactionofthelyemixingwiththewaterwillcauseittoheatupquicklyatfirst).
4. Whilethelyeiscooling,combinetheoilsinapotonmediumheatandstirwelluntiltheyaremeltedtogether.Placeathermometerintothepotandallowthemixturetocoolto110°F.
5. Carefullypourthelyemixtureintotheoilmixture(makesureyoupourthelyesolutioninasmall,steadystream),stirringcontinuouslysothatthelyeandoilsmixproperly.Continuestirring,eitherbyhand(whichcantakeaverylongtime)orwithahandheldstickblender,untilthemixturetraces(hastheconsistencyofthinpudding).Thismaytakeanywherefrom30to60minutesormore,sojustbepatient.Itiswellworththetimeinvestedtomakesureyourmixturetraces.Ifitdoesn’ttracealltheway,itwillnotsaponifycorrectlyandyoursoapwillberuined.
6. Onceyourmixturehastraced,pourcarefullyintothemold(s)andletsitforafewhours.Then,whenthemixtureisstillsoftbutcongealedenoughnottomeltbackintoitself,cutthesoapwithatableknifeintobars.Letsitforafewdays,thentakethebarsoutofthemold(s)andplaceonbrownpaper(grocerybagsareperfect)inadarkarea.Allowthebarstocureforanother4weeksorsobeforeusing.
Ifyouwantyoursoaptobecolored,addspecialsoap-coloringdyes(youcanfindtheseatthelocalartsandcraftsstore)afterthemixturehastraced,stirringthemin.Ortrymakingyourowndyesusingherbs,flowers,orspices.
Tomakeayummy-smellingbarofsoap,addafewdropsofyourfavoriteessentialoils(suchaslavender,lemon,orrose)afterthetracingofthemixtureandstirin.YoucanalsoaddaloeandvitaminEatthispointtomakeyoursoapsofterandmoremoisturizing.
Toaddtextureandexfoliatingpropertiestoyoursoap,youcanstirsomeoatsintothetracedmixture,alongwithsomealmondessentialoiloradabofhoney.Thiswillnotonlygiveyoursoapanice,pumice-likequalitybutitwillalso
smellwonderful.Tryaddingbitsoflavender,rosepetals,orcitruspeeltoyoursoapforvariety.
Tomakesoapindifferentshapes,pouryourmixtureintomoldsinsteadofmakingthemintobars.Forroundsoaps,youcantakeafewbarsofsoapyou’vejustmade,placethemintoaresealableplasticbag,andwarmthembyputtingthebagintohotwater(120°F)for30minutes.Then,cutthebarsupandrollthemintoballs.Thesesoapsshouldsetinaboutanhourorso.
NaturalDyesforSoaporCandles
Light/DarkBrown Cinnamon,groundcloves,allspice,nutmeg,coffee
Yellow Turmeric,saffron,calendulapetals
Green Liquidchlrophyll,alfalfa,cucum-ber,sage,nettles
Red Annattoextract,beets,grape-skinextract
Blue Redcabbage
Purple Alkanetroot
PotteryBasics
Potteryisenjoyabletomakebecauseofitsflexibilityandsimplicityasameansofartexpression,itsutility,anditstimelessness.
Clayisthebasicingredientformakingpottery.Clayisdecomposedrockcontainingwater(bothinliquidandchemicalforms).Waterinitsliquidformcanbeseparatedfromtheclaybyheatingthemasstoaboilingpoint—aprocessthatrestorestheclaytoitsoriginalconditiononcedried.Thewaterintheclaythatisfoundinchemicalformscanalsoberemovedbyignition—aprocesscommonlyreferredtoas“firing.”Afterbeingfired,claycannotberestoredtoanystateofplasticity—thisiswhatweterm“pottery.”Someclayrequiresgreaterheatinordertobefired,andtheseareknownas“hardclays.”Thesetypesofclaymustbesubjectedtoa“hard-firing”process.However,inthemakingofsimplepottery,softclayisgenerallyusedandisfiredinanover-glaze(softglaze)kiln.
Potteryclayscaneitherbefoundincertainsoilsorboughtfromcraftstores.Ifyouhaveclaysoilavailableonyourproperty,theprocessofseparatingtheclayfromtheothersoilmaterialsissimple.Puttheearthenclayintoalargebucketofwatertowashthesoilaway.Anyrocksorotherheavymatterwillsinktothebottomofthebucket.Themilkyfluidthatremains—whichisessentiallywatermixedwithclay—maythenbedrawnoffandallowedtosettleinaseparatecontainer,theclearwatereventuallycollectingonthetop.Removetheexcesswaterbyusingasiphon.Repeatingofthisprocesswillrefinetheclayandmakeitreadyforuse.
Youcanalsopurchaseclayatyourlocalcraftstore.Usually,claysoldinthesestoreswillbeinadryform(agrayishoryellowishpowder),soyouwillneedtoprepareitbeforeusingityourpottery.Toprepareitforuse,youmustmixthepowderwithwater.Iftherearedirectionsonyourclaypacket,thenfollowthosecloselytomakeyourclay.Ingeneral,though,youcanmakeyourclaybymixingequalpartsofclaypowderandwaterinabowlandallowingthemixturetosoakfor10to12hours.Afterithassoaked,kneadthemixturethoroughlytodispersethewaterevenlythroughouttheclayandpopanyairbubbles.Airbubbles,ifleft
intheclay,couldbedetrimentaltoyourpotteryoncekilned,becausethebubbleswouldgeneratesteamandpossiblycrackyourcreation.However,becarefulnottokneadyourclaymixturetoomuch,
Apottercarefullyformsabowlwhichwilleventuallybeglazedandfiredinakiln.
Makingpotterytakespatienceandpractice,buttheprocesscanbeveryenjoyable.
oryoumayincreasethechanceofairbubblesbecomingtrappedinthemixture.
If,afterkneading,youfindthattheclayistoowettoworkwith(testthewetnessoftheclayonyourhandsandifittoslipsaroundyourpalmveryeasily,itisprobablytoowet),theexcesswatercanberemovedbysqueezingorblottingoutwithadrytowelordryboard.
Themaintoolsneededformakingpotteryaresimplyyourfingers.Therearewoodentoolsthatcanbeusedforaddingfinerdetailordecoration,buttypically,allyoureallyneedareyourowntwohands.Alooptool(apieceoffine,curvedwire)mayalsobeusedforscrapingoffexcessclaywhereitistoothick.Anothertoolhasraggededgesandthiscanbeusedtohelpregulatethecontourofthepottery.Rememberthathomemadepotterywillnotalwaysbesymmetrical,andthatiswhatmakesitsospecial.
Sticksandothertoolscanbeusedtohelpyouformanddecorateyourpottery.
BasicVaseorUrnTrymakingthissimplevaseorurntogetusedtoworkingwithclay.1. Takealumpofclay.Theclayshouldbeaboutthesizeofasmallorange
andshouldbeelasticfeeling.Then,begintomoldthebaseofyourobject—
let’ssayitiseitherabowloravase.2. Continuemoldingyourbase.Bynow,you’llhavearatherheavyandthick
model,hollowedtolookalittlelikeabird’snest.Now,usingthisbaseassupport,startaddingpiecesofclayinaspiralshape.Presstheclaytogetherfirmlywithyourfingers.Makesurethatyourmodelhasauniformthicknessallaround.
3. Continuemoldingyourclayandmakingitgrow.Asyouworkwiththeclay,yourhandswillbecomemoreaccustomedtoitstextureandthewayitmolds,andyouwillhavelessdifficultymakingitdowhatyouwant.Asyoustarttoelongateandlengthenthemodel,remembertokeepthewallsofthepiecesubstantialandnottoothin—itiseasiertoremoveextrathicknessthanitistoaddit.
4. Don’tbecomefrustratedifyourfirstmodelfails.Evenifyouarebeingextracarefultomakeyourbowlorvasesturdy,thereisalwaystheinstancewhenanearlycompletevasewillfallover.Thisusuallyhappenswhenonesideofthestructurebecomestoothinortheclayistoowet.Tokeepthisfromhappening,itissometimeshelpfultokeeponehandinsidethestructureandtheotheroutside.Ifyouarebuildingavase,youcanextractonefingeratatimeasyoureachcloserandclosertothetopofthemodel.
5. Theclayshouldbemoistthroughouttheentiremoldingprocess.Ifyouneedtostopmoldingforanextendedperiodoftime,covertheitemwithamoistclothtokeepitfromdryingout.
6. Whenyourmodelhasreachedthesizeyouwant,youmayturnitupsidedownandsmoothandrefinethecontoursoftheobject.Youcanalsomakethebasemuchmoredetailedandshapedtoamorepleasingdesign.
7. Allowyourmodeltoairdry.
EmbellishingYourClayModelsYoumayeventuallywanttomakesomethingthatrequiresahandleoraspout,suchasacuporteapot.Addinghandlesandspoutscanbetricky,butonlyifyoudon’tremembersomesimplerules.Spoutscanbemodeledaroundastraworanyothermaterialthatisstiffenoughtosupporttheclayandlightenoughtoburnoutinthefiring.Inthedesigningofspoutsandhandles,itisstillimportanttokeepthemsolidandthick.Also,keepingthemclosertothebodyofyourmodelismorepractical,ashandlesandspoutsthatareelongated
arehardertokeepfirmandcanalsobreakoffeasily.Althoughmoretime-consuminganddifficulttomanage,handlesandspoutscanaddaniceaesthetictoyourfinishedpottery.
Thesimplestwaytodecorateyourpotteryisbymakinglineincisions.Lineincisiondesignsarebestmadewithwooden,finger-shapedtools.Itiscompletelyuptoyouastohowdeepthelinesareandintowhatpatterntheyaremade.
Wheel-workingandFiringPotteryIfyouwanttotakeyourpottery-makingonestepfurther,youcanexperimentwithusingapotters’wheelandalsoglazingandfiringyourmodeltocreatebeautifulpottery.Lookonlineoratyourlocalcraftstoreforpotters’wheels.Firingcanleaveyourpotterylookingtwodifferentways,dependingonwhetheryoudecidetoleavetheclaynatural(soitmaintainsadullandporouslook)ortogiveitacolorglaze.
Coloredglazescomeintheformofpowderandaregenerallymetallicoxides,suchasironoxides,cobaltoxide,chromiumoxide,copperoxide,andcoppercarbonate.Thecolorsthesecompoundsbecomewillvarydependingontheatmosphereandtemperatureofthekiln.Glazesoftencomeintheformofpowderandneedtobecombinedwithwatertobeappliedtotheclay.Onlyapplyglazetodriedpottery,becauseitwon’tadherewelltowetclay.Useabrush,sponge,orputtyknifetoapplytheglaze.Yourpotteryisthenreadytobefired.
Therearevariousdifferentkindsofkilnsinwhichtofireyourpottery.Anover-glazekilnissufficientforallprocessesdiscussedhere,andyoucanprobablyfindakilninyoursurroundingarea(checkonlineandinyourtelephonebookforplacesthathavekilnsopentothepublic).Forschoolsthathavepotteryclasses,over-glazekilnsmaybeinstalledthere.Itisimportant,wheneveryouareusingakiln,thatyouarewithaskilledpotterymakerwhoknowshowtoproperlyoperateakiln.
Afterthepotteryhasbeencoloredandfired,asimpledesignmaybemadeonthepotterybyscrapingoffthesurfacecolorsoastoexposetheoriginalorcreamy-whitetintoftheclay.
Unglazedpotterymaybeworkedwithafterfiringbyrubbingfloorwaxontheoutersurface.Thisfillsuptheporesandgivesamoreuniformqualitytothewholepiece.
Potteryofferssomanyopportunitiesforpersonalexperimentationandenjoyment;therearenosetrulesastohowtomakeapieceofpottery.Keepajournalaboutthedifferentthingsyoutrywhilemakingpotterysoyoucanrememberwhatworksbestandwhatshouldbeavoidedinthefuture.Notethekindofclayyouusedanditsconsistency,thetypesofcolorsthathaveworkedwell,andthetemperatureandpositioningwithinthekiln,ifyouusefiring.Aboveall,enjoymakinguniquepiecesofpottery!
MakingJars,Candlesticks,andBowlsMakingpotteryathomeissimpleandeasy,andisagreatwayforyoutomakepersonalized,uniquegiftsforfamilyandfriends.Claycanbepurchasedatlocalartsandcraftsstores.Claymustalwaysbekneadedbeforeyoumodelwithitbecauseitcontainsairthat,ifleftintheclay,wouldformairbubblesinyourpotteryandspoilit.Workoutthisairbykneadingitthesamewaythatyoukneadbread.Alsoguardagainstmakingtheclaytoomoist,becausethatcausesthepotterytosag,andsagging,ofcourse,spoilstheshape.
Tomakeyourownpottery,youneedmodelingclay,aboardonwhichyoucanwork,apietinonwhichtobuild,aknife,ashortstick(onesideshouldbepointed),andaruler.
Keepspoutsandhandlesthicksotheywillnotcrackorbreakoff.Useastickordoweltocreatelineincisionslikethese.
Usingdifferentglazeswillgiveyourpotteryvariancesinodorandtexture.
Jars
Tostartajar,putahandfulofclayontheboard,patitoutwithyourhanduntilitisaninchthick,andsmoothoffthesurface.Then,takeacoffeecup,invertituponthebase,and,withyourstick,trimtheclayoutsidetherim.
