the hydrogen option for energy · 5 2. introduction fossil fuels account for 82% of the world’s...
TRANSCRIPT
The hydrogen option for energy:a strategic advantage for Quebec
Jacques Roy, Ph.D.Full ProfessorDepartment of Logistics and Operations ManagementHEC Montréal
Marie Demers, Ph.D.Research Associate, CHUSUniversité de Sherbrooke
December 2019
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Table of Contents
1. Executive summary ....................................................................... 3
2. Introduction ................................................................................. 5
3. Hydrogen: an energy vector .......................................................... 7
3.1 A renewable and efficient energy source ..............................................7
3.2 Hydrogen and hydroelectricity: a winning combination ...........................9
3.3 Leverage for reducing GHG emissions and increasing energy efficiency ...10
4. Different uses of hydrogen as an energy source ..............................11
4.1 Electric vehicles .............................................................................. 11
4.2 Hydrogen fuel cell buses .................................................................12
4.3 Freight transportation .......................................................................13
4.4 Refuelling stations ...........................................................................15
4.5 Other possible applications in the transportation sector .........................17
4.6 Applications in industry ...................................................................17
4.7 Comparison of battery electric vehicles (BEV) and fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV) ..................................................18
5. Current and developing technologies ........................................... 19
5.1 Hydrogen production ......................................................................19
• Current production modes ............................................................19
• Developing production modes ......................................................21
5.2 Hydrogen storage ..........................................................................23
5.3 Hydrogen distribution ......................................................................25
5.4 Hydrogen for propulsion of vehicles ...................................................27
6. Flourishing external markets .................................................................29
7. Profile of the situation in Quebec .........................................................39
7.1 Energy sources used in Quebec ...............................................................39
7.2 Energy dedicated to the transportation sector ..............................................40
7.3 Greenhouse gas emissions ......................................................................40
7.4 Advent of electric vehicles ....................................................................... 41
7.5 Incentives for running on clean energy ....................................................... 41
7.6 The current regulations to limit CO2 and dependence on hydrocarbons ...........43
8. Opportunity for the development of the hydrogen sector in Quebec .........44
8.1 Hydrogen production .............................................................................44
8.2 The different market segments for conversion to hydrogen ..............................46
8.3 New transportation infrastructure projects ................................................... 49
9. Conclusion, feasibility conditions and recommendations ......................... 51
9.1 Conclusion ........................................................................................... 51
9.2 Feasibility conditions and recommendations ................................................ 51
References .............................................................................................53
Appendix 1: List of Hydrogène Québec coalition members ..........................59
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1. Executive summary
The energy transition to renewable, non-greenhouse gas-emitting sources, has begun in several countries. The development of solar, wind and hydroelectric energies is on the agenda, but their intermittent character causes difficulties adjusting supply and demand. The possibilities of transformation and storage of surpluses in the form of hydrogen offer a new avenue for reliance on clean energy.
As an energy vector that can be produced from many sources, hydrogen is currently the object of many research studies and multiple demonstration projects, stimulated by industry, by governments and by organizations directly dedicated to this resource around the world. But what is the situation in Quebec?
This document presents a status report on the use of hydrogen as an energy vector in the world, with emphasis on its different applications in the transportation sector as well as in industry.
It shows the advantages related to hydrogen and its role in fighting climate change, because its use does not release any greenhouse gas emissions or any other by-product harmful to the environment.
The most recent advances in hydrogen-related technologies are presented, whether for its production, storage and distribution or its role in propulsion of vehicles. The complementarity of electric battery-powered vehicles and hydrogen fuel cell vehicles is the focus of special attention.
Four cases of countries or states that are forerunners of this conversion are then examined in more detail: California, China, Japan and Germany are already flourishing markets, whether for the deployment of hydrogen refuelling stations or the conversion of vehicles.
Finally, to contribute to Quebec’s position on the question, a profile of the energy and transportation situation is drawn and government involvement in clean energy is documented.
Quebec occupies an eminently favourable position in the integration of hydrogen into its energy system, due to its substantial hydroelectric resources and their losses. Some multinational companies have followed suit for production of hydrogen in Quebec for export.
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Several measures are proposed here in the context of an approach of integrating hydrogen into transportation in Quebec. They address both the public sector and the private sector.
The costs related to the energy transition to hydrogen will be high. But it can be expected that substantial benefits will result from them, both for the companies involved and for the environment and Quebec society as a whole. With its renewable resources, Quebec is advantageously positioned to initiate and benefit from this transition.
For the public sector:
• Rely on the action plans in force to extend reliance on clean energy to hydrogen;
• Adopt a hydrogen roadmap with objectives and targets;
• Encourage the hydrogen production initiatives from renewable energy sources such as hydroelectricity, particularly in remote regions, and for export;
• Stimulate R&D on hydrogen-related technologies;
• Deploy incentives for the purchase of hydrogen vehicles, particularly those of captive fleets including taxis, delivery vehicles, government fleets, emergency vehicles, and buses as well as for heavy trucks;
• Contribute, with the private sector, to funding the gradual deployment of hydrogen refuelling stations;
• Provide a regulatory framework to ensure safe use of hydrogen; and
• Raise public awareness about hydrogen-related issues (safety, costs, benefits for the environment).
For the private sector:
• Collaborate with other stakeholders and the public sector to help develop successful policies;
• Invest in hydrogen production for the purposes of use in Quebec and for export;
• Adopt a phased conversion strategy:
– First convert forklifts in industry as the benefits have already been demonstrated by private companies like Walmart and Canadian Tire;
– Participate in the conversion of captive fleets of vehicles (taxis, delivery vehicles, government fleets, emergency vehicles and buses) as they can be refuelled at their main station or terminal;
– Put the emphasis on heavy trucks, which are large GHG generators, by converting those that return to their terminal every night;
– Integrate hydrogen into new transportation infrastructure projects like tramways and passenger trains; and
– Participate in the construction of a network of hydrogen refuelling stations.
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2. Introduction
Fossil fuels account for 82% of the world’s energy
consumption (Hydrogen Council, 2017a) and are
largely responsible for the rise in greenhouse gas
emissions, which have aggravated the environmental
and health effects of climate change.
The urgency of acting to counter the impact of climate change has made it necessary to study methods in various greenhouse gas-generating fields, such as transportation. The decarbonization of the transportation sector is now on the agenda to meet the desired targets. CO2 is the main source of emissions responsible for global warming, and the transportation sector was responsible for 23% of global CO2 emissions in 2014 (Horsin Molinaro and Multon, 2018). In addition to the deleterious impact of fossil fuels on climate, environmental degradation and air pollution, in turn, have negative impacts on the population’s health.
FIGURE 1CO2 emissions and contribution to global warming in 2014
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0World China USA EU-28
CH4
20 %CO2
73 %
N2O
5 %
Fluorinated gasesPFC + HFC + SF6
2 %
46
23
19
8
40
449
32
10
43
57
33
19
5
41
7
11
28
13
6
36
In % Other sectorsincludingtertiary
Residential
Transport
Industry andconstruction
Energy sectorexcept electricity
Electricityproduction
Source: Horsin Molinaro and Multon, 2018.
6
During the Paris Climate Conference (COP 21) in December 2015, 195 countries adopted an agreement that binds them to limit the polluting emissions contributing to climate change. The Paris Climate Agreement, signed in 2016, encourages the continuation of efforts to limit the rise in temperatures to 1.5 degrees Celsius; it also promotes low greenhouse gas emissions development and seeks the achievement of a carbon-free world between 2050 and 2100.
Energy efficiency measures, behavioural changes intended to reduce energy consumption, and carbon pricing tools, will not achieve the desired objectives on their own. A major transformation of the energy system is necessary to achieve low carbon emissions (Potvin et al., 2017; World Energy Council, 2018). The transition to renewable and low-carbon energy sources has already begun, but the rhythm of implementation in the transportation sector is mixed.
Wishing to reduce greenhouse gas emissions drastically, a coalition of 89 European cities and regions (Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking) adopted this strategy in 2017 and plans to carry out development projects of around 1.8 billion euros for the deployment of hydrogen fuel cell technologies over the next five years (Ruf et al., 2018).
Canada, and particularly Quebec, occupies a favourable position for low-carbon energy development, due to its hydroelectric and biomass resources, but also due to its fossil fuel operations, which could be equipped more systematically for carbon capture and storage. Experimental projects are also underway in several Canadian provinces.
1 See appendix 1 for the names of the coalition members.
This study’s objective is to report on the use of hydrogen as an energy source, with special attention to the applications in the transportation field. The study was sponsored by Hydrogène Québec, a coalition of companies committed to raising awareness among the Quebec population about hydrogen as a fuel solution to kickstart the energy transition1. The study will enhance the comparative advantages of hydrogen for the environment and the economy, particularly inspired by the recent experience observed in other countries. Special attention will be paid to the situation in Quebec, which benefits from a strategic advantage by having hydroelectric surpluses that can be used for clean and cheap hydrogen production. The study is based on a fairly exhaustive analysis of the recent literature on the subject and on interviews with several stakeholders and industry experts.
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3. Hydrogen: an energy vector
3.1 A renewable and efficient energy sourceHydrogen is the simplest, smallest and lightest element of the periodic table and the most plentiful element in the universe. However, it is rarely found in its pure state but is almost always bonded to other elements (such as oxygen to form water (H2O), for example), which necessitates the use of technical processes to separate them. Usually encountered in its gaseous form, hydrogen liquefies at a very low temperature (-253° Celsius). Due to its low density, it is usually put under pressure or liquified for storage and transport. Its liquefaction increases its density 800 times (Shell, 2017).
Endowed with greater energy potential than gasoline and other fuels (Jain, 2009; Sinigaglia, 2017; Tarascon, 2011), hydrogen can be produced from many energy sources, such as biomass, wind, solar, hydroelectric or nuclear energy, and decarbonized fossil fuels; this versatility confers an undeniable advantage. Odourless, colourless and non-toxic, this gas, which does not generate any carbon emissions from its combustion, is considered by some to be the most promising energy carrier for the future, especially since it is inexhaustible.
Among hydrogen’s other advantages, we should mention that it is easily storable and that its possible uses are multiple (Terlouw et al., 2019; IRENA, 2018). In particular, it can be used for industrial heating, transportation, and fuel for industrial handling equipment such as forklifts, etc.
Hydrogen is omnipresent in fossil energy sources in the form of carbon-hydrogen compounds (hydrocarbons). The more hydrogen atoms the source contains relative to the number of carbon atoms (as in methane CH4, the principal compound of natural gas), the lower the quantity of CO2 produced during combustion and consequently, the atmospheric GHG emissions will be lower; in the case of petroleum and diesel gas, the proportion of hydrogen atoms is smaller, which will result in more GHG during combustion (Shell, 2017).
FIGURE 2Specific energy of different fuels160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0Hydrogen Methane Ethanol Propane Diesel Natural Gas
141.9
55.55
30.0
50.39 47.27 47.21
Ener
gy d
ensi
ty (M
J/kg
)
H2: (MJ/kg) 33,3 kWh/kg
Source: Tarascon, 2011.
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Hydrogen also offers an interesting flexible solution for the intermittent character inherent in renewable energy sources, such as wind and photovoltaic power (Brandon and Kurban, 2017), because it can be easily stored for subsequent use.
Hydrogen’s long-term storage capacities are superior to those of other sources, which is an advantage when energy demand varies over time (for example, when the demand is greater in winter than in summer).
Hydrogen transported by pipeline over long distances is subject to smaller energy losses during transport, contrary to electricity, which makes it an attractive option in economic terms (Hydrogen Council, 2017a).
FIGURE 3Production and utilization of hydrogen
SUPPLY
DEMAND
H2
Source: Horner Automation Group, website 2019.
FIGURE 4Various technologies for electricity storage
1 year
1 month
1 day
1 hour
1 kWh 1 MWh 1 GWh 1 TWh
Lithium-ionbattery
Stor
age
Perio
d
Storage Scale
Methane
HydrogenWater
pumping
NAS
Redox flow
Flywheel
CAES
Source: Iida and Sakata, 2019
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3.2 Hydrogen and hydroelectricity: a winning combination
Currently, most of the hydrogen produced in the world (70%) comes from natural gas through a steam methane reforming process (Shell, 2017), which produces GHG emissions. Hydrogen produced by electrolysis from renewable energy sources, such as hydroelectricity, generates little or no GHG. But the electrolysis of water to produce hydrogen requires a lot of electricity, which Quebec has available at a reasonable price. The use of hydroelectric facilities to produce hydrogen will therefore contribute to the reduction of the negative effects of GHG on climate.
FIGURE 5CO2 emissions depending on the energy source for vehicles
Electrolysis hydrogen Natural gas reformed hydrogen
300
250
200
150
100
50
0Baseline
2017Baselinehybrid
33 %renewable
50 %renewable
100 %renewable
0 %renewable
33 %renewable
100 %renewable
Emis
sion
s (g
CO
2 e/
km)
Gasoline
Upstream (fuel production pathway emissions)
Exhaust (vehicle emissions)
Source: Isenstadt and Lutsey, 2017.
In Switzerland, the deployment of a plant for hydrogen production by electrolysis at the Aarau hydroelectric facility will make it possible to supply the annual fuel consumption of 170 hydrogen fuel cell vehicles.(Frangoul, 2017)
Hydrogen production from clean renewable hydroelectric resources like those available in Quebec can also optimize the use of surplus production of clean electricity by offering the possibility of storing the surpluses in low consumption periods to make them available in peak periods and to export them (Hydrogen Council, 2017a; Toyota, 2016), particularly to the United States, where hydrogen is generally and primarily produced from natural gas at the present time (Leblanc, 2018). If the electricity production generated by the hydroelectric facilities exceeds the demand, this results in major losses. Hydrogen production can avoid these losses. Hydrogen and electricity are seen as complementary energy vectors: hydrogen can be converted into electricity and vice versa (IEA 2017).
Hydrogen can also be produced by small hydroelectric facilities located in remote regions by taking advantage of energy surplus periods, which can avoid transporting hydrogen over long distances (Yumurtaci and Bilgen, 2004).
FIGURE 6Hydrogen: from production to use
Primaryenergy
Coal
Biomass
Bio-gas
Natural gas
Photovoltaic
Wind power
Hydropower
Gasification
Gasification
Stream reformmethods(SRM)
Streamreforming
Electrolysis
Productionmethods
Liquification
Compression
Hybride
Storage Transport
Pipeline
Truck
Refuelling
Transportsector
StorageLH2CH2
Hybrides
Utilization
Source: Sinigaglia et al, 2017.
