The Human Tradition Biographies

The Human Tradition Biographies

By: Ben BrazilBy: Ben Brazil

Don Melchior CaruaraycoDon Melchior CaruaraycoDon Melchior Caruarayco’s history is melded with that of Spanish colonialism. He descended from a long line of powerful kurakas, whom are indigenous leaders within Andean societies. Don Melchior became the Andean lord of Cajamarca in 1562, preceding the death of his relative, don Diego Zublian. He was in charge of the guaranga of Guzmango and two parcialidades (lineages): the Colquemarca and the Malcaden. He had a lot of power, which is evident in how he ruled over approximately 50,000 individuals.His reign was filled with strife as he was cast right into power during a time when Spanish colonialism was taking root in Andean societies.

Don Melchior Caruarayco’s history is melded with that of Spanish colonialism. He descended from a long line of powerful kurakas, whom are indigenous leaders within Andean societies. Don Melchior became the Andean lord of Cajamarca in 1562, preceding the death of his relative, don Diego Zublian. He was in charge of the guaranga of Guzmango and two parcialidades (lineages): the Colquemarca and the Malcaden. He had a lot of power, which is evident in how he ruled over approximately 50,000 individuals.His reign was filled with strife as he was cast right into power during a time when Spanish colonialism was taking root in Andean societies.

Continued…Continued…Don Melchior faced many problems caused by Spanish colonial rule. The first of these hardships was that as his population declined, he still had to pay the same amount of tribute demanded by the colonizers. He either had to have his people pay more money, or he had to dip into his own resources to curb the monetary thirst of the Spanish. This became increasingly harder for him to achieve. The second problem he had to undergo regarded religion. The Spanish brought with them Christianity, and the values associated with this creed. The Franciscans established a monastery in 1549, and with it they attempted to eradicate any traces of the indigenous Andean religious beliefs. They baptized the indigenous, gave them Christian names, and attempted to replace the deities they had been worshipping for years with their one God. Don Melchior really had no choice on the matter. However, he did allow there to be secret underground societies that still celebrated the traditions of their ancestors. The third problem don Melchior faced was that he was questioned by his people after they realized that the Spanish regarded the indigenous Andean beliefs as savage and infantile. His “throne” was then taken from him, and a Spanish supreme court judge named Dr. Cuenca bestowed the title of lord onto the head of Alonso Chuplingon. It is apparent that don Melchior’s term as kuraka was one filled with hardship and conflict.

Domingos Fernandes Nobre

Domingos Fernandes Nobre

The life of Domingos Fernandes Nobre was a contradictory one. He was born a mameluco, a man of half Portuguese and half Indian descent. He lived a dual life in the Brazilian city of Bahia due to this mixed descent. Working as a slave trader, dealing Indians to local Portuguese sugar planters, Nobre ventured into the sertao, or wilderness, in attempting to establish a connection with Indian tribes. This was rather easy for him due to his shared ethnicity with these individuals. He even attained tattoos all over his body to associate himself as a brave warrior among the tribes.

The life of Domingos Fernandes Nobre was a contradictory one. He was born a mameluco, a man of half Portuguese and half Indian descent. He lived a dual life in the Brazilian city of Bahia due to this mixed descent. Working as a slave trader, dealing Indians to local Portuguese sugar planters, Nobre ventured into the sertao, or wilderness, in attempting to establish a connection with Indian tribes. This was rather easy for him due to his shared ethnicity with these individuals. He even attained tattoos all over his body to associate himself as a brave warrior among the tribes.

Continued…Continued…Ultimately, like all mamelucos, everything Nobre did was to exploit the Indians for their profitable expertise as workers on sugar plantations. Nobre’s dual life was confronted when an inquisitor from Portugal’s Holy Office traveled to the city of Bahia in 1591. Called the go-betweens, the mamelucos like Nobre spent much of their time in the forest, attempting to gain access to Indian slaves to bring them back to the city. So, when the inquisitor settled into the capital, Nobre was still in the sertao. As the laws and established morals began to be changed to fit the paradigm of the Catholic Church, Nobre was absent, unable to register this information. While he was gone, fourteen people came forward to denounce his actions to the inquisitor. They stated that he was engaging in heretical actions, and even worshipped a false idol when delving into the religion known as Santidade. Nobre’s wife had even come forward to state that he had a somewhat troubling relationship with the Indians. She pointed out how he had even manipulated his body, through tattooing, to fit into the indigenous society. When Nobre finally returned from his expedition, he confessed to the inquisitor. He stated that everything he did was ultimately to exploit the Indians, and gain access into their lives so that he may bring them back to the city to enslave them. Because he completed this confession within the grace period, the inquisitor took mercy on him, and provided him with a few trivial punishments. The most disheartening one was probably his banishment from the wilderness. The inquisitor stated that Nobre was no longer allowed to venture into the sertao, for he feared he would adopt the customs of the “savages.”