Tobuildupthewalls,putahandfulofclayontheboardanduseaknifetosmoothitoutintoalongpiece,¼inchthick.Withtheknifeandaruler,trimoffoneedgeofthepieceandcutanumberofstrips¾inchwide.Takeonestrip,standitontopofthebase,andrubitsedgeintothebaseonbothsidesofthestrip.Takeanotherstripandaddittothetopofthefirstone,andcontinuebuildinginthisway,placingonestriponanother,joiningeachtotheonebeneathit,andsmoothingoverthejointsasyoubuild.Keepdoingthisuntilthewallsareashighasyouwantthemtobe.Remembertokeeponehandinsidethe
jarwhileyoubuild,forextrasupport.Fillunevenplaceswithbitsofclayandsmoothoutroughspotswithyourfingers,havingmoistenedyourfingerswithwaterfirst.Whenyouarefinished,youmayalsoadddecorations,orornaments,toyourjar.
Candlestick
Makingapotterycandlestickrequiresaroundbase½inchthickand4inchesindiameter.Afterpreparingthebase,putalumpofclayinthecenter,workitintothebase,placeanotherlumpontop,workitintothepiece,andcontinueinthiswayuntilthecandlestickhasbeenbuiltashighasyouwantit.Then,forceacandleintothemoistclay,twistingitarounduntilithasmadeasocketdeepenoughtoplaceacandleinto.
Acardboard“templet”,withoneedgetrimmedtothepropershape,willmakeiteasytokeepthewallsofthecandlesticksymmetricalandtheprojectingcaponthetopequalonallsides.Runtheedgeofthetempletaroundthewallsasyouwork,anditwillshow
youexactlywhereandhowmuchtofillout,trim,andstraightentheclay.
Ifyouwanttomakeacandlestickwithahandle,makeabasejustasdescribedearlier.Thencutstripsofclayandbuildupthewallasifbuildingajar,leavingacenterholejustlargeenoughtoholdacandle.Whenthedesiredheightforthewallhasbeenreached,cutastripofclay½inchwideand½inchthick,andlayitaroundthetopofthewallwithaprojectionof¼inchoverthewall.Smooththispieceontop,inside,andoutsidewithyourmodelingstickandfingers.Forthehandle,prepareastrip1inchwideand3/8inchthick,andjoinoneendtothe
topbandandtheotherendtothebase.Useasmalllumpofclayforfillingaroundwhereyoujointhepiece,andsmoothoffthepieceonallsides.
Whenthecandlestickisfinished,runaroundstickthesamesizeasthecandledownintothehole,andletitstayputuntiltheclayisdry,tokeepthecandlestickstraight.
Bowls
Bowlsarequiteeasytomake.Startingwithabase,laystripsofclayaroundthebase,buildinguponeachstripasyoudidwhenmakingajar.Oncethebowlreachesitsdesiredheightandwidth,allowittodry.
GlazingandFiringMostpotterythatyoubuyisglazedandthenfiredinapotterykiln,butfiringisnotnecessarytomakebeautiful,sturdypottery.Theclaywilldryhardenough,naturally,tokeepitsshape,andtheonlythingyoumustprovideforiswaterproofing(ifthepotterywillbeholdingliquids).Todothis,youcantakebathtubenamelandapplyittotheinside(andoutside,ifdesired)ofthepotterytosealoffanycracksandkeeptheitemfromleaking.
Ifyoudowanttotryglazingandfiringyourownpottery,youwillneedakiln.Belowareinstructionsformakingyourown.
Potterymaybeornamentedbyscratchingadesignonitwiththeendofamodelingstick.Youcandoasimple,straight-linedesignbyusingarulerto
guidethestickindrawingthelines.
SawdustKiln
Thissmall,homemadekilncanbeusedtobakeandfiremostsmallpotteryprojects.Itwillonlygetuptoabout1200degreesFahrenheit,whichisnothotenoughtofireporcelainorstonewear.However,itwillsufficeforclaypinchpotsandotherdecorativepieces.
Youwillneed:Sawdust20–30redororangebricksChickenwireSheetmetalNewspaperandkindling1. Chooseaspotoutdoorsthatisprotectedfromstrongwinds.Clear
awayanydriedbranchesorotherflammablesfromtheimmediatearea.Aconcretepatioorpavedareamakesanidealbase,butyoucanalsoplacebricksorstonesontheground.
2. Stackbricksinasquareshape,buildingeachwallupatleastfourbrickshigh.Fillthekilnwithsawdust.
3. Placethechickenwireontopofthebricksandaddanotherlayerortwoofbricks.Carefullyplaceyourpotterynthecenterofthemesh,spacingthepiecesatleast½inchapart.Coverthepotterywithsawdust.
4. Addanotherpieceofchickenwire,addbricksandpottery,andcoverwithsawdust.Repeatuntilyourkilnisthedesiredheight.
5. Lightthetoplayerofsawdustonfire,usingkindlingandnewspaperifneeded.Coverwiththesheetmetal,usinganotherlayerofbrickstoholditinplace.
6. Oncethekilnstopssmoking,leaveitaloneuntilitcompletelycoolsdown.Thencarefullyremovethesheetmetallid.
PermanentHomemadePotteryKiln
Asyoucontinuetocreatepottery,youmayfindthatyouenjoytheartenoughthatyouwouldliketocontinuethiscraftforyearstocome.Inthatcase,andifyouhaveenoughspaceinyouryard,youmaythinkaboutconstructingapermanentkilnforallofyourpotteryneeds.Thiskilnrequiressomeintenseconstruction,buthavingyourownwood-burningpotterykilnwillmakefiring
yourcreationseasierandmoreeffective.
Theessentialsofthiskilnare:afirebox,anoven,andachimney.Thekilnworksbyallowingthefiretopassupfromthefireboxthroughtheovenfloor,betweenthebricks(spacedabout1½inchesapart),andoutthroughthechimneyatthetopoftheoven.
TheConstructionoftheKiln1.Beginbylayingoutaspaceforthefoundationofthekiln.Thisshouldbeonsolid,dryground.Itisadvisabletomakeanexcavationafewinchesbelowthesurfaceandfillitinwithcindersorbrokenbrick.Theplaceyouchooseforyourkilnshouldalsoallowwatertorunoffandnotcollectunderneath.
2.Buildthewallsofthekilnthreebricksdeeponeachofthesidesandtheback.Leavethefrontofthekilnopenforthefiremouths.
3.Halfwaybetweenthetwosidewalls,buildathin,centralsupport,madeofthreecoursesofbrickontheedge.Thiswillleaveanarrowledgewherethegratesofthefireboxescanrest.Buildtheotheredgeofeachgrateintothesidewall.
Thetopillustrationsshowsplanandfrontviewofthekilnfoundationupto
theovenfloor.Thewallsarethreebricksthickoneachsideandthefrontisleftopen.Thebottomillustrationshowsthebricksthatrestontheside
wallsandonthecentralsupport.Theseshouldbemadeoffirebricks,sincethey’llbesubjectedtothemostextremeheat.
Thesizeofthekilnwillbedependentontheamountofbricksyoulay.Laybricksendwisetomakeastrongerwall.
4.Makethemortarofcommonclay(oryoucanbuyitifyoudesire).Mixtheclaywithwaterintoamortar.Youcanaddsomeregularsandtogivethemortarbetterworkingqualities,andthiswillalsohelppreventshrinkage.
5.Spreadthemortaroverthecinderfoundationandstarttolaythebricks.Inbuildingthewallsandcentralsupport,makethejointsbetweenthebricksastightandthinaspossible.Tapthebricksintoplacesotherewillbenosettlingofthewalllateron.
6.Buildthewallsandcentralsupportuptothepointwheretheovenfloorwillbe.Tomaketheovenfloor,arrangethebricksontheiredgesabout1½inchesapartfromthefronttothebackofthekiln.Thesebricksshouldrestonthesidewallsandcentralsupport.Sincethisovenfloorisgoingtobesubjectedtohighheat,usefirebricks.Alsobesuretoprojectthebricksoutinthefrontfortheovendoortositon.
7.Continuetobuildthesideandbackwallsupninemorebricks.Then,youcanstarttotaperthebricksintoachimneyformation.Laythenexttwolevelsofbricks(onthesidewallsonly)intowardthecenterofthekilnabout1½inchesorso.Thespacebetweenthewallsatthetopshouldnotbemorethan9inches.Bridgetheopeningatthetopacrossthefrontandbackofthekiln,leavinganopeninginthecenterjustlargeenoughforthechimney(about8or9inchessquare).Youcandothisbyusinglargepiecesofterracottafluelining(purchasedatanyhardwareorhomecenterstore).
ofterracottafluelining(purchasedatanyhardwareorhomecenterstore).Thesizeoftheflueliningshouldbeabout2feetx8inchesx6inches.
8.Carefullycutlinesintheflueliningfromendtoend,untilthesidefallsaway.Cutthisintwoandusethetwohalvesforclosinginthetopofthekiln.Putthesebricksinplacewithplentyofmortarandfinishouttherestofthebrickingoverthewallswithotherpiecesoffluelining,makingthemlevel.
9.Buildtwomorelevelsofbrickallaround,leavingthechimneyopening9inchesby9inches.
10.Nowbuildthechimneystraightupwithasinglelayerofbricks(ortwobrickstoeachlayer,ifyoudesire).Theinsidediameterofthechimneyshouldnotbelessthan7inchesby7inches.Whencomplete,thechimneyshouldbeabout3feethigh.
Crosssectionofthefinishedkiln.Thespacebetweenthewallsatthetopshouldnotbemorethannineinches.
CutlinesintheflueliningfromendtoendatABandCD.ThencutintwoatEFandusethetwohalvesforclosinginthetopofthekiln.
11.Youcanalsobuildthechimney1foothighandthenletonebrickoneachsideprojectintothechimneycavityabout2inches.Then,fitordinarystovepipewithasquareendtorestontheseprojectionsinsidethechimney.
stovepipewithasquareendtorestontheseprojectionsinsidethechimney.Thisisalightermethodthanbuildingbrickallthewayup.
12.Installgratestoproduceabetterandclearedfire.Youcanfindgratesatyourlocalhardwarestoreoruseoldstovegrates.Buildthesegratesintothewallsofthefireboxandcentralsupport.Leavethefrontendoftheovenopen.
14.Placepotteryintheoven.Brickupthefrontoftheovenwithoutanymortarandfillinthejointswithwetsand.
15.Thekilnwillnowneedtobeheatedwithwood.Youshouldbeginwithaverysimplefirelastingaboutanhourortwo.Thisisextremelyimportant,astheflamecomesintocontactwiththerawclay,which,unlessitisheatedverygradually,couldcrackandsplitapart.Afterthoroughlywarmingthekiln,increasetheheatmorerapidly.Afterthefiringiswellunderway(threeorsohourslater),closethedoorsofthefireboxeswithpiecesofsheetironorbrickspiledupinfront.Onlyallowairinthroughthegrates.Onlyremovethetemporarydoorstoaddfueltothefire.
Knitting
TheartofknittingwassupposedlyinventedbytheSpanishnobilityasameansofrelaxationfornoblewomeninthecountry.TheScottishalsoclaimtohavedevelopedknitting,andKingHenryVIIwasthefirsttowearknittedstockingsinEngland.QueenElizabethalsoworeknittedsilkstockingsmadebyMistressMontegue.
Wheneverandwhereverknittingwasfirst“discovered,”itisuseful,relaxing,andcanbedonewhileenjoyingagoodconversationwithafriend.
KnittingBasics
Stitches
Knittingcanbedoneinrowsofplainorpurlstitchesorbyincorporatingavarietyofstitchesandknittingtechniquesinoneproject.However,thesimplerstitchesarebetterwhenfirststartingtoknit.Justbesurenottopullthethreadtootightorkeepittooloose—asyoucontinuetoknit,youwilllearntheproperamountoftensiontoapplytoyourstringsoyoucreateaperfect,knitteditem.
ToolsNeededforKnitting1. Gauge—Thismeasurestheknittingneedles.Mostneedlesalreadyhave
theirgaugelistedonthem,butifyourneedlesdonot,youshouldfindthismeasuringtoolatyourlocalartsandcraftsstore.
2. Knittingneedles—Thesearemadeofsteel,wood,orplasticandareusedtoknityourmaterialtogether.
3. Knittingshields—Althoughthesearenotanecessarytoolforknitting,youmayfindthatyouwantthesesothematerialdoesnotslipoffofyourneedle.
4. Materialtobeknitted—Beginnersshouldusethickeryarnintheirknitteditems.Whenyouhavebecomemoreproficientinknitting,youcanexperimentwithdifferenttypesofthreadsandmaterialstocreateyourvariousknitteditems.
KnittingTerminology
Tobringthethreadforward—Thismeanstopassthethreadbetweentheneedlestowardtheknitter’sbody.
Tocastoff—Youdothisbyknittingtwostitches,passingthefirstoverthesecond,andproceedinginthismanneruntilthelaststitch,whichissecuredbypassingthethreadthroughit.
Tocastontheloopsorstitches—Takethematerialinyourrighthandandtwistitaroundthelittlefinger,bringingitunderthenexttwofingers,andpassingitoverthepointerfinger.Then,taketheendofthematerialinyourlefthand(holdingtheneedlewithyourright),wrapitaroundthelittlefinger,andthenbringitoverthethumbandaroundthesecondandthirdfingers.Bydoingso,youwillhaveformedaloop.Now,bringtheneedleunderthelowerthreadofthematerialandabovethematerialthatisovertheright-handpointerfingerundertheneedle.Thethreadinthelefthandshouldbepulledtightly,completingthisstep.Youcanrepeatthisprocessasmanytimesasneededuntilyou’vecasttheamountofstitchesyouwant.
