the impacts of china’s three gorges dam · driven the famous chinese river dolphin to extinction....
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Mini-review
The Impacts of China’s Three Gorges Dam:
China’s Best Option for Clean Power Generation?
Chad Petersen
4/5/2014
Introduction
China’s Three Gorges Dam (TGD) Project, located in the Yangtze River Valley, began
construction in 1994 and was fully completed and functional by the summer of 2012. It is the
world’s largest hydro-power project. A record 21 million cubic yards of concrete was poured to
build the TGD. At times there were upwards of 26,000 employees working on the TGD Project.
The dam’s reservoir has a length of 660 kilometers (410 miles); while the dam itself is 185
meters (607 feet) tall, and 2,309 meters (1.4 miles) in length (“China’s Three Gorges Dam, by
the Numbers,” n.d.). The project’s official reports state that 13 cities, 140 towns, and 1,350
villages were submerged, with at least 1.3 million people displaced and thousands still needing to
be relocated. Official reports place the cost of construction at $37.2 billion (US), while
unofficial estimates hover around $88 billion. The dam is equipped with 26 generators that have
a capacity of 18,200 megawatts, the equivalent of 10 modern nuclear power plants. The TGD
has the ability to power approximately one third of China’s residences
(“3gorgesfactsheet_feb2012_web.pdf,” n.d.).
There have been many positive effects of the TGD. For example, it has improved
transportation along the Yangtze River, which has also increased commerce, it has reduced
flooding, which has been responsible for thousands of fatalities in the Yangtze River Valley in
the past century, and it has the ability to power many of China’s homes. However, there have
been a number of negative impacts that were either overlooked, or ignored completely when the
TGD was being designed.
In 2011, China’s highest body of government acknowledged that there were problems
associated with the dam requiring immediate attention. Unfortunately, many of the problems
associated with the dam are expected to get worse as time goes by. For example, many factories,
mines, dumps, and industrial plants were submerged and now their wastes are polluting the
reservoir. River banks downstream have begun to erode causing massive landslides, and the
reservoir’s water weight threatens the seismic stability of the region. All of these problems also
have the cumulative ability to destroy one of the world’s largest fisheries in the East China Sea.
According to data gathered by the International Rivers Organization, “The dam has most likely
driven the famous Chinese river dolphin to extinction. Populations of the Chinese sturgeon, river
sturgeon and Chinese paddlefish have been decimated; all are now considered endangered.
Commercial fisheries in the Yangtze and off the river’s mouth in the East China Sea declined
sharply after the dam was closed” (“3gorgesfactsheet_feb2012_web.pdf,” n.d.).
This paper will attempt to report on the ecological, economic, cultural, and social impacts
of the TGD Project. Emphasis will be placed on comparing the TGD to upgrading the efficiency
of pre-existing power plants.
History of the Three Gorges Project
The Three Gorges Dam Project was first proposed in 1919 by Sun Yat-sen, the first
president and founder of the Republic of China. Sun Yat-sen envisioned the dam as a symbol of
China’s development and national prestige, while also arguing that it would stop the flooding
that threatened the river communities along the Yangtze (“SAllin_010304.pdf,” n.d.). It was to
be China’s largest public works project since the construction of the Great Wall. The project
was met with disdain by many who claimed that there were technical, social, economic, and
ecological implications involved with the construction of such a large project that were not being
properly evaluated. Economic conditions, social instability, and limitations in technology were
among some of the factors that kept the dam from beginning construction until the 1990’s
(“China’s Three Gorges Dam History,” n.d.).
Population Displaced
Approximately 1.3 million people were displaced during the construction of the TGD.
Thousands have yet to be relocated, or have been relocated just to be displaced again due to
erosion and landslides. China’s government created a policy entitled Development-oriented
Resettlement, and had originally planned to resettle the displaced to higher ground, as close as
possible to their original homes. This plan contains complex formulas used to determine the
monetary compensation to be offered to the displaced, as well guidelines for the allocation of
funds for the creation of new towns, jobs, and basic infrastructure (“The Short-Term Impact of
Involuntary Migration in China’s Three Gorges: A Prospective Study - Springer,” n.d.)
The plan has worked relatively well for relocating the urban population. Resettling rural
farmers, however, has come with its own set of challenges due in part to transforming the steep
hillsides into arable land. Erosion is already a problem in the region (which this paper will
address momentarily), and deforestation of the land by farmers is considered a direct cause of an
increase in landslides and flooding in the valley. Approximately 26 thousand hectares of
farmland were lost when the reservoir was inundated (“The Short-Term Impact of Involuntary
Migration in China’s Three Gorges: A Prospective Study - Springer,” n.d.).
The reservoir area has seen a massive transformation from cropland into an urban
landscape. Urbanization accounts for 83% of the 44% reduction in farmland within the reservoir
(“Environmental impact assessments of the Three Gorges Project in China: Issues and
interventions,” n.d.). Also, to prevent landslides, the creation of farmland on hillsides steeper
than 25 degrees was prohibited, resulting in a loss of lifestyle for 77,800 farmers who were
planned to be settled in those areas (“Environmental impact assessments of the Three Gorges
Project in China: Issues and interventions,” n.d.).