Ultimately, like all mamelucos, everything Nobre did was to exploit the Indians for their profitable expertise as workers on sugar plantations. Nobre’s dual life was confronted when an inquisitor from Portugal’s Holy Office traveled to the city of Bahia in 1591. Called the go-betweens, the mamelucos like Nobre spent much of their time in the forest, attempting to gain access to Indian slaves to bring them back to the city. So, when the inquisitor settled into the capital, Nobre was still in the sertao. As the laws and established morals began to be changed to fit the paradigm of the Catholic Church, Nobre was absent, unable to register this information. While he was gone, fourteen people came forward to denounce his actions to the inquisitor. They stated that he was engaging in heretical actions, and even worshipped a false idol when delving into the religion known as Santidade. Nobre’s wife had even come forward to state that he had a somewhat troubling relationship with the Indians. She pointed out how he had even manipulated his body, through tattooing, to fit into the indigenous society. When Nobre finally returned from his expedition, he confessed to the inquisitor. He stated that everything he did was ultimately to exploit the Indians, and gain access into their lives so that he may bring them back to the city to enslave them. Because he completed this confession within the grace period, the inquisitor took mercy on him, and provided him with a few trivial punishments. The most disheartening one was probably his banishment from the wilderness. The inquisitor stated that Nobre was no longer allowed to venture into the sertao, for he feared he would adopt the customs of the “savages.”

Dona Isabel SisaDona Isabel SisaThe story of Dona Isabel Sisa is one melded with gender stratification. Under the Castilian law, the Andean society was steered towards a more patriarchal state. Men maintained much of the power, and even had control of most material wealth due to the law’s use of genealogical inheritance. The narrative of Isabel Sisa is that of a battle between her and her husband, don Domingo Itquilla. It was a battle over land rights. Rather than direct confrontation, the two used their wills to dismantle the other’s rights to the land. These owned lands were the estates of Chulcane, Vilcaparo, and Otavi. Dona Isabel Sisa used marrital law to further her argument.

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She stated that, all land acquired during marriage was split down the middle in terms of property; meaning that she would own half of the estates. This was actually supported by Castilian law. She also stated that her son, Juan de Acuna, was the rightful heir to this land. Don Domingo countered that these estates had been acquired before their marriage so she, in fact, has no right to the property. He also went on to delcare that Juan de Acuna was not even his son. All of this information was disclosed in multiple wills. It was a battle of “wills.” By stating that the property was given to him by his ancestors before his union with dona Isabel, don Domingo was stating thay she had no rights to the property, so he could donate the estates to anyone he so chose. After several rewrites of documents between the two, in 1608, don Domingo finally disclosed his entire history of infidelities in a final will. In this last attempt, don Domingo hoped to completely annihilate any chances dona Isabel had at attaining this property. She was a tough woman, and responded with a history on don Domingo that ran counter to his past declarations. She outlined that don Domingo was essentially a forastero, or a foreigner, and was not the respected leader that some may believe. That he was not a native, and rather, was a migrant, something Europeans had a negative view of. By pointing out the inglorious origins of her husband, dona Isabel was able to attain her property. She exemplified how the “will” can be a powerful thing.

She stated that, all land acquired during marriage was split down the middle in terms of property; meaning that she would own half of the estates. This was actually supported by Castilian law. She also stated that her son, Juan de Acuna, was the rightful heir to this land. Don Domingo countered that these estates had been acquired before their marriage so she, in fact, has no right to the property. He also went on to delcare that Juan de Acuna was not even his son. All of this information was disclosed in multiple wills. It was a battle of “wills.” By stating that the property was given to him by his ancestors before his union with dona Isabel, don Domingo was stating thay she had no rights to the property, so he could donate the estates to anyone he so chose. After several rewrites of documents between the two, in 1608, don Domingo finally disclosed his entire history of infidelities in a final will. In this last attempt, don Domingo hoped to completely annihilate any chances dona Isabel had at attaining this property. She was a tough woman, and responded with a history on don Domingo that ran counter to his past declarations. She outlined that don Domingo was essentially a forastero, or a foreigner, and was not the respected leader that some may believe. That he was not a native, and rather, was a migrant, something Europeans had a negative view of. By pointing out the inglorious origins of her husband, dona Isabel was able to attain her property. She exemplified how the “will” can be a powerful thing.

