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Journal of Workplace LearningThe impact of stress on customer service representatives: a comparative study

Ann Gignac Steven H. Appelbaum

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Introduction

In these tough economic times, organizational

employees are highly susceptible to the most

common, yet misunderstood features of

working life – change and stress (L eCraw,

1992, p. 27). There has been a tremendous

amount of change in the last ten years and the

need to react even faster to this change is

causing a great deal of stress among people

(Davisson, 1994, p. 155). Often driven by

debt and/or inefficiency, top management in

many organizations are attempting to move

from highly centralized and hierarchical

structures to organizations that are more

decentralized, flatter and more flexible. T he

individual employee is caught up in these

profit- and efficiency-oriented changes and is

being asked to grapple enthusiastically with

such change. Unfortunately, very few organi-zations seem aware of the need to equip their

staff with the skills, strategies and resources to

adjust successfully to, and be a driving agent

for, change (Callan, 1993, p. 63).

The introduction of revolutionary change

to organizational structure and functions is

highly stressful to employees, especially

because of related effects like job loss or the

relocation of employees within the organiza-

tion (Callan, 1993, p. 63). I t has been esti-

mated that at any one time, some 8-10 per

cent of the workforce are experiencing dis-abling emotional ill health, that up to 30 per

cent suffer from a number of minor psycho-

logical discomforts and physical ailments, and

that stress-related symptoms contribute to

absenteeism, lost productivity and company

health care expenses (Brodski, 1984;

Greenwood, 1978; NIOSH, 1986 as quoted

by Carayon, 1993, p. 463).

Technet Ltd: a case stud y

Technet Ltd is a high technology communica-tions organization which has been operating

for the past half century. I t is synonymous

both with quality and service, and has marked

itself as a leader in its specialization. I ts suc-

cess is the result largely of efficient and pro-

ductive employees who have provided excel-

lent service and who have constantly met

customers’ needs. Technet L td entered a new

era in late 1992. I ts overwhelming control of

technology and its business enabled it to

control any competition. New firms and re-

engineered existing businesses suddenlyposed a new threat to the stronghold of Tech-

Journal of Workplace Learning

Volume 9 · Number 1 · 1997 · pp. 20–33

· -

The im pact of st resson cust om er servicerepresent at ives: a

com parat ive st udy

Ann Gignac and

Steven H . Appelbaum

The authors

Ann Gignac is a Telecomm unications Consultant based in

St Lambert, Quebec, Canada.

Steven H. Appelbaum is Professor of M anagement at

Concordia University, M ontreal, Quebec, Canada.

Abstract

Restructuring and dow nsizing are facts of l i fe and impact

on em ployees via higher stress levels. Describes how a high

technology com munications organization, Technet Ltd,

underw ent restructuring w hen it changed the focus of i ts

businesses and h ow this affected custom er service repre-

sentatives and their assignments. Reports the results of

research carried o ut to study stress in custom er contact

employees in the small and m edium bu siness offices at

Technet Ltd. Describes how t he current research wa s

compared w i th tw o pr ior studies in 1989 and 1992,

uti l izing a mo dified version of th e original questionnaire.

Analyses the results according t o the l i t erature and the

prior studies, and m akes conclusions and recommenda-

tions.



and operations since its market share would

be altered by the competition. As a result,

Technet Ltd radically changed its focus and

means of doing business in order to minimize

the loss in market share; now an important

factor in its business. Restructuring became a

familiar word, as in all companies undergoingradical changes in their external environment.

The organizational chart changed, new

responsibilities were assumed by various

managements and its inner ranks were

streamlined. An entire level of management

was eliminated, and their tasks and responsi-

bilities distributed to others at Technet Ltd.

At the close of 1993, Technet Ltd

announced that it needed to eliminate several

thousand jobs for the year 1994 in order to

maintain an 11-12 per cent rate of return on

investment for its shareholders. Top manage-ment stated they would allow personal leaves

of absence, educational leaves, job sharing,

working week reductions (five days one

week/four days the other, or simply four-day

rather than five-day working weeks, represent-

ing at least a 6.25 per cent reduction in annual

salary) and, finally, retirement plans. The

company succeeded in eliminating these

positions by 1 January 1994 without resorting

to layoffs. In Spring 1994, Technet Ltd’s

senior management decided to allow transfers

of customer representatives in the ongoingyear from various sized offices.

In the Autumn of 1994, the services and

products of Technet Ltd were being dupli-

cated in part by the new competitors. It is

now possible for new companies to enter a

similar market. This new situation led to

another restructuring plan within Technet

Ltd to take place in 1995 with major organi-

zational changes to be in place by 1 January

1995. The new organizational structure with

new positions and split responsibilities

impacted on all employees with confusionand uncertainty.

Because of the restructuring brought on by

these competitive-driven changes, it was

deemed necessary to examine stress or work

pressure in customer contact employees,

specifically in the small and medium business

market at Technet L td. In order to under-

stand better the domain of customer service

operations, it is important to describe briefly

customer contact employees generally and at

Technet Ltd.

The customer service department has beendescribed as the “nerve centre” of the compa-

the company (Blanding, 1991, p.193). The

customer service department has a critical

communication role and thus the customer

service representative’s job is the most impor-

tant job in the company. I t is the lifeline

between the company and the people who

keep it in business: its customers (Blanding,1991, p. 271).

Customer service people are involved in

complex and important relationships, unlike

those of anybody else in the organization.

They must represent the company equitably

to its customers and they must represent

customers equitably to the company. T hey

must work with all elements of the company

to get results for their customers, and they

must be able to maintain their motivation and

self-esteem in the face of the pressures, and

sometimes abuse, they are likely to get fromall sides in the process. They must work close-

ly with other members of the department,

often under highly stressful conditions, and,

at the end of the work day, they have to go

home to their families and take up their equal-

ly challenging roles there (Blanding, 1991,

pp. 289-90).

In recent years, it has become increasingly

difficult to find and keep qualified customer

service personnel. A real and growing short-

age of qualified personnel is a result of a

combination of relatively low salaries, high

stress conditions and declining skills in the

workforce (Blanding, 1991, p. 276). T hese

conditions are a real incentive to make the job

more attractive, not only by paying more

money, but also by improving the working

environment and providing top quality logisti-

cal support in information systems and com-

munications (Blanding, 1991, p. 277).