The land the farmers are being resettled on is not as fertile as the rice paddies they once
inhabited, affecting crop yield, food markets, and local economy. The combination of
urbanization, land fertility, and problems associated with resettlement have led to an 8% loss in
the net primary productivity (NPP) of the reservoir region (“Impacts of China’s Three Gorges
Dam Project on net primary productivity in the reservoir area,” n.d.). This is a very significant
loss in NPP since approximately 70% of the nation’s rice and agriculture, and 40% of the
nation’s total industrial output comes from the Yangtze River Valley (“Assessing the influence
of environmental impact assessments on science and policy: An analysis of the Three Gorges
Project,” n.d.).
It is estimated that only 31% of displaced were resettled in their intended locations
(“Environmental impact assessments of the Three Gorges Project in China: Issues and
interventions,” n.d.). Many farmers left behind a culture that cannot be replaced, and were not
compensated enough for their homes to be able to buy new ones. It is estimated 12% of the
resettlement funds were embezzled by government officials, 300 of whom were later found
guilty in a court of law (“3gorgesfactsheet_feb2012_web.pdf,” n.d.).
Many of the factories that were relocated “up-hill” were forced to close down due to
erosion. One city in particular, Yunyang, had only 45 of its 180 plus factories re-open and stay
operational; it is estimated that 20,000 people have lost their jobs due to these factory closures
alone (“3gorgesfactsheet_feb2012_web.pdf,” n.d.). China’s government revised their
resettlement strategy in 1999, and greatly increased the amount of people to be displaced from
the region.
With few successes, there are many measurable negative impacts resulting from project-
induced migration; including damage to the social structure, kin-based networks, economic well-
being, and the mental and physical health of the displaced migrants. Challenges often arise from
learning a new dialect, learning to farm a new crop, competition for land, and the breaking up of
the larger villages into smaller, less burdensome sizes (“The Short-Term Impact of Involuntary
Migration in China’s Three Gorges: A Prospective Study - Springer,” n.d.).
Historical Sites
It is estimated that well over 1,300 archaeological sites and digs were submerged when
the reservoir was inundated; approximately 100 of which were sites uncovering artifacts from the
Ba civilization thought to have settled in the region between 4,000 and 7,000 years ago, and
which possibly held clues to the origins of the Chinese people. Archaeologists worked diligently
to rescue as many of the artifacts as possible before inundation and were able to save over 6,000
precious artifacts and approximately 50,000 commonplace items of the Ba and other early
Chinese civilizations (“Saving the Cultural Relics of the Three Gorges,” n.d.).
Before inundation, discoveries at many of these sites served to solidify the belief that the
Three Gorges region should be recognized as the birth place of Chinese civilization. It is
believed that Paleolithic culture began in the area 50,000 to 100,000 years ago (“Saving the
Cultural Relics of the Three Gorges,” n.d.).
Reservoir-Induced Seismic Activity
There has always been a considerable amount of seismic activity in the Yangtze River
Valley, even before the completion of the TGD. However, reservoir-induced seismic activity in
the region has increased the frequency of earthquakes and landslides to numbers never before
seen in the years it has been monitored. There is a positive correlation between the height of the
reservoir and the frequency and magnitude of the earthquakes. The number of earthquakes
recorded in the Yangtze River Valley jumped from 40 earthquakes in the year 2000, to 2,121
earthquakes in the year 2008 (“Environmental impact assessments of the Three Gorges Project in
China: Issues and interventions,” n.d.).
The combination of erosion directly resulting from the daily raising and lowering of the
reservoir, which can total as much as 30 meters over the span of a year, along with reservoir-
induced seismic activity, also adds to the occurrence of dangerous landslides in the region.
Erosion and Sedimentation in the Yangtze River Valley
Erosion, as a direct result of the TGD, has had many different negative effects in the
Yangtze River Valley. Effects are widespread and varied; from hillside degradation within the
reservoir due to a daily raising and lowering of the water level, to sediment build-up in the
reservoir, to not enough sediment making it downstream for deposition.
The reservoir’s depth varies greatly over the span of a year, fluctuating by as much as 30
meters. Constant raising and lowering of the reservoir’s water level is compromising the
integrity of the hillsides, causing erosion and massive landslides upstream of the dam. This
anthropogenic process also adds to the amount of siltation within the reservoir and offsets natural
hydrologic processes. In 2005 alone, before the reservoir was completely filled, there were 263
landslides and rock-falls under investigation, approximately 6-10% of which were considered
unstable, especially after inundation (“The littoral zone in the Three Gorges Reservoir, China:
challenges and opportunities - Springer,” n.d.).
It is estimated that 151 million tons of sediment per year is retained within the dam’s
reservoir, approximately two-thirds of the total yearly sediment that would spread throughout the
river delta if the TGD were not there. It is feared that the increasing siltation occurring behind
the dam could lead to parts of the Yangtze becoming impassable in the near future to commercial
traffic, which the region depends on for its economy. It is also believed that enough sediment
build-up behind the dam could lead to a blockage of the sluice gates, which control the water
levels in the reservoir; this could lead to an increase in flooding upstream, and a loss of power
generation due to a slower water speed affecting turbine efficiency (“China’s Three Gorges Dam
Environmental Impact,” n.d.). With siltation occurring at a rate of 151 million tons deposited
behind the dam per year, it is estimated that it will take approximately 150 years to fill the
reservoir completely with sediment. There are plans in the works to build four more large dams
in the area, which could possibly increase the amount of time before the reservoir is completely
full of sediment to 300 years (Yang, Zhang, & Xu, 2007).
The lack of sediment load downstream is causing erosion of the hillsides, but not