100 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Low, Medium & High GHGs/mile for 2035 Technology, Except Where Indicated
2012 GasolineGasoline
DieselNatural Gas
Corn Ethanol (E85)Cellulosic E85
Cellulosic GasolineGasoline
Cellulosic E85Cellulosic Gasoline
Gasoline & U.S./Regional GridGasoline & Renewable Electricity
Cellulosic E85 & Renewable ElectricityCellulosic Gasoline & U.S./Regional Grid
Cellulosic Gasoline & Renewable ElectricityGasoline & U.S./Regional Grid
Gasoline & Renewable ElectricityCellulosic E85 & Renewable Electricity
Cellulosic Gasoline & U.S./Regional GridCellulosic Gasoline & Renewable Electricity
BEV100 Grid Mix (U.S./Regional)BEV100 Renewable Electricity
BEV300 Grid Mix (U.S./Regional)BEV300 Renewable Electricity
Distributed Natural GasNatural Gas (Central) w/Sequestration
Coal Gasification (Central) w/SequestrationBiomass Gasification (Central)
Wind Electricity (Central)
Source: Manley, 2014.450
Conventional Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles
Hybrid Electric Vehicles
Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles
Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles(10-mile [16-km] Charge-Depleting Range)
Extended-Range Electric Vehicles(40-mile [64-km] Charge-Depleting Range)
Battery Electric Vehicles(100-mile [160-km] and 300-mile [480-km])
Grams CO2e per mile
430220
210200
17066
76170
5058
170150
4576
52180
11034
12039
160
165
190110
10073
36
3.3 Leverage for reducing GHG emissions and increasing energy efficiencyFuel cell electric vehicles present one of the best alternatives in terms of clean technology. When generated from renewable energy sources (wind, solar or hydroelectric energy), the hydrogen used to supply fuel cell vehicles does not produce any greenhouse gas emissions. Even when the hydrogen supplying them is produced from natural gas without carbon capture, fuel cell vehicles generate up to 30% fewer emissions than conventional vehicles (Hydrogen Council 2017b).
The Hydrogen Council (2017b) forecasts that the CO2 emissions attributable to the transportation sector could be reduced by 3.2 Gt by 2050 if appropriate measures were put forward to promote the transition to fuel cell vehicles.
FIGURE 7Well-to-wheels greenhouse gas emissions for 2035 mid-size car
FIGURE 8Annual CO2 emissions could be reduced by 6 Gt in 2050
1
4
5
6
7
Power generation,buffering
Transportation
Industry energy
Building heatingand power
Industry feedstock
Total
0.4
3.2
1.2
0.6
0.7
6.0
Cars
Trucks
Buses
Other1
Total
1 Aviation, shipping, rail, material handling SOURCE: Hydrogen Council
1.7
0.8
0.4
3.2
0.2
Source: Hydrogen Council, 2017b.
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4. Different uses of hydrogen as an energy source
4.1 Electric vehiclesHydrogen fuel cell vehicles can play an important role in the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions because they do not produce emissions during combustion, contrary to conventional gasoline or diesel vehicles. The deployment of these vehicles works in synergy with that of battery electric vehicles, because both types have different advantages and disadvantages and can prove complementary.
The fuel cell converts hydrogen into electricity, which will serve to propel the vehicle. The fuel cell operates continuously in the presence of hydrogen and oxygen.
1
4
5
6
7
Powergeneration,buffering
Transportation
Industryenergy
Buildingheatingand power
Industryfeedstock
Today 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045
Today 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045
Start of commercialization
ForkliftsMedium/large cars
City buses
Vans Minibuses
Coaches
TrucksSmall cars5
Trams, railwaysPassenger ships
Refining Production of methanol, olefins et and BTX using H2 and carbon2
Decarbonization of feedstock4
Medium/low industry heat
High-grade industry heat
Steel3Ammonia,methanol
Synfuel for freight shipsand airplanes
Mass marketacceptability1
Hydrogen injection in natural gas networks
FIGURE 9Hydrogen technology is ready to be deployed
1 Defined as representing more than 1% of sales in a given market.
2 The market share represents the volume of production using hydrogen and carbon to replace the raw material.
3 Using hydrogen to produce steel in low carbon intensive processes.
4 The market share represents the volume of raw material produced using low carbon intensive sources.
5 In France, the deployment date has been adjusted with respect to the global roadmap and upscaling.
Source: Hydrogen Council, 2017b.
12
One of the first attempts to use hydrogen as a fuel in Canada occurred during the Vancouver Olympic Games in 2010, when 20 buses were supplied with hydrogen produced in Quebec from hydroelectric energy and transported by truck to the Whistler refuelling station (Natural Resources Canada, 2019). This pilot project ended in 2014.
Since then, several manufacturers have been involved in production of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles: among the leaders are Toyota with the Mirai model, Hyundai with the Nexo model, and Honda with the Clarity model. Depending on the model, the vehicle’s autonomy reaches between 500 and 600 km (Vorano, 2019). Automobiles account for most of the hydrogen fuel cell vehicles currently deployed on the road (IEA, 2019).
According to the International Energy Agency (2019), there were 11,200 automobiles and light trucks running on hydrogen fuel cells on the road worldwide at the end of 2018. These vehicles are primarily located in the United States (California), with approximately half of the vehicles, followed by Japan with one quarter and Europe with 11%, mainly in Germany and France.
FIGURE 10
Diversification of electrified vehicle products
Source: Toyota, 2015.
ZEFER, a European initiative for the deployment of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, in progress in three cities (Paris, London and Brussels), is currently testing this technology to demonstrate this option’s viability for captive vehicle fleets, such as taxis, a car rental service and police cars (Green Car Congress, 2018).
After Japan and California, Toyota is now testing its Mirai car in Quebec with a demonstration fleet of 50 hydrogen fuel cell vehicles purchased by the Quebec government using renewable hydrogen produced on site with water electrolysis.
Fuel cell technology currently would be particularly appropriate for highly used captive vehicle fleets, such as taxis, car rental services, delivery services, police cars and buses, which could benefit from refuelling on their own site or at transit stations, in the case of buses.
FIGURE 11
Fuel cell electric technology explained
POWER CONTROL UNITA mechanism to optimally control both fuel cell stack output under various operational conditions and drive battery chargingand discharging
MOTOR
Motor driven by electricity generated by fuel cell stack and supplied by battery.
Maximum output: 113 kW(154 DIN hp)
Maximum torque: 335 N-m
FUEL CELL STACKToyota’s first mass-production fuel cell, featuring a compact size and world top level output density.
Volume power delivery: 3.1 kW/L
Maximum output: 114 kW (155 DIN hp)
HIGH-PRESSURE HYDROGEN TANKS
Tank storing hydrogen as fuel. The nominal working pressure is a high pressure level of 70 MPa (700 bar).
The compact, lightweight tanks feature world’s top level tank storage density.
Tank storage density: 5.7 wt %
BATTERYA nickel-metal hybrid battery which stores energy recovered from deceleration and assists fuel cell stack output during acceleration.
FUEL CELL BOOST CONVERTERA compact, high-efficiency, high-capacity converter newly developed to boost fuel cell stack voltage to 650 V.
A boost converter is used to obtain an output with higher voltage than the input.
Source: Toyota-Europe, website, 2019.
Vehi
cle
size
Travelling distance
Electricity
Electric vehicle
Fuel cell vehicle (hydrogen)
Hybrid vehicleRechargeable hybrid vehicle
Gas, biogas, natural gas, synthetic fuel, etc. Hydrogen
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4.2 Hydrogen fuel cell busesThe first hydrogen fuel cell bus went into service in Belgium in 1994, and the City of Chicago conducted a similar project the following year (Natural Resources Canada, 2019). The use of hydrogen in this transportation sector has now reached a certain degree of maturity. Several countries are actively involved in the deployment and commercialization of this type of vehicle, particularly the United States, Canada, Japan, Germany, the United Kingdom and Brazil, according to Air Products (2019). Europe has 83 buses in operation and the United States has 55. Hydrogen tanks with a capacity of 40 kg are placed on the vehicle’s roof, thus not restricting the passenger space inside (Staffell et al., 2019). Hydrogen is stored under pressure in tanks at 350 bar (Shell, 2017).
At the end of 2018, 55 buses supplied by hydrogen fuel cells were in operation in the United States, including 25 in California (IEA, 2019). The City of Oakland, in California, has the biggest fleet in North America with 12 hydrogen buses (IEA, 2017). Worldwide, over 450 hydrogen fuel cell buses were on the road in 2017 (Hydrogen Council, 2017b) but the situation is evolving rapidly; there were over 500 at the end of 2018 (IEA, 2019).
The City of Aberdeen, in Scotland, has the largest European fleet with 10 hydrogen buses (Ballard, 2019a). In operation since 2014, these buses exceeded 1.6 million km in January 2019. Each bus is propelled by a hydrogen fuel cell module from the Canadian company, Ballard Power Systems. They use hydrogen produced by the Canadian Hydrogenics Corporation using water electrolysis.
The sector is in the midst of an expansion. South Korea plans to replace 26,000 natural gas buses with hydrogen fuel cell buses by 2030 (Hydrogen Council, 2017b; IEA, 2017). As of the end of 2018, China had the greatest number of hydrogen fuel cell buses with 400 in demonstration projects (IEA, 2019). In 2015, China also announced an order of 300 buses for Foshan City, and Toyota is planning over 100 buses for the Tokyo Olympic Games in 2020 (Staffell et al., 2019). Ballard Power Systems, which has its head office in Burnaby, B.C., is participating in the development of hydrogen fuel cells for the Foshan City project.
At least 11 companies manufacture hydrogen fuel cell buses around the world (IEA, 2019).
In terms of longevity, we can mention that four London buses have been in operation for over 18,000 hours, 10 California buses have exceeded 12,000 hours and one bus has reached 22,400 hours (Staffell et al., 2019). In Europe, hydrogen fuel cell buses have accumulated 7 million km of operation. These buses have proven themselves under various climate and topographic conditions.
Source: Air Products, 2019.
The consumption of a 12-metre bus supplied by hydrogen fuel cells was evaluated at an average of 9 kg of H2/100 km and depends on several factors, including the number of passengers transported, the topography of the land, the vehicle’s speed and the heating and air conditioning requirements. The refuelling time is estimated between 5 and 10 minutes (Ballard, 2019d; Lozanovski et al., 2018). More recent consumption estimates are closer to 7-8 kg/100 km according to our interviews.
A comparative assessment of operating performance indicates that hydrogen-propelled buses have autonomy, refuelling time and hours of operation comparable to diesel-powered buses (Lozanovski et al., 2019).
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4.3 Freight transportationThe use of fuel cells is especially relevant for long-distance transportation, as in the case of heavy trucks (Hydrogen Council, 2017b), while electric batteries would be more appropriate for trucks used in local distribution. The weight of batteries is an issue with heavy duty trucks as it would limit the payload they can carry.
In the context of the triennial AZETEC project in Alberta (2019-2022), the freight transportation industry is currently testing the use of hydrogen fuel cells to supply two heavy trucks making the trip between Edmonton and Calgary and usually burning diesel (Lowey, 2019). Benefiting from a more powerful powertrain compared to diesel fuel, the trucks can haul heavier loads and have better performance during climbing and acceleration. Lower maintenance costs can also be forecast for trucks powered by hydrogen fuel cells.
In France, the Perrenot transportation group, operating in mass distribution, is also beginning its energy conversion to hydrogen with a first Iveco truck for the Carrefour retail chain scheduled for 2020 and a recent agreement with the American manufacturer Nikola Motors of Phoenix, Arizona, for the delivery of 10 hydrogen vehicles (Actu-Transport-Logistique, 2019a).
The Nikola Two model, with production scheduled for 2022, will have 80 kg of hydrogen for autonomy of 800 to 1,200 km depending on the weight of the load and providing 3,000 KWh of energy, about three times more than a Tesla truck. Nikola Motors, which already has 13,000 trucks on order, also intends to deploy a network of 700 refuelling stations throughout the United States and Canada by 2028 (O’Dell, 2019).
In August 2019, the beer giant Anheuser-Busch announced an order of 800 Nikola trucks to assure delivery of its merchandise within the United States (Fehrenbacher, 2019). The company wants to reduce CO2 emissions in its supply chain by one quarter by 2025; approximately 10% of these emissions come from transportation.
In 2019, the Korean manufacturer, Hyundai, entered into an agreement with a Swiss energy supplier (H2 Energy) for commercialization of 1,600 hydrogen fuel cell trucks by 2025 in Switzerland (Actu-Transport Logistique, 2019b). The first 50 units will be delivered in 2020 (HyundaiNews.com,
October 3, 2019). It also plans to lease a large share of these trucks to the H2 Mobility Switzerland Association, which includes the leading Swiss oil companies, transportation and logistics companies, and players in industry and mass distribution. H2 Energy will be mandated for deployment of the refuelling stations and commercialization of the trucks.
Hydrogen-powered trucks are in operation in several countries, including Norway, Switzerland and the Netherlands (IEA, 2017). In 2017, Asko – the largest consumer goods wholesaler in Norway – ordered four 27-tonne trucks, propelled by hydrogen and produced locally by solar energy from the Swedish multinational Scania; the fuel cell system is supplied by the Canadian company Hydrogenics (Scania, 2019).
Moreover, Cummins, a giant company specializing in truck engines, announced at the end of June 2019 that it was going to acquire 80% of the shares of Hydrogenics (BusinessWire, 2019).
In June 2019, the Agence française de l’Environnement et de la Maîtrise de l’Énergie (ADEME) signed a three-year partnership agreement with Quebec (via Transition Énergétique Québec) pertaining to hydrogen-related technological innovations and applications.
Other experiments with hydrogen trucks are being conducted in the markets analyzed later in more detail. This is particularly the case for the Port of Los Angeles, in California.
Source: Business Wire, 2019
15
4.4 Refuelling stations One of the important factors in the successful deployment of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles is the establishment of refuelling stations for resupply throughout the territory.
The most recent data indicates that at the end of 2018, 381 refuelling stations would be in operation around the world, primarily in Japan (100), followed by Germany (69) and the United States (63) mainly in California (IEA, 2019). Twelve stations are under construction in the New York – Boston corridor (Zurschmeide, 2018). A small country like Denmark had 11 stations in 2017 with another in preparation; this country is considered to have the most complete hydrogen network (Isenstadt and Lutsey, 2017).
FIGURE 12Hydrogen refuelling stations by country, 2018
100
80
60
40
20
0
100
80
60
40
20
0Japan Rest of
Europe Germany UnitedStates France China Korea Others
H2 re
fuel
ling
stat
ions
Fuel
cel
l ele
ctri
c ca
rs p
er s
tatio
n
Fuel cell electric cars per hydrogen refuelling station
Source: Advanced Fuel Cells, 2019.
In Great Britain, the opening of 65 stations is forecast by 2020, and 1,150 throughout the country by 2030 (UK H2 Mobility, 2013). New refuelling stations are planned for Germany (29), the Netherlands (17), France (12),
Canada (7), South Korea (27) and China (18) (GlobeNewsWire, 2019). The Hydrogen Council (2017a) targets 3,000 stations worldwide by 2025, which would be enough to supply hydrogen to 2 million vehicles.
In Canada, a refuelling station recently opened in Quebec City. Along with a containerized solution supplied by Toyota, the Quebec government fleet and other fleet customers can fill with confidence knowing that a redundant fuelling operation is in place. Two stations are now in operation in B.C. with four more to be opened in this province by the end of 2020 while two others are scheduled for the Greater Toronto Area and one for Montreal (Vorano, 2019).