Ursula de JesusUrsula de Jesus

The life of Ursula de Jesus is one of religious means. She was born in 1604 in the city of Lima. An, Afro-Peruvian woman, she inherited the title of “slave” from her mother. She served in the Convent of Santa Clara, where she eventually woud become a donada, or religious servant. Growing up in a particularly religious environment, Ursula developed a strong devotion to the figure of Jesus Christ. This background paved her future as a mystic. Her first experience as a mystic was when she claimed that a deceased Licenciate Colonia appeared to her in a vision.

The life of Ursula de Jesus is one of religious means. She was born in 1604 in the city of Lima. An, Afro-Peruvian woman, she inherited the title of “slave” from her mother. She served in the Convent of Santa Clara, where she eventually woud become a donada, or religious servant. Growing up in a particularly religious environment, Ursula developed a strong devotion to the figure of Jesus Christ. This background paved her future as a mystic. Her first experience as a mystic was when she claimed that a deceased Licenciate Colonia appeared to her in a vision.

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He was visiting her from Purgatory. His request was that Ursula plead with Jesus Christ to have mercy on his soul. In a society that held traditional religious values and generally regarded mysticism as standard, this account was taken as proof that Ursula de Jesus was important in some way. Why would such a powerful, elite deceased individual speak with a slave? Eventually, she claimed that she spoke to many individuals who pleaded with her to put in a good word with the all powerful one. She even recorded experiences in her diary where she spoke directly with Jesus Christ, stating that he offered guidance to her. The most important event of Ursula’s life was when she nearly fell down a well to her death in 1642. She was able to regain her balance and claimed that she was saved by the Virgin of Carmen. This event apparently rescued her from her vain and rebellious past. Eventually, her she spoke to even more dead individuals and gained recognition within the city. But, through all of this she was still a slave. So, in 1645 dona Rafael de Esquivel, a nun of the black veil, freed Ursula from her enslavement. She then offered Ursula the chance to become a donada. After formerly denying the occupation, she eventually accepted the job and regarded it as the most fitting position for her to engage in her spiritual passions more freely and frequently. Until her death in 1666, Ursula claimed to have helped many distressed souls pass on from Purgatory to the bounds of eternity. Her life displays the beliefs of the citizens of 17th century Lima. There was a fascination with mysticism and death that seemed almost fanatical. In many respects, Ursula’s life represents a passage from captivity to freedom through the practive of this mysiticism.

He was visiting her from Purgatory. His request was that Ursula plead with Jesus Christ to have mercy on his soul. In a society that held traditional religious values and generally regarded mysticism as standard, this account was taken as proof that Ursula de Jesus was important in some way. Why would such a powerful, elite deceased individual speak with a slave? Eventually, she claimed that she spoke to many individuals who pleaded with her to put in a good word with the all powerful one. She even recorded experiences in her diary where she spoke directly with Jesus Christ, stating that he offered guidance to her. The most important event of Ursula’s life was when she nearly fell down a well to her death in 1642. She was able to regain her balance and claimed that she was saved by the Virgin of Carmen. This event apparently rescued her from her vain and rebellious past. Eventually, her she spoke to even more dead individuals and gained recognition within the city. But, through all of this she was still a slave. So, in 1645 dona Rafael de Esquivel, a nun of the black veil, freed Ursula from her enslavement. She then offered Ursula the chance to become a donada. After formerly denying the occupation, she eventually accepted the job and regarded it as the most fitting position for her to engage in her spiritual passions more freely and frequently. Until her death in 1666, Ursula claimed to have helped many distressed souls pass on from Purgatory to the bounds of eternity. Her life displays the beliefs of the citizens of 17th century Lima. There was a fascination with mysticism and death that seemed almost fanatical. In many respects, Ursula’s life represents a passage from captivity to freedom through the practive of this mysiticism.