Tocastover—Thismeanstobringthematerialaroundtheneedle(bringingitforward).
Tofastenon—Thisreferstofasteningtheendofthematerialwhenit’sneededduringtheprocessofknitting.Thebestwaytofastenonistoplacethetwoendsinoppositedirectionsandknitafewstitcheswithboth.
Knittingstitch—Inthisstitch,theneedlemustbeputthroughthecast-onstitchandthematerialshouldbeturnedover.Thiswillbetakenupandundertheloop(orstitch)andthenletoff.Thisisalsoknownasaplainstitchandwillbecontinueduntilanentireroundiscomplete.
Aloopstitch—Thisismadebypassingthethreadbeforetheneedle.
Narrowing—Thisistodecreasethenumberofstitchesbyknittingtwotogether,soyouonlyformoneloop.
Purlstitch—Thisisalsoknownasaseam,ribbed,orturnstitch.Itisformedbyknittingwiththematerialbeforetheneedleandinsteadofbringingtheneedleovertheupperthread,thematerialisbroughtunderit.Thisistheoppositeofaknittingstitch.
Raising—Thisistoincreasethenumberofstitchesandismadebyknittingonestitchintheusualwayandthenomittingtoslipouttheleft-handneedle.Then,thematerialispassedforward,andasecondstitchisformedbypullingtheneedleunderthestitch.Thematerialmustbeputbacktoitsnormalplacewhentheextrastitchiscompleted.
Torib—Toalternatelyknitplainandpurledstitches(threeplainthenthreepurl,etc.).
Around—Thisisallofthestitchesontwo,three,ormoreneedles.
Arow—Thisreferstothestitchesfromoneendoftheneedletotheother.
Toseam—Toknitapurlstitcheveryalternaterow.
Aslipstitch—Thisismadebypassingthethreadfromoneneedletoanotherwithoutknitting.
Toturn—Tochangethetypeofstitch.
Welts—Thesearealternatingplainandribbedstitchesandareusedforanythingthatyoudon’twanttotwistorcurlup.
HowtoKnit1. Tocaston,holdthetwoneedleslooselyinyourhands.Passaloopoverthe
left-handneedleneartheendoftheyarnandholdtheright-handneedle
loosely.Puttheright-handneedleintotheloop,passingitfromlefttorightandkeepingtheright-handneedleundertheleftneedle.Passthestringoverthisneedle—betweenitandtheleft-handneedle—andpulltheloopuptowardtheright.Now,bringtherightneedleupandpassthestitchonittotheleftneedlebyputtingtheleftneedlethroughtheleftsideoftheloop,keepingtherightneedleintheloop.Itisreadytobeginthenextstitch.Repeat.
2. Knittingstitch:Afteryouhavemadethecorrectnumberofstitches,holdtheneedlethathasthestitchesonitinyourlefthandandpasstherightneedleintothefirststitchfromlefttoright.Puttheyarnaroundbetweenthetwoneedles,pulltheloopthroughtheotherloopontheleftneedle,andslipthatloopofftheleftneedle.Repeat.
3. Purlingstitch:Keeptheyarninthefrontoftheworkandputtherightneedleintoastitchfromrighttoleft,passingitupwardthroughthefrontloopofthestitch.Therightneedleshouldberestingontheleft.Passtheyarnaroundthefrontoftheneedleandbringitbackbetweenthetwoneedles.Pulltherightneedleslightlyback,soastosecuretheloopontherightneedleandthendrawofftheloopontheleftneedle.Repeat.Note:Thisisbasicallytheknittingstitch,onlybackwards.
4. Slippingastitch:Thisisdonebypassingastitchfromoneneedletoanotherwithoutknittingitatthebeginningofarow.Thisshouldalwaysbeendonewhenusingtwoneedlesatthebeginningofeachrow,sotherowsremaineven.
5. Casting(binding)off:Knittwostitches,passingthefirststitchoverthesecond,andthenknitathirdstitch,passingthesecondoverthethird.Continueinthiswayuntilallthestitchesareofftheneedle.
TwoSimpleKnittingPatterns1.PatentKnitting,orBriocheKnitting
Castonanynumberofstitchesdivisiblebythree.
Yarnforward,slipone,knittwotogether.Workeveryrowinthesameway.
2.Cane-workPattern
Castonanynumberofstitchesdivisiblebyfour.
GeneralTipforBeginningKnitters
Holdtheneedleslooselyinyourhandsandclosetothepoints.Tokniteasilyandquickly,yourhandsshouldneithermovetoomuchnorshouldyoumakelargegestureswiththeneedles.
Holdtheneedleslooselyinyourhandswiththelooseyarnwrappedaroundyourpointerfinger.
Sliptherightneedleintothetoploopontheleftneedle,keepingtheleftneedleabovetherightneedle.Todoapurlstitch,therightneedlewouldgoontopof
therightneedle.
Wraptheloosestrandofyarnoverandbehindtherightneedle.Forapurlstitch,wraptheyarnbehindfirstandthenovertheneedle.Sliptheloopoffof
theleftneedletofinishthestitch.
FirstRow:makeone,knitone,makeone,knitthree.Repeat.
SecondRow:purl.
ThirdRow:knitthree,makeone,slipone,knittwotogether,passtheslip-stitchoverthetwoknittedtogether,makeone.Repeat.
FourthRow:purl.
FifthRow:makeone,slipone,knittwotogether,passtheslip-stitchover,makeone,knitthree.Repeat.
SixthRow:purl.
SeventhRow:repeatthethirdrow.
EighthRow:purl.
NinthRow:makeone,slipone,knittwotogether,passtheslip-stitchover,makeone,knitthree.Repeat.
TenthRow:purl.
Repeatfromthethirdrowuntiltheitemiscomplete.
SimpleScarf
Materials
Mid-weightor4-plyyarnofanycolor(useatleastonefullbundleofyarn)Knittingneedles(size8to10.5arebestforknittingscarves)
Alternatingrowsofknitandpurlstitches.
Directions1. Decidehowwideyouwantyourscarftobe(26to35stitchesarethe
standardwidthforascarf).2. Firstrow:knit26to36stitches3. Secondrow:knit26to35stitches(ifyouwantsomethingalittlemore
challenging,purlthisrowinstead)4. Continueknitting(orknittingandpurlingalternately)untilyoureachthe
desiredlength(60inchesisagoodlengthforascarf).5. Attheend,cast(bind)offthestitches.
Hat
Materials
Yarnofamedium-heavyweight,anycolorofyourchoosingKnittingneedles(dependingontheheadsizeforthehat,useNo.6orNo.8needles)Directions1.Caston72stitches.2.Firstrow:knit72stitches.3.Secondrow:purl72stitches.
Thishatshowsthe“knitonerow,purlonerow”pattern.Youcanalsofollowthispatternforsixoreightrowsandthenswitchtojustknittingtogiveyourhatadifferentiatedbandaroundthebottom.Ifdesired,useroundneedles(twoknittingneedlesthatareattachedbyaplasticorrubbercord)
toavoidhavingtosewaseamattheend.
4.Continueinthisfashionuntilyourhatisabout9inchestall.5.Tobegintocast(bind)offyourhat,followthispattern:
a. Knitfivestitches,knittwotogether,andcontinuetotheendoftherow.
b. Purlthenextrow.c. Knitfourstitches,knittwotogether,andcontinuetotheendofthe
row.d. Purlthenextrow.e. Knitthreestitches,knittwotogether,andcontinuetotheendofthe
row.
f. Purlthenextrow.g. Knittwostitches,knittwotogether,andcontinuetotheendofthe
row.h. Purlthenextrow.i. Kniteverytwostitchestogether.
7.Taketheexcessyarn,pullitthroughthelaststitches,andcutoffsoonlyaboutaninchandahalfremains.Sewaseam,puttheremainingyarnthroughtheloops,andfoldyourhatinsideout.
FingerlessMittens
Fingerlessmittensarewonderfultouseifyourhandsarecoldbutyoustillneedtohavecompleteaccesstothings,suchastypingonacomputerormakingameal.Theymakewonderfulgiftsforfriendsandfamilymembers.
Materials
150yardsofworsted-weightyarnorwool/yarnblendDouble-pointedknittingneedles,No.8
Directions1. Tomakethecuff,caston28stitches,makingsurethesestitchesareeven.
Then,begintoknitintheround.Donottwistthestitches.Usetheyarntailtokeeptrackoftheroundends.Knitthreerounds.Switchingtothetwistedribpattern,knitonestitchthroughthebackloopinordertotwistit.Purlone,andrepeatthispatternuntilthecuffmeasuresroughly2½inches.
2. Usingastockingstitch,beginthehandandthumbportionofthemitten.3. Firstrow:knitone,purlone,makeone(increasethestitch),knitone,make
one,purlone,knituntiltheendoftheround.4. Secondrow:knitone,purlone,knituntilyoureachthenextpurlstitchin
therowabove,purlone,knituntiltheendoftheround.5. Thirdrow:knitone,purlone,makeone,knituntilthenextpurl,makeone,
purlone,knituntiltheendoftheround.6. Repeatthesecondandthirdrowsuntilyouhaveninestitchesbetweenthe
purls.Thegloveshouldnowmeasureabout5½inchesfromtheedgeofthecast-offpoint.
7. Placetwopurlandninethumbgorestitchesonapieceofscrapyarn.Castoffthreestitchesandknitfourroundsofstockingstitch.Changetotwistedribstitchandmakesixrounds.Bindthisoffveryloosely.
Youcaneasilymodifythepatterndescribedheretoincludetheseindividualfingeropeningsandthefinger“hood.”Simplyfollowthestepstomakethethumbhole(steps8–10)foreachoftheadditionalfingeropenings.Forthe“hood,”followthedirectionsformakingahat(onlymakeitmuchsmaller)
andsewitontothemittenabovetheknuckles.
8. Tomakethethumb,put11stitchesonholdforthethumbontoanextraknittingneedle.Pickupthreestitchesatthebaseofthethumbandmake14stitches.
9. Knitoneroundofonly12stitches.10. Usingthetwistedribstitch,makesixmoreroundsandbindoffloosely.11. Tofinishup,weaveintheyarnendsand,ifnecessary,sewclosedanyholes
atthesidesofthethumbbase.
KnittedSquareBlanket
Materials
Thickyarn,anycoloryoulike(ifyouwantamulticoloredblanket,feelfreetousedifferent-coloredyarnforeachindividualsquare)Knittingneedles,No.6
Directions1. Beginbymakingsmallersquaresthatwillbesewntogethertoformalarger
blanket.2. Castonanynumberofstitchesdivisiblebythree.Forasquareof6inches,
you’llneed45stitches.3. Firstrow:Slipone,knittwo.Turntheyarnaroundtheneedleandbringit
againinfront.Then,slipone,knittwotogether.Purlthelasttwostitches.4. Secondrow:Turntheyarnaroundtheneedle,bringingittothefront.Slip
one,knittwotogether.Knitthelasttwostitchesintherow.5. Continuethepatterninstep4(alternatingpurledandknittedlasttwo
stitches)untilyoureachtheendandcastoffyoursquare.6. Continuemakingasmanysquaresasyouwanttogetthedesiredsizeof
yourblanket.7. Whenyouhaveallyourknittedsquares,takeaknittingneedleandsew
eachsquaretogether.
TyingKnots
Knowinghowtotiedifferenttypesofknotsisausefulskilltohave,especiallyifyouareinvolvedinboating,rockclimbing,fishing,orotheroutdooractivities.
Strongknotsaretypicallythosethatareneatinappearanceandarenotbulky.Ifaknotistiedproperly,itwillalmostneverloosenandwillstillbeeasytountiewhennecessary.
Thebestwaytolearnhowtotieknotseffectivelyistositdownandpracticewithapieceofcordorrope.Practice,inthiscase,definitelymakestyingknotsmuchfasterandeasier.Listedbelowareafewcommonknotsthatareusefultoknow:
Bowlineknot:Fastenoneendofthelinetosomeobject.Aftertheloopismade,holditinpositionwithyourlefthandandpasstheendofthelineupthroughtheloop,behindandoverthelineabove,andthroughthelooponceagain.Pullittightlyandtheknotisnowcomplete.
Clovehitch:Thisknotisparticularlyusefulifyouneedthelengthoftherunningendtobeadjustable.Halter:Ifyouneedtocreateahaltertoleadahorseorpony,trythisknot.
Sheepshankknot:Thisisusedforshorteningropes.Gatheruptheamounttobeshortenedandthenmakeahalfhitcharoundeachofthebends.Slipknot:Slipknotsareadjustable,sothatyoucantightenthemaroundanobjectafterthey’retied.
Timberhitch:Ifyouneedtosecurearopetoatree,thisistheknottouse.Itiseasytountie,too.Twohalfhitches:Usethisknottosecurearopetoapole,boatmooring,washer,tire,orsimilarobject.
QualitiesofaGoodKnot1. Itcanbetiedquickly.2. Itwillholdtightly.3. Itcanbeuntiedeasily.
Square/reefknot:Thisisthemostcommonknotfortyingtworopestogether.