Methodology

There are three objectives to this study of

stress in customer contact employees in the

small and medium business offices at Technet

Ltd. T hey are as follows:

(1) To evaluate the work pressure or stress of

a business representative according to

organizational stressors and job stressors

defined in the literature review. One

should find that business representatives

experience work pressure or stress from

leadership behaviour, role conflict, role

ambiguity, work overload, time pressure,electronic monitoring, techno-stress, lack

The imp act of stress on customer service representatives

Ann Gignac and Steven H. Appelbaum


Volume 9 · Number 1 · 1997 · 20–3 3



(2) To examine how the change from a less

competitive environment to one more

highly competitive has affected the busi-

ness representative in terms of work

pressure or stress. It is expected that the

change has increased the work pressure or

stress for the business representatives at Technet Ltd.

(3) It is expected that the work pressure or

stress experienced by business representa-

tives has an effect on their health: both

physical health in terms of tiredness,

sleeplessness, headaches and wrist pains,

and mental health in terms of feelings

such as irritated, annoyed, nervous and

depressed.

The population for this study was the small

and medium business sales and service repre-

sentatives, located in a large metropolitan city.

Two customer service offices for Technet Ltd

were chosen because of the ease of adminis-

tering a questionnaire to this sample popula-

tion. The sample was chosen as the focus of

the stress study because of the fact that the

customer service offices had undergone major

organizational and environmental changes in

the past two years, and were about to become

part of one large team consisting of an

agglomeration of nine customer service

offices. The data for this study were collected

from 67 of the 112 small and medium busi-

ness sales and service representatives who

received a questionnaire, signifying a 60 per

cent response rate. (The total small and

medium business population in the area is

297.) The representatives, of whom 52 were

female and 15 were male, ranged in age from

22 to 54 years. Of the 67 respondents, 61

hold a full-time employment status, while six

are part-time. T he representatives, on aver-

age, have been business service representa-tives for four years, the most junior employee

of the sample having worked two months and

the most senior 30 years as a business repre-

sentative. The questionnaire employed was

developed from a review of the literature and

adapted from an earlier questionnaire,

administered in 1989 and 1992, serving as a

comparative link to determine if the levels of

stress had remained the same with regard to

stressors. T he comparison between studies is

based on the same questions as those asked in

1989 and 1992 so that validity of the compari-son would not be compromised. T he original

generally. Eighty-four questions were used

from the original version with four new ques-

tions to illuminate events of 1992-94. The

final version utilized for this study consisted of

88 questions, of which 78 required respon-

dents to evaluate responses on a four- or five-

point scale. T he questionnaire was developedto measure the following: demographic vari-

ables and job conditions; perceived work

stress and job satisfaction; organizational

stressors; job stressors; and stress on health:

effects

Results of t he study

Definition of stress

Scherer and Brodzinski describe stress as

“the interaction between individual and the

environment characterized by physiological

and psychological changes which causes a

deviation from normal performance” – it is a

situational phenomenon (Davisson, 1994,

p. 155). Stress comes from both external and

internal factors: external – physical such as

low-level lighting, poor ventilation and tax-

ing physical tasks; physiological – such as job

or role demands; internal – primarily a per-

son’s attitudes and expectations through

which stress is placed on oneself (Davisson,

1994, p. 155). Stress is the force acting onyou that causes you discomfort or strain. I t

becomes the physiological or psychological

response you make to an external event or

condition called a stressor. M atteson and

Ivancevich (1982, p. 9) view stress as a

response to stressor conditions in our

environment.

On the organizational level, stressors exist

for each and every company. T he number of

organizational stressors varies from company

to company as well as the intensity felt or

perceived by all.

This section will provide the results of the

responses obtained from the questionnaires

according to perceived work stress and job

satisfaction, organizational stressors, job

stressors and, finally, health measures. Of

importance to the study is the fact that 49 per

cent of respondents have been working in the

same district as they were two years ago and,

consequently, 51 per cent are new additions

to the small and medium business customer

service offices. T his particular point will beconsidered carefully in the analysis of the

The impact of stress on customer service representatives



Volume 9 · Number 1 · 1997 · 20–3 3



Perceived work stress and job satisfaction

Of the 67 business representatives who partic-

ipated in the study, 58 per cent describe the

job pressure as high to very high, whereas 39

per cent describe it as about average. Similar-

ly, 51 per cent of the sample often or always

feel under pressure at work, whereas 46 some-times feel under pressure.

With respect to overall job satisfaction, 84

per cent are satisfied or very satisfied with

their present job. It can be concluded that it is

not the occupation itself that causes the work

pressure or stress, but rather factors within

the organization or the job itself that are the

source of this perceived stress.

Organizational change

One of the most common work situations

producing discomfort, anxiety and stress is

organizational change. Change often disrupts

the flow of work as well as the relationships

between people. Every change, regardless of

whether it is for the better or not, is perceived

by some as a loss. What is lost are familiar

patterns of doing a job. The loss is coupled

with the demand to do things differently and

this results in physiological and psychological

stress (M atteson and Ivancevich, 1982, p. 68).

The survivors of this restructuring are

subject to an overwhelming number of

adjustments – new job descriptions, newprocedures, increased workloads, identifying

new markets, retaining market share and,

possibly, an overwhelming concern for their

future (LeCraw, 1992, p. 27). T he real threat

hanging over their heads is not more work

but no work at all (Davisson, 1994, p. 155).

The effects are translated into higher absen-

teeism, on-the-job accidents, longer and

more frequent sick leave, conflicts between

workers and/or management and the inabili-

ty to adapt to new operating conditions

(L eCraw, 1992, p. 27). Some individualsrespond by developing an almost obsessive

concern about their continued survival in the

organization ( Schweigeret al. , 1987 as

quoted by Callan, 1993, p. 64). Organiza-

tional change typically involves a transitional

stage during which the old organization has

been disassembled but the new organization

is not yet in place. T he possibility of job loss,

significant job changes or transfers, alter-

ations in the form and amount of compensa-

tion as well as a potential loss of power,

status and prestige serve to increase feelingsof insecurity and uncertainty in employees

Results of the study have indicated that

competition in the high technology communi-

cations business market has meant high or very

high job pressure to retain customers for 43 per

cent of the sample population and about aver-

age for 43 per cent. On the other hand, only 13

per cent feel low job pressure to retain cus-tomers from the competition in specialized

markets. The advent of future competition in

the local market means low or very low job

pressure for 42 per cent of the sample of busi-

ness representatives, about average for 34 per

cent, and high or very high job pressure for 24

per cent of this same population.