Zumbi of PalmaresZumbi of PalmaresThe life of Zumbi of Palmares was one of a rebellious man that fought for freedom. Born in 1655, Zumbi fought relentlessly against the Portuguese until his death in 1695. His story began in 1654, when an expedition of 600 Portuguese men was led to attack the Palmarinos. The troops took prisoners and a newborn baby, Zumbi. He was given to Antonio Melo, a Portuguese priest. The child was named Francisco and was baptized in the name of Catholicism. He was taught the ways of Catholicism, living in the home of a Christian leader. Then, at the age of fifteen, the child fled the home and established himself in Palmares in 1670. He soon became a man of influence, as he rose quickly in the community. This was possibly due to his knowledge regarding the outside world and the literature taught to him by the priest.

Continued…Continued…The former “Francisco” then changed his name to Zumbi, exhibiting his integration into the Palmares society, and displaying where his allegiance lie. At the age of eighteen he led an expedition against a Portuguese force. Two years later he led an army that resisted the forces of 280 Portuguese men led by Major Manuel Lopes. Four years later, Zumbi became the commander general of the Palmarino militia. He was quickly gaining respect of the community. In 1677, Fernao Carillho led an army of Portuguese soldiers against Palmares. Many Palmares inhabitants wer killed and wounded. Ganga Zumba, the Great Chief of Palmares, was blamed for the assault. His people called for his indictment. In response, Ganga Zumba fled to Cucau. Due to Ganga Zumba’s absence, Zumbi was able to seize the opportunity. He acted against the few of Zumba’s loyalists and turned them onto hi side. Zumbi was then elected as the head of Palmares by the Great Council. He then continued his pursuit for freedom against the rival Portuguese. Zumbi unified the people of Palmares, and gave them a collective goal: to fight the Portuguese. For, the Portuguese were not to be reconciled with. This would only cause further enslavement of the Palmarinos. Zumbi led attacks against plantations and Portuguese towns. When Portuguese forces were sent their way, Zumbi’s militias defeated them, maintaining their level of freedom. But, in 1694 a large army of 1,000 men was led against Palmares. What ensued was pure war. The Palmarinos were overpowered, yet Zumbi was able to escape with a number of his people. He stayed hidden in an attempt to regroup and revitalize the effort. But, in 1695 he was betrayed by one of his lieutenants who led him out of hiding straight into a battle with the Portuguese. He was soon killed in the battle, suffering fifteen gunshot wounds and a number of blows from various weaponry. His body was mutilated, castrated, and finally beheaded and displayed in a Portuguese effort to ward off rebellion. However, today, Zumbi of Palmares remains a hero in Brazil as a rebellious freedom fighter.

The former “Francisco” then changed his name to Zumbi, exhibiting his integration into the Palmares society, and displaying where his allegiance lie. At the age of eighteen he led an expedition against a Portuguese force. Two years later he led an army that resisted the forces of 280 Portuguese men led by Major Manuel Lopes. Four years later, Zumbi became the commander general of the Palmarino militia. He was quickly gaining respect of the community. In 1677, Fernao Carillho led an army of Portuguese soldiers against Palmares. Many Palmares inhabitants wer killed and wounded. Ganga Zumba, the Great Chief of Palmares, was blamed for the assault. His people called for his indictment. In response, Ganga Zumba fled to Cucau. Due to Ganga Zumba’s absence, Zumbi was able to seize the opportunity. He acted against the few of Zumba’s loyalists and turned them onto hi side. Zumbi was then elected as the head of Palmares by the Great Council. He then continued his pursuit for freedom against the rival Portuguese. Zumbi unified the people of Palmares, and gave them a collective goal: to fight the Portuguese. For, the Portuguese were not to be reconciled with. This would only cause further enslavement of the Palmarinos. Zumbi led attacks against plantations and Portuguese towns. When Portuguese forces were sent their way, Zumbi’s militias defeated them, maintaining their level of freedom. But, in 1694 a large army of 1,000 men was led against Palmares. What ensued was pure war. The Palmarinos were overpowered, yet Zumbi was able to escape with a number of his people. He stayed hidden in an attempt to regroup and revitalize the effort. But, in 1695 he was betrayed by one of his lieutenants who led him out of hiding straight into a battle with the Portuguese. He was soon killed in the battle, suffering fifteen gunshot wounds and a number of blows from various weaponry. His body was mutilated, castrated, and finally beheaded and displayed in a Portuguese effort to ward off rebellion. However, today, Zumbi of Palmares remains a hero in Brazil as a rebellious freedom fighter.