ThreePartsofaRope1. Thestandingpart:thisisthelong,unusedpartofthe
rope.2. Thebight:thisistheloopformedwhenevertheropeis
turnedback.3. Theend:thisisthepartusedinleading.
PARTSEVENWell-Being
“Healthisastateofcompleteharmonyofthebody,mind,andspirit.Whenoneisfreefromphysicaldisabilitiesandmentaldistractions,thegatesofthesoulopen.”
—B.K.S.Iyengar
Onsomelevel,weallknowwhatweneedforoptimumhealth.Ourbodiesarebuilttogiveusclues,fromsimpleones—ifwe’retired,weprobablyneedrest—toonesthatrequirealittlemoreattentiontodiscern,suchasaheadacheorstomachache,whichcanstemfromawiderangeofissues.Manyofusconsistentlyignoretheclues,maskingexhaustionwithcaffeine,orpoppinganaspirineverytimeapainbeginstosurfacewithoutevenconsideringthecause.Well-beingbeginswithtakingthetimetolistentoourselves,beinghonestaboutwhatneedshealingorimprovement,andnurturingthedesiretoreachahealthierlevelofbeing.Oncethedesireforhealthisstrong,youwillfindamyriadofchannelsforachievingit.Thissectionofferssuggestionsforfindingwell-beingthroughnaturalmeans,fromherbalmedicinetonaturalspaproducts.Therearetimeswhenthebestthingtodoistogostraighttoadoctor,whetheradoctorofWesternmedicine,ahomeopath,oranothertypeofmedicalpractitioner.Butpartofleadingaself-sufficientlifeislearningtorecognizeandmeetyourownneeds,evenintheareasofhealthandsafety.Fromthere,youcanbegintohelpthosearoundyou,too.Sostartpayingattentiontoyourphysical,mental,andspiritualstate,andfindoutwhatyoucandotobethebestversionofwhoyoualreadyare.
HerbalMedicine
Anherbisaplantorplantpartusedforitsscent,flavor,ortherapeuticproperties.Forcenturiesherbshavebeenusedinvariousformsfortheirhealthbenefits.Manyarenowsoldastablets,capsules,powders,teas,extracts,andfreshordriedplants.However,somehavesideeffectsandmayinteractwithotherdrugsyouaretaking.
Touseanherbalproductassafelyaspossible:Consultyourdoctorfirst.Donottakeabiggerdosethanthelabelrecommends.Takeitundertheguidanceofatrainedmedicalprofessional.Beespeciallycautiousifyouarepregnantornursing.
Herbalsupplementsaresoldinmanyforms:asfreshordriedproducts;liquidorsolidextracts;andtablets,capsules,powders,andteabags.Forexample,freshgingerrootisoftenfoundintheproducesectionoffoodstores;driedgingerrootissoldpackagedinteabags,capsules,ortablets;andliquidpreparationsmadefromgingerrootarealsosold.Aparticulargroupofchemicalsorasinglechemicalmaybeisolatedfromabotanicalandsoldasadietarysupplement,usuallyintabletorcapsuleform.Commonpreparationsincludeteas,decoctions,tinctures,andextracts:Atea,alsoknownasaninfusion,ismadebyaddingboilingwatertofreshordriedbotanicalsandsteepingthem.Theteamaybedrunkeitherhotorcold.
Someroots,bark,andberriesrequiremoreforcefultreatmenttoextracttheirdesiredingredients.Theyaresimmeredinboilingwaterforlongerperiodsthanteas,makingadecoction,whichalsomaybedrunkhotorcold.
Atinctureismadebysoakingabotanicalinasolutionofalcoholandwater.Tincturesaresoldasliquidsandareusedforconcentratingandpreservingabotanical.Theyaremadeindifferentstrengthsthatareexpressedasbotanical-to-extractratios(i.e.,ratiosoftheweightofthedriedbotanicaltothevolumeorweightofthefinishedproduct).
Anextractismadebysoakingthebotanicalinaliquidthatremovesspecific
typesofchemicals.Theliquidcanbeusedasisorevaporatedtomakeadryextractforuseincapsulesortablets.
Herbscanbeutilizedmedicinallyintheformofteas,tincture,extracts,orasanadditiontosoaps,lotions,orsalves.
MakeYourOwnHerbalTincture
Tinctureshelptoconcentrateandpreservethehealthbenefitsofyourherbs.Touse,mix1teaspoonoftincturewithjuice,tea,orwateranddrinknomorethanthreetimesaday.1. Pickthefreshherbs,removinganydirty,wilted,ordamagedparts.Donot
wash.Besureyouknowwhetheritisthestems,leaves,roots,orflowersthathavethehealthbenefits,anduseonlythoseparts.
2. Coarselychoptheplantparts.Flowerscanbeleftwhole.3. Cleananddryasmallglassjarwithanairtightlidandputtheherbsinside.
Fillthejarwith100-proofvodkaorwarmcidervinegaruntilplantpartsarefullyimmersed.Screwthelidonsecurelyandlabelthejar.
4. Storefor6to8weeks,gentlyshakingafewtimesaweek.5. Strainouttheherbsandstoretheliquidtinctureinaclean,drybottle.Be
suretolabelthejarwiththeingredients,anddateandstoreitinasafeplaceawayfromchildren’sreach.
Addseveraldropsofyourtincturetoteaorjuicetoreceivethehealingbenefitswithoutthestrongflavor.
CommonHerbalRemediesHereisalistofcommonherbsthatcanbeusedtocureoralleviatethesymptomsofconditionsrangingfromcancertoacnetothecommoncold.Ifyouaretakinganyothermedicationsorsupplements,checkwithyourdoctorbeforetryinganyherbs.Aswithanymedication,everybodyisuniqueandcertainherbscanhaveadversesideeffectsforcertainpeople,sopayattentiontoyourbodyandceasetakinganyherbsthatmakeyoufeelworseinanyway.It’sagoodideatotryoneherbatatimeperconditionandtokeepajournaldocumentingwhatyoutakewhenandhowyoufeel.Thiswayyou’llbeabletotellmoreeasilywhateffectstheherbsarehaving.
AloeVera
Uses:Thecleargelinaloeisusedtopicallytotreatosteoarthritis,burns,andsunburn.Thegreenpartcanbemadeintoajuiceordriedandtakenorallytotreatavarietyofconditions,suchasdiabetes,asthma,epilepsy,andosteoarthritis.
Cautions:Usingaloeveraonsurgicalwoundsmayinhibittheirhealing.Iftakenorally,aloeveracanproduceabdominalcrampsanddiarrhea,whichcandecreasetheabsorptionofmanydrugs.
Ifyouhavediabetesandtakeglucose-loweringmedication,youshouldbecarefuloftakingaloeorally,asstudiessuggestthataloemaydecreasebloodglucoselevels.
Aloeveracanbeusedtopicallytotreatandsootheavarietyofskinirritations.
Bilberriesareacloserelativeofblueberriesandcanbeeatenwholeormadeintoanextract.
Chamomileflowerscanbeusedtomakearelaxingtea.
Echinaceaisbeautifulaswellasusefulmedicinally.Itgrowswellinmoderatelydrysoil.
Astragalus
Uses:AstragaluswastraditionallyusedinChinesemedicineincombinationwithotherherbstohelpboosttheimmunesystem.ItisstillusedwidelyinChinaforchronichepatitisandasanadditionalcancertherapy.Astragalusiscommonlyusedtoboosttheimmunesystemtohelpcoldsandupperrespiratoryinfectionsandhasalsobeenusedtofightheartdisease.Theastragalusplantrootisusedinsoups,teas,extracts,andcapsulesandisgenerallyusedwithotherherbs,likeginseng,angelica,andlicorice.
Cautions:Astragalusmayinteractwithmedicationsthatsuppresstheimmunesystem(suchasthosetakenbycancerpatientsororgantransplantrecipients).
Bilberry
Uses:Bilberryfruitisusedtotreatdiarrhea,menstrualcramps,eyeproblems,varicoseveins,andcirculatoryproblems.Theleafofabilberryisusedtotreatdiabetes.It’sclaimedthatbilberryfruitalsohelpsimprovenightvision,butthisisnotclinicallyproven.Thebilberryfruitcanbeeatenormadeintoanextract.Likewise,itsleavescanbeusedinteaormadeintoanextract.
Cautions:Thoughbilberryfruitisconsideredsafe,highdosesoftheleaforleafextractmayhavepossibletoxicsideeffects.
Chamomile
Uses:Chamomilehasacalmingeffectandisoftenusedtocounteractsleeplessnessandanxiety,aswellasdiarrheaandgastrointestinalconditions.Topically,chamomileisusedinthetreatmentofskinconditionsandformouthulcers(particularlyduetocancertreatment).Thechamomileplanthasfloweringtops,whichareusedtomaketeas,extracts,capsules,andtablets.Itcanalsobeappliedasaskincreamorointmentorevenbeusedasamouthrinse.
Cautions:Somepeoplehavedevelopedrareallergicreactionsfromeatingorcomingintocontactwithchamomile.Thesereactionsincludeskinrashes,swellingofthethroat,shortnessofbreath,andanaphylaxis.Peopleallergictorelatedplants,suchasdaisies,ragweed,ormarigolds,shouldbecarefulwhencomingintocontactwithchamomile.
Cranberry
Uses:Cranberryfruitandleavesareusedinhealingmanyconditions,includingwounds,urinarydisorders,diarrhea,diabetes,andstomachandliverproblems.Cranberriesareoftenusedintreatingurinarytractinfectionsandstomachulcers.TheymayalsobeusefulinpreventingdentalplaqueandinpreventingE.colibacteriafromadheringtocellsalongtheurinarytractwall.Cranberryfruitcanbeeatenstraight;madeintojuice;orusedintheformofextracts,tea,ortabletsandtakenasadietarysupplement.
Cautions:Drinkingcopiousamountsofcranberryjuicecancauseanupsetstomachanddiarrhea.
Dandelion
Uses:Dandelions,throughouthistory,havebeenmostcommonlyusedtotreatliverandkidneydiseasesandspleenproblems.Dandelionsaresometimesusedinliverandkidneytonics,asadiuretic,andforsimpledigestiveissues.Thedandelion’sleavesandroots(andsometimestheentireplant)areusedinteas,capsules,andextracts.Theleavesareusedinsaladsorarecooked,andtheflowersareusedtomakewine.
Cautions:Whileusingdandelionsistypicallysafe,thereareafewinstancesofupsetstomachanddiarrheacausedbytheplant,aswellasallergicreactions.Ifyourgallbladderisinflamedorinfected,youshouldavoidusingdandelionproducts.
Echinacea
Uses:Traditionally,echinaceahasbeenusedtoboosttheimmunesystemtohelppreventcolds,flu,andvariousinfections.Echinaceacanalsobeusedforwounds,acne,andboils.Therootsandexposedplantareused,eitherfreshordried,forteas,juice,extracts,orinpreparationsforexternaluse.
Cautions:Echinacea,takenorally,generallydoesnotcauseanyproblems.Somepeopledohaveallergicreactions(rashes,increasedasthma,anaphylaxis),buttypicallyonlygastrointestinalproblemsareexperienced.Ifyouareallergictoanyplantsinthedaisyfamily,itmaybebesttosteerclearofechinacea.
EveningPrimroseOil
Uses:Sincethe1930s,eveningprimroseoilhasbeenusedtofighteczemaandrecently,ithasbeenusedforotherinflammatoryconditions.Eveningprimroseoilisalsousedinthetreatmentofbreastpainduringthemenstrualcycle,symptomsofmenopause,andpremenstrualissues.Itmayalsorelievepainassociatedwithrheumatoidarthritis.
Theoilisextractedfromtheeveningprimroseseeds.You’llfinditincapsuleformatmanyhealthfoodstores.
Cautions:Theremaybesomemildsideeffects,suchasgastrointestinalupsetorheadache.
FlaxseedandFlaxseedOil
Uses:Flaxseedistypicallyusedasalaxativeandtoalleviatehotflashes.Flaxseedoilisusedfortreatingarthritispain.Bothherbsareusedtofighthighcholesterolandcanbebeneficialforthosewithheartdisease.Flaxseed,ineitheritswholeorcrushedform,maybemixedwithwaterorjuiceandingested.Itisalsoavailableasapowder.Flaxseedoilcanbetakenineitheraliquidorcapsuleform.
Cautions:Itisessentialtotakeflaxseedwithlotsofwater,orconstipationcouldworsen.Further,flaxseedfibermaydecreasethebody’sabilitytoabsorbotheroralmedicationsandsoshouldnotbetakentogether.
Garlic
Uses:Garlicistypicallyusedasadietarysupplementforthosewithhighcholesterol,heartdisease,andhighbloodpressure.Itmayhelpdecreasethe
hardeningofthearteriesandisalsousedinthepreventionofstomachandcoloncancer.Itisalsousedtopicallyororallytohealsomeinfections,includingearinfections.Garlicclovesmaybeeateneitherraworcooked,ortheymaybedriedorpowderedandusedincapsules.Oilandotherextractscanbeobtainedfromgarliccloves.
Cautions:Somecommonsideeffectsofgarlicarebreathandbodyodor,heartburn,upsetstomach,andallergicreactions.Garliccanalsothinbloodandsoshouldnotbeusedbeforesurgeriesordentalwork,especiallyifyouhaveableedingdisorder.ItalsohasanadverseeffectondrugsusedtofightHIV.
GarlicgrowsbestinsoilthatispH6.5to7.0.