FIGURE 13Over 5,000 refuelling stations have been announced worldwide
~15,000+
2017 2020 2025 2030
Latest announced investments in hydrogen refuelling stations(selected countries)
South Korea:310 HRS by 2022
Northeastern US:250 HRS by 2027
Scandinavia:Up to 150 HRS by 2020
California:100 HRS by 2020
H2Mobility UK:up to 1,150 HRS by 2030
China:> 1,000 HRS by 2030;> 1 million FCEV
Japan:900 HRS by 2030
Other Europe:~ 820 HRS by 2030
H2Mobility Germany:up to 400 HRS by 2023
Current globalannouncements1
375
1,000
2,800
5,300
~3,000+
Needed stationsfor roadmap2
1 Announcements for selected countries/regions: California, Northeastern US, Germany, Denmark, France, Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden, UK, Dubai, China, Japan, South Korea
2 Equivalent number of large stations (1,000 kg daily capacity)
Source: Hydrogen Council, 2017b.
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Several automobile manufacturers (Toyota) and truck manufacturers (Nikola Motors) are also actively involved in the deployment of refuelling stations. The investment cost for the deployment of a station is high. It is currently estimated at 0.6 to $2 million US for hydrogen at a pressure of 700 bar and 0.15 to 1.6 million for hydrogen at 350 bar, for stations with a capacity ranging from 50 kg of H2 per day (lower estimate) to 300 kg of H2 per day (upper estimate) (IEA, 2019). According to our interviews, it seems very difficult to build a station for under $2.5 million.
In Quebec, Harnois Énergies operates a new refuelling station where it produces hydrogen on site by electrolysis. This allows it to save on the delivery costs, which are relatively high per kg of hydrogen. However, it must be mentioned that the investment required to develop such facilities is very high. These are mainly the costs related to the electrolyzer, storage and the compressor, which explains the price tag of approximately $5 million for such facilities. Out of this amount, the costs for the distributor pump only represent about $200,000. By adding the development costs of $1 million, we arrive at a total of nearly $6 million as the investment required for such a station, with a capacity of 200 kg/day. To make such an investment profitable, the two levels of government (federal and provincial) offer grants totalling nearly $4 million, $1 million from the federal government and $2.9 million from Quebec.
Beyond the costs, one of the challenges in dense cities like those of Europe is to find the space available for implementation of refuelling stations and to negotiate its use with the municipal authorities or the private owners (IEA, 2019). Another solution is the development of mobile refuelling stations. Several companies, such as Air Products in the United States, Wystrach GmbH in Europe or Hino Australia, are already experimenting with this approach.
Source: Michel Archambault.
Source: Mehta, 2018.
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4.5 Other possible applications in the transportation sectorHydrogen as an energy source can also contribute to decarbonize rail transportation, marine transportation and aviation. Since 2018, the French company Alstom has been testing two hydrogen-propelled trains in Germany (Hydrails), including one on the Cuxhaven-Buxtehude line in the northern part of the country (Ruf et al., 2017). According to Hydrogenics, the first tests were positive and train orders are on the rise. These trains are particularly promising where the tracks are not electrified. They can travel nearly 1,000 km without refuelling. Each train uses fuel cells from Canadian Hydrogenics Corporation and can transport nearly 300 passengers and reach a speed of 140 km per hour. This subject will be covered in detail later in the section on Germany.
The Germans have also developed a hydrogen aircraft with the goal of designing a 19-seat, zero-emission regional transport aircraft. The HY4 first uses a lithium battery to meet the high consumption requirement during takeoff. Then the fuel cell takes over during flight. The aircraft has 750 to 1,000 km of autonomy with a cruising speed of 145 km/h. A first flight test was conducted in 2016 (Goudet, 2016). The Airbus and Siemens companies and 20 universities are behind this project.
Source: Alstom, website, 2019.
In the United States, NASA is currently working with engineers from the University of Illinois to develop a hydrogen passenger point aircraft (Ecott, 2019). They want to use liquid hydrogen instead of gaseous hydrogen to avoid reliance on pressurized storage tanks.
4.6 Applications in industryHydrogen has multiple industrial applications. In 2018, industry already used 55 million tonnes of hydrogen as a raw material and hydrogen itself is a by-product of industrial processes (Mehta, 2018). Moreover, hydrogen is commonly used to fuel several types of equipment.
In Alberta, the material handling equipment at a Walmart distribution centre is equipped with hydrogen fuel cells. The forklifts and pallet trucks use hydrogen produced by Air Liquide in Quebec and plug power GenDrive units powered by Ballard’s fuel cells, thus allowing a significant reduction of operating costs and GHG emissions (Natural Resources Canada, 2019). This type of application is very useful inside factories and warehouses, because it avoids contaminating the indoor environment with pollutants resulting from the use of combustion engines; noise pollution is also reduced (Shell, 2017).
In Ontario, two Canadian Tire distribution centres use forklifts powered by Nuvera hydrogen fuel cells made by the American company Nuvera Fuel Cells (Nuvera Fuel Cells, 2019). In the United States, over 20,000 forklifts were powered by hydrogen at the end of 2018 (energy.gov, 2018).
Hydrogen is also most commonly used in petrochemical and chemical industry processes for the production of methanol and other chemical compounds used in paints, synthetic fibres or plastics, in the electronics industry, in agriculture, particularly for the production of ammonia (NH3) used for fertilizer, and in the food industry, where it is used in the vegetable oil hydrogenation process, among other purposes (IEA, 2017; Shell, 2017).
In northern Quebec, a mining project (Glencore’s Raglan Mine) uses wind energy to produce hydrogen, which is then stored on the same site to support the mine’s operations by replacing diesel (Natural Resources Canada, 2019).
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4.7 Comparison of battery electric vehicles (BEV) and fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV) The two technologies are not in competition but complementary. The choice does not only depend on the cost but also on other factors, such as performance, flexibility, convenience and environmental benefits.
Hydrogen can produce more energy per unit of mass than an electric battery, which allows a vehicle equipped with a hydrogen cell to travel a greater distance without refuelling and thus requires fewer refuelling infrastructures. Moreover, refuelling is quicker, which also allows the refuelling station to accommodate more vehicles within a given time interval (Staffell et al., 2019).
However, the user of an electric vehicle driven by a lithium battery does not necessarily have to go to a refuelling station, because he can recharge it at home, at work or while parked at a shopping centre.
A hydrogen fuel cell vehicle has a lower energy efficiency than a battery electric vehicle but the hydrogen stored aboard a vehicle has a higher energy density per weight than batteries, which makes FCEVs more suitable for long distance travel and for heavier vehicles. Hydrogen tanks and fuel cells weigh less than batteries, which is an economic advantage (Hydrogen Council, 2017b).
FIGURE 14Types of electric vehicles available today
PEV (Plug-in Electric Vehicle)BEV
Battery Electric VehiclePHEV
Plug-in Hybrid Electric VehicleHEV
Hybrid Electric VehicleFCEV
Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle
Source: Gaton, 2018.
Advantages of a fuel cell electric vehicle (Air Liquide, 2019b) :
• 500 km of autonomy• 5 minutes of refuelling time• Zero emission (CO2, particles, noise)
The useful life of electric batteries is affected by several factors, including climate (very cold and very hot temperatures), overload, high charge/discharge rates. These factors do not handicap hydrogen vehicles, whether with tanks or fuel cells (Staffell et al., 2019). Contrary to batteries, the performance of hydrogen fuel cells is not reduced over time by the discharge/recharge cycle; the fuel cell continues to produce electricity as long as it is supplied with hydrogen. Also, according to Hydrogenics, contrary to batteries, fuel cells use very little rare earth materials and most of them can be easily recycled.
TABLE 1Comparative performance of different propulsion modes
Internal combustion engine Fuel cell Electric battery
Investment cost $ $ $ $ $ $
Fuel cost $ $ $ $ $ $
Maintenance cost $ $ $ $ $
Infrastructure needs $ $ $ $ $ $
Polluting emissions ••• • •
Efficiency + + + + + +
Autonomy + + + + + + +
Refuelling/ recharging speed + + + + + + +
Useful life + + + + + + + +
Acceleration + + + + + + + +
Source: Staffell et al, 2019.
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5. Current and developing technologies
5.1 Hydrogen production
Current production modes
Several processes exist for hydrogen production; they vary according to the energy source used (Rosen and Koohi-Fayegh, 2016; Singh et al., 2015; Sinigaglia et al., 2017; Staffel et al, 2019). Among the main processes we can mention:
1. Natural gas steam reforming: under the action of steam and heat and in the presence of a catalyst, the methane (CH4) molecules are separated to form dihydrogen (H2) and carbon dioxide (CO2). This is the process most commonly used and is the least polluting option among fossil fuels.
2. Electrolysis of water: an electric current passed between two electrodes immersed in water at a high temperature dissociates the water molecule, obtaining dioxygen (O2) and dihydrogen (H2). The process requires electricity, but any electrical source can be used to produce hydrogen (hydroelectric, solar, wind or nuclear energy).
3. Gasification: during combustion of coal, biomass or heavy petroleum residues at very high temperature and pressure, the gases released are reformed to produce synthetic gas (syngas) composed of dihydrogen (H2) and carbon monoxide (CO).
4. Partial oxidation: this is the incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons raised to a very high temperature to produce synthetic gas. This method, which can be accomplished with or without a catalyst, applies to heavy petroleum residues and coal. The process is more versatile than reforming because it allows the use of a greater variety of fuels and the process is faster without requiring the addition of external heat. However, hydrogen obtained by this process is in a lower concentration compared to natural gas reforming.
FIGURE 15The simplified hydrogen chain: from production to usages
Natural gas/biomethane
Zero-carbon electricity
Biomass
Direct sale
Fuel cell
Mix with natural gasor methanation
Fischer-Tropschor fuel cell
Natural H2
H2
Production Conversion/Storage Uses
Methanereforming/CCS
Electrolysis
Gasification
Power To Industry
Power To Gas
Power To Power
Power To Mobility
Source: IFP Énergies nouvelles, 2019.
Steam reforming would be the least costly process and have the greatest energy efficiency, while gasification of biomass would produce the best energy (magnitude measuring the quantity of energy) and hydrogen production from solar energy would have the least global warming potential (Sinigaglia et al., 2017).
According to a literature review based on a lifecycle analysis performed by Bhandari et al. (2014), the electrolysis process from hydroelectric or wind energy would be one of the best hydrogen production technologies, particularly due to the low potential for climate warming and acidification.
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Given the strengths and weaknesses of each process, there is a compromise to be made according to the production costs, energy efficiency and environmental impacts. Energy sources such as natural gas, coal and petroleum products produce low-cost hydrogen but with many negative impacts. These impacts are lessened when CO2 is captured and stored. Currently, the production costs based on renewable energy sources are high. Thus, producing a hydrogen unit from water requires four times more energy than producing it from hydrocarbons.
TABLE 2Energy efficiency and consumption for different hydrogen production processes (combined data from several studies)
Efficiency (lower caloric power)
Energy consumption (kWh per kgH2)
Methane reforming 72% (65-75%) 46 (44-51)
Electrolysis 61% (51-67%) 55 (50-65)
Coal gasification 56% (45-65%) 59 (51-74)
Biomass gasification 46% (44-48%) 72 (69-76)
Source: Staffell et al., 2019.
TABLE 3Cost of hydrogen according to different production processes
Processes Cost of hydrogen ($US per kg)
Natural gas reforming 1.03
Natural gas + CO2 sequestration 1.22
Coal gasification 0.96
Coal + CO2 sequestration 1.03
Wind energy electrolysis 6.64
Biomass gasification 4.63
Biomass pyrolysis 3.8
Thermal fractionation of water 1.63
Gasoline (as reference) 0.93
Source: Hosseini and Wahid, 2016.
Electrolysis of water is done with electrolyzers, which are of several types (Brandon et al., 2017). Alkaline electrolyzers and Proton exchange electrolyzers (PEM) are both commercially available today. Solid oxide electrolyzers are also being developed but have not been commercialized yet (IEA, 2019).
FIGURE 16The hydrogen sector
FOSS
ILEN
ERG
YN
UCLE
AR
ENER
GY
REN
EWA
BLE
ENER
GY
Gas
Coal
Oil Distribution network
StorageLiquid formHigh pressureLow pressure
Fuel cellPortables (computer, phone...)
Stowable (transport)
Stationary (heating systems)Biomass
HydroWindSolarGeothermal
Steam reforming
Partial oxidation
Thermal cracking
Bio Productionof hydrogen(microalgae, photosyntheticorganisms, non photosynthetic bacterias)
Fermentation
Gasification
Pyrolysis
Water electrolysis
Thermochemial water decomposition
Source: Connaissance des énergies, 2015.
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The US Department of Energy forecasts that in the near term, steam methane reforming will continue to be used, but that in the mid-term, hydrogen will be produced by electrolysis from wind energy and biomass gasification, and that in the longer term, high-temperature electrolysis and solar-based production will be used (US Department of Energy, 2017).
Hydrogen production from non-fossil energy sources will probably continue to be based on electrolysis of water, because this process integrates well with renewable sources, such as hydroelectricity, solar and wind (Rosen and Koohi-Fayegh, 2016). However, the possibility of using heat at very high temperatures as an energy source is being explored, instead of electricity, which is too costly. At this time, the cost of hydrogen production by electrolysis is 2 to 3 times higher than that of natural gas reforming; according to IFP Énergies nouvelles (2019), access to decarbonized electricity at a competitive cost is necessary to reduce the cost of production by electrolysis.
In 2019, Air Liquide invested in the world’s largest proton exchange membrane electrolysis unit for the production of decarbonized hydrogen. Located in Bécancour, Quebec, the 20-MW (or 8,000 kg/day) electrolyzer, equipped with Hydrogenics technology, will make it possible to ensure the supply of the Air Liquide industrial and mobility market in North America. This production unit should reduce the carbon footprint compared to traditional hydrogen production, saving nearly 27,000 tonnes of CO2 per year.
(Air Liquide, 2019a)
Production modes in development
Thermal fragmentation (or cracking) of water is also seen as a future pathway for large-scale hydrogen production. The process uses heat at a very high temperature and chemicals to conduct a series of chemical reactions that will break down water to produce hydrogen. The chemicals involved are reused in each cycle, thus forming a closed loop in which only water is consumed.
Photoelectrolysis is another technology in development: this process – which directly uses the sun’s rays as the only energy input – consists of lighting a semiconductor photocatalyst submerged in water or an aqueous electrolyte, resulting in dissociation of the oxygen and hydrogen water molecules under the effect of photon bombardment. The cost of the materials required is currently high.