AhchanAhchan

Ahchan lived in two different worlds. He was essentially an Itza Mayan, yet, his role as ambassador between the Spanish and the Itzas led to his indoctrination into Catholic culture. Above all, he played a large role in the Spanish conquest of the Itzas in 1697. Ahchan was born thirty years prior to this in 1667. He was a member of the Itza royal family. He was used as a mediator between the Itzas and the Spanish. This led to inner conflict within himself as he found his obligations to either group to be hazily outlined. This inner conflict dictated much of his life.

Ahchan lived in two different worlds. He was essentially an Itza Mayan, yet, his role as ambassador between the Spanish and the Itzas led to his indoctrination into Catholic culture. Above all, he played a large role in the Spanish conquest of the Itzas in 1697. Ahchan was born thirty years prior to this in 1667. He was a member of the Itza royal family. He was used as a mediator between the Itzas and the Spanish. This led to inner conflict within himself as he found his obligations to either group to be hazily outlined. This inner conflict dictated much of his life.

Continued…Continued…In 1693, Martin de Ursua y Arizmendi, the governor-desginate of Yucatan, was authorized by the Crown to build a road between Yucatan and Guatemala. Ursua advanced his troops against Itza in 1695, attempting to further plans for the road. In an attempt to reconcile the feud between the rebellious Itzas and the Spanish, Ahaw Kan Ek’, the leader of the Itzas, sent his nephew, Ahchan, to Merida to speak with Ursua. This visit was heavily publicized by Ursua. The Spanish depicted it as an Itza surrender. That the Itzas had given themselves over to the Crown and even stated that they have submitted themselves to Christianity. Ahchan was baptized and became a polarizing figure. Shortly after, an attack on the Itzas was guided by the Guatemalans. This led to many Itzas being killed, wounded, or taken prisoner. So, the peace accords obviously did not work. Ahchan then was sent to Merida for a second time to meet with Ursua. Ursua hoped that this meeting would signify the Itza joining of the Spanish colonial front. Ahchan was used as pretty much a puppet. His speech was written for him by Spaniards, and he was possibly manipulated in his responses when providing his formal declaration in front of the government secretary. Alas, this practice proved to be unmoving as well as a series of violence broke out between the Spanish and the Itzas. Ahchan was then brought to Tipuh to aid in Ursua’s attempted treaty with Ahaw Kan Ek’. Shortly after they had arrived, Ahchan ran away and did not appear again until March 10, 1697. Ursua took Ahchan into custody as he knew that he would be an important factor in the peace process. However, Ahchan escaped again, taking refuge in Yalain. Ahchan would repeat this process yet another time in order to lead his Mayan people. Ahchan’s life represents that of a conflicted man. He felt a sense of attachment to Ursua, and yet, he certainly needed to be with his people.

In 1693, Martin de Ursua y Arizmendi, the governor-desginate of Yucatan, was authorized by the Crown to build a road between Yucatan and Guatemala. Ursua advanced his troops against Itza in 1695, attempting to further plans for the road. In an attempt to reconcile the feud between the rebellious Itzas and the Spanish, Ahaw Kan Ek’, the leader of the Itzas, sent his nephew, Ahchan, to Merida to speak with Ursua. This visit was heavily publicized by Ursua. The Spanish depicted it as an Itza surrender. That the Itzas had given themselves over to the Crown and even stated that they have submitted themselves to Christianity. Ahchan was baptized and became a polarizing figure. Shortly after, an attack on the Itzas was guided by the Guatemalans. This led to many Itzas being killed, wounded, or taken prisoner. So, the peace accords obviously did not work. Ahchan then was sent to Merida for a second time to meet with Ursua. Ursua hoped that this meeting would signify the Itza joining of the Spanish colonial front. Ahchan was used as pretty much a puppet. His speech was written for him by Spaniards, and he was possibly manipulated in his responses when providing his formal declaration in front of the government secretary. Alas, this practice proved to be unmoving as well as a series of violence broke out between the Spanish and the Itzas. Ahchan was then brought to Tipuh to aid in Ursua’s attempted treaty with Ahaw Kan Ek’. Shortly after they had arrived, Ahchan ran away and did not appear again until March 10, 1697. Ursua took Ahchan into custody as he knew that he would be an important factor in the peace process. However, Ahchan escaped again, taking refuge in Yalain. Ahchan would repeat this process yet another time in order to lead his Mayan people. Ahchan’s life represents that of a conflicted man. He felt a sense of attachment to Ursua, and yet, he certainly needed to be with his people.