Ginger
Uses:GingeriscommonlyusedinAsianmedicinestotreatstomachaches,nausea,anddiarrhea.ManyU.S.dietarysupplementscontaininggingerareusedtohelpfightcoldandfluandcanbeusedtorelievepost-surgerynauseaornausearelatedtopregnancy.Ithasalsobeenusedforarthritisandotherjointandmusclepain.Gingerrootcanbefoundfreshordried,intablets,capsules,extracts,andteas.
Cautions:Sideeffectsarerarebutcanincludegas,bloating,heartburn,and,forsomepeople,nausea.
Ginkgo
Uses:Traditionally,extractfromginkgoleaveshasbeenusedinthetreatmentofillnessessuchasasthma,bronchitis,fatigue,andtinnitus.Peopleusegingkoleafextractinthehopesthatitwillhelpimprovetheirmemory(especiallyinthetreatmentofAlzheimer’sdiseaseanddementia).Itisalsotakentotreatsexualdysfunction,multiplesclerosis,andotherhealthissues.Ginkgoleafextractsaremadeintotablets,capsules,orteas.Sometimestheextractscanalsobefoundinskincareproducts.
Cautions:Somecommonsideeffectsareheadache,nausea,gastrointestinalupset,diarrhea,dizziness,orskinirritations.Ginkgomayalsoincreasebleedingrisks,sothosehavingsurgeryorwithbleedingdisordersshouldconsultadoctorbeforeusinganyginkgoproducts.Uncookedginkgoseedsaretoxicandcancauseseizures.
Ginkgoleavescanbemadeintoanextractandingestedforawiderangeofhealthbenefits.
Ginseng(Asian)
Uses:Ginsengisusedtohelpboosttheimmunesystemandcontributetothe
overallhealthofanindividual.Ithasbeenusedtraditionallyandcurrentlyforimprovingthosewhoarerecoveringfromillnesses,increasingstaminaandmentalandphysicalperformance,treatingerectiledysfunctionandsymptomsofmenopause,andloweringbloodglucoselevelsandbloodpressure.Insomestudies,ginsenghasbeenproventolowerbloodglucoselevelsandboostimmunesystems.Theginsengrootisdriedandmadeintotablets,capsules,extracts,andteas.Itcanalsobemadeintocreamsforexternaluse.
Cautions:Limitingginsengintaketothreemonthsatatimewillmostlikelyreduceanypotentialsideeffects.Themostcommonsideeffectsareheadachesandsleepissues,alongwithsomeallergicreactions.Ifyouhavediabetesandaretakingblood-sugarloweringmedications,itisadvisablenottouseginseng,asittoolowersbloodsugar.
GrapeSeedExtract
Uses:Grapeseedextractisusedfortreatingheartandbloodvesselconditions,suchashighbloodpressure,highcholesterol,andlowcirculation.Itisalsousedforthosestrugglingwithcomplicationsfromdiabetes,suchasnerveandeyedamage.Grapeseedextractisalsousedintreatingvisionproblems,reducingswellingaftersurgery,andcancerprevention.Extractedfromgrapeseeds,itisreadilyavailableintabletsandcapsules.
Cautions:Commonsideeffectsofprolongedgrapeseedoiluseareheadaches;dry,itchyscalp;dizziness;andnausea.
GreenTea
Uses:Greenteaanditsextractshavebeenusedinpreventingandtreatingbreast,stomach,andskincancers,aswellasimprovingmentalalertness,aidingweightloss,loweringcholesterol,andpreventingthesunfromdamagingtheskin.Greenteaistypicallybrewedanddrunk.Extractscanbetakenincapsuleformandsometimesgreenteacanbefoundinskincareproducts.
Cautions:Whilegreenteaisgenerallysafeformostadults,therehavebeenafewreportsofliverproblemsoccurringinthosewhotakegreenteaextracts.Thus,theseextractsshouldalwaysbetakenwithfoodandshouldnotbetakenatallbythosewithliverdisorders.Greenteaalsocontainscaffeineandcancauseinsomnia,anxiety,irritability,nausea,diarrhea,orfrequenturination.
Lavender
Uses:Lavender,inthepast,hasbeenusedasanantisepticandtohelpwithmentalhealthissues.Nowitismorecommonlytakenforanxiety,restlessness,insomnia,anddepression,andcanalsobeusedtofightheadaches,upsetstomach,andhairloss.
Lavenderhasasoothing,relaxingaroma.Itcanalsobeingestedintheformofteaorextracts,oreveninbakedgoods.
Mostcommonlyusedinaromatherapy,lavenderessentialoilcanalsobedilutedwithotheroilsandrubbedontheskin.Whendried,lavenderflowerscanbemadeintoteasorliquidextractsandingested.
Cautions:Lavenderoilappliedtotheskinmaycausesomeirritationandispoisonousifingested.Lavenderteamaycauseheadache,appetitechange,andconstipation.Ifusedwithsedatives,itmayincreasedrowsiness.
LicoriceRoot
Uses:Traditionally,licoricerootisusedasadietarysupplementforthetreatmentofstomachulcers,bronchitis,andsorethroat.Itisalsousedtohelpcureinfectionscausedbyviruses.Whenlicoricerootispeeled,itcanbedriedandmadeintopowder.Itisavailableincapsules,tablets,andextracts.
Cautions:Iftakeninlargedoses,licoricerootcancausehighbloodpressure,
waterretention,andlowpotassiumlevels,leadingtoheartconditions.Takenwithdiuretics,itcouldcausethebody’spotassiumlevelstofalltodangerouslylowlevels.Ifyouhaveheartdiseaseorhighbloodpressure,youshouldpracticecautionwhentakinglicoriceroot.Largedosesoflicoricerootmaycausepretermlaborinpregnantwomen.
MilkThistle
Uses:Milkthistleisusedasaprotectivemeasureforliverproblemsandinthetreatmentoflivercirrhosis,chronichepatitis,andgallbladderdiseases.Itisalsousedtolowercholesterol,reduceinsulinresistanceinthosewithtype2diabetes,andreducethegrowthofcancerouscellsinthebreast,cervix,orprostate.Milkthistleseedsareusedtomakecapsules,extracts,andstrongteas.
Milkthistlegrowsinawiderangeofsoiltypesandwillthriveinsunnyorpartlyshadyareas.
Cautions:Occasionally,milkthistlemaycausediarrhea,upsetstomach,orbloating.Itmayalsocauseallergicreactions,especiallyinthosewithallergiestothedaisyfamily.
Mistletoe
Uses:Forhundredsofyears,mistletoehasbeenusedtotreatseizuresandheadaches.InEurope,mistletoeisusedtotreatcancerandtoboosttheimmunesystem.Theshootsandberriesofmistletoeareusedinoralextracts.InEurope,theseextractsareprescriptiondrugs,availableonlybyinjection.
Cautions:Eatingrawandunprocessedmistletoemaycausevomiting,seizures,aslowingoftheheartrate,andevendeath.Americanmistletoecannotbeusedformedicalpurposes.Injectedmistletoeextractcanirritatetheskinand
producelow-gradefeversorflu-likesymptoms.Thereisalsoaslightriskforsevereallergicreactionsthatcouldcausebreathingdifficulty.
PeppermintOil
Uses:Usually,peppermintoilisusedtotreatnausea,indigestion,andcoldsymptomsanditcanalsobeusedtoallayheadaches,muscleandnervepain,andirritablebowelsyndrome.Peppermintessentialoilcanbetakenorallyinsmalldoses.Itcanalsobedilutedwithotheroilsandappliedtotheskin.
Cautions:Commonsideeffectsincludeallergicreactionsandheartburn,thoughpeppermintoilisrelativelysafeinsmalldoses.
RedClover
Uses:Redcloverhasbeenusedfortreatingcancer,whoopingcough,asthma,andindigestion.Itisalsousedtoallaymenopausalsymptoms,breastpain,highcholesterol,osteoporosis,andenlargedprostate.Theredcloverflowerisusedinpreparingextractsintabletsandcapsulesaswellasteas.
Cautions:Noserioussideeffectshavebeenreported,thoughitisunclearifitissafeforusebypregnantwomen,womenwhoarebreastfeeding,orwomenwithbreastorotherhormonalcancer.Theestrogeninredclovermayalsoincreaseawoman’schanceofcontractingcancerintheuterus.
Soy
Uses:Soyproductsaretypicallyusedfortreatinghighcholesterol,menopausalsymptoms,osteoporosis,problemswithmemory,breastandprostatecancer,andhighbloodpressure.Availableindietarysupplements,soycanbefoundintabletorcapsuleform.Soybeansmaybecookedandeaten,ormadeintotofu,soymilk,andotherfoods.
Cautions:Usingsoysupplementsoreatingsoyproductscancreateminorstomachandbowelproblems,andinrarecases,allergicreactionscausingbreathingdifficultiesandrashes.Whilethereisnoconclusiveevidencelinkingsoywithincreasedriskofbreastcancer,womenwhohaveorareatriskofgettingbreastcancershouldconsultadoctoraboutusingsoyproducts.
St.John’sWort
Uses:St.John’sworthasbeenusedforhundredsofyearstotreatmentalillnessandnervepain.Ithasalsobeenusedasasedative;inmalariatreatment;andasabalmforwounds,burns,andinsectbites.Itiscommonlyusedtotreatdepression,anxiety,andsleepdisorders.Theflowersareused,inextractform,forteaandcapsules.
Cautions:ApossiblesideeffectofusingSt.John’swortisincreasedlightsensitivity.Othercommonsideeffectsareanxiety,drymouth,dizziness,gastrointestinalsymptoms,fatigue,headache,andsexualdysfunction.St.John’swortalsointeractswithdrugsandmayinterferewiththewaythebodybreaksdownthosedrugs.Itmayaffectantidepressants,birthcontrolpills,cyclosporine,digoxin,indinavirandotherHIVdrugs,irinotecanandothercancerdrugs,andanticoagulants.
Ifyouaretakingantidepressants,becarefulifalsotakingSt.John’swort,asitmayincreasethelikelihoodofnausea,anxiety,headache,andconfusion.
Turmeric
Uses:TraditionallyusedinChinesemedicine,turmericwassupposedtoaiddigestionandliverfunctionandtorelievearthritispain.Itwasalsotakentoregulatethemenstrualcycle.Applieddirectlytotheskin,itwasusedtotreateczemaandwounds.Now,turmericisusedinthetreatmentofheartburn,stomachulcers,andgallstones.Turmericisalsousedtoreduceinflammationandinthepreventionandtreatmentofcertaincancers.
Theundergroundstemsoftheturmericplantaredriedandtakenorallyincapsules,teas,orliquidextracts.Itcanalsobemadeintoapastetobeusedontheskin.
Cautions:Consideredsafeformostadults,long-termuseofturmericmaycauseindigestion.Thosewithgallbladderproblemsshouldavoidturmeric,however,asitmayworsenthecondition.
MakeSt.John’swortflowersintoteaanddrinktoboostyourmoodandeasetension.
Valerian
Uses:Formanyyears,valerianhasbeenusedforsleepdisordersandtotreatanxiety.Valerianhasalsobeenusedtoalleviateheadaches,depression,irregularheartbeat,andtrembling.Therootsandundergroundstemsofthevalerianplantareusuallymadeintosupplementsincapsule,tablet,orliquidextractform.Itcanalsosometimesbemadeintoteas.
Cautions:Valerianistypicallysafetouseforshortperiodsoftime(nomorethansixweeks)butthereisnoproofaboutitslong-termeffectiveness.Somecommonsideeffectsofvalerianuseareheadaches,dizziness,upsetstomach,andgrogginessthemorningafteruse.
HomemadeHerbalTeasHerbalteascanbeverytastyanddeliverbetween50and90percentofthemedicinalqualitiesoftheherbsused.Teasyoumakeyourselfwillbemorepotentandflavorfulthanthoseyoucanbuyatthestore,andmuchlessexpensive.Tryexperimentingwithdifferentherbalcombinations,butbecarefultoavoidanyplantsyoucannotconfidentlyidentifyasedible,oranyplantssprayedwithpesticides.Ifusingdriedherbs,youcanstoreyourteamixesinsealedcontainersformonths.Besuretolabeleachcontainerwiththenameofthetea.
Use1to2teaspoonsofdriedherbspercupofhotwateror3teaspoonsoffreshherbsperpintofwater.Steeptheherbsforabout10minutesandthenstrain.Thefollowingplantscanallbesafelyusedinteas:
FlowersAlliums,beebalm,carnations,echinacea(rootsandflowers),hibiscus,
hollyhocks,honeysuckle(avoidthepoisonousberries),lavender,marshmallow(usetheroots),redclover,nasturtiums,roses(flowersorhips),violets.
Herbs
Basil,chamomileflowers,chives,dill,eucalyptus,gingerroot,lemonbalm,lemongrass,marjoram,mint,oregano,parsley,peppermint,lindenleaves,mint,rosemary,sage,thyme,valerianroot,verbena.
BushesandTrees
Birchleaves,blackberryleaves,citrusblossoms,elderberryflowers,gardenia,pineneedles,raspberryleaves.
Weeds
Chickweed,chicory,dandelions,goldenrod,stingingnettle.
TeafortheCommonCold
Combinethefollowingherbsinanyproportionyoulike.Boilfor10minutes,strain,andaddhoneytotaste.