Only 24 per cent feel that the availability of

other service competition has significantly

altered their perception of job security, where-

as the majority feel it has either not affected

their perception of job security (36 per cent)or has somewhat affected their perception of

job security (40 per cent).

In comparing the stress level now with that

of two years ago, 50 per cent feel it as being

higher or much higher than two years ago and

16 per cent feel it as being lower or much

lower. However, contrary to the literature,

the adjustments as a result of competition

have not translated into an overwhelming

concern for their future. The perception of

job security has been altered by these events

but for only less than a quarter of the samplepopulation. This leads us to believe that the

majority of business representatives still

believe in the power and strength of Technet

Ltd in the market. Nonetheless, the past two

years and all subsequent changes to both the

organization and its internal structure have

meant an increase in the stress level for more

than a quarter of the business representatives

surveyed and remaining about the same for

an additional third. T herefore, one can

deduce that adjustments as a result of compe-

tition in Technet L td’s market have had theireffect on the representatives in the form of

increased stress.

Admini strat ive policies

According to Matteson and Ivancevich

(1982, p. 65), employees agree that some

administrative policies are required to bring

order but they are coupled with distress over

the maze, delays and confusion of adminis-

trative policies. General questions touched

on various aspects of the administration of a

group of business representatives at Technet

Ltd. Basically, there are two facets of theadministration that the business representa-




Volume 9 · Number 1 · 1997 · 20–3 3



work hours which is done according to

seniority and the fact that they feel there is no

pressure to work overtime. Results of the

study indicate that one-third of the business

representatives surveyed feel that there is a

problem with the pressure placed on people

concerning attendance, the lack of reward fordoing good work and the fairness in the

rotation of employees on the specialist posi-

tions as a result of previous accomplishments.

With respect to the statement, “At work

people are rewarded for doing good work”, in

comparison with the 1992 study, fewer repre-

sentatives expressed that the contrary was

true (70 per cent in 1992 versus 33 per cent

in 1994). N evertheless, the two former points

of the administrative policies are still indica-

tive of an ineffective performance appraisal

system and, congruent with the literature,administrative policies have led to confusion

on the part of the representative and they

have contributed needlessly to a representa-

tive’s job pressure.

The final point pertains to sales. They have

become more important than ever because of

the competitive environment in which the

representatives work, but they have also con-

tributed to more job pressure or stress har-

boured by these same representatives in com-

parison with 1992. In 1992, almost 30 per

cent felt that an emphasis on making salescontributed to a large extent to their work

pressure or stress. In 1994, the figure is now

closer to 40 per cent. One must note that this

same stress is also a consequence of the cur-

rent need to retain market share and to aug-

ment revenues. T herefore, one can conclude

that the organizational change in environment

has meant a change in administrative policy as

it pertains to sales and, consequently, the

stress level of business representatives.

Organizational structure

According to M atteson and Ivancevich(1982), the organizational structure is the way

an organization fits together; it is the arrange-

ment of people and work units. The kinds of

stressors are dependent on the position held

within the organization. The top level (presi-

dent or vice-president) may be stressed by the

competition, winning new market share, or

new government regulations. T he middle

level (district managers) may be stressed by

the requests received from the top, complaints

from the lower level and not enough say in the

decision making. The lower level (supervisor,representative, clerk) may be stressed by too

-

diate boss, and not being able to participate in

the decisions that affect your job (M atteson

and Ivancevich, 1982, p. 67).

Studies indicate that low participation or

little say in important decisions are associated

with job dissatisfaction, low self-esteem and

high absenteeism (Matteson and Ivancevich,1982, p. 67). Results of the study revealed

that, of the 67 respondents, 57 per cent dis-

cern that managers involve them in setting

their individual work objectives while 16 per

cent perceive it as being the contrary.

Leadership behaviour

Leadership is the ability to influence a group

towards the achievement of goals (Robbins,

1988, p. 117). In all organizations, there is

one agent of influence who has a significant

impact on the frequency, intensity and dura-

tion of stressors – the leader. The leader’sinfluence comes from both personal attributes

and his or her position of authority and power.

All leaders are not equal. Some know how to

work with people, others are technical wiz-

ards, and others can blend abilities, dealing

equally well with people and technical mat-

ters. Some leaders are stress carriers (give

stress to others) while some are stress relievers

(M atteson and Ivancevich, 1982, p. 70).

Some leadership issues include:

• Poor communications from manager . This

particular stress factor consists of threeelements: not communicating necessary

information before customers have it; not

communicating corporate information

before representatives get it through the

grapevine; and not providing feedback on

the quality of the representative’s work

(Blanding, 1991, p. 329).

• Unwill ingness to delegate; excessive superv i-

sion . T his stress factor’s underlying premiss

is that managers often lack conviction in a

representative’s ability to do a job (Bland-

ing, 1991, p. 329).• Slow or no response on inqui r ies and requests .

According to Blanding (1991), this stress

factor is one which cannot be eliminated,

simply on the basis that a manager’s job is

to change priorities when conditions war-

rant it and to lead the representatives

through such changes. Unexpected

change, though, is the one factor which can

be a major source of stress as psychologists

point out (Blanding, 1991, p. 329).

• Perceived discourtesies by managers and

supervisors . An example of this is standingover a worker while he completes a call or




Volume 9 · Number 1 · 1997 · 20–3 3



• Leadership problems . Indecisiveness, failing

to support the representatives’ actions,

blatant partiality are some examples cited

by representatives as contributing to their

stress but to the same extent as the previ-

ous four factors. In fact, according to

Blanding (1991, p. 330), in times of uncer-tainty and change, lack of leadership by the

manager would probably move quickly to

the top of the stress list.

Results of the study revealed the following.

Concerning the emphasis placed by the man-

ager on quality or quantity of service, 63 per

cent feel that managers place more or much

more emphasis on quality than on quantity.