Pedro de AyarzaPedro de AyarzaPedro de Ayarza was above all, a very dedicated father. He provided his three sons with the best available education, and tried to provide them with as many opportunities as possible. Unfortunately, being a Panamanian family presented them with a series of racist roadblocks throughout their social ventures. This was not going to stop Pedro though. He fought for his boys in any way he could. The first dispute began when when Pedro’s oldest son, Josef Ponciano, was unable to graduate from school due to racial barriers. Pedro responded by sending in a petition in 1795 to the Camaristas to provide his son with the title of “don,” and give him the race of “whiteness.”

Continued…Continued…At this time, there had been a few other cases in which the Camara had given the race of “whiteness” to other individuals. Because “white” was the only truly acceptable race that did not have social bounds, this title would eradicate the obstacles that lie in the way of darker skinned individuals. In the petition, Pedro made sure to outline his relatively high social standing within the society in spite of his race. He also sent for recommendations from respected witnesses from Panama and Colombia. Many respected officials sent messages highly praising the family. Unfortunately, the reviewing attorney was not swayed by these assertions, and failed to recommend the request. The petition then was passed to the Camara. They refused to deem Pedro and his sons as “dons,” but they did allow Josef Ponciano to graduate from his university. Following this, Josef met another roadblock. He wanted to become a lawyer, but due to racial constraints, was unable to take the bar. So, Pedro sent out another petition. In this second letter, he again compiled recommendations. The reviewing attorney again denied the request, but the Camaristas agreed to “whiten” Pedro’s younger sons and allow Josef to become a lawyer and a “don.” However, the Ministry of Justice and the king overruled this proclamation. Pedro eventually sent in a third and fourth petition. Both of these requests were set aside by the Camara, and thus Pedro’s actions essentially failed. Yet, his story is one that can inform us on how social rank worked in this period and place. Pedro was a dedicated father who fought against the social constraints that had been unfairly placed on him and his boys. He strove to “purchase whiteness” for his children, but was denied by a prejudiced group of rulers.

At this time, there had been a few other cases in which the Camara had given the race of “whiteness” to other individuals. Because “white” was the only truly acceptable race that did not have social bounds, this title would eradicate the obstacles that lie in the way of darker skinned individuals. In the petition, Pedro made sure to outline his relatively high social standing within the society in spite of his race. He also sent for recommendations from respected witnesses from Panama and Colombia. Many respected officials sent messages highly praising the family. Unfortunately, the reviewing attorney was not swayed by these assertions, and failed to recommend the request. The petition then was passed to the Camara. They refused to deem Pedro and his sons as “dons,” but they did allow Josef Ponciano to graduate from his university. Following this, Josef met another roadblock. He wanted to become a lawyer, but due to racial constraints, was unable to take the bar. So, Pedro sent out another petition. In this second letter, he again compiled recommendations. The reviewing attorney again denied the request, but the Camaristas agreed to “whiten” Pedro’s younger sons and allow Josef to become a lawyer and a “don.” However, the Ministry of Justice and the king overruled this proclamation. Pedro eventually sent in a third and fourth petition. Both of these requests were set aside by the Camara, and thus Pedro’s actions essentially failed. Yet, his story is one that can inform us on how social rank worked in this period and place. Pedro was a dedicated father who fought against the social constraints that had been unfairly placed on him and his boys. He strove to “purchase whiteness” for his children, but was denied by a prejudiced group of rulers.

Jose Antonio da SilvaJose Antonio da Silva

The life of Jose Antonio da Silva reflects the politics of marriage within colonial Latin America. Jose Antonio was a commander of the militia in the Pualista area of Santana. Therefore, he was a man of high social stature. His life was filled with numerous sexual activities lying inside and outside of marriage. These sexual encounters also resulted in the births of his illegitimate children. An important aspect of Paulista society that came into play in Jose Antonio’s life was that marriage was largely driven by endogamy, meaning, people married others who were their social equivalent. Jose Antonio’s true wife was a woman named dona Clara Maria Ribeira.