Marshmallowroot(easesbodyaches,reducesinflammation)Peppermint(reducescongestion,easesheadaches,soothesstomach)Echinacearootsandflowers(booststheimmunesystem)Thyme(reduceschestandnasalcongestion,increasescirculation)Cinnamon(reducesinflammationandfightsinfection)Rosehips,finelychopped(fullofvitaminC,whichbooststheimmunesystemandenergizes)Gingerroot,peeledandfinelychopped(warmsfromtheinsideout)Lavender,crushed(easesmigraines)Lemonpeel,finelygrated(fullofvitaminC)
Herbalteasarealsodeliciousservedcoldinthesummermonths.
CalmingTea
Combinethefollowingcalmingherbs,usingabout¼asmuchvalerianastheotherherbs(valeriancanbeverypotent).Boilfor10minutes,strain,andaddhoneytotaste.
Lemonbalmleaves
Chamomileflowers
Valerianroot,crushed
Gingerroot,peeledandfinelychopped
FertilityTea
Drinkonecupoffertilityteaadaytohelpbalanceyourhormonesandtogetnutrientsthatcanaidinbecomingpregnant.Combinetheherbsinequalproportion,boilfor10minutes,strain,andaddhoneytotaste.
Redcloverblossoms(nourishestheuterus,promotesestrogen,richinmagnesiumandcalcium)Nettleleaves(richincalcium,potassium,phosphorous,iron,andsulfur)
Redcloverblossomspromoteestrogenandnourishtheuterus.
Redraspberryleaves(aidsthefertilizedegginattachingtotheuterinelining,richinminerals,helpstotonemusclesinthepelvicregion)Peppermint(aidsinabsorptionofredraspberryleafnutrients)
CleansingTea
Theherbsinthisteawillimproveyourdigestion,helpyourbodyinitsnaturaldetoxificationprocess,andgiveyoumoreenergy.Combinetheherbsinanyproportion(goeasyonthecayenne),boilfor10minutes,strain,andaddhoneyifdesired.
Peppermintleaves
Dandelionroot
Wholeallspiceberries
Gingerroot,peeledandfinelychoppedLicoriceroot,crushed
Cayennepepper
NaturalCosmetics
HomemadeLipGloss
Youonlyneedafewingredientstomakeyourownlipgloss,thoughonceyouunderstandthebasicrecipeyoucanbegintoexperimentbyaddingdifferentessentialoils,aloes,andfoodproductstocreateyourown,uniquetypeofgloss.
Homemadelipglosscontainerscanbeanysmallglassjarortin,oryoucanreuseanoldlipglosscontainer(justmakesurealltheoldglossisoutofthecontainer).Tosterilizethecontainer,washwithsoapandhotwater,dunkthecontainerinajarofrubbingalcohol,rinseclean,andthenallowthecontainertocompletelydrybeforepouringinyourmeltedgloss.Allowtheglossmixturetocoolcompletelybeforeusing(youcanspeed
upthisprocessbyplacingthecontainerofglossintotherefrigeratorforafewhours).
HoneyLipGloss
Ingredients
1tspbeeswax(youcanfindthisatacraftstoreoratyourlocalfarmers’market)½tsphoney
2tspalmondoil(optional)
VitaminEoilfromacapsule(optional)
Directions1. Meltthebeeswaxandhoneyinaheat-proofjarinthemicrowaveorusea
doubleboilermethod.2. Whenthewaxandhoneyarejustmelted,removefromtheheatsourceand
whiskinthealmondoilandvitaminEoil,ifyousodesire.ToremovethevitaminEoilfromthecapsule,simplypricktheendofthecapsulewithasafetypinandsqueezeitout.
3. Pourthemixtureintothecontainersandallowtocoolfullybeforeusing.
Note:Ifyouwanttoaddacitrusflavoringtothislipgloss,youcanaddafewdropsoflemonorlimeessentialoilduringthewhiskingstage.
“Make-up”LipBalm
Ifyouhaveleftovermake-up(suchasblush,lipstick,orshimmeringeyeshadow),don’tletitgotowaste.Youcanuseitinthis“recycled”lipbalm.
Ingredients
Petroleumjelly
Blush,mineraleyeshadowwithshimmer,lipstick(onlyuseoneortwooftheseforyourbalm)Essentialoilforflavoring(optional)Directions1. Mixtogetherthepetroleumjellyandeithertheblush(addalittleatatime
untilthedesiredcolorisattained),eyeshadow,orthelastremnantsofanylipstick.Addessentialoilandmixthoroughly.
2. Scoopthemixtureintocontainersandputintherefrigeratortoharden.
Note:Youcanalsoexperimentbymeltingthejellywithsomebeeswaxandthenaddingintheleftovermakeup.Thepossibilitiesareendless.
HomemadeBathProducts
LavenderBathSalt
Pourseveraltablespoonsofthisintoyourbathasitfillsforanextra-soothing,relaxing,andcleansingexperience.Youcanalsoaddpowderedmilkorfinelygroundold-fashionedoatmealtomakeyourskinespeciallysoft.Tossinafewlavenderbudsifyouhavethem.
Ingredients
2cupscoarseseasalt
½cupEpsomsalts
½cupbakingsoda
4to6dropslavenderessentialoil
Redandbluefoodcoloring,ifdesired(usemoreredthanbluetoachievealavendercolor)Mixallingredientsthoroughlyandstoreinaglassjarorotherairtightcontainer.
Citrusscrub
CitrusScrub
Usethisinvigoratingscrubtowakeupyoursensesinthemorning.ThevitaminCinorangesservesasanastringent,makingitespeciallygoodforoilyskin.
Ingredients
½orangeorgrapefruit
3tbspcornmeal
2tbspEpsomsaltsorcoarseseasalt
Squeezecitrusjuiceandpulpintoabowlandaddcornmealandsaltstoformapaste.Rubgentlyoverentirebodyandthenrinse.
HealingBathSoak
Thisbathsoakwillrelaxtiredmuscles,helptocalmnerves,andleaveskinsoftandfragrant.Youmayalsowishtoaddblackberry,raspberry,orvioletleaves.Driedorfreshherbscanbeused.
2tbspcomfreyleaves
1tbsplavender
1tbspeveningprimroseflowers1tsporangepeel,thinlyslicedorgrated2tbspoatmeal
Combineherbsandtieupinasmallmuslinorcheeseclothsack.Leaveunderfaucetasthetubfillswithhotwater.Ifdesired,emptyherbsintothebathwateroncethetubisfull.
RosemaryPeppermintFootScrub
Usethisfootrubtoremovecalluses,softenskin,andleaveyourfeetfeelingandsmellingwonderful.
Ingredients
1cupcoarseseasalt
¼cupsweetalmondoroliveoil2to3dropspeppermintessentialoil1to2dropsrosemaryessentialoil2sprigsfreshrosemary,crushed,or½tspdriedrosemary
Combineallingredientsandmassageintofeetandankles.Rinsewithwarmwaterandfollowwithamoisturizer.
MintyCucumberFacialMask
1tbsppowderedmilk
1tspplainyogurt(wholemilkyogurtisbest)1tsphoney
1tspfreshmintleaves
½cucumber,peeled
Blendingredientsthoroughly,usingafoodprocessororblenderifavailable.Applytoface,avoidingeyes.Leaveonfor10to15minutes,thenrinse.
After-SunComfreyLotion
Comfreyrootsoothesskinandminimizesinflammation.Applythislotiontosunburnedskinforimmediatereliefandfasterhealing.
Ingredients
3tbspfreshcomfreyroot
1cupwater
1tbspbeeswax,unrefined
¾cupsweetalmondoilorlightcookingoil¼cupcocoabutter
4vitaminEcapsules
¼cupaloeveragel
1tspboraxpowder
12to16dropsessentialoil(peppermint,lavender,orsandalwoodareallgoodchoices)
Directions1. Placethecomfreyrootandwaterinasmallpotandbringtoaboil,
simmeringforabout30minutes.Strain,retainingthewater.Discardtheroot.
2. Inadoubleboiler,combinebeeswax,oil,andcocoabutter,stirringoverlowheatuntilmelted.Removefromheat.PiercethevitaminEcapsulesandaddtheoilfrominside,stirringtocombine.
3. Inaseparatesaucepan,combinethecomfreywater,aloeveragel,andboraxpowder,stirringoverlowheatuntiltheboraxisfullydissolved.Allowtocool.
4. Oncebothmixturesarecooledtoroomtemperature,pourthebeeswaxandoilmixtureinathinstreamintothecomfreywatermixture,whiskingvigorouslytocombine(oruseafoodprocessor).Addtheessentialoilsandcontinuemixinguntilthoroughlycombined.
5. Coverandstoreinacool,darkplace.
Shampoo
Cleaningyourhaircanbeassimpleasmakingabakingsodaandwaterpaste,scrubbingitintoyourhair,andrinsingwell.However,ifyouenjoythefeelofasudsy,soapy,scentedshampoo,trythisrecipe.Youcansubstitutehomemadesoapflakesforthecastilesoap,ifdesired.
Ingredients
4ouncesliquidcastilesoap3tbspfreshordriedherbsofyourchoice,boiledfor30minutesin2cupswaterandstrainedPourthesoapandherbalwaterintoajar,cover,andshakeuntilwellcombined.
HairConditioner
Thisconditionerwilladdsoftnessandvolumetoyourhair.Avocado,bananas,andeggyolksarealsogreathairconditioners.Applyconditioner,allowtositinhairaminimumoffiveminutes(longerforadeeperconditioning),andthenrinsewell.Youmaywishtoshampooasecondtimeafterusingthisconditioner.
Ingredients
1cupoliveoil
1tsplemonjuice
1tspcidervinegar
2tsphoney
6to10dropsessentialoils,ifdesired
Whiskallingredientstogetherorblendinafoodprocessor.Storeinanairtightcontainer.
HerbsforYourHair
Herbsfordryhair
Burdockroot,comfrey,elderflowers,lavender,marshmallow,parsley,sage,stingingnettle
Herbsforolayhair
Calendula,horsetail,lemonjuice,lemonbalm,mints,rosemary,witchhazel,yarrow
Herbstocombatdandruff
Burdockroot,garlic,onion,parsley,rosemary,stingingnettle,thyme
Herbsforbodyandloster
Calendula,catnip,horsetail,licorice,limeflowers,nasturtium,parsley,rosemary,sage,stingingnettle,watercress
Herbsforshine
Horsetail,parsley,nettle,rosemary,sage,calendula
Herbsforhargrowth
Aloe,arnica,birch,burdock,catmint,chamomile,licorice,marigold,nettles,parsley,sage,stingingnettle
Herbsforcoloring
Brown:henna(reddishbrown),walnuthulls,sageBlonde:calendula,chamomile,lemon,saffron,turmeric,rhubarbroot
Papayaisofenusedinfacecreamsforitsanti-aginganti-acneproperties.
FruitsandVegetablesforYourSkinThesefruitsandvegetablescanbeapplieddirectlytoyourfaceorblendedtogethertomakeamask.Leaveonskinfor20to30minutesandthenrinsethoroughlywithcleanwater.
BeneficialforOilySkin
Beneficial forDryNormalSkin
Beneficial forDrySkin
Lemons, Peaches,papayas,tomatoes, Carrots,iceberg
Lemons,grapes,limes,strawberries,grapefruits,apples
Peaches,papayas,tomatoes,apricots,bananas,persimmons,bellpeppers,cucumbers,kiwi,pumpkins,watermelons
Carrots,iceberglettuce,honeydewmelons,avocados,cantaloupes
TropicalFaceCleanser
ThevitaminCinkiwihasenzymaticandcleansingproperties,andtheapricotoilservesasamoisturizer.Thegroundalmondsactasanexfolianttoremovedeadskincells.Yogurthascleansingandmoisturizingproperties.
1kiwi
¾cupavocado,banana,apricot,peach,strawberry,orpapaya(orsomeofeach)2tbspplainyogurt(wholemilkisbest)1tbspapricotoil(almondoilalsoworkswell)1tbsphoney
1tspfinelygroundalmonds
Puréeallingredientstogether.Massageintofaceandneckandrinsethoroughlywithcoolwater.Storeexcessinrefrigeratorforonetotwodays.
FirstAid
It’simpossibletopredictwhenanaccidentwilloccur,butthemoreyoueducateyourselfaheadoftime,thebetteryou’llbeabletohelpshouldtheneedarise.Thefirststepinanemergencysituationshouldalwaysbetocallforhelp,buttherearemanythingsyoucandotohelpthevictimwhileyou’rewaitingforassistancetoarrive.Themostimportantproceduresaredescribedinthissection.
Drowning1. Assoonasthepatientisinasafeplace,loosentheclothing,ifany.2. Emptythelungsofwaterbylayingthebodybreastdownandliftingitby
themiddle,withtheheadhangingdown.Holdforafewsecondsuntilthewaterdrainsout.
3. Turnthepatientonhisbreast,facedownward.4. Giveartificialrespiration:Pressthelowerribsdownandforwardtoward
thehead,thenrelease.Repeatabouttwelvetimestotheminute.5. Applywarmthandfrictiontoextremities,rubbingtowardtheheart.6. Don’tgiveup!Personshavebeensavedafterhoursofsteadyeffort,and
afterbeingunderwaterformorethantwentyminutes.7. Whennaturalbreathingisreestablished,putthepatientintoawarmbed,
withhot-waterbottles,warmdrinks,freshair,andquiet.