The reverse is seen as being true for only 2 per

cent. The remaining sample (35 per cent)

view managers emphasizing equally both

quality and quantity. Representatives (75 percent) are satisfied with the degree of respect

and fair treatment obtained from their respec-

tive managers, while most representatives (61

per cent) are satisfied with the quality of the

supervision.

Having a manager looking over your shoul-

der contributes to a large or very large extent

to their feeling of work pressure or stress for

only 36 per cent. The use of the information

obtained by managers through looking over

your shoulder does not contribute or con-

tributes to a very small extent to their feelingof work pressure or stress for 55 per cent of

the respondents. In only 15 per cent does it

contribute to a large or very large extent to the

feeling of work pressure or stress and in 30 per

cent to a moderate extent.

Job stressors

The levels of stress that people face at work fill

the spectrum from boredom to panic. In

between, most people can cope well with their

stress levels. I t is at the two extremes that

health problems are most likely to occur(Hanson, 1993, p. 29). Factors that consis-

tently appear to influence job stress include

task demands, workload, job security, organi-

zational structure, participation in decision

making, locus of control, and utilization of

employee skills (Turnage and Spielberger,

1991, p. 166). Negative health consequences

of stress are probably experienced more fre-

quently in the work world than anywhere else

owing in part to the great amount of time

spent in job- and career-related activities, and

in part to the combination of responsibilityaccepted and effort put forth on the job (Mat-

-

found that the pressure or stress that repre-

sentatives experience at work is thought to be

a large problem in 18 per cent of the sample, a

moderate problem in 30 per cent and either

no problem or a small problem in the remain-

ing 52 per cent of the sample.

The following are the more common orga-nizational stressors.

Role conflict

Role-induced stress can occur when two

aspects of a job are incompatible with each

other (Fontana, 1989, p. 33). In other words,

when a combination of expectations one holds

and the demands made by the organization

result in countervailing forces (M atteson and

Ivancevich, 1982, p. 82). Role conflict can be

either objective or subjective. It is objective

when actual contradictory requests are

received from others and it is subjective when

there is a conflict between the requirements of

the role as one sees them and one’s needs,

goals and values (Matteson and Ivancevich,

1982, pp. 82-3).

Studies show that people subjected to a

high degree of role conflict report greater job-

related tensions, lower job satisfaction, less

commitment to the organization, more anxi-

ety about the job, feelings of inner conflict,

inadequacy and poor self-image (Fontana,

1989, p. 33; Matteson and Ivancevich, 1982,

p. 83).

Results of the study indicated that it is

difficult both to serve a customer well and still

to keep the service intervention length short.

This, however, does not contribute greatly to

the feeling of work pressure or stress for 60

per cent of the sample population. Similarly,

having to respond to customer requests when

working at a specialist position does not con-

tribute or contributes to a small extent to the

feeling of work pressure or stress for 70 per

cent of sample population. Therefore, in

terms of the literature, representatives today

have higher job satisfaction and less anxiety

about their job. This can be attributed to the

fact that managers today place more emphasis

on quality than on quantity of calls (63 per

cent in 1994 versus 36 per cent in 1992

viewed managers as placing more emphasis

on quality than on quantity).

Role ambiguity

Results of the study indicate that the state-

ment that work objectives clearly outline what

is required to perform well was found to beaccurate for 63 per cent while the remaining




Volume 9 · Number 1 · 1997 · 20–3 3



of the sample , the present work objectives

allowed representatives to provide quality

service. The contrary was judged as being an

accurate statement by 18 per cent and 27 per

cent were undecided.

Eighty-two per cent found their work

interesting while 9 per cent found the oppo-site to be true and 9 per cent were undecided.

With respect to training, 42 per cent feel they

have sufficient training to do their job well,

18 per cent are undecided and 40 per cent

feel the contrary.

Having insufficient information about

products and services to serve customers

contributes to a large extent to work pressure

and stress for 52 per cent of the representa-

tives surveyed. I t was found to contribute to a

moderate extent by 19 per cent and to a small

extent or not at all by 28 per cent. It can beconcluded that a portion of Warshaw’s (1979)

definition of role ambiguity is supported by

these findings. Representatives are uncertain

about the scope of the job but have been able

to recognize where the weaknesses are. T his is

definitely a point which management will have

to address.

Work overload and work underload

Work overload is a stressor that keeps an

individual constantly feeling impatient, con-

stantly hurrying and giving him the feeling

that he has not done everything he feels heshould have done in a single day (M atteson

and Ivancevich, 1982, p. 84). There are two

types of work overload: quantitative and

qualitative. Quantitative work overload is

when an individual has too many tasks to do

and insufficient time to do the job. On the

other hand, qualitative work overload is the

feeling of a lack of ability to do a part of the

job and this is regardless of the amount of

time available to do this task or part of the

job.

Work underload consists of boredom, lackof stimulation, the lack of opportunity to use

acquired skills and abilities and the repetitive

performance of seemingly meaningless tasks

(Warshaw, 1979, p. 21). Work underload,

like work overload, can be both quantitative

and qualitative. Quantitative work underload

refers to boredom arising from physical

inactivity; the idleness that arises from hav-

ing too little to do on the job. Qualitative

work underload is a term used to describe

jobs which are mentally unstimulating

(M atteson and Ivancevich, 1982, p. 87).Results of the research show the pace of

’

per cent, too slow for 3 per cent and about

right for 50 per cent. The pace is sometimes

too fast for 48 per cent, too slow for 32 per

cent and about right for 44 per cent. F inally,

the pace is never or rarely too fast for 19 per

cent, too slow for 65 per cent and about right

for 6 per cent. It is possible that a decrease inwork overload exists but, since half of the

personnel is new to the business office, then

the pace of work may be a combination of

both the demands and inexperience.

Time pressure

T ime pressure, according to the Yerkes-

Dodson law, leads to a steady improvement

of performance up to a peak but, beyond this

point, performance diminishes and the indi-

vidual experiences a sense of lost control

(M atteson and Ivancevich, 1982, p. 91;

Melhuish, 1981, p.17). I n the case of busi-

ness representatives, time pressure is related

to quantitative work overload and, conse-

quently, it is difficult to separate the two as

independent stressors in terms of a business

representative’s job. H aving too many tasks,

and the fact that these tasks are linked to

deadlines, must lead necessarily to time

pressure. Therefore, time pressure concur-

rent with work overload must contribute as

well to the stress experienced by business

representatives.