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Jose Antonio had a sexual relationship with several other women. These women being Ignacia Franca, Gertrudes Pires, and two slaves he had slept with. Ignacia was not his social equal, so he never exceeded the relationship barriers defined by the category of mistress. However, he did have a son with her, named Francisco de Paula da Silva. Gertrudes Pires was much younger than Ignacia and was deemed as a white woman by social standards. She lived with Jose Antonio as an agregado. Jose Antonio also had sexual relations with two of his slaves, Maria and Thomazia. Two mulatto daughters spawned from these two relationships. What is readily apparent by observing his extramarital affairs, is that Jose Antonio always selected social inferior women to sleep with. Ignacia Franca was of mixed Indian and white descent, while Gertrudes Pires had no financial means, and the other two were slaves. These women probably did benefit somewhat from the relationships, and marriage did catapult some women into the higher social arena. Yet, Jose Antonio’s relationships display a society in which inequality was abundant, and generally stayed that way because people married others similar to themselves regarding social status. The Church would have regarded Jose Antonio’s actions as immoral, yet, his relationships reinforced the sort of ideals that established the social hierarchy that was seen as desirable in this period.

Jose Antonio had a sexual relationship with several other women. These women being Ignacia Franca, Gertrudes Pires, and two slaves he had slept with. Ignacia was not his social equal, so he never exceeded the relationship barriers defined by the category of mistress. However, he did have a son with her, named Francisco de Paula da Silva. Gertrudes Pires was much younger than Ignacia and was deemed as a white woman by social standards. She lived with Jose Antonio as an agregado. Jose Antonio also had sexual relations with two of his slaves, Maria and Thomazia. Two mulatto daughters spawned from these two relationships. What is readily apparent by observing his extramarital affairs, is that Jose Antonio always selected social inferior women to sleep with. Ignacia Franca was of mixed Indian and white descent, while Gertrudes Pires had no financial means, and the other two were slaves. These women probably did benefit somewhat from the relationships, and marriage did catapult some women into the higher social arena. Yet, Jose Antonio’s relationships display a society in which inequality was abundant, and generally stayed that way because people married others similar to themselves regarding social status. The Church would have regarded Jose Antonio’s actions as immoral, yet, his relationships reinforced the sort of ideals that established the social hierarchy that was seen as desirable in this period.

Eugenio SinanyucaEugenio Sinanyuca

Eugenio Sianyuca was the kuraka, or ethnic leader, of Coporaque. His rule took place in a time of strife, stemming from disputes provoked by the Spanish and answered by Tupac Amaru, the kuraka of Cuzco. While Eugenio and Amaru were seemingly friendly with one another (Amaru referred to Tupac as cousin), they were very different in their actions. While Amaru rose up in rebellion with his people against Spanish rule, Eugenio and the people of Coporaque remained silent. This was largely because both of these leaders and their people held differing views

Eugenio Sianyuca was the kuraka, or ethnic leader, of Coporaque. His rule took place in a time of strife, stemming from disputes provoked by the Spanish and answered by Tupac Amaru, the kuraka of Cuzco. While Eugenio and Amaru were seemingly friendly with one another (Amaru referred to Tupac as cousin), they were very different in their actions. While Amaru rose up in rebellion with his people against Spanish rule, Eugenio and the people of Coporaque remained silent. This was largely because both of these leaders and their people held differing views

Continued…Continued…about Spanish rule do to their varying experiences. Amaru’s experiences with the local corregidors led to his rebellious outbreak. He had to undergo much resistance from these men in his path to power, which resulted in a severe distaste for the Spanish. While Eugenio experienced confrontation on his road to power, this came in the form of other indigenous groups. In fact, it was a Spanish corregidor that first tried to install him into office. So, Eugenio’s alliances were largely based off of his experiences while Amaru’s relationships were carved by the concrete notions of ethnicity. Amaru lived and died with his fellow people, and despised the Spanish regardless of character. Eugenio chose his friends based off of inner quality. An example of this is how Eugenio had a close relationship with Corregidor Arriaga, while Amara despised him. Eugenio and his people found support in Arriaga, even though he was a Spanish man. Arriaga later became executed during Amara’s rebellion. Eugenio and the people of Coporaque acted in light of their interests. They forged relationships based on their own personal experiences. Thus, they did not engage in the rebellion led by Amara. They distanced themselves from this event, not buying the notion that they must come to the aid of people merely because they are the same race as them.