Sunstroke1. Movethepatienttoacoolplace,orsetupastructurearoundthepatientto
produceshade.2. Loosenorremoveanyclothingaroundtheneckandupperbody.3. Applycoldwateroricetotheheadandbody,orwrapthepatientincold,
dampcloths.4. Encouragethepatienttodrinklotsofwater.
BurnsandScalds
1. Covertheburnwithathinpasteofbakingsoda,starch,flour,petroleumjelly,oliveoil,linseedoil,castoroil,cream,orcoldcream.
2. Covertheburnfirstwiththepaste,thenwithasoftragsoakedinthepaste.3. Shockalwaysaccompaniessevereburns,andmustbetreated.
Asimplehandbandagecanbemadefromanysquareclothorhandkerchief.
Keepabuoynearbywheneverspendingtimeinornearthewater.
ShockorNervousCollapse
Apersonsufferingfromshockhasapaleface,coldskin,feeblebreathing,andarapid,feeblepulse,andwillappearlistlessorhalf-dead.1. Placethepatientonhisbackwithheadlow.2. Givestimulants,suchashotteaorcoffee.3. Coverthepatientwithblankets.4. Rubthelimbsandplacehot-waterbottlesaroundthebody.
CutsandWounds1. Aftermakingsurethatnodirtorforeignsubstanceisinthewound,applya
tightbandagetostopthebleeding.2. Raisethewoundabovethehearttoslowthebleeding.3. Ifthebloodcomesoutinspurts,itmeansanarteryhasbeencut.Forthis,
applyatourniquet:Makeabigknotinahandkerchief,tieitaroundthelimb,withtheknotjustabovethewound,andtwistituntiltheflowisstopped.
HemorrhageorInternalBleedingInternalbleedingusuallycomesfromthelungsorstomach.Iffromthelungs,thebloodisbrightredandfrothy,andiscoughedup;iffromthestomach,itisdark,andisvomited.1. Helpthepatienttoliedown,withheadlowerthanbody.2. Encouragethepatienttoswallowsmallpiecesofice,andapplyicebags,
snow,orcoldwatertotheplacewherethebleedingiscomingfrom.3. Hotapplicationsmaybeappliedtothehands,arms,feet,andlegs,but
avoidstimulants,unlessthepatientisveryweak.
HowtoMakeaTourniquet
Thetourniquetisanapplianceusedtocheckseverebleeding.Itconsistsofabandagetwistedmoreorlesslightlyaroundtheaffectedpart.Thebandage—acloth,strap,belt,necktie,neckerchiefortowel—shouldbelongenoughtogoaroundthearmorlegaffected.Itcanthenbetwistedbyinsertingthehand,andthebloodstopped.
Ifastickisused,thereisdangeroftwistingtootightly.Thetourniquetshouldnotbeusedifbleedingcanbestoppedwithoutit.Whenuseditshouldbecarefullyloosenedevery15to20minutestoavoidpermanentdamagetotissues.
Fainting
Faintingiscausedbyalackofbloodsupplytothebrainandiscuredbygettingthehearttocorrectthelack.1. Havethepersonliedownwiththeheadlowerthanthebody.2. Loosentheclothing.Givefreshair.Rubthelimbs.Use
smellingsalts.3. Donotletthepersongetupuntilfullyrecovered.
SnakeBite1. Putatightcordorbandagearoundthelimbbetweenthewoundandthe
heart.Thisshouldbelooseenoughtoslipafingerunderit.2. Keepthewoundlowerthantheheart.Trytokeepthepatientcalm,asthe
fastertheheartbeats,thefasterthevenomwillspread.3. Ifyoucannotgettoadoctorquickly,suckthewoundmanytimeswithyour
mouthoruseapoisonsuctionkit,ifavailable.
InsectStings1. Washwithoil,weakammonia,orverysaltywater,orpaintwithiodine.2. Apasteofbakingsodaandwateralsosoothesstings.
Poison1. First,getthevictimawayfromthepoison.Ifthepoisonisinsolidform,
suchaspills,removeitfromthevictim’smouthusingacleanclothwrappedaroundyourfinger.Don’ttrythiswithinfantsbecauseitcould
forcethepoisonfurtherdowntheirthroat.2. Ifthepoisoniscorrosivetotheskin,removetheclothingfromtheaffected
areaandflushwithwaterfor30minutes.3. Ifthepoisonisincontactwiththeeyes,flushthevictim’seyesfora
minimumof15minuteswithcleanwater.
Forelbow,arm,orwristinjuries,asimpleslingcanbemadeoutofapieceofclothorclothing.
HowtoPutOutBurningClothing1. Ifyourclothingshouldcatchfire,donotrunforhelp,asthiswillfanthe
flames.2. Liedownandrollupastightlyaspossibleinanovercoat,blanket,rug,or
anywoolenarticle—orliedownandrolloverslowly,atthesametimebeatingthefirewithyourhands.Smotherthefirewithacoat,blanket,orrug.Rememberthatwoolenmaterialismuchlessflammablethancotton.
IceRescue1. Alwayshavearopenearbyifyou’reworkingorplayingonice.Thisway,if
someonefallsthrough,youcantieoneendtoyourselfandonetoatreeorothersecureanchoronshorebeforeyouattempttorescuetheperson.
2. Youcouldalsothrowoneendtothevictimifhisheadisabovewater.3. Donotattempttowalkouttovictim.Pushouttohimorcrawloutonalong
boardorrailortreetrunk.4. Thepersoninthewatershouldnevertrytocrawluponthebrokenice,but
shouldtrymerelytosupporthimselfandwaitforhelp,ifitisathand.
BrokenBone
Acompoundfractureisonethatbreaksthroughtheflesh.
Asimplefractureisoneinwhichtheboneisbrokenbutdoesnotbreaktheskin.Inacompoundfracture,theboneisbrokenandtheskinandtissuearepuncturedortorn.Asimplefracturemaybeconvertedintoacompoundfracturebycarelesshandling,asabrokenboneusuallyhassharp,saw-toothedges,andjustalittletwistmaypushitthroughtheskin.1. Donotmovethepatientwithoutsupportingbrokenmemberbysplints.2. Inacompoundfracture,bleedingmustbechecked—bybandageover
compress,ifpossible,orbytourniquetinextremecases.Thensplintsmaybeapplied.
3. Whereskinisbroken,infectionisthegreatdanger,soexercisecarethatcompressordressingissterileandclean.
DislocationAdislocationisaninjurywheretheheadofabonehasslippedoutofitssocketatajoint.1. Donotattempttoreplacethejoint.Eventhumbandfingerdislocationsare
moreseriousthanusuallyrealized.2. Coverthejointwithclothswrungoutinveryhotorverycoldwater.Forthe
shoulder—applypaddingandmakeaslingforthearm.3. Seekmedicalassistance.
Therearemanywaystocarrysomeonewithaninjury.Ifneckorspineinjuryissuspected,donotattempttomovethevictimifyoucangethelptocometothevictiminstead.Ifthevictimmustbemoved,theheadandneckmustfirstbe
carefullystabilized.
FirstAidChecklistToadministereffectivefirstaid,itisimportanttomaintainadequatesuppliesineachfirstaidkit.Afirstaidkitshouldinclude:
Adhesivebandages:Theseareavailableinalargerangeofsizesforminorcuts,abrasions,andpuncturewounds.Butterflyclosures:Theseholdwoundedgesfirmlytogether.Rolledgauze:Theseallowfreedomofmovementandarerecommendedforsecuringawounddressingand/orpads.Theseareespeciallygoodforhard-to-bandagewounds.Nonsticksterilepads:Thesearesoft,super-absorbentpadsthatprovideagoodenvironmentforwoundhealing.Thesearerecommendedforbleedinganddrainingwounds,burns,orinfections.Firstaidtapes:Varioustypesoftapesshouldbeincludedineachkit.Theseincludeadhesive,whichiswaterproofandextrastrongfortimeswhenrigid
strappingisneeded;clear,whichstretcheswiththebody’smovementandisgoodforvisiblewounds;cloth,recommendedformostfirstaidtapingneeds,includingtapingheavydressings(lessirritatingthanadhesive);andpaper,whichisrecommendedforsensitiveskinandisusedforlightandfrequentlychangeddressings.Itemsthatcanalsobeincludedineachkitaretweezers,firstaidcream,thermometer,ananalgesicorequivalent,andanicepack.
Witchhazelbarkcanbebrewedandusedtosootheirritatedskinoreyes.
Nature’sFirstAid
Antisepticorwound-wash:Ahandfulofsaltinaquartofhotwater.
Balmforwounds:Balsamfir.Thegumcanbeusedashealingsalve,usuallyspreadonapieceoflinenandlaidoverthewoundforadressing.
Coughremedy:Slipperyelmorblackcherryinnerbarkboiled,apoundtothegallon,boileddowntoapint,andgivenateaspoonfuleveryhour.
Linseedcanbeusedthesameway;addhoneyifdesired.Orboildownthesapofthesweetbirchtreeanddrinkitonitsownormixedwiththeotherremedies.
Diuretic:Adecoctionoftheinnerbarkofelderisapowerfuldiuretic.
Inflammationoftheeyesorskin:Washwithastrongteamadeofthebarkofwitchhazel.
Lungbalm:Infusionofblackcherrybarkandrootisapowerfultonicforlungsandbowels.Goodalsoasaskinwashforsores.Poisonivy:Washeveryhourortwowithhotsoapywater,thenwithhotsaltwater.
INDEX
agaveaggregateculturegardeningaloeveraAlpinegoatsAlternativeSolarHeatingPanelAnglo-NubiangoatsAngoragoatsannualsAnotherBrickSmokehouseapplejuiceapples
AppleButterAppleJellyApplePieFillingcanningCrabAppleJellydryingfreezingPearAppleJamRefrigeratedAppleSpread
applesauceapricots
ApricotJamcanningdryingfreezing
arboretumsascorbicacidasparagus
companionplantingfreezingharvestingwild
astragalusaxilsBackyardCompostingHeapbananasBandage,HandBarrelCoopBarrelPlantHolder
barrelsBarrelCoopBarrelPlantHolderBarrelSmokehouseSimpleRainBarrel
BasicCold-PressedSoapBasicVase/UrnBathSalt,Lavenderbeans
BakedBeanscanningfreezinggreenharvestinglimaPickledThree-BeanSaladplantingSuccotash
beechtreesbeef.Seemeatbeefstock(broth)beekeeping.Seealsobees
Beehivedescribedhiveshoneycollection
Beerbees.Seealsobeekeeping;beeswaxbeeswax
BeeswaxCandle,RolledMakingBeeswax
beetsberries.Seespecificberriesberry
jamscanningdryingwildedible
bilberriesbirdhouses
BirdArkBirdhousedescribedLogCabinBirdhouseTempleBirdhouse
birdsblackberries
BlackberryJellycanningwild
BlackCayugaducksblanchersblanchingblueberries
BlueberryPieFillingBlueberry,SpiceJamcanning
boiling-watercannersbotulismBourbonRedturkeysBowlineKnotBowls(pottery)BoxCoopbractsBreadandButterPicklesBrickSmokehouse,AnotherBridge,VerySimplebridges
FootbridgeSmallStreamBridgeVerySimpleBridge
broccoliBrokenBoneBronzeturkeysbrusselssprouts
freezingharvestingplanting
burdocksBurningClothing,PuttingOutBurns/ScaldsButterbutterfliescabbage
freezingharvestingPiccalilliplantingseedlings
cactiCalmingTeacandles,handmade
describedJarredSoyCandlesRolledBeeswaxCandleTaperCandles
Candlestick(pottery)cannerscanning.Seealsospecificfoodlistings
colorretention
describedequipmentfoodacidityfoodfreshnessfruithigh-altitudehotpackingjarspiefillingsprocessingtimesrawpackingspecialdietsspoiledfoodsyrupstestingjarsealsvegetables
cantaloupecarrots
canningfreezingharvestingplanting
CarryingtheInjuredcattailscauliflowercelerychamomilechanterellescheese
CheddarCheeseCheesePressCottageCheesedescribedDomiatiCheeseFetaCheesefreezinggoatcheesesMozzarellaQuesoBlancoRicottaYogurtCheese
CheesePresscherries
canningCherryPieFillingdrying
CherryPieFillingchicken
bacteriafromstock(broth)
ChickenFeedChickenRoost,Foldingchickens.Seealsoeggs
BarrelCoopBoxCoopbreedsChickenFeedchicksDrinkingFountainfeedingFoldingChickenRoosthousingPortableCoopPracticalHenhouseSimplestPoultryHouseTwo-RoomHenhousewintercareYoungPoultryCoops
chicoryChileSalsa(HotTomato–PepperSauce)citricacidcitruspeelCitrusScrubclaysoilCleansingTeaClearJelCloveHitchcoldhardyplantsCold-PressedSoap,BasicRecipecollardsColoredRouensduckscomfreyrootCommonColdTeacompanionplantingcompostcomposting
BackyardCompostingHeapbinscoldcompostingcompostheapsdescribedmaterialsslowcompostingVermicompostingPile
compostingtoiletsCompostingToiletdescribed
ConditionerHairCookingOven,SolarCooperativeExtensionServices
coops,poultryBarrelCoopBoxCoopPortableCoopYoungPoultryCoops
coralfungicorn
canningcompanionplantingfreezingharvestingSuccotash