Other facets of time pressure as a stressor

were studied within the questionnaire utilized

for the research. An attempt was made to

determine if the emphasis on the number of

calls or average call length contributed to the

work pressure or stress of a business represen-

tative. In fact, no such contribution exists.

The lack of time pressure is possibly due to

the new emphasis on serving the customer

well without sacrificing quality. Therefore,

one can conclude that these two facets of time

pressure present a lack of fit with the litera-

ture. T he Yerkes-Dodson law may be a factor

but its measurement within this study was

inconclusive. In this study, time pressure

appears to exist only as a result of quantitative

work overload.

Lack of control

Job control is the ability to exert some influ-

ence over one’s environment, and the oppor-

tunities for individuals to affect and control

their situation will, in the long term, facilitate

adaptation (the environment becomes more

rewarding or less threatening) (Ganster,1987, pp. 5-8; Sauter, 1989, p. 91). T he links

-




Volume 9 · Number 1 · 1997 · 20–3 3



tion, and mental and physical health out-

comes are weak but there is a stronger link

between job autonomy and health outcomes

(Ganster, 1987, pp. 12-15). As was seen in

organizational structure, managers generally

involve representatives in setting their work

objectives and this is the first sign of the exis-tence of job control for the representatives.

Frequently changing objectives does not

affect the work pressure or stress for more

than half of the representatives surveyed. The

research indicated that, for a quarter of them,

it has contributed to a large extent to their

stress levels. In comparison with 1992, there

has been no significant increase or decrease in

the perception of stress as a result of changing

objectives. Hence, the findings do lead to

some support on the research conducted that

increased job control is linked with dimin-ished stress.

Techno-stress

Techno-stress is a new form of stress which

results from our increased reliance on com-

puters as a means of doing business. In the

literature, techno-stress is the result of signifi-

cant adjustment on the part of the user to new

applications, software and hardware and also

to computer glitches or “downtimes”

(Hanson, 1993, p. 49). Techno-distress, one

of two forms of techno-stress, is the stress thathas a negative impact on the individual’s

functions, productivity and quality of work

(Sethiet al ., 1986, p. 8).

For the business representative, there is

reason to believe that techno-stress exists

because most spend a full day sitting in front

of a computer screen, all the while speaking

to a customer and entering his/her order. For

the majority of representatives, remaining at

the terminal too long does not augment work

pressure or stress. On the other hand, both

computer failures and limitations are strongcontributors to the business representative’s

work pressure or stress (Appelbaum and

Primmer, 1990, pp. 8-11). As in 1992, com-

puter limitations for most influence their

work and result in stress. Computer failures,

though, have contributed to work pressure or

stress for more than twice the number of

representatives (55 per cent) as in 1992.

Since 1992, applications have been added to

computer systems and, although these appli-

cations have somewhat facilitated the repre-

sentative’s work, their downtimes have alsoaggravated it. Therefore, the findings of the

-

ture and one can conclude that techno-

distress is in fact prevalent in business

representatives.

Lack of socia l support

Lack of social support is seen as a job stressor.

When present, social support can lessen or

buffer the impact of occupational stress on

health. The quantity and quality of people’s

social relationships with spouses, friends, co-

workers and supervisors appear to have an

important bearing on the amount of stress

they experience, and on the likelihood that

stress will adversely affect their overall wellbe-

ing (House, 1981, p. 7).

Occupational stress is a significant health

problem, and attempts to enhance social

support at work constitute a potentially effec-

tive yet efficient mechanism for reducing workstress, improving health and buffering people

against the effects of work stress (House,

1981, p. 9). Basically, managers can discuss

situations that are ambiguous for the

worker(s), even without the direct possibility

of solving problems and ultimately reducing

uncertainty and, consequently, occupational

stress (Dijkhuizen, 1981, p. 213). According

to Quick et al. (1987), social support and

job control are important ingredients in a

workplace organization. Essentially, the

greater the job control and social support, theeasier it is to cope with conflicts with superi-

ors (Quicket al. , 1987, pp. 64-5).

The research results revealed that repre-

sentatives (65 per cent) believe they can rely

on their manager for support on and off the

job when things get tough at work and, in

addition, the majority (86 per cent) feel that

they can rely somewhat, or very much, on

their colleagues for support. With respect to

the amount of support and guidance

received from one’s manager, 72 per cent

reported they are satisfied. Congruent withthe literature, social support for business

representatives may constitute an effective

mechanism for reducing work stress and

buffering people against the effects of work

stress.

D ifficult clients

According to Fontana (1989, pp. 39-40),

stress may emerge in customer contact

employees from being faced with hostility and

verbal aggression, or from misunderstand-

ings, or from misplaced antagonisms. Dealingwith difficult clients is not a significant con-




Volume 9 · Number 1 · 1997 · 20–3 3



business representatives. The research indi-

cated that to only a third of the sample popu-

lation do difficult clients contribute to a large

extent to the work pressure or stress and, thus,

supports the literature’s argument that han-

dling difficult clients is a work stress enhancer.

Therefore, for most, handling difficult clientsis an inherent part of a business representa-

tive’s job. Literature exists that is prescriptive

in nature but represents a good starting,

ground for confronting this stress. Often,

listening to another representative deal with a

difficult customer can help the representative

with controlling her/his own emotions when

faced with such a situation and provide them

with keywords or phrases which help calm the

customer.

Physical work environment Environmental factors such as lack of physical

resources and generally uncomfortable work

settings can make the best job stressful

(Smith, 1993, p. 195). The physical work

environment was in 1992 a contributor to

stress. Forty-four per cent did not find their

work environment comfortable and, thus,

supported Smith’s argument. Today the

contrary is true. T he results of the study

demonstrated that more than 80 per cent of

the business representatives surveyed find

their physical work environment comfortable. The major changes which have occurred since

1992 are the installation of both ergonomic

desks and chairs, and new computer systems

with 17-inch screens (former screens were 14

inch) in the offices. Therefore, as reported by

Smith (1993), uncomfortable work settings

can make the best job stressful. In this case,

Technet Ltd succeeded in recognizing the

importance of comfort and attended to the

needs of its employees.