FIGURE 17
Hydrogen production pathways
EstablishedIndustrial Process
P&D Subprogram R&D effortssuccessfully concluded
BiomassGasification Electrolysis
(wind)Electrolysis
(solar)Photo-
biological
Natural GasReforming
≥ 500,000Estimated PlantCapacity (kg/day)
100,00050,000Up to1,500
Near-term
Natural GasReforming
Dis
trib
ute
dCen
tral
Electrolysis(Grid)
Bio-derivedLiquids
Microbial BiomassConversion
Mid-term
Biomass pathways Solar pathways
Long-term
High-tempElectrolysis
STCH
PEC
Coal GasificationWith CCS
Source: US Department of Energy, 2017.
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Biological hydrogen production (by fermentation or by biophotolysis) is also envisioned based on several substrates, whether household waste, algae, biomass or even sewage (Menia et al., 2019). It is less energy-consuming and more respectful of the environment than the conventional processes. Biohydrogen can be produced by autotrophic or heterotrophic organisms. In the first case, solar energy is converted into hydrogen by photosynthetic reactions via photosynthetic microorganism (photosynthetic microalgae or bacteria). In the second case, the organic substrates are transformed into simpler organic compounds with simultaneous production of H2; two types of heterotrophic conversion exist: photofermentation, involving photosynthetic bacteria, and dark fermentation, involving anaerobic bacteria.
Capture and storage of CO2, when hydrogen is produced from fossil energies, make it possible to limit GHG emissions. Capture consists of trapping the CO2 molecules before, during or after the fossil energy combustion stage to prevent its release into the atmosphere (connaissances des energies.org, 2019b). Once captured, CO2 can be transported by pipeline, by boat or by truck for injection into subsoil geological formations, allowing its sequestration over long periods, and even centuries.
During transport by pipeline, CO2 must be compressed to reach a quasi-liquid state; each year in the United States, over 40 million tonnes of CO2 are transported by a 4,000-km-long pipeline network (Planète ênergies, 2015). By truck or by ship, CO2 is transported in liquid form at a pressure of 15 bar and a temperature of less than 30°C. Then the CO2 can be stored in the deep saline aquifers, in hydrocarbon reservoirs or in the petroleum deposit itself. The minimum depth in the terrestrial subsoil for storage of CO2 is estimated at 800 metres.
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5.2 Hydrogen storageTwo aspects of storage are to be considered: bulk storage and storage in vehicles. For bulk storage in view of long-term use, underground geological formations (such as salt caverns), aquifers and depleted oil wells would be the best options (Brandon and Kurban, 2017; IEA, 2019).
The most appropriate storage mode will depend on the volume of hydrogen to be stored, the duration of storage, the time required for discharge and the geographic availability of the different options; thus, several hours of storage are required for a refuelling station, while days or weeks of storage prove necessary to protect the user against the possible mismatches between supply and demand. An even longer storage period may be required to bridge seasonal changes in electricity supply and demand (IEA, 2019).
The main storage methods are compression and liquefaction. Compression in tanks is currently the most-used technology; it is also the easiest and least-costly method (Rivard et al., 2019; Sinigaglia et al., 2017). Hydrogen can be compressed from a few tens of bar to 350 or 700 bar for transport. Low-pressure (45 bar) or medium-pressure (200 - 500 bar) containers are commonly used in industry, but high-pressure tubes and tanks (700 - 1000 bar) are used for refuelling stations and for vehicles (Staffell et al., 2019). At 700 bar, 5 kg of hydrogen can be stored in a 125-litre tank; this is the approach preferred by the automobile manufacturers (Air Liquide, 2019c). Given the high pressure and robustness required for the tank, it must be cylindrical, which renders its integration into a vehicle’s architecture more difficult (Rivard et al., 2019).
The hydrogen tanks of refuelling stations have a higher pressure than those of vehicles in order to allow rapid refuelling; compressed hydrogen has only 15% of the energy density of petroleum, which means that hydrogen stations require more space for the same quantity of fuel (Staffell et al., 2019).
Hydrogen can be cold compressed (below -123.15°C) or cryo-compressed (cooled to close to the critical temperature of -253°C but remaining in gaseous form) (Shell, 2017). Another option for storage consists of compressing liquid hydrogen by cooling it to the melting point; just before it becomes solid, it is transformed into a gel (slush hydrogen): it is then composed of equal portions of solid and liquid hydrogen and has a storage density 16% greater than that of liquid hydrogen (Shell, 2017).
Storage by liquefaction allows the achievement of a volumetric density (0.070 kg/L) greater than that obtained by compression (0.030 kg/L) but nonetheless much lower than that obtained by fossil fuels (Sinigaglia et al., 2017). Liquid hydrogen is stored at a temperature below 253°C. A liquid hydrogen tank must be perfectly insulated to reduce heat transfer; heat transfer from the environment to the liquid increases the pressure inside the tank (Rivard et al., 2019). Another problem posed by liquefaction is that 30% to 33% of the energy is expended to liquefy gaseous hydrogen (Sinigaglia et al., 2017). The low storage temperature renders liquid hydrogen less attractive for mobility; the tanks must be well insulated and thus must have very thick walls (Rivard et al., 2019). The risk of leaks is not to be neglected, because due to the small size of its molecule, hydrogen can pass through many materials, including certain metals. Moreover, it weakens some materials, rendering them brittle.
To avoid this energy expenditure, hydrogen can be incorporated into larger molecules easily transportable in liquid form, such as ammonia and liquid organic hydrogen carriers, known by the acronym LOHC. These liquids have a high hydrogen storage density, allowing safe handling of hydrogen. They are easier to transport than hydrogen but an additional step is required to release it before final consumption, which results in additional energy and costs that must be taken into account (IEA, 2019).
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Hydrogen storage in solid form – more specifically in the form of metal hydrides – represents an interesting future pathway; it thus can be stored in another material to which it is chemically bonded or can be absorbed physically at densities higher than that of liquid hydrogen (Singh, 2015). For example, it can involve the formation of solid metal hydrides obtained by the reaction of hydrogen with certain metal alloys, the most promising of which are magnesium-based alloys and the alanates; however, only a low mass of hydrogen can be stored in these materials (Air Liquide, 2019b). Nonetheless, the method would offer safe, reversible hydrogen storage with an excellent energy yield (Techniques de l’ingénieur, 2011).
The researchers of the French startup HySiLabs, created in 2015 and supported by the European Commission, recently developed Hydrosil, a silicon hydride (polymer composed of silicon atoms each bonded to two hydrogen atoms). The compound is liquid and stable; it is freed from high-pressure storage and allows storage and transport of seven times more hydrogen in liquid form than in gaseous form (Olivennes, 2018).
Another technology envisioned consists of absorption of hydrogen molecules by a porous material, such as glass microspheres (from 5 to 200 µm in diameter). Glass microspheres offer double the storage capacity of metal hydrides per unit of mass and one and a half times their storage capacity per unit of volume (Rosen, 2016). Several absorption materials exist (adsorption is a physical process different from absorption, which is a chemical process) and the hydrogen molecules are weakly bonded on their surface, which allows them to be released easily (Sinigaglia et al., 2017).
Hydrogen storage in liquid form
Source: France Diplomatie, 2016.
25
1. Hydrogen tube trailers or container trailers for transport of compressed gas: They have a maximum capacity of 1,000 kg at 500 bar. This distribution mode is used for small deliveries over short distances from the hydrogen production site. In Canada, producers like Air Liquide can deliver between 250 and 380 kgs per tube trailer at 180 bars. Larger quantities can be delivered at 450 bars and when hydrogen is liquefied.
Source: Afhypac, 2016.
2. Tank trucks for transport of liquid hydrogen: They have a capacity of 400 to 4,000 kg of liquid hydrogen. Greater volumes can be transported than for compressed gas. They could be used to supply refuelling stations. Over long distances, it is more efficient to transport hydrogen in liquid form.
FIGURE 18Hydrogen transport by road
Hydrogen tube trailer Container trailer Tank truck200-250 bar, ~500 kg,
ambient T500 bar, ~1,000 kg,
ambient T1-4 bar, ~4,000 kg,
cryogenic TSource: Shell, 2017.
5.3 Hydrogen distributionAs in the case of storage, hydrogen distribution, up to the end user, is a key factor in the energy transition. Due to its low density, it may be difficult to transport hydrogen over long distances. Several transport options exist depending on the state in which the hydrogen is found (liquid, gaseous, solid), the distance to be travelled and the scope of the demand (Afhypac, 2016; ETSAP, 2014; IEA, 2019; Singh et al., 2015; Sinigaglia et al., 2017; Shell, 2017; Staffell et al., 2019).
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3. Pipelines for gaseous hydrogen: Nearly 5,000 km of pipelines exist around the world, more than half in the United States. This is little compared to the 3 million km for natural gas. These pipelines are usually the property of hydrogen production companies and mainly serve to supply chemical facilities and refineries.
Hydrogen distribution in gaseous form by pipeline would be the most affordable mode to transport large quantities of hydrogen over distances less than 1,500 km. But pipelines require a high initial investment cost. For hydrogen transport, pipelines have a diameter of 25 to 30 cm and operate at a pressure of 10 to 20 bar. They are currently made of steel but would have better performance and a lower cost if they were fibre-reinforced polymer. It nonetheless remains that the energy required to compress and pump hydrogen is considerable. Hydrogen pipelines have a long useful life (50 to 100 years).
FIGURE 19Hydrogen pipelines by country in 2017 (in kilometres)
USA2 608
613
376
303
237
147
258
Belgium
Germany
France
Netherlands
Canada
Others
Source: Shell, 2017.
4. Natural gas pipeline in which a low quantity of hydrogen is injected: Hydrogen can also be transported via the natural gas pipeline network by injecting up to 20% of the volume into this network (in Germany, the limit was fixed at 10% to reduce the risk of damage to the natural gas installations). It is estimated that in the United States, 5% to 15% of hydrogen could be injected into natural gas without prejudice to the pipeline infrastructure or the end user. Separation and purification technologies have been developed to extract the hydrogen transported in this way.
Conversion of natural gas pipelines into pipelines dedicated to hydrogen transport once the useful life of the first pipelines is over was also suggested. Hydrogen storage in larger molecules easily transportable in liquid form, such as ammonia or liquid organic hydrogen carriers, can also serve for distribution, particularly for overseas transport (IEA, 2019). It would also be possible to transport hydrogen in the form of metal hydride.
5. Transport by boat: This is what Japan plans to do by importing liquefied hydrogen produced in Australia from lignite. Norway and British Columbia have also shown interest in this method of exporting their hydrogen to Japan. The question is discussed at greater length in the section on Japan.
6. Transport by train: Transport of hydrogen by train would also be possible, but there is very little documentation on the subject.
Regardless of the distribution method used, the hydrogen conversion and reconversion costs must be taken into account, along with the storage and distribution costs. The existing infrastructures and safety issues must be also considered. In some cases, the scope of these costs and the challenges encountered will make it more affordable and less risky to produce hydrogen locally (IEA, 2019).
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5.4 Hydrogen for propulsion of vehiclesCurrently, two technologies rely on hydrogen for propulsion of vehicles. Hydrogen can supply thermal engines directly or allow production of electricity in fuel cells adapted to electric vehicles.
1. The fuel cellSeveral fuel cell models exist, depending on the type of electrolyte they use. The proton-exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) would be the preferred model for mobile applications. It operates at low temperatures (between 60 and 80°C), which means that it does not take time to warm up and generate electricity (Chabannes, 2019; CHFCA, 2016). It is also the smallest and lightest type of fuel cell.
The fuel cell operates contrary to electrolysis. Hydrogen injected onto the anode is dissociated into protons and electrons; the electrons cannot pass through the electrolyte and go through the external electric circuit. The protons pass through an ultrafine selective membrane (the electrolyte) and recombine with the air injected onto the cathode, producing water, heat and electricity (Chabannes, 2019). This electricity serves to run the engine. The fuel cell needs an external source of supply, because it is an energy converter and not an energy source like a battery. This is where the hydrogen tanks installed in the vehicle are involved.
The proton-exchange membrane (the electrolyte) must be hydrated to operate and remain stable. The fuel cell requires the presence of a catalyst made of platinum nanoparticles; this must be rough and porous to offer the maximum hydrogen or oxygen surfaces. The platinum catalyst is costly and very sensitive to carbon monoxide poisoning, which makes it obligatory to reduce the presence of carbon monoxide if the hydrogen contains any.
2. The hydrogen engineThis is an internal combustion engine that uses hydrogen as fuel. But the combustion properties of hydrogen differ from those of gasoline and diesel. It burns faster, which makes it necessary to adapt the shape of the combustion chamber and calibrate the timing of the explosion to prevent abnormal combustion. Dihydrogen (H2) reacts with dioxygen (O2), creating an explosion (energy release) that pushes on the piston. The combustion of 1 kg of hydrogen releases three times more energy than 1 kg of gasoline, but hydrogen requires a higher volume. Adjustments are necessary depending on whether hydrogen is used in gaseous or liquid form. Another process consists of injecting hydrogen into conventional gasoline and diesel to reduce the CO2 emissions (Gurz et al., 2017).
FIGURE 20
A PEM (proton exchange membrane) fuel cell
Source: Hydrogenics, website, 2019.
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3. The hydrogen tank
Hydrogen is stored in a tank under very high pressure (700 bar) in the vehicle. For approximately 500 km of autonomy, the tank contains 5 kg of hydrogen in a volume of 125 litres and weighs about 130 kg. This is added to the weight of the fuel cell module (about 100 kg) (Chabannes, 2019). The tank is reinforced with carbon fibre with a plastic interior coating, which assures the purity of the hydrogen necessary to supply the fuel cells (Mehta, 2018).
The cost of proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC) and their useful life are factors that can limit their competitiveness at this time. In addition to this is the rarity and cost of the platinum used as a catalyst (Chabannes, 2019). Nonetheless, it is expected that the technological advances to optimize the fuel cell’s design and the efforts to reduce the use of platinum, combined with the economies of scale generated by larger-scale production, will reduce the current costs (IEA, 2019). The automotive fuel cell cost target is between $30 and $40 US per kW, with a durability target of 5,000 to 8,000 hours (IEA, 2017).
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6. Flourishing external markets
The deployment of hydrogen in the transportation sector has accelerated worldwide in the past few years, as illustrated in the following three graphs pertaining to the number of vehicles in circulation and the number of refuelling stations open at the end of 2018, as well as the development outlook in several countries.
This section reviews in more detail the situation in four countries or states that are among the most advanced in the field: California, China, Japan and Germany. Some general findings can be identified from this review:
1) The tangible will of each country to reduce its GHG missions drastically in the short, medium and long term in order to comply with the Paris Agreement on Climate Change;
2) The desire to opt increasingly for renewable energy;
3) The massive government investment (federal and regional) in the form of R&D funding, public-private partnerships, assistance to businesses for the development of new technologies and deployment of hydrogen refuelling stations, and incentive for the purchase of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles;
4) The desire to take advantage of this new economic opportunity for domestic and foreign markets;
5) The importance of corporate partnerships (and consortiums) to apply the expertise of each company and have more weight to acquire funds for research or deployment of technologies;
6) Collaboration with foreign companies;
7) The offer of incentives for the purchase of vehicles (apart from Germany);
8) The concern for attacking the problem of air pollution and its health effects at the same time; and, more specifically;
9) In the case of Japan, the will to achieve greater energy self-sufficiency.