about Spanish rule do to their varying experiences. Amaru’s experiences with the local corregidors led to his rebellious outbreak. He had to undergo much resistance from these men in his path to power, which resulted in a severe distaste for the Spanish. While Eugenio experienced confrontation on his road to power, this came in the form of other indigenous groups. In fact, it was a Spanish corregidor that first tried to install him into office. So, Eugenio’s alliances were largely based off of his experiences while Amaru’s relationships were carved by the concrete notions of ethnicity. Amaru lived and died with his fellow people, and despised the Spanish regardless of character. Eugenio chose his friends based off of inner quality. An example of this is how Eugenio had a close relationship with Corregidor Arriaga, while Amara despised him. Eugenio and his people found support in Arriaga, even though he was a Spanish man. Arriaga later became executed during Amara’s rebellion. Eugenio and the people of Coporaque acted in light of their interests. They forged relationships based on their own personal experiences. Thus, they did not engage in the rebellion led by Amara. They distanced themselves from this event, not buying the notion that they must come to the aid of people merely because they are the same race as them.

Miguel GarciaMiguel Garcia

Miguel Garcia was a slave who attempted to attain freedom through entering into the military. The period in which he operated as a soldier in the early nineteenth century, when Spanish America was undergoing the beginnings of revolution. Citizens of the port in Buenos Aires, or portenos, began forming armies to resist colonial expeditions. Miguel joined one of these army of portenos when they had advanced on the Banda Oriental. A man named Jose Rondeau offered the slaves freedom in exchange for military service, so Miguel accepted. Miguel’s journey mirrors that of many slaves in this period. Due to social unrest and upheaval, armies turned to blacks for aid. They did this through providing

freedom for service.

Miguel Garcia was a slave who attempted to attain freedom through entering into the military. The period in which he operated as a soldier in the early nineteenth century, when Spanish America was undergoing the beginnings of revolution. Citizens of the port in Buenos Aires, or portenos, began forming armies to resist colonial expeditions. Miguel joined one of these army of portenos when they had advanced on the Banda Oriental. A man named Jose Rondeau offered the slaves freedom in exchange for military service, so Miguel accepted. Miguel’s journey mirrors that of many slaves in this period. Due to social unrest and upheaval, armies turned to blacks for aid. They did this through providing

freedom for service.

Continued…Continued…In 1812, the Buenos Aires government passed the Free Womb Law and eradicated the African slave trade. This law allowed for blacks to attain freedom under the condition that they serve as troops. Between the years 1813 and 1818, around 2,000 former slaves signed up for the army. Many slaves turned to this option, obviously, because it provided them with freedom. Living the life of a slave provided far less desirable situations than the occupation of soldier. Blacks were also attracted because they received six pesos per month, rather than their former “jobs” in which they worked for nothing. Slaves from all over Spanish America fled their owners and joined the military in order to take advantage of these options. It was not all for the best though. Many blacks died in the ensuing battles. Miguel luckily survived and returned home to Buenos Aires. After returning home, Miguel’s wife, Juliana, and her two kids were reclaimed by a descendant of their former slave owner. She was taken to court and pleaded with the courts to let her maintain her freedom because she and her children deserved it. Unfortunately, the courts did not rule in her favor. What this account shows is that the institution of slavery took a major hit from this period, but it was far from being extinguished. Many of the slaves who had entered into the military were now being reclaimed by their former masters regardless of the former decrees asserted by the government.

In 1812, the Buenos Aires government passed the Free Womb Law and eradicated the African slave trade. This law allowed for blacks to attain freedom under the condition that they serve as troops. Between the years 1813 and 1818, around 2,000 former slaves signed up for the army. Many slaves turned to this option, obviously, because it provided them with freedom. Living the life of a slave provided far less desirable situations than the occupation of soldier. Blacks were also attracted because they received six pesos per month, rather than their former “jobs” in which they worked for nothing. Slaves from all over Spanish America fled their owners and joined the military in order to take advantage of these options. It was not all for the best though. Many blacks died in the ensuing battles. Miguel luckily survived and returned home to Buenos Aires. After returning home, Miguel’s wife, Juliana, and her two kids were reclaimed by a descendant of their former slave owner. She was taken to court and pleaded with the courts to let her maintain her freedom because she and her children deserved it. Unfortunately, the courts did not rule in her favor. What this account shows is that the institution of slavery took a major hit from this period, but it was far from being extinguished. Many of the slaves who had entered into the military were now being reclaimed by their former masters regardless of the former decrees asserted by the government.