Stress on health: its effectNegative health consequences of stress on

health are probably experienced more fre-

quently in the work world than anywhere else

(M atteson and Ivancevich, 1982, p. 30). I t is

clear that many employee difficulties which

affect health and performance either originate

or are compounded by stressors at work

(M atteson and Ivancevich, 1982, pp. 30-31).

Findings of this study demonstrated that,

of the 67 representatives surveyed, 63 per cent

feel physically healthy, 58 per cent mentally

healthy, 30 per cent moderately physicallyhealthy, 34 per cent moderately mentally

and physical health find themselves slightly

unhealthy.

In the first ten months of 1994, 37 per cent

did not miss work because of illness or injury,

and 36 per cent missed work from half a day

up to two days because of illness or injury.

The remaining 27 per cent were away fromwork for more than two-and-a-half days from

January to October 1994.

The number of times a representative

visited a doctor or health care professional in

the one year period varied from no visits for

33 per cent to more than six visits for 12 per

cent of respondents. Most of the representa-

tives (75 per cent) had visited a doctor up to

three times.

Physical health

According to literature, a lack of fit between

an employee’s ability and needs, and the

demands and opportunities leads to physio-

logical reactions such as hypertension,

ulcers, muscular pains, tiredness, headaches,

nausea, etc. (Levi, 1981, p. 76; M atteson

and Ivancevich, 1982). Business representa-

tives, though, generally judge themselves to

be both physically and mentally healthy.

Similar results were obtained in 1992 when

almost three-quarters of the representatives

surveyed judged themselves to be physically

healthy and more than 50 per cent mentallyhealthy. Consequently, it seems currently

that representatives are not as stressed as in

1992 but their evaluation of their health

status has remained unchanged. Yet there is

a difference in the number of work days

missed because of illness or injury. M ore

than half of the business representatives

surveyed in 1992 did not miss work because

of illness or injury, but in 1994 only more

than a third of the business representatives

did not miss work.

In summary, the business representatives,although they perceive high stress, also pos-

sess an ability to handle stress and, as Hans

Selye suggests, they have not expended their

adaptation energy. Hence, adversely to the

literature, it seems plausible that the stress

experienced by the representatives has not

significantly affected their physical health.

Furthermore, it seems that the screening

process for new business representative appli-

cants is successful in hiring or selecting people

with appropriate characteristics.

Research has found possible links betweenvarious psychosomatic complaints that an

-




Volume 9 · Number 1 · 1997 · 20–3 3



ing work-related stress). These include

headaches, insomnia, dizziness and com-

plaints which lead to gastrointestinal disor-

ders. Headaches have been found to be one

of the most common complaints of the com-

puter worker (Hanson, 1993, p. 63). Loss of

appetite, nausea and dry mouth have beenfound to be indications of future gastroin-

testinal disorders (Smith, 1993, p. 127).

Insomnia, according to Flanagan (1990, p.

181), is one of the physiological symptoms

when work imposes constant pressures and

irritations. Finally, dizziness medically is

found to be a symptom of more serious dis-

eases such as hypertension but mild episodes

can occur as a result of over-tiredness or

tension (Chasnoff et al. , 1990, p. 97).

Business representatives complain most of

general tiredness, headaches and irritability.

These are in fact the same three most frequent

complaints as reported in 1992 and they are

congruent with both the type of work and

stress experienced by a representative. There

seems to be no indices of any major effect of

stress (work-related or other), such as gas-

trointestinal disorders or hypertension, on the

physical health of the business representatives.

Yet, congruent with Hanson’s (1993) state-

ment (26 per cent often, 30 per cent some-

times), computer workers – which representa-tives are – suffer most frequently from

headaches. Also, as previously described, a

business representative is subjected to work

overload, insufficient time between calls,

computer failures which further add to the

work load and long hours in front of a com-

puter screen leading to irritability and

headaches.

Contrary to the literature, which states that

insomnia is one of the physiological symp-

toms when work imposes constant pressures,

most representatives seem to be capable of

leaving their job at the office. Only a small

percentage suffer from sleeplessness and it is

possible that the cause is not entirely due to

stress at work but possibly within their per-

sonal lives as well.

In such a questionnaire, it is difficult to

ascertain a causal relationship between work

and psychosomatic complaints. This is not to

say that the literature is incorrect but rather

the data obtained are inconclusive. T he only

factor one can rely on is the evaluation of close to 70 per cent of the respondents stat-

or to a large extent to their psychosomatic

complaints.

The fight-or-flight response of stress can

lead to continuous and extreme muscle con-

traction (F lanagan, 1990, p. 123). M uscular

pains are the result. Backaches, wrist and

hand pain, as well as other muscular pains, areoften associated with work-related stress

(Warshaw, 1979, p. 112).

As with psychosomatic complaints, repre-

sentatives from both the past and current

studies reported the same muscular pains, the

most common being situated in the neck,

shoulder and lower back areas. The difference

from the last study to this research is that 9

per cent less of the business representative

reported having frequent neck, shoulder (28

per cent) and lower back pains (20 per cent).

This small decrease may be due to the newergonomic chairs and desks but that a signifi-

cant number still suffer from these muscular

pains could be caused by the stress experi-

enced both at home and work or improper

posture. At least a quarter of the representa-

tives surveyed credit their muscular pains to

work stress. Therefore, as the literature states,

muscular pains, especially backaches in the

case of representatives, are linked to work-

related stress.

Eyestrain is an inherent part of running

today’s computers (Hanson, 1993). Focus-

ing on a computer screen after a prolonged

amount of time can lead to visual fatigue

and, subsequently, frontal headaches. Eye

and vision problems’ link with stress is

difficult to determine in that both visual

fatigue and headaches may impair a business

representative’s work and this sub-standard

work can lead to stress. This seems rather

difficult to support but a large number of

environmental factors, such as uncomfort-

able work settings, have been linked tostress. Generally, fewer business representa-

tives than in 1992 (20 per cent less) judged

that they suffered from eye or vision prob-

lems. T herefore, it is possible that the new

computer screens can be credited for lessen-

ing the likelihood of employees suffering

from eye or vision problems and comfort-

able working conditions. Yet it is equally

possible that representatives today have

received better care for their eyes or have

usually healthy eyes. Unfortunately, the

connection between stress and eye problemsis not clear-cut and renders it arduous to




Volume 9 · Number 1 · 1997 · 20–3 3



M ental health

According to Matteson and Ivancevich

(1982, pp. 39-40), more people suffer from

mental discomfort from stress than they do

physical discomfort, although they recognize

the link between mental health problems and

stress is difficult to measure. M any studiessuggest a relationship where the stress

response energy often is turned inward and

eventually can cause depression, irritability,

withdrawal, anxiety and other responses

(Adams, 1981, p. 56; M atteson and

Ivancevich, 1982, p. 40; Warshaw, 1979,

pp. 18-19).