FIGURE 21Targets, visions and projections announced by country up to 2050
Source: Advanced Fuel Cells, 2019.
12,952 FCEV, 376 HRS (end of 2018)
Korea35 buses
Korea81,000 FCEV, 310 HRS
Korea6,200,000 FCEV (5,900,000 passenger cars, 120,000 taxis, 60,000 buses, 120,000 trucks), 1200 HRS
France20,000 – 50,000 FCEV, 400 – 1000 HRS
CAFP/California1,000,000 FCEV1,000 HRS
China1,000,000 FCEV1,000 HRS
Germany1,000 HRS
Japan800,000 FCEV
Hydrogen Council visionGlobally 10 – 15 million carsand 500,000 trucks
Hydrogen Council vision400 million cars, 15 – 20 million trucks, 5 million buses
California200 HRS
China50,000 FCEV, 300 HRS
Europeminimum 747 HRS
Germany400 HRS
Japan200,000 FCEV, 320 HRS
California37,400 FCEV, 94 HRS
Europe291 buses (JIVE projects)
France5,000 FCEV, 100 HRS
Switzerland1,000 heavy duty trucks
California13,400 FCEV
China5,000 FCEV100 HRS
Germany100 HRS
Hydrogen MobilityEurope project100 HRS
Japan40,000 FCEV160 HRS
Spain500 FCEV20 HRS
2019
2020
2022
2023
2025
2028
2030
2040
2050FCEV: Fuel cell electric vehicleHRS: Hydrogen refuelling station
Today
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FIGURE 22Number of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles worldwide, end of 2018
U.S.
Canada
North America
Total: 12,952 vehicles worldwide
Europe
Asia
NorthAmerica;
5917; 46%
Europe;1418; 11%
17912926
900
324
487
143
138
8556 48
42 24 23
18 179 2 1 1
5899
18
Asia;5617; 43%
Japan
GermanyFranceNorwayU.K.DenmarkSwitzerlandNetherlandsSwedenAustriaIcelandItalyBelgiumSlovak Rep.LuxembourgFinlandSpain
China
Korea
Source: Advanced Fuel Cells, 2019.
FIGURE 23Number of hydrogen refuelling stations worldwide, end of 2018
Total: 376 HRS worldwide
Europe: 172 HRS
North America: 70 HRS
Asia: 132 HRS
Rest: 2 HRS
Germany; 69
Canada; 7
U.S.; 63
China; 15
Japan; 100
Taiwan; 1
India; 2
Korea; 14France; 23
U.K.; 20
Denmark; 10
Norway; 9
Spain; 6
Austria; 6
Switzerland; 6
Sweden; 5
Italy; 4 Belgium; 4
Netherlands; 4
Finland; 2Czech Rep.; 1
Latvia; 1Australia; 1
U.A.E.; 1
Iceland; 1 Costa Rica; 1
Source: Advanced Fuel Cells, 2019.
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6.1 CaliforniaFaced with high urban smog rates and concerned about reducing the GHG emissions associated with transportation (41% of all emissions in California), the California authorities undertook a vast program of energy conversion to zero-emission vehicles following the adoption of the California Zero-Emission Vehicle Regulation. In January 2018, the Governor of the State signed an order (B-48-18) to promote the deployment of 5 million zero-emission vehicles by 2030 and the establishment of 200 refuelling stations by 2025. Many public and private players are involved in this transition.
Actively involved in the energy transition to hydrogen since 1999, the California Fuel Cell Partnership (CaFCP), a public-private partnership, has developed a vision forecasting 1 million hydrogen fuel cell vehicles on the road in 2030 and a network of 1,000 refuelling stations, which should make it possible to reach the vast majority of California residents, including 7.66 million of the 9.15 million residents of disadvantaged regions.
TABLE 4
Potential coverage of disadvantaged communities (in economic, health and environmental terms) by a network of 1,000 hydrogen refuelling stations in 2030
Regions
Stat
ions
in th
e fu
ture
prio
rity
regi
ons
Popu
latio
n of
the
prio
rity
regi
ons
Popu
latio
n w
ithin
15
min
utes
by
road
% p
opul
atio
n w
ithin
15
min
utes
by
road
% p
opul
atio
n co
vere
d
Not disadvantaged 403 17,704,848 26,199,288 70.3% 75%
Disadvantaged 597 7,663,418 8,883,966 23.8% 25%
Total 1,000 25,368,266 35,083,254 94.1% 100%
Source: adapted from California Air Resources Board, 2018.
After documenting the evolutionary process of adoption of this new technology, the CaFCP partnership devised a three-phase strategy to develop the market for hydrogen fuel cell vehicles:
1. Stimulate the market by government funding programs capable of attracting private investors and define long-term policies for deployment of infrastructures;
2. Motivate consumers by offering incentives for the purchase of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, deploy a network of refuelling stations and stimulate the supply of hydrogen to make its price more affordable;
3. Diversify the technological applications based on hydrogen fuel cells, install hydrogen refuelling stations along freight transportation corridors and integrate hydrogen production and renewable electricity production to improve the system’s efficiency.
In 2012, the California Air Resources Board adopted a series of regulations, known as Advanced Clean Cars, with the aim of controlling automobile emissions.
The California Energy Commission provided the funding for a facility allowing production of two tons per day of hydrogen from 100% renewable sources in order to supply the network of refuelling stations (California Air Resources Board, 2018). The multinational Air Liquide decided to invest over $150 million US to build a plant with a capacity of 30 tons of hydrogen per day, capable of supplying 35,000 fuel cell vehicles and the 19 refuelling stations of FirstElement Fuel Inc., a major player in hydrogen distribution with which it entered into an agreement (Air Liquide, 2018; Plaza, 2018); construction must start in Nevada in 2019 and be completed in 2022.
Currently, between 37% and 44% of the hydrogen used in transportation in California is from renewable sources (California Hydrogen Business Council, 2018).
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In May 2018, there were 4,819 hydrogen fuel cell vehicles in California and 36 refuelling stations in operation. Another 28 stations will be added by the end of 2020, for which funding has already been granted (California Air Resources Board, 2018). In 2020, this network of 64 stations will be accessible to one-third of California’s population within a 15-minute radius by road. The initial stations covered the Los Angeles area, but the other major urban centres will be served by these 64 stations (Isenstadt and Lutsey, 2018).
In December 2018, the California Air Resources Board (CARB) announced a regulation (Innovative Clean Transit) requiring new buses on the market to be zero-emission effective from 2029 and that all buses on the road be zero-emission in 2040 (Pocard, 2019). In this way, GHG emissions should fall by 19 million metric tonnes between 2020 and 2050, the equivalent of the emissions of 4 million automobiles. The regulation also requires the transit agencies to submit their hydrogen bus deployment plan within the next four or five years. Three transit corporations operate hydrogen buses in their fleet, although they are limited at this time (Natural Resources Canada, 2019).
Regarding trucks, the Port of Los Angeles plans to deploy 10 hydrogen Class 8 heavy hydrogen trucks and two refuelling stations, assisted by 50% government funding from the California Air Resources Board; the project’s partners include Toyota, Shell and Kenworth. Two other projects concern trucks serving the Port of San Pedro Bay in Los Angeles and UPS delivery trucks (Natural Resources Canada, 2019).
Another energy transition player we should mention is the California Hydrogen Business Council (CHBC), which includes 100 companies and private agencies involved in hydrogen and which has the mission of advancing the commercialization of hydrogen in the energy sector to reduce harmful emissions and dependence on fossil energies.
The non-profit organization Energy Independence Now (EIN), with the financial support of the Leonardo DiCaprio Foundation and the California Hydrogen Business Council, published a roadmap in May 2018, detailing a series of recommendations with the aim of promoting the production and use of hydrogen from renewable sources (Sampson, 2018).
6.2 ChinaChina is not as advanced as its neighbours, Japan and South Korea, in the deployment of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. Contrary to the other countries that have put the emphasis on personal vehicles and buses, China is initially targeting the commercial vehicle market. Over 500 hydrogen fuel cell trucks, including 100 midsize delivery trucks, were in operation in Shanghai in 2018 (Natural Resources Canada, 2019). These trucks are equipped with 30-kW hydrogen fuel cell modules from Ballard Power Systems (Wong, 2018). In Rugao City, 500 additional delivery vehicles are also in operation (IEA, 2019).
After an announced deployment in 2015, the country, as of the end of 2018, had the largest fleet of hydrogen fuel cell buses, with over 400 buses in demonstration projects (IEA, 2019), mainly in Foshan City and the Yunfu industrial park. These buses should have over 300 km of autonomy and consumption of less than 8.5 kg/100 km (Ballard, 2019b).
Moreover, a hydrogen bus production plant has opened its doors in Yunfu: 300 buses were on the manufacturer Feichi’s assembly line in November 2017 (Liu et al., 2018); the company has the capacity to produce 5,000 vehicles per year.
China also has the first hydrogen tramway in Tangshan City in the north of the country; commissioned in October 2017 and using a Ballard hydrogen fuel cell module, it can travel 40 km at a maximum speed of 70 km/hour (Natural Resources Canada, 2019).
China has focused on the implementation of manufacturing companies producing batteries and hydrogen fuel cells. A partnership between Ballard Power Systems and Synergy led to the construction of the first hydrogen fuel cell module factory in the Yunfu industrial park; this plant can produce 500 MW of hydrogen fuel cell units per year (Liu, 2018; Natural Resources Canada, 2019). Another partnership between Hydrogenics and SinoHytec was formed a few years ago (Verheul, 2019).
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To date, there has been little development of refuelling infrastructure (Natural Resources Canada, 2019). At the end of 2018, only 21 refuelling stations were identified (Verheul, 2019). In the Foshan and Yunfu region, they were nonexistent in 2015; however, since then, more than 10 are under construction in Foshan and four appeared in Yunfu in 2018 (Liu et al., 2018). Sinopec (China Petroleum and Chemical Corp.), the world’s largest refiner and owner of gasoline stations and a member of the Hydrogen Council, embarked on the construction of hydrogen refuelling stations in 2019 (Xin, 2019). China recently announced the construction by 2021 of 40 hydrogen refuelling stations along four corridors in the Yangtze Delta; these corridors will link the cities of Shanghai, Huzhou, Nantong, Ningbo, Rugao, Jiaxing and Zhangiagang (Lim, 2019). In June 2019, the world’s largest hydrogen refuelling station opened to the public in Shanghai; with a daily capacity of over two tonnes, it can supply up to 600 vehicles per day (Hood, 2019).
The deployment of hydrogen stations benefits from strong support from local governments, which thus wish to promote the arrival of new industries in their region and invigorate the local economy (Matsumoto, 2019).
China’s late but accelerated transition to hydrogen is encouraged by generous government grants to industry, R&D, passenger and freight transportation companies, and consumers themselves for the purchase of vehicles (Matsumoto, 2019). The Chinese government aspires to reach 1 million hydrogen vehicles on the road by 2030 (Li, 2018).
Among the barriers to the deployment of hydrogen in transportation, technology and regulation have been indicated (Verheul, 2019). The lag in compression technologies for hydrogen storage means that most of the refuelling stations opened are at 350 bar (or 35 MPa) instead of 700 bar (or 70 MPa). It is also reported that in 2019, most of the refuelling stations are used only for demonstration projects and are not yet operating commercially.
Deficiencies in standards and regulations in the construction and operation of refuelling stations would also slow infrastructure development (Verheul, 2019). Thus, the current regulations would prevent the adoption of foreign innovations, such as the installation of very compact stations (occupying barely 7 m2), which can be integrated into the existing refuelling stations, such as those produced by a Norwegian company; this proves impossible due to the requirement to place the compressor at least 20 m from the station’s other components. Other regulatory problems pertain to hydrogen production: because hydrogen is classified as a hazardous chemical, its production is permitted only in chemical parks.
Targeting commercial vehicles first allows China to improve its compression technologies and acquire experience regarding hydrogen safety. Since the routes of commercial vehicles are more predictable than automobile movements, fewer refuelling stations are necessary. Finally, this approach can contribute to facilitating social acceptance of hydrogen as a fuel by a public still reluctant for cost and safety reasons (Verheul, 2019).
Although China is the world’s largest hydrogen producer (21 million tonnes in 2016, to which are added nearly 12 million tonnes of hydrogen as a by-product), most comes from fossil fuels, particularly coal by a gasification process (Verheul, 2019). The country has about 1,000 gasifiers, but this use represents only 5% of total coal consumption. In addition, coal resources are mainly concentrated in western China, while hydrogen demand is located in the east, where the big cities are found. There is no large-scale pipeline network connecting the two regions at present. The same geographical gap is also true for renewable energy, such as solar and wind power.
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6.3 JapanWishing to reduce its almost total dependence (94%) on foreign fossil energy sources and concerned about avoiding other nuclear disasters like Fukushima in 2011, Japan is becoming a world leader in research, development and use of hydrogen as an energy source in several sectors, including transportation, which will allow it to increase its energy self-sufficiency and reduce its greenhouse gas emissions.
The country is home to two of the three leading automobile manufacturers active in the production of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (Toyota and Honda) and many companies that are participating in the development of hydrogen-related technologies, including Kawasaki for hydrogen transport, Panasonic for production of hydrogen fuel cells and Toshiba for electrolysis of water (Popov, 2018). The emphasis is on the supply chain as a whole.
In 2018, 11 companies, including automobile manufacturers, companies active in infrastructure development and investors, formed a consortium, Japan H2 Mobility (JHyM), to pool private and public investments in view of increasing the number of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles on the road and the refuelling stations to supply them. Since then, seven other companies have joined the consortium (Nagashima, 2018; Natural Resources Canada, 2019; Popov, 2018). It wants to deploy 80 stations throughout Japan by 2021.
Another group involved in the development and promotion of hydrogen infrastructures is the Association of Hydrogen Supply and Utilization Technology (HySUT), with 35 members in the industrial sector, including energy companies, engineering firms, automobile manufacturers and operators of refuelling stations (Natural Resources Canada, 2018).
The Council for a Strategy for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells, created by the Japanese government, published a Strategic Roadmap for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells in 2014 (revised in 2016), in which it forecasts the construction of 160 refuelling stations serving approximately 40,000 vehicles by 2020; for 2025, the targets are 320 stations and 200,000 vehicles (Popov, 2018). To encourage this deployment, the government offers incentives for the purchase of automobiles and buses, as well as funds (capital and operating) to support the deployment and operation of refuelling stations (Natural Resources Canada, 2019).
At the end of June 2018, Japan had 100 hydrogen refuelling stations (about one-third of which were mobile, according to Isenstadt and Lutsey, 2017), the greatest number for one country, and 2,580 hydrogen automobiles, ranking second in the world after California in this regard (Ikeda, 2018). Due to the stricter regulations in Japan, a station costs two to three times more than in Europe, or $4.5 to $5.4 million US. To be profitable, a station must serve approximately 900 vehicles per year (Nagashima, 2018). Moreover, the safety standards in force mean that a hydrogen station requires a surrounding space larger than a gasoline station, which can be very costly in a city like Tokyo, where the available space is rare and expensive. Finally, refuelling must be done by specialized personnel who have a permit for handling pressurized gases, and not by the customer.