cosmetics,naturalAfter-SunComfreyLotionCitrusScrubfruitsforyourskinHairConditionerHealingBathSoakHoneyLipGlossLavenderBathSalt“Make-up”LipBalmMintyCucumberFacialMaskRosemaryPeppermintFootScrubShampooTropicalFaceCleanservegetablesforyourskin
CotswoldsheepCottageCheeseCoughRemedyCrabAppleJellycrafts.SeealsospecificcraftlistingscranberriesCucumberFacialMask,Mintycucumbers.Seealsopicklescultivarscurrants,blackcurtainsCuts/WoundsDomiatiCheesedandelions
DandelionWineuses
daylightdeciduousplantsdecoctionsdehydrators,food
typesWoodstoveFoodDehydrator
dillpickles.SeepicklesDislocationInjuries
diureticsDogKennel,StandardDrinkingFountain(chicken)Drowningrescuedryingfoodducksdyes,naturalearthwormsEasilyOpenedGateechinaceaeggplanteggs.Seealsochickenselderberriesendiveenergy.Seealsogeothermalenergy;hydropower;solarenergy;windenergyEnglishHurdlePortableFenceenzymeserosionpreventioneveningprimroseoilexhausting(canning)extractseyewashFaceCleanser,TropicalFacialMask,MintyCucumberFaintingfarmanimals.Seealsospecificanimalsfarmers’marketsfences.Seealsogates
EnglishHurdlePortableFenceportableScotchHurdleFenceWireFencesWoodenFences
FertilityTeafertilizers
applicationcommercialcompostandlawnclippingsorganicsoilconditionand
FestiveMincemeatPieFillingFetaCheesefigsFingerlessMittens,Knittedfirstaid
BrokenBones
BurningClothingBurns/ScaldsCarryingtheInjuredCuts/WoundsDislocationDrowningRescueFaintingHandBandageHemorrhageIceRescueInsectStingsInternalBleedingkitchecklistnaturalfirstaidPoisoningShock/NervousCollapseSnakeBiteSunstrokeTourniquet
fish/seafoodflaxseed/flaxseedoilfloodsflowers.Seealsogardening
annualsbedpreparationcontainergardensflowergardeningperennialsplantingshadesiteselectionwatering
FoldingChickenRoostfood.Seealsocanning;dryingfood
acidicfoodsfreezinglocallygrownlow-acidfoodsspoilage
FootbridgeFootScrub,RosemaryPeppermintFountain,Drinking(chicken)freezingfoodfruit.Seealsocanning;specificfruit
listingsfreezingwildedible
FruitLeatherfruitpureesfruitspreads
describedLemonCurdLimeCurdPeach-PineappleSpreadRefrigeratedAppleSpreadRefrigeratedGrapeSpread
gardening.Seealsofertilizers,flowers;insects;plants;soil;vegetables
bedpreparationcontainercovercropsdescribedharvestmulchorganicpestsplantingplantselectionraisedbedrooftopseedlingssiteselectionsoillesstenderbulbs/tubersterracestoolstransplantingvinedryingwateringweedswildlifein
garlicgates.Seealsofences
describedEasilyOpenedGateSimpleGate
gelatingeothermalenergygeranium,sweetgingerginkgoginsenggoats
breedsdiseasesalfeedingmilkmilking
grapefruitgrapes
canningdrying
GrapeJellygrapejuiceGrape-PlumJellyRefrigeratedGrapeSpreadgrapeseedextractgrapevine,wildgrassclippings
compostingasfertilizer
grassesgreenhousesgreenteagreywatergroundcoversHairConditionerHalterKnotHandBandageharvestingHat,Knittedhazelnutsheadspace(canning)HealingBathSoakhealth.Seewell-beingHeatCollectorheatprocessingHemorrhageHenhouse,PracticalHenhouse,Two-Roomherbaceousplantsherbalmedicine.Seealsocosmetics,
natural;specificherbnamesCalmingTeaCleansingTeaCommonColdTeadescribedFertilityTeaforhair
HealingBathSoakHerbalTinctureherbs.Seealsoherbalmedicine;
specificherbnamescontainergardeningdescribeddryinghydroponicgardeningaspestrepellentsplanting
honey.Seebeekeeping
HoneyLipGlossHorseradishSauce,PickledhotpackprocedureHotTomato–PepperSauce(ChileSalsa)hybridplantshydroponicgardeningHydroponicsSystemhydropowerIceCreamIceRescueinflorescenceinfusionInjured,Carryinginsects
attractinginorganicgardenspestmanagementStings
integratedpestmanagement(IPM)InternalBleedingirrigationsystems
greywaterIrrigationSystems,installingOutdoorPlanterswaterconservationand
jams.SeealsofruitspreadsApricotJamBerryJamsBlueberry-SpiceJamPeachJamPear-AppleJamWithpectinwithoutpectin
Jars(pottery)jellies
AppleJellyBlackberryJellyCrabAppleJellyGrapeJellyGrape-PlumJellywithpectinwithoutpectinPlumJellyStrawberry-RhubarbJelly
jerkiesjuniperkaleKetchup,Tomatokilns,
PermanentHomemadePottery
KilnSawdustKiln
knittingdescribedFingerlessMittensHatSimpleScarfSquareBlanket
knottying
LaManchagoatslavender
describedLavenderBathSalt
lawns.Seealsograssclippingsleathers
MixedVegetableLeatherPumpkinLeatherTomatoLeather
leaves,compostingwithIeeksLeicestersheepLemonCurdlettuce
freezingharvestinghydroponicgardeningplanting
licoricerootlight
daylightplantrequirements
LimeCurdlime(garden)LipBalm,“Make-up,”LipGloss,HoneyllamasloamsoilLogCabinBirdhouseLotion,After-SunComfreylotus“Make-up”LipBalmmanuremarigoldsMarinatedJerkyMarinatedPeppersmarshmarigoldsmeat
canning
freezingjerkiessmokingstock(broth)
Medium-sizedToolShedandWorkshopmelonsMerinosheepmicroclimatesmicroorganismsmilkmilking,goatsmilkthistleMincemeatPieFilling,FestiveMintyCucumberFacialMaskmistletoeMittens,KnittedFingerlessMixedVegetableLeatherMixedVegetablesmohairmold,infoodmorelsMozzarellaCheesemulberriesmulchMuscovyducksmushroomsmustardmycotoxinsNarragansettturkeysnativeplantsnaturalcosmetics.Seecosmetics,naturalnaturalfirstaidnectarines
canningdryingfreezing
nettlesnewspaper,asmulchnitrogennuts
hazelnutswalnutswildedible
oakoats,asgreenmanureokraonions
harvestingpestsandplanting
wildopen-kettlecanningorangesorganicfood,benefitsorganicgardeningorganicmatterinsoilOutdoorPlanters(irrigation)Oven,SolarCookingOxforddownsheeppalmettopalmpaniclespasteurizationpeaches
canningdryingfreezing
PeachJamPeach-PineappleSpreadpears
BakedPearscanningdryingfreezingPear-AppleJam
peascanningfreezingharvestingplanting
pectinpensPeppermintFootScrub,Rosemarypeppermintoilpeppers
ChileSalsa(HotTomato-PepperSauce)freezingharvestingMarinatedPeppersPiccalilliplanting
perennialsPermanentHomemadePotteryKilnpersimmonspH
canninganddefinedsoil
phosphorusphotovoltaicenergy
PiccalilliPickledHorseradishSaucePickledThree-BeanSaladpickles
BreadandButterPicklesDillPicklesDillPickles,QuickFresh-PackPickleRelishSweetPickles,QuickSweetPickles,Reduced-SodiumSliced
piefillingsPineappleSpread,Peachpinesplantainsplanting,companionplants.Seealsoflowers;gardening;
herbs;vegetablesdiseasesfordryconditionsenvironmentalconditionsforintegratedpestmanagement(IPM)nutrientsofseedlingsshadeterminologywaterrequirements
PlantStand,Rusticplantstandsplums
canningdryingGrape-PlumJelly
PlumJellyPlymouthRockchickensPoisoningPoisonIvyReliefpokeweedspork.SeemeatPortableCooppotassiumpotatoes
canningfreezingharvestingplanting
potteryBasicVase/UrnBowls
CandlestickdescribedembellishmentfiringJarsPermanentHomemadePotteryKilnSawdustKilnwheel-work
poultry.Seealsochicken,chickens;ducks;turkeys
canningfreezingjerkiesPracticalHenhouseSimplestPoultryHouseSlaughteringPoultrystock(broth)YoungPoultryCoops
pressurecannerspricklypearcactiprunespruningpuffballs(mushrooms)PumpingWindmillpumpkins
canningharvestingplantingPumpkinLeather
pygmygoatsQuesoBlancoQuickFresh-PackDillPicklesQuickSweetPicklesradishesRainBarrel,SimpleRaisedBedsraisedgardenbedsraspberriesrawpack(coldpack)procedureredcloverReducedSodiumSlicedSweetPicklesreeds,cattailRefrigeratedAppleSpreadRefrigeratedGrapeSpreadreindeermossrhubarb
canningStrawberry-RhubarbJelly
RicottaCheese
rooftopgardensRootCellarRootHouseRosemaryPeppermintFootScrubroses,wildRusticPlantStandrutabagasrye,asgreenmanureSaanengoatssalt,canning(pickling)sandysoilsassafrassauces,freezingSauerkrautSawdustKilnScotchHurdleFenceshadeplantsshaggymanemushroomsShampoosheds.SeetoolshedssheepSheepshankKnotShropshiresheepshrubssidedishes
BakedBeansMarinatedPeppersMixedVegetablesPiccalilliSauerkraut
SuccotashSimpleGateSimpleScarf,KnittedSimplestPoultryHouseSlipKnotSmall,RusticToolShedSmallStreamBridgesmokehouses
AnotherBrickSmokehousefrombarrelsStandardSmokehouse
SnakeBitesoaps
CitrusScrubSoap,BasicCold-PressedTropicalFaceCleanser
soilenrichmentofforgardenspHdetermination
testingtillingtypeswaterretention
solarenergyAlternativeSolarHeatingPanelcollectorsdaylightingdescribedHeatCollectorheatingsystemregulationshybridsystemsPassiveSolarSpaceHeaterSolarCookingOvensolargreenhousesSolarPanelssolarthermalenergySolarWaterHeater
soups,canningSouthdownsheepSoyCandles,JarredSpaceHeater,PassiveSolarSpaghettiSaucewithoutMeatspatterdockspecialdiets
canningforReduced-SodiumSlicedSweetPicklesreduced-sugarfruitspreads
spinachspreads,fruit.SeefruitspreadssproutsSquareBlanket,KnittedSquare/ReefKnotsquash
canningfreezingharvestingplanting
St.John’swortstablesStandardDogKennelStandardSmokehousestrawberries
Strawberry-RhubarbJellywildedible
SuccotashsucculentsSunstrokesweetpickles.Seepickles
sweetpotatoesSwisschardsyrupsTaperCandlestaxonomy,definedteas
definedgreenteaHomemadeHerbalTeas
temperature,plantrequirementsTempleBirdhouseterracegardeningthistleThree-BeanSalad,PickledTimberHitchtincturesToggenburggoatstoilets
compostingCompostingToilet
tomatoescanningChileSalsa(HotTomato–PepperSauce)crushedtomatoesharvestinghydroponicgardeningPiccalilliplantingSpaghettiSaucewithoutMeat
TomatoJuiceTomatoKetchupTomatoLeathertomatosaucetoolsheds
Medium-sizedToolShedandWorkshopSmall,RusticToolShed
TourniquettreesTropicalFaceCleanserturmericturkey,stock(broth)turkeysturnipsTwoHalfHitchKnotsTwo-RoomHenhousevacuum(canning)valerianVase/Urn,Basic
vegetables.Seealsocanning;specificvegetablelistings
companionplantingcontainergardensfreezinggardeningharvestMixedVegetableLeatherMixedVegetablesraisedbedsrootrootcellarsshade/partialshadewildedible
VermicompostingPileVerySimpleBridgevinedryingvinesvioletswalnutswater.Seealsohydroponicgardening;
irrigationconservationforgardensforplantssoiltypeand
watercresswaterculturegardeningwaterheaters
describedSolarWaterHeater
waterlilieswatermelonsweedsWhiteAylesburyducksWhiteHollandturkeysWhitePekinduckswildflowerswindenergy
describedhybridsystemsPumpingWindmillstand-alonesystems
WindmillPumping
WindMotorwindturbines
zoningrestrictionswindowboxesWine,Dandelion
WireFencesWoodenFencesWoodenWindowBoxWoodstoveFoodDehydratorwoodyplantswool.Seealsollamas;mohairWorkshop,Medium-sizedToolShedandwoundsWoundWashesWyandottechickensYogurtYogurtCheeseYoungPoultryCoops
1 Ifsuperfinesugarisnotavailable,rungranulatedsugarthroughagrinderorfoodprocessorfor1minute,letsettle,anduseinplaceofsuperfinesugar.Donotusepowderedsugar.
2 Bottledlemonjuiceisusedtostandardizeacidity.Freshlemonjuicecanvaryinacidityandisnotrecommended.
3 Ifadoubleboilerisnotavailable,asubstitutecanbemadewithalargebowlorsaucepanthatcanfitpartwaydownintoasaucepanofasmallerdiameter.Ifthebottompanhasalargerdiameter,thetopbowlorpanshouldhaveahandleorhandlesthatcanrestontherimofthelowerpan.curdthroughameshstrainerintoaglassorstainlesssteelbowl;discardcollectedzest.