The most frequent negative feeling report-

ed by the business representatives when think-

ing about the job and themselves was nervous-

ness. Of the remaining feelings examined, less

than 20 per cent of the representatives report-ed experiencing those feelings. As with their

individual, general assessment of their mental

health, little can be found that indicates that

job-related stress has had an effect on their

mental health. Yet, irritability measured in the

psychosomatic complaints was a high contrib-

utor to stress. T herefore, this particular aspect

of health is in fact congruent with the litera-

ture on stress leading to irritability. None of

the feelings reported points towards depres-

sion or burnouts, although there have been

cases of burnouts in customer contact employ-ees in the past at Technet Ltd, and it is difficult

to support the literature on the impact of stress

on mental health. Support from managers and

colleagues may provide representatives with an

opportunity to vent their emotions, thus pre-

venting any repercussions on their mental and

physical health. Table I presents the actual

question asked of respondents in which a small

percentage of customer representatives report-

ed experiencing negative feelings when think-

ing about both the job and themselves.

Small and medium sales and service busi-ness representatives of Technet Ltd are both

physically and mentally healthy. General

tiredness, headaches and irritability are the

more common psychosomatic complaints.

Neck, shoulder and lower back are the more

common muscular pains, and nervousness is

the most reported negative feeling. T hese

malaises or symptoms may be indicative of

work-related stress but, as the literature states,

the causal relationship between stress and

health problems is difficult to prove. Regard-

less, an attempt was made to explain differ-ences in physical and mental health measures

study conducted in 1992 and through the

measures of both organizational and job

stressors.

Com par ison of 19 pot ent ial stre ssorsfrom 1992 to 1994

Technet Ltd has enumerated 19 potential

stressors in the past two stress studies. T hey

served as a basis for determining the magni-

tude of stress in various customer contact

groups including a control group. Represen-

tatives were asked to evaluate the 19 poten-

tial stressors individually in terms of the

contribution to their feelings of work pres-

sure or stress. The present study included

the same 19 potential stressors, although

they were subdivided into specific organiza-

tional and job stressors. Differences were

found between the study completed in 1992

and the current one but, for some stressors,

what was most stressful in 1992 is still truetoday. For example, for both studies, insuffi-

cient information on products and services

was the second largest contributor to work

pressure or stress. Yet, unlike in 1992, com-

puter failures were seen as the greatest con-

tributor for most to work pressure or stress in

1994. I n 1992, insufficient closed time to do

work was the greatest contributor. (Table II

contains the ranking of the 19 potential

stressors for both 1992 and 1994.)

Differences were also noted in the total

percentages for the stressors. They were oftenlower for the present study than for those in



Table I M ental heal th

When you think about

yourself and your job N ever or A good

now adays, how much lit t le of Som e of part of M ost of

of t he t im e do you: the t im e t he t im e t he t im e the t im e

Feel sad 65.7 31.3 3.0 0.0

Get irr i tated

or annoyed 31.3 56.7 11.9 0.0

Feel unhappy 64.5 29.0 4.8 1.6

Feel calm 16.4 32.8 29.9 20.9

Feel blue 73.1 23.9 3.0 0.0

Feel goo d 1.6 23.4 39.1 35.9

Feel nervous 25.8 45.5 27.3 1.5

Get angry 40.9 45.5 13.6 0.0

Feel j i tte ry 77.3 18.2 4.5 0.0

Get aggravated 31.3 52.2 14.9 1.5

Feel cheerful 1.5 25.8 43.9 28.8

Feel fidget y 28.8 53.0 18.2 0.0

Feel depressed? 72.7 21.2 6.1 0.0


Volume 9 · Number 1 · 1997 · 20–3 3



there are indices that customer representatives

do not experience as much work pressure or

stress from the 19 potential stressors as those

in 1992. T his is not to say that customer

representatives are significantly less stressed

but rather the sources of stress are now differ-

ent. Computer failures and the new competi-

tive environment are but two examples of

stressors which are important today but were

minor in 1992.

A final point is that the variances between

the two studies may also in part be because

of the differences in the number of respon-

dents in each study (67 in 1994 and 295 in

1992). Although, having compared percent-ages, it is possible to draw reasonable

Conclusion

Technet Ltd is working in the right direction

towards reducing the work pressure or stress

experienced by its customer contact employ-

ees. By having recognized that work pressure

or stress is an important influence in one’s

work life, over the past seven years, the com-

pany has made notable efforts to diminish

stressful conditions for customer contact

employees. T he company now provides ser-

vices (employee assistance programmes,

medical help, courses) for its managers and

employees. I t has created committees to

intensify communication throughout the

various levels of employees. By adopting a

total quality management perspective, man-

agers have become committed to quality and

delivering exceptional service to the

customers. T here have been reductions in role

conflict and role ambiguity for business repre-

sentatives as a result of both increased job

control and a good social support network.

Representatives are able to participate in the

establishment of their objectives, receive

support from their managers on and off the

job when things get tough at work, receive

respect and fair treatment, and are quite

satisfied with the supervision received by their

managers.

As was seen from the analysis in the previ-ous sections, in many of the organizational

and job stressors, the work pressure or stress

experienced by the business representatives

fits much of the literature, such as organiza-

tional change, work overload and techno-

stress. On the other hand, with the health

measures, the task of finding a link between

stress and its effect on health is more ambigu-

ous, as stated by the literature. T here are still

indications in the health of customer repre-

sentatives that stress is having an effect, such

as tiredness, irritability, headaches and back-aches, although the cause may not necessarily

be all attributable to stress. The process of

reducing work pressure or stress is a continu-

ous one because of constant changes in inter-

nal and external business environments. For

the future, Technet L td has to deal with, and

attempt to diminish, the effect of the competi-

tive environment on its employees among

other stressors.