Toyota sold its first hydrogen bus in Japan in 2018. The Sora, equipped with two 114-KW fuel cell modules on the roof, can move 79 passengers and travel 200 km with a 600-litre (23.3 kg) hydrogen tank. The company plans to supply 100 buses for the Tokyo region during the 2020 Olympic Games (Nagashima, 2018).
The same year, Toyota entered into the production of trucks for the 7-Eleven convenience store chain, which has 20,000 establishments in Japan. With a capacity of 3 tonnes, these trucks can cover 200 km per day; two trucks are scheduled for 2019 (Nagashima, 2018). Toyota is also developing trucks for the export market.
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FIGURE 24Number of refuelling stations and hydrogen vehicles in Japan at the end of 2018
Area Number of retail HRSs Number of FCVs
Hokkaido (1) 1 16
Tohoku (2) 3 44
Kanto (3) 40 1,033
Chubu (4) 25 1,021
Kansai (5) 12 243
Chugocu/Shikoku (6) 8 92
Kyushu (7) 11 131
Total 100 2,580
Source: Ikeda, 2018.
Two facilities for production of hydrogen from solar energy by electrolysis of water are in development in the Fukushima region: the first for a trial period from 2018 to 2020 in Soma and another under construction in Namie (Natural Resources Canada, 2019). The latter facility should supply the energy for the buses planned for the 2020 Olympic Games.
Source: Manthey, 2018.
To meet its energy needs, Japan also plans to import hydrogen from other countries, including Australia. Resulting from a collaboration between the Queensland University of Technology and the University of Tokyo, a first load produced from solar energy in Redlands south of the City of Brisbane was delivered to Japan at the beginning of 2019 (Queensland University of Technology, 2019). Norway also wants to join the ranks of green energy suppliers to Japan based on its hydroelectricity capability (Lindgaard Molnes, 2019). At the beginning of 2016, Kawasaki and Iwatani partnered with the City of Kobe to deploy a terminal for hydrogen imports from Australia; it will be operational in 2020 (Irfan, 2016). Kawasaki is currently developing a tanker dedicated to liquid hydrogen transport (Kawasaki, website, 2019); with several partners, Kawasaki has also started construction of a loading terminal in Australia, which will be equipped to liquefy hydrogen produced from lignite (Sampangi Archana Rani, 2019). Operational for the pilot phase in 2021, commercial activities should begin in the 2030s.
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Japan plans to import 660,000 tonnes of hydrogen per year in 2030. A British Columbia company, Hummingbird Hydrogen HH2, is planning production of liquid hydrogen from biomass and by electrolysis of water at its biorefinery complex for export to Japan and South Korea (Hummingbird Hydrogen, 2019).
The scenario illustrated in the Strategic Roadmap of the Council for a Strategy for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells, summarizes the targets sought by Japan by 2030 to achieve the expected 26% reduction of GHG emissions; the country anticipates an 80% reduction of its emissions by 2050 (Iida and Sakata, 2019). At that date, with the achievement of this target, hydrogen’s share of the Japanese energy system will be 13%. Three measures are planned in the Strategic Roadmap to reduce the high cost of hydrogen: 1) rely on the acquisition of inexpensive resources; 2) establish large-scale supply chains; and 3) generalize the use of hydrogen in different sectors (transportation, industry, energy production, etc.). Finally, it is necessary to mention the role of NEDO (New Energy and Industry Development Organization) – a public R&D body funded entirely by the Ministry of Energy, Trade and Industry (METI) – as a key player in the development of new technologies to achieve the identified targets (Iida and Sakata, 2019).
Source: Kawasaki website 2019.
6.4 GermanyGradually abandoning nuclear energy and hoping to move in the direction of renewable energy sources from now on, Germany is the most advanced country in Europe for conversion to hydrogen and development of fuel cells, but not specifically for the transportation sector. In 2013, the government adopted its Mobility and Fuels Strategy, which aims to reduce GHG emissions in all sectors; the target to achieve in 2050 is a reduction of 80% to 95% of the levels prevailing in 1990. In 2012, the Ministry of Transport and Industry and several private sector partners (Air Liquide, Air Products, Daimler, Linde and Total) signed a letter of intention for the deployment of a network of hydrogen refuelling stations, thus leading to the creation of 50 stations at a pressure of 700 bar in 7 metropolitan regions and along the country’s main corridors (CleanEnergyPartnership, 2019).
In 2015, six companies (Air Liquide, Daimler, Linde, OMV, Shell and Total) formed the H2 Mobility consortium to extend the network of refuelling stations with a target of 400 stations covering the entire country by 2025 (Natural Resources Canada, 2019). At the end of 2018, 60 stations were operational, thus positioning Germany second in the world after Japan. H2 Mobility owned and operated 54 of them; the consortium is targeting 100 stations for the end of 2019 (Carr, 2019). These 100 stations should make it possible to supply the vehicles of a population of up to 6 million people according to the CEO of H2 Mobility (Kind, 2019). H2 Mobility is seeking to reduce the implementation costs by integrating the hydrogen supply into conventional gasoline stations and using 700-bar storage compressors (Isenstadt and Lutsey, 2017). In northern Germany, three stations will be supplied based on wind energy (GlobeNewsWire, 2019).
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Regarding vehicles, the deployment of 646 hydrogen buses has been funded to date (Braunsdorf, 2018). There were 16 buses in operation in November 2018. Ballard Power Systems began supplying fuel cells for 40 buses delivered to the cities of Cologne and Wuppertal in 2019 (Carr, 2019). The French company Alstom recently won a request for proposals to supply 27 hydrogen trains to the Frankfurt region; the 500 million euro order – 360 million of which will go to Alstom – also provides for the supply of hydrogen, maintenance and availability of reserve capacities for the next 25 years (BFMTV, 2019a). This is in addition to the two Hydrail trains currently being tested. It is important to note that Germany has approximately 4,000 diesel trains, which could eventually be converted to hydrogen (IEA, 2017). Finally, at the end of 2018, there were also approximately 500 hydrogen fuel cell automobiles on the roads (Natural Resources Canada, 2019).
In 2008, the federal government created the National Organisation Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technology program (NOW), with the role of funding R&D projects seeking to stimulate the coordination of activities by companies, research laboratories and other public players to develop a competitive industrial sector (Afhypac, 2018). The federal funding available is 1.4 billion euros over 10 years and combines R&D and commercialization (Braunsdorf, 2018).
In 2017, the second phase of the NIP (National Innovation Programme Hydrogen and Fuel Cells) included funding of construction of new refuelling stations; 60% of the investment costs will be covered and the development of electrolyzers using green energy will be included (Afhypac, 2018b).
Hydrogen production is also part of the development strategy. In 2019, Shell and ITM Power started construction of an electrolysis plant (Refhyne project) to produce hydrogen from electricity generated by renewable energy sources in the City of Wesseling; the operations should begin in 2020 and supply 1,300 tonnes of hydrogen per year (Euractiv, 2019). In 2018, a partnership formed by Linde AG, Flachstahl GmbH and Avacon Natur GmbH announced a project for construction of a hydrogen production plant using electrolysis from wind energy in Salzgitter (Carr, 2019).
Germany is also involved in the development of fuel cells. In 2017, 10 German companies in the transportation sector joined the Centre for Solar Energy and Hydrogen Research to develop fuel cells up to the maturity stage; the aim is annual production of 30,000 fuel cell modules. Another project involving the participation of the Swedish company PowerCell Sweden AB and the manufacturers BMW, Daimler, Ford and Volkswagen is also planning the development of such modules (Afhypac, 2018). Finally, in 2019, PowerCell Sweden and Bosch will combine their efforts to produce hydrogen fuel cells for trucks and automobiles; the market launch is scheduled for 2022 (Randall, 2019).
FIGURE 25Hydrogen refuelling stations in Germany at the beginning of 2019
Source: GlobeNewsWire, 2019.
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In July 2019, the German Ministry of Economy and Energy announced annual funding of 100 million euros to help 20 research laboratories test the new hydrogen-related technologies in view of applications on an industrial scale (Dezern, 2019).
The technological advances currently being achieved have not been followed by the same boom in the development of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, since the German manufacturers have given priority to the development of battery-powered vehicles (Shumaker, 2018). One of the main barriers to development would be the high cost of vehicles in markets like California, because the German government does not offer purchase incentives. Nonetheless, Audi, in collaboration with Ballard Power Systems and Hyundai, has stated its readiness to participate in the development of hydrogen vehicles. The company plans to release its h-tron-quattro model in 2020, primarily targeting the Chinese market where more than 30% of Audi sales are realized (Kable, 2019).
BMW recently announced its entry into the market for hydrogen fuel cell vehicles for the 2020s, in partnership with Toyota. (Taylor, 2019). Mercedes-Benz recently developed a model unique in the world, a hybrid sport utility vehicle combining a lithium battery and a hydrogen fuel cell, the GLC Fuel Cell. The manufacturer specifies that the vehicle’s carbon footprint is very low when it is propelled by hydrogen from renewable energy sources. The CO2 emissions attributable to the production of hydrogen and electricity from renewable sources are 0.5 tonnes, (Figure 26, circle in the centre) compared to 15.4 tonnes when hydrogen originates in part from reforming of natural gas, or 18.5 tonnes when hydrogen comes directly from natural gas (Figure 26, circle on the left) (FuelCellsWorks, 2019). The vehicle has 430 km of autonomy – plus 51 km supplied by the battery – and can be refuelled in three minutes. Since 2019, it has been available as a rental via Mercedes-Benz Rent at 799 euros per month in German cities already well equipped with hydrogen refuelling station infrastructure.
Source: Shumaker, 2018.
FIGURE 26Carbon footprint over the lifecycle of the Mercedes-Benz GLC Fuel Cell
10.8
15.04.6
0.5
30.8tonnes CO2
0.5
10.8
15.07.7
34.0tonnes CO2
0.50.3
0.2
15.0
16.0tonnes CO2
Car production
Electricity generation
Hydrogen production
End of lifeValues are rounded
H2 Mobility /EU electricity mix
Renewable H2 -and electricity production
H2 (natural gas) /EU electricity mix
Source: FuelCellsWorks, 2019.
39
7. Profile of the situation in Quebec
7.1 Energy sources used in QuebecQuebec stands out because of the large share held by renewable energy in its energy system: 49% of the total in 2016. This compares advantageously to the other OECD countries, where only Sweden exceeds this threshold, with 54% renewable energy in 2019. In Canada, as a whole, renewable energy accounted for only 17.3% of the total in 2017 (Natural Resources Canada, 2019).
FIGURE 27Share of energy from renewable sources
13.4 %
10.2 %
17.3 %
World
Canada
OECD countries only
Source: Ressources Naturelles Canada, website, 2019.
Oil accounts for 36% of Quebec’s energy balance, and over three quarters of this energy source goes to the transportation sector. Hydroelectricity’s share was also 36%, or 818 Petajoules (Whitmore and Pineau, 2018). The contribution of biomass and wind energy is not negligible, at 13.5% of total energy.
Biofuels mainly come from forest residues but may also be derived from other organic materials. It should be noted that the renewable energy comes from Quebec, while all hydrocarbons are imported (Whitmore and Pineau, 2018).
Quebec is the leading producer of hydroelectricity in Canada and ranks second after Ontario in wind energy production (Natural Resources Canada, website, 2019).
TABLE 5Availability of primary energy sources in Quebec, 2016
Source PJ Percentage of total (%) Equivalence
Impo
rt =
51
% Oil 826 36 137 million barrels
Natural gas 325 14 8.4 billion m3
Coal 13 1 0.6 million tons
Loca
l = 4
9 % Hydro 818 36 227 TWh
Biomass 170 7.5
Wind 126 6 35 TWh
Total 2,278 100
Source: Whitmore and Pineau, 2018.
Major energy losses
Less than half the energy available in Quebec in 2016 served to meet the demand (46%) because of major losses (54%) resulting from certain system inefficiencies during transformation, transport and consumption of energy. The transportation sector was responsible for 35% of these losses; this sector seems much less efficient than the others (Whitmore and Pineau, 2018).
In the case of electricity generated in Quebec, nearly two-thirds of production end up in losses linked to electrical systems, including transmission. Losses are also high for hydrocarbons. Heat produced but not completely used is the main cause of energy loss. (Whitmore and Pineau, 2018).
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7.2 Energy dedicated to the transportation sectorIn Quebec, the transportation sector accounted for 30% of energy consumption in 2016, almost all coming from petroleum products (97%), while 0.4% went to electricity in this sector.
Freight transportation alone accounted for 35% of energy use. Freight transportation is experiencing particularly strong growth: the vehicle fleet grew by 162% between 1990 and 2014 (compared to an increase of 59% for the number of personal vehicles) and reached a total of 791,000 light, midsize and heavy trucks in 2016. The distance driven by these trucks increased by 24% during this period (Whitmore and Pineau, 2018). This data leads the authors of the study to conclude that “priority should be given to initiatives to reduce energy consumption and GHG emissions in the commercial transportation sector.”
FIGURE 28
Energy per activity sector and per type of vehicle
BUIL
DIN
G
Transportation
30%Heavytrucks
16%
Cars
26%
Light trucks(SUVs, pickups, vans)
18%
Air(passenger)
15%
Residential
19%
Industrial
34%
Comm. andinstitutional
11%
Agriculture
2%
Marine 2%
Rail (freight)
2%
Air (cargo)
0.3%
Urban transit 2%0.1%Intercity bus
Rail (passenger)
0.04%
Mediumtrucks Light
trucks
Motocycle andoff-road vehicles
Non-energy use
4%
TOTAL1,734 PJ
TOTAL526 PJ
7 %7 % 5 %FREIGHT 35 %
PERSONALVEHICLES 48 %COMMERCIAL PASSENGER
TRANSPORTATION 17 %
Note: Air, marine and rail transport data is not available by region. Data on air transport includes domestic and international lines, which include the energy uses examined in the Report on Energy Supply and Demand in Canada (57-003-X).
Source: Whitmore and Pineau, 2018.
7.3 Greenhouse gas emissionsGreenhouse gas (GHG) emissions reached 77 Mt equivalent CO2 in Quebec in 2016. Of this total, 27 Mt resulted from road transportation, including 12 Mt from freight transportation by road (Whitmore and Pineau, 2018). Transportation by heavy truck accounted for more than one-third of GHG emissions from transportation by road.
FIGURE 29
Variation of GHG emissions by sector in Quebec between 1990 and 2016
8
6
4
2
0
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
Vari
atio
ns (M
t CO
2 eq
.)-7.9
6.1
-8.5
-2.7 -2.3-1.2
Tota
l
Indu
stry
Resid
entia
l, co
mm
erci
al&
insti
tutio
nnal
Was
te
Elec
trici
ty
0.7
Tran
spor
t
Agr
icul
ture
Source: AVEQ, 2019.
Despite a drop in GHG emissions in most sectors between 1990 and 2016, it is noted that they continue to increase in transportation (AVEQ, 2019). GHG emissions from transportation by heavy truck increased by 156.5% between 1990 and 2015, thus overriding the observed reduction in emissions from transportation by automobile (TEQ, 2018).
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7.4 Advent of electric vehiclesIn Canada, Quebec has the most electric vehicles (Toyota, 2016): as of June 30, 2019, there were 52,556 electric vehicles on the road, divided almost equally between completely electric vehicles (n=26,300) and plug-in hybrid vehicles (n=26 256) (AVEQ, 2019). Encouraged by government incentives, their progression on the roads since their advent is evidence of Quebecers’ marked interest in clean-energy vehicles; the second quarter of 2019 reported a growth of 2,878 additional vehicles per month.
Added to this is the number of charging stations, which stood at 4,726 stations as of June 30, 2019; this number does not include home charging stations (AVEQ, 2019). The most recent data indicates that financial incentives have been granted for 21,265 home terminals since 2012 (TEQ, 2019, statistical data, evolution of the Roulez vert program).
FIGURE 30Number of electric vehicles on Quebec roads as of June 30, 2019
62,500
52,500
42,500
32,500
22,500
12,500
2,5002013-12-17 2014-08-26 2015-05-06 2016-01-14 2016-09-22 2017-06-02 2018-02-10 2018-10-20 2019-06-30
Source: AVEQ, 2019.
7.5 Incentives for running on clean energyIn Quebec, the measures currently put forward are almost essentially aimed at completely electric vehicles and plug-in hybrid vehicles. Under the Roulez vert program, the Gouvernement du Québec, since 2012, has offered rebates of up to $8,000 for the purchase of new or used electric vehicles and a partial reimbursement for installation of charging stations at home, at work or for multiple-unit residential buildings. Since May 1, 2019, the Federal Government has offered an additional incentive up to $5,000 for the purchase of a new electric, plug-in hybrid or hydrogen fuel cell vehicle (TEQ, website, 2019).
The efforts are under the responsibility of several departments, and major investments are budgeted for many projects and programs: 1) the Transportation Electrification Action Plan 2015 - 2020; 2) the 2018 - 2023 Action Plan of the Sustainable Mobility Policy, 2030; 3) the 2013 - 2020 Climate Change Action Plan; and 4) the 2030 Energy Policy Action Plan.
FIGURE 31Renewable energy targets by 2030
Renewable energies2016
47.6 %
Renewable energies 60.9 %2030
Hydro-electricity
Biomass Decentralized energy(i.e. geothermal, solar)
Oil products Coal Natural gas
Source: MERN, 2016.
The Transportation Electrification Action Plan has a budget of $420 million to deploy 35 measures intended to promote electric transportation, develop the industrial sector related to transportation electrification, and reduce GHG emissions and oil dependence. In particular, the plan provided for
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$2.5 million to support implementation of quick charging stations along the main road axes (MTQ, 2015). The Sustainable Mobility Action Plan has a $1.064-billion budget, and also includes several measures intended to encourage clean energy (MTQ, 2018).
With a budget increased to $4.86 billion in 2019-2020, the 2013-2020 Action Plan on Climate Change is pursuing several objectives in view of increased use of clean energy: reduce fossil fuel consumption, extend reliance on renewable energy sources, accelerate transportation electrification and creation of businesses in this field, and encourage R&D on clean technologies (MELCC, website, 2019).
Through its Sustainability Mobility Plan, the Gouvernement du Québec is seeking, by 2020, to reach a 40% reduction in oil consumption in the transportation sector below the 2013 level, and a 37.5% decrease in GHG emissions in the transportation sector below the 1990 level (MTQ, 2018).
The Transportation Electrification Action Plan aims at the following targets for 2020: 1) reach 100,000 electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles; 2) reduce GHG emissions from transportation by 150,000 tonnes; and 3) reduce litres of fuel consumed annually in Quebec by 66 million (MTQ, 2015).
The Action Plan of the 2030 Energy Policy seeks to: 1) improve the efficiency of energy use by 15%; 2) reduce the quantity of petroleum products consumed by 40%; 3) increase renewable energy production by 25%; and 4) increase bioenergy production by 50% (Énergie et Ressources naturelles Québec, website, 2019). The plan provides for the deployment of a pilot project of multi-fuel stations – including hydrogen – that will extend throughout Quebec by 2030; they will be installed first in regions with high potential for use (MERN, 2016).
Finally, the Energy Transition, Innovation and Efficiency Master Plan 2018-2023 provides for the deployment of a test bench to integrate hydrogen into the transportation network, including a pilot project to introduce hydrogen-powered vehicles and develop the conditions necessary for testing of this sector (TEQ, 2018).
Under the Pan-Canadian Framework on Clean Growth and Climate Change (Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2016), the Canadian Government allocated funds in its 2016 to 2019 budgets for Natural
Resources Canada programs with the aim of supporting infrastructures for recharging electric vehicles and for fuels such as natural gas and hydrogen ($16.4 million in 2016, $80 million in 2017 and $130 million in 2019). The EVAFIDI (Electric Vehicle and Alternative Fuel Infrastructure Deployment Initiative) program provides assistance representing 50% of the costs of eligible projects up to a limit of $1 million per charging station. Under this program, the Government of Canada invested $96.4 million for charging stations, $76.1 million to support demonstration projects pertaining to charging technologies, and $10 million for the development of binational (Canada-USA) standards for low carbon footprint vehicles and infrastructures (Natural Resources Canada, 2019b; Natural Resources Canada, website, 2019a).
Other amounts were allocated in the 2018 federal budget to support new clean energy technologies, including $800 million under the Strategic Innovation Fund to stimulate R&D, facilitate growth and expansion of businesses, attract and retain large-scale investments, and ensure the progress of industrial research, development and demonstration of technologies thanks to collaboration among the private sector, researchers and non-profit organizations (Strategic Innovation Fund, 2018).
Together with the United States, Japan, the Netherlands and the European Commission, Canada launched the New Hydrogen Initiative in Vancouver last May. This initiative will focus on 1) deployment of hydrogen for current industrial applications; 2) deployment of hydrogen technologies in the transportation sector; and 3) the role of hydrogen to meet the energy needs of communities (US Department of Energy, 2019).
Source: Marie Demers
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7.6 The current regulations to limit CO2 and dependence on hydrocarbons
Quebec is the first Canadian province to have adopted regulations encouraging automobile manufacturers to improve their offering of zero emission vehicles. The ZEV (zero emission vehicle) standard came into force in January 2018. The subject manufacturers are obliged to accumulate credits by procuring zero emission or low emission vehicles in the Quebec market. The target credits are calculated by applying a percentage to the total number of light (passenger) vehicles sold in Quebec by a given manufacturer. The higher a vehicle’s autonomy in electric mode, the more credits the manufacturer will obtain. It is hoped that the ZEV standard will stimulate innovation and protection of better technologies (MELCC, website, 2019).
In the context of the fight against climate change, the Government of Canada announced stricter standards in 2018 for the regulation on carbon pollution by heavy vehicles. It is anticipated that the new standards that will come into effect in 2020 will allow for the reduction of CO2 emissions by approximately 6 million tonnes per year by 2030; they will apply to trucks, school buses and other heavy vehicles manufactured after 2020.
The Government of Canada also perfected the Clean Fuel Standard and proposed a regulatory approach establishing requirements for reduction of carbon intensity for liquid fuels, such as gasoline and diesel. This Standard applies to suppliers and incorporates the requirements relating to the minimum standard for renewable fuels that appear in the Renewable Fuels Regulations (Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2019). It is anticipated that the Standard will come into force in 2022 for liquid fuels and in 2023 for gaseous or solid fuels. The overall objective is to achieve a GHG emission reduction of 30 megatonnes by 2030.
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8. Opportunity for the development of the hydrogen sector in Quebec
Endowed with major renewable energy sources at affordable prices, whether hydroelectric, wind energy or biomass, Quebec is well placed to benefit from the energy transition regarding the reduction of GHG emissions. Hydrogen production by electrolysis from hydroelectricity surpluses observed in low consumption periods allows a better fit between supply and demand, because the hydrogen produced can be stored and then released in peak periods, thereby reducing energy losses and allowing a better response to daily or seasonal fluctuations in consumption.
8.1 Hydrogen productionGiven the major energy losses currently observed, it is appropriate to consider this avenue seriously. The French multinational, Air Liquide, made a commitment with the deployment of a 8,000 kg/day hydroelectricity-based hydrogen production unit in Bécancour in 2019 (Air Liquide, 2019a). It is also interesting to note that Air Liquide has acquired a 18.6% participation in the Canadian Hydrogenics Corporation.
For over 30 years, Messer Canada (formerly Linde Canada) has produced liquid hydrogen and for 20 years compressed hydrogen at its Magog plant. The hydrogen produced there is 100% based on hydroelectricity. Finally, it was learned last May that the European company Hy2gen AG is considering constructing an industrial hydrogen production plant in Varennes (Desjardins, 2019). The projected investment is approximately $120 million and the hydrogen at this plant will be produced through electrolysis of water. The plant should be operational in the first half
of 2022. An increase in hydrogen production could have the effect of making it less expensive to produce.
Local hydrogen production in remote regions is a wise enough option to make these regions more autonomous and avoid the challenges and costs associated with energy transmission over long distances. This is the case at the Raglan mine in northern Quebec, which has relied on conversion of surplus wind energy to hydrogen, thus allowing energy surplus storage for later use. Along the same lines, use of forest residues to make hydrogen would also be profitable in remote regions, where forest resources are abundant.
Beyond Quebec hydrogen storage and use, exporting this clean resource, which is transportable more easily than electricity and by several modes of transportation, offers an interesting economic opportunity, particularly with the American Northeast. At least 12 refuelling stations and two hydrogen distribution centres are anticipated, in implementation, or already in operation in several states (Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York, Delaware and New Jersey) (Berman, 2016). Air Liquide is a stakeholder in the deployment project for these stations and plans to export some of the hydrogen it will produce in Quebec to these markets.
In 2017, Quebec produced 212 TWh of electricity, 95% of which came from hydroelectric sources; of the 39.6 TWh bound for export, 70% went to primarily Vermont, and also to New York State and Maine (Whitmore and Pineau, 2018). Therefore, an interest exists in these regions for Quebec clean energy.
Like Australia and British Columbia, which plan to export hydrogen to Japan by tanker, it could be appropriate for Quebec to consider this mode of transportation to export hydrogen produced in Quebec to certain European countries under-endowed with renewable resources and which lag behind in the energy transition to renewable energies, particularly the Netherlands, France and Belgium (Eurostat, 2019).
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If electricity can be produced from biomass (1% of the electricity in Quebec in 2017), it may also be possible to produce hydrogen by thermolysis or gasification from this resource. Quebec is well positioned to develop this sector, given that its forests generate approximately 6.5 million tonnes of forest biomass per year (Institut de recherche sur l’hydrogène, UQTR, website, 2019), that biomass already constitutes 7.5% of the energy produced in Quebec (Whitmore and Pineau, 2018) and that the potential of forest residues in Quebec is underutilized (Plourde, Radio-Canada, 2016). Often left behind after logging, these residues rot on the logging sites.
The R&D Program of the UQTR’s Institut de recherche sur l’hydrogène in Trois-Rivières is currently working on the design of a hydrogen production system based on the gasification process. A company already on this path in British Columbia, where forest biomass is also abundant, is considering exporting the hydrogen produced to Japan, illustrating the export possibilities resulting from harvesting this resource (Hummingbird Hydrogen, 2019).
FIGURE 32Share of energy from renewable sources in the European Union
Source: Eurostat, 2019.
Beyond hydrogen production
Apart from hydrogen production, multiple business opportunities are possible. Here are some examples. A Montreal SME founded in 2007 and specializing in the manufacturing of fuel cell equipment signed an agreement in 2016 with the French Air Force to develop long-range, hydrogen-powered pilotless air vehicles (McKenna, 2016). EnergyOR perfected a 9.5-kg quadricopter that can lift a 1-kg load and that has a little over two hours of autonomy. The device is powered by a fuel cell using an electrolyte polymer membrane. The company also produces portable fuel cell units and is considering outlets in several sectors (EnergyOR, website, 2019).
Vehex, a Boucherville company, sells hydrogen generators in Quebec and the Maritimes, made by the Canadian manufacturer dynaCert, which developed the HydraGen technology: this is a compact mobile electrolysis unit that allows reduction of the fuel consumption of engines in the transportation sector and heavy industry, thus reducing GHG emissions and extending the useful life of these engines (VEHEX, website, 2019).
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Finl
and
Latv
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Cro
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2020 target reached2020 target
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8.2 The different market segments for conversion to hydrogen
ForkliftsConversion to hydrogen of forklifts, omnipresent in factories, distribution centres, garages and warehouses, is undoubtedly the simplest and quickest application to be produced in an energy transition perspective. This material handling equipment would benefit from quicker refuelling and the absence of pollutant emissions in the closed locations where they are usually found. In the United States, there were over 20,000 forklifts powered by a fuel cell in 2018 (U.S. Department of Energy, 2018).
At the IKEA distribution centre in Brossard, there are 120 forklifts (Transport Routier, 2018). Some forklifts are already powered by an electric battery, as is the case for the 24 forklifts at the Jean Coutu distribution centre in Varennes. To our knowledge, there is no data allowing quantification of the number of forklifts in operation in Quebec. Toyota and Plug Power are now involved in the deployment of hydrogen fuel cell forklifts.
In Balzac, Alberta, the fleet of 95 forklifts at a new Walmart distribution centre was converted to hydrogen (mostly coming from Quebec) and after a four-month test period (representing 18,000 hours and 2,100 refuellings), productivity gains of 3.5% were observed compared to forklifts powered with an electric battery. It is anticipated that this technological change will lead to a reduction in GHG emissions of 530 tonnes per year (Ballard, 2019c; Liftway, 2019). Walmart also installed hydrogen forklifts at its new distribution centre opened in Cornwall, Ontario, in 2017. Due to their very short refuelling time compared to BEV units (2-3 minutes versus 8 hours), fuel cell forklifts are especially well suited for 24-hour/7-day facilities; moreover, batteries require replacement every three to four years, adding replacement costs.
Source: Toyota, 2017.
Vehicles on the roadThe virtual absence of hydrogen refuelling infrastructure on the Quebec and Canadian road network and the imposing costs of their deployment work in favour of the adoption of a phased deployment strategy, especially since the extent of the territory to be covered is relatively large compared to that of other countries. This approach allows gradual targeted integration of the refuelling stations into the network, focusing first on the vehicles that drive the most and/or that produce the most GHG emissions.
In addition to reducing the irritants resulting from the low availability of infrastructure, this would have the effect of optimizing the use of the stations deployed and familiarizing the population with this new type of energy carrier, thus contributing to the improvement of its social acceptability. Once a certain degree of maturity is reached in the deployment of hydrogen refuelling stations on the network, the energy transition for the public at large would be quicker and would necessitate fewer investments. It will then be possible to meet the needs of motorists who wish to adopt electric vehicles but are unwilling to accept the constraints related to the charging times of battery-powered vehicles.