Recommendations

The first aspect of work stress that Technet




Volume 9 · Number 1 · 1997 · 20–3 3

Table II Comparative stress studies: Percentage of small and medium

business reporting that potent ial stressors contribut e to th eir feel ings of w ork

pressure or stress to a large or very large extent

1989 19 92 1 994

Insufficient closed tim e to do w ork 67 59 41

Insufficient time bet w een incomingcalls 63 44 41

Diffi cult t o serve a custom er w ell and

keep call short 52 35 23

Insufficient inform ation o n products

and services 51 55 52

Call pace cont rolled by a ma chine 48 36 21

Frequently changing objectives 43 31 25

Flashing lig ht 41 35 23

Having to answer calls w hen at

specialist po sition 38 34 18

Emphasis on numb er of calls

completed 36 33 15Call activities are electronically

monitored 36 21 15

Having to deal with diffi cult

customers 34 27 32

The w ay information from t he

mo nito ring of call activitie s is used

by your manager 33 20 15

Computer system limitat ions 31 37 38

Having a m anager listen in on my calls 29 22 37

Emphasis on ma king sales 29 36 39

Computer system failures 28 34 55

The way informat ion from having ama nage r listen in on your calls is

used by your ma nager 27 20 15

Having to remain at the t erminal

too long 21 21 15

Pressure to w ork overtim e 4 4 1



or stress experienced by business representa-

tives as a result of new competition. Further

investigation is required to define the

specifics of this stress. For example, it is

possibly because of the lack of training on

how to answer a customer’s request coupled

with the pressure from having to retain mar-ket share. An initial solution, in order to

outline the sources of this stress, is focus

groups. Focus groups will permit various

exchanges between representatives and,

consequently, the most prevalent concerns as

a result of the new competitive environment

will be voiced.

It was noted that the emphasis on sales

within the administrative policy stressor was

today a greater contributor to work pressure

or stress for business representatives than in

1992. N onetheless, the need to retain marketshare is real and an integral part of a business

representative’s position. H owever, represen-

tatives have stated that they lack both train-

ing and information on products and

services. Management, in order to foster

sales, will have to give coaching, training

and/or better tools to help representatives

meet the customers’ needs and, subsequent-

ly, boost revenues. Management can look

into having other representatives who have

an ease in determining the customers’ needs

to coach those who have difficulty with their

salesmanship. M anagement must try to

change the connotation of sales from one

where products and services are thought to

be imposed on the customer to one where

the needs of a particular customer’s business

are met by services or products. Coaching

representatives to listen to a customer and to

ask questions which lead to a better under-

standing of his/her business may eventually

translate into sales.

Work overload and time pressure are twostressors which are intertwined in terms of the

business representative’s tasks and responsi-

bilities. Business representatives have

declared that the pace of work is often too fast

and they have insufficient closed time because

of their clerical work (orders and paper work).

Combined with the pressure from having to

keep the intervention short and serving the

customer well (role conflict), these stressors

need immediate attention. The creation of an

additional group, which will act as a liaison

between the various departments in terms of the necessary paper work, may relieve some of

efficiency of the new group can be evaluated,

management, within their planning of repre-

sentatives’ schedules, should allow represen-

tatives an additional period of time off call

(i.e. an additional half hour). I n addition,

management should emphasize the quality

and not quantity. Techno-stress is a significant stressor for

business representatives. Computer glitches

and downtimes contribute to their work

pressure or stress. It is very difficult to contin-

ue working with a customer when your most

vital work tool is not functioning. The sys-

tem’s capacity should be evaluated as it stands

and its power boosted if deemed necessary. In

the interim, management should look at

solutions which minimize the impact of com-

puter failures on business representatives. For

example, representatives, in rotation, could beallowed additional time off call to complete

orders once the computer is back online.

Dealing with difficult customers is a

stressor for a fair portion of the business

representatives. As previously mentioned,

management could allow representatives to

listen to other representatives deal with

difficult customers. This could help the

representative to learn from others’ experi-

ences and, consequently, help them control

their own emotions when faced with such a

situation. Group meetings are a second

proposed solution. T he agenda can concen-

trate on how to deal with difficult customers.

Exchanges between representatives can help

those who have difficulty dealing with hostile

and aggressive clients.

A small aspect that was alluded to in the

results of the study was the lack of rewards for

performing well and the rotation of representa-

tives on the specialist positions. There seem to

be weaknesses in the purpose of the perfor-

mance appraisal system and the reward system.Human resources, in collaboration with man-

agement, should look into upgrading these two

systems so that representatives feel that they are

working for them and not against them as they

seem to be. It is particularly important that

employees believe in the performance appraisal

and rewards; otherwise there is little from

which to draw one’s motivation.

A final point is that business representa-

tives should be made aware of the stress man-

agement available at Technet Ltd; essentially,

that individual stress management sessionsare available in the medical department.

-




Volume 9 · Number 1 · 1997 · 20–3 3



tatives could, in collaboration with the med-

ical department, schedule stress management

conferences or seminars for all business repre-

sentatives, either during the working day or

after hours, to confirm an issue all are cog-

nizant with and experience personally.

In conclusion, although these recommen-dations have addressed only the more negative

aspects of the study, Technet L td and its

management have, as a result of the past

studies, introduced a more participative type

of management and have developed an excel-

lent social support system. It is imperative

that management continues to work with the

customer representatives as a team since these

facets have been instrumental in relieving

stress and are well appreciated on the part of

the customer representatives, as indicated by

the responses and the decreases in stresslevels. F inally, involving the representatives in

finding solutions was successful in the past

and should be adopted once again. After all,

they are the core of customer service.

References

Adam s, J.D. (1981), “ Planning for comprehensive stressmanagem ent” , in M arshall , J. and Cooper, C.L. (Eds),Coping w ith Stress at Work , Gow er, Aldershot.

Appelbaum , S.H. and Primmer, B. (1990), “ An HRX forcomputer anxiety” , Personnel, Vol. 67 No. 4,September, pp. 8-11.

Aronsson, G, (1989), “ Sw edish research on job contro l,stress and h ealth ” , in Saut er, S.L., Hurrell, J.J. Jr andCooper, C.L. (Eds), Job Control and W orker Health,John W iley & Sons, Chichester, pp. 75-88.

Blanding, W. (1991), Customer Service Operations: The Complete Guide, American Management Associa-tion, N ew York, NY.

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