Captive fleetsFor vehicles, captive fleets could be targeted in a first phase because they can be refuelled at their departure point or at a transit station in the case of buses. This necessitates the deployment of a smaller network of refuelling stations and thus lower initial investment costs. In addition, their routes and consumption are predictable. Finally, captive fleets are driven more than personal vehicles, which are parked most of the time. These fleets include taxis, delivery vehicles, government fleets, emergency vehicles (police, firefighters, ambulances), intercity and intracity buses and other service vehicles.
Fuel Cell Forklift(Toyota Industries Corporation)
Diagram of management system
Data analysis
Hydrogenproduction status Location
information
Information onremaining hydrogen
Organizations
Operationsdatabase
Cloud database
Exploitationmanagement
system
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In France, the players in the hydrogen sector decided to direct their development strategy to captive fleets (Breton, 2018; Mobilité Hydrogène France, 2016). By adopting this approach to start the market, they ensure that the refuelling station operates at full capacity upon its opening and reduces the need for investment and the risk that a station will be under-utilized. In this way, captive fleets provide leverage for the hydrogen market, a market that would have less chance of taking off solely based on the demand of individuals, according to the proponents. Eleven projects have been selected in different French regions by the Ministère de la transition écologique and the Agence de l’environnement et de la maîtrise de l’énergie (ADEME) to benefit from financial support related to the deployment of captive fleets of hydrogen vehicles or refuelling stations (BFMTV, 2019b). The potential investment is approximately 475 million euros and the prioritized vehicles are mainly taxis, household garbage trucks, delivery services, buses and utility vehicles.
Source: Breton, 2018.
The data available from Société d’assurance automobile du Québec (SAAQ, 2019) for 2018 indicates that Quebec has 8,004 urban and regional taxis, 3,970 buses dedicated to urban transportation under the ATUQ (Association du transport Urbain du Québec), 10,650 school buses,
5,359 automobiles or light trucks in the Quebec government fleet, 2,375 automobiles or light trucks in the federal government fleet, 12,758 police, fire department or other emergency vehicles, and 879 ambulances. In addition to these captive fleets, choice targets for conversion to hydrogen are the fleets of large commercial enterprises, particularly automobile or light truck delivery vehicles, midsize or heavy trucks serving the distribution centres and the large chain stores, the home delivery services of stores and restaurants, and mail and parcel delivery businesses. According to Statistics Canada, in 2016 in Quebec there were 791,000 freight trucks, including 487,000 light trucks, 221,000 midsize trucks, and 83,000 heavy trucks (Whitmore and Pineau, 2018).
Freight transportation
Quebec energy sector experts recently targeted commercial transportation as a priority area for initiatives involving energy consumption and GHG emission reduction in order to achieve the 2030 reductions targets set by the government (Whitmore and Pineau, 2018). It should be noted that the number of light trucks for freight transportation grew very strongly between 1990 and 2014 (+253%); the number of heavy trucks increased by 32% during the period, and the distance travelled by each grew by 55%. In addition, in Quebec, a heavy truck travels an average of 90,622 km per year, while a personal vehicle travels 13,398 km; moreover, the average fuel consumption in litres per 100 km is three time greater for heavy trucks (Whitmore and Pineau, 2018).
Truck traffic not only contributes to air and noise pollution along major road axes, but also to the deleterious effects of this pollution on the health of nearby residents. These impacts are not limited to respiratory problems but also include cardiovascular problems, cancer, premature birth and dementia (American Lung Association, 2019; Public Health Ontario, 2015). In Canada, 30% of the population lives within 500 metres of a major road axis and according to a recent study conducted by a University of Toronto researcher, the type of vehicle would be more important than the traffic volume as a contributor to air pollution and its harmful effects on health: old heavy trucks running on diesel would be the main culprits (Wang et al., 2018).
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In Quebec, among the 791,000 vehicles dedicated to freight transportation in 2016, there were 83,000 heavy trucks (Whitmore and Pineau, 2018). Despite their lower number than other trucks, they consume the most fuel and produce the most GHG emissions, given the long distance they travel (90,622 km/year) and their high fuel consumption (29.9 L/100 km). The conversion of this category of trucks to hydrogen emerges as an essential step in the decarbonizing of transportation.
FIGURE 33GHG emissions from road transportation, Canada, 2014 (Mt equivalent CO2)
Motorcycles
Inter-City Buses
School Buses
Urban Transit
Freight Light Trucks
Medium Trucks
Passenger Light Trucks
Cars
Heavy Trucks
0.4
0.4
0.9
13.0
22.0
33.0
36.1
36.5
2.8
Source: Senate Canada, 2017.
Several manufacturers have taken on the challenge and currently manufacture hydrogen fuel cell trucks. Following the partnership agreement with the Swiss company H2 Energy, the manufacturer Hyundai will supply 1,600 trucks to Switzerland between 2019 and 2025 and is considering expansion to other European countries as quickly as possible (Hampel, 2019). Toyota and Kenworth have partnered to perfect 10 hydrogen-propelled heavy trucks that will serve the Ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach, California (Babcock, 2019). The Swedish manufacturer Scania is also in the race with 26-tonne hydrogen trucks ordered by Norway; Norway is also targeting 1,000 hydrogen trucks for 2023. In the United States, the young company Nikola Motors already has orders for 13,000 hydrogen heavy trucks and semi-trailers bound for several countries.
Under consideration for hydrogen conversion incentives, Quebec transportation companies could also commit to this path. Few measures of the government plans promoting clean energy specifically address the transfer to hydrogen, but some of the measures deployed could be relevant.
Source: American Lung Association, website, 2019.
The 2015 - 2020 action plan priorities in favour of electric transportation specifically provide:1) $12.5 million for support measures for demonstration
projects in freight transportation;
2) $38.4 million to perfect innovative solutions for freight transportation; and
3) $10 million for support to SMEs to promote the acquisition, implementation and commercialization of equipment and technologies allowing GHG emission reduction.
The 2013 - 2020 Climate Change Action Plan provides:1) $200 million to improve the carbon balance and
energy efficiency of businesses; and
2) $77 million to reduce the environmental footprint of road freight transportation.
The Sustainable Mobility Action Plan provides, in its 2018 - 2023 budget:1) $124.4 million under the Roulez vert program;
2) $10.4 million for the multi-fuel stations pilot project; and
3) $7.9 million for the energy management program for road vehicle fleets.
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8.3 New transportation infrastructure projectsBecause they are not yet in the implementation phase, the new transportation infrastructure projects offer particularly fertile ground for integration of hydrogen as an energy carrier. Several projects are scheduled in Quebec, particularly the future Quebec City tramway and eventually the high-frequency train in the Quebec-Windsor corridor.
In a tourist city with an historic character like Quebec City, where the quality of the cityscape is important, the energy supply of the hydrogen-powered tramway would eliminate the need for the currently planned, visually unsightly overhead electric power supply structures. The use of hydrogen to power the tramway would also eliminate the costs associated with construction of overhead power lines. Thus, Quebec CIty could be a leader in the adoption of this technology, while maintaining its attraction as a tourist destination.
It should be noted that China inaugurated the first hydrogen-powered tramway in Tangshan City in 2017 and that this tramway has a fuel cell module made by the Canadian company Ballard (Natural Resources Canada, 2019).
Hyundai Motor and its train subsidiary Hyundai Rotem are currently cooperating on the development of a hydrogen-powered tramway for Korea in 2020. The hydrogen fuel cell modules perfected by Hyundai Motor will be installed between the cars where Hyundai Rotem will develop the interface. This tramway will be able to travel 200 km with a single fuelling at a speed of 70 km/hour (Ji-hye, 2019).
The Quebec City tramwaySource: Ville de Québec
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The future high-frequency train in the Quebec-Windsor corridor
In Canada, the fleet of 2,318 locomotives consumed 2 million litres of diesel in 2016, which produced 5,964 kilotonnes of GHG emissions and more than 100 kilotonnes of other air contaminants (Railway Association of Canada, 2017). This information led Transport Canada to fund a hydrogen train feasibility study for the Greater Toronto Area. The study, conducted by Metrolinx and published in 2018, concludes that the construction and operation of a hydrogen train network for the Go Transit interregional transportation system is technically feasible and that the overall cost is equivalent to that of a conventional suspended electrification system; its implementation presents different risks and profit levels comparable to conventional electrification (Metrolinx, 2018).
The French company Alstom is currently testing two hydrogen trains in Germany and plans to deliver 27 other hydrogen trains to that country for the Frankfurt region (BFMTV, 2019a). Canada is not absent from the project: the Ontario company Hydrogenics, recently acquired by Cummins, signed an agreement with Alstom in 2015 to supply it with 200 fuel cell modules over a 10-year period (Shirres, 2018). Because its role in this project is not negligible, Canada could benefit from the current experience to consider, in turn, the possibility of deploying a hydrogen train in the Quebec-Windsor corridor. The deployment of hydrogen trains has become an option that can be envisioned with the perfecting of hydrogen fuel cell module technology: over time, fuel cell modules have become more compact and better performing (Shirres, 2018).
In addition to reducing polluting emissions and noise pollution, trains running on hydrogen make it possible to avoid modifying bridges and tunnels to run electric power lines along the tracks and cutting trees along the corridor. Reliance on hydrogen produced from a renewable, affordable energy source, plentiful in Quebec, also contributes to energy independence in transportation.
Last June, the United Kingdom tested its first hydrogen hybrid train, HydroFlex, a joint initiative of the Centre for Railway Research and Education of the University of Birmingham and Porterbrook, the British railway company. Ballard Power Systems of British Columbia supplied the fuel cell modules (Galluci, 2019). Alstom and the British company Eversholt Rail are working on the design of the Breeze, a hydrogen train scheduled for 2022. Under its industrial strategy, the British government is investing £23 million for hydrogen use in transportation (Wiseman, 2019).
Source: Wiseman, 2019.
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9. Conclusion, feasibility conditions and recommendations
9.1 ConclusionThe purpose of this study was to have a better understanding of the role of hydrogen as a clean renewable energy vector in the context of greenhouse gas emission reduction. We saw that hydrogen production from clean renewable hydroelectric resources, like those available in Quebec, can optimize the use of surplus production of clean electricity by offering the possibility of storing the surpluses in low-consumption periods to make them available in peak periods or even for export. We reviewed the different hydrogen production and storage methods and the uses of hydrogen in industry and in the transportation field. We also examined the external markets where the use of hydrogen is most advanced: California, China, Japan and Germany.
We then addressed the specific case of Quebec, which is distinguished from other Canadian provinces and OECD countries by the large share held by renewable energy in its energy system. Nonetheless, greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) reached 77 Mt equivalent CO2 in Quebec in 2016 and, of this total, 27 Mt resulted from road transportation, including 12 Mt from freight transportation by road (Whitmore and Pineau, 2018). To reduce these emissions, the governments of Quebec and Canada have adopted several measures and action plans, which were reviewed summarily in our study.
Finally, we saw that Quebec is particularly well placed to benefit from the development of the hydrogen sector, specifically through the possibility of producing hydrogen by electrolysis from hydroelectricity surpluses observed in low-consumption periods. Quebec can also benefit from conversion to hydrogen in different promising market segments, including captive fleets (taxis, delivery vehicles, government fleets, emergency vehicles and intercity and intracity buses), forklifts, freight transportation, including heavy trucks and new transportation infrastructure projects, such as the Quebec City tramway and the high-frequency train. In a second phase, it will be possible to proceed with the development of a network of hydrogen refuelling stations to serve the motorists, notably those who are reluctant to use battery-powered electric cars.
9.2 Feasibility conditions and recommendations
The most advanced countries in the deployment of hydrogen in the transportation sector are all characterized by a firm commitment from their government, which translates into massive investments in the form of R&D funding, public-private partnerships, assistance to businesses for the development of new technologies and the deployment of refuelling stations, and finally, the purchase of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles.
Another striking feature is the creation of a consortium bringing together all the interested players from the private sector, whether automobile manufacturers, energy producers or hydrogen fuel cell technology companies, to combine expertise and acquire more weight.
However, none of these countries benefits like Quebec from a large share of renewable energy in its energy balance. This positions Quebec advantageously on the global playing field in the energy transition to hydrogen, whether as a replacement for fossil fuels in Quebec, or for export of hydrogen produced from renewable energy sources.
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With this in mind, several actions are to be considered, both in the public sector and in the private sector, to take advantage of the assets available to Quebec. This does not mean setting aside the current approach, which is mainly based on conversion of vehicles to electricity, but also extending the transition to clean energy to include hydrogen and thus benefit from
the additional advantages it can provide. The arguments justifying our recommendations were detailed in the previous chapter. We can now summarize the measures to be considered for this hydrogen deployment strategy by dividing them into two categories:
Active in the field for approximately 25 years, the Institut de recherche sur l’hydrogène at the Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières (UQTR) should be involved to support the deployment of the strategy. Among the other players whose contribution may prove very useful, it is important to mention the Canadian Hydrogen & Fuel Cell Association (CHFCA), as well as Natural Resources Canada, Transport Canada and the newly-formed coalition, Hydrogène Québec.
The costs related to the energy transition will be high, but we can expect that the resulting benefits will be substantial, both for the companies involved and for the environment and Quebec society as a whole. With its renewable resources, Quebec occupies a favourable position to begin this transition.
For the public sector:
• Rely on the action plans in force to extend reliance on clean energy to hydrogen;
• Adopt a hydrogen roadmap with objectives and targets;
• Encourage the hydrogen production initiatives from renewable energy sources such as hydroelectricity, particularly in remote regions, and for export;
• Stimulate R&D on hydrogen-related technologies;
• Deploy incentives for the purchase of hydrogen vehicles, particularly those of captive fleets including taxis, delivery vehicles, government fleets, emergency vehicles, and buses as well as for heavy trucks;
• Contribute, with the private sector, to funding the gradual deployment of hydrogen refuelling stations;
• Provide a regulatory framework to ensure safe use of hydrogen; and
• Raise public awareness about hydrogen-related issues (safety, costs, benefits for the environment).
For the private sector:
• Collaborate with other stakeholders and the public sector to help develop successful policies;
• Invest in hydrogen production for the purposes of use in Quebec and for export;
• Adopt a phased conversion strategy:
– First convert forklifts in industry as the benefits have already been demonstrated by private companies like Walmart and Canadian Tire;
– Participate in the conversion of captive fleets of vehicles (taxis, delivery vehicles, government fleets, emergency vehicles and buses) as they can be refuelled at their main station or terminal;
– Put the emphasis on heavy trucks, which are large GHG generators, by converting those that return to their terminal every night;
– Integrate hydrogen into new transportation infrastructure projects like tramways and passenger trains; and
– Participate in the construction of a network of hydrogen refuelling stations.
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Appendix 1: List of Hydrogène Québec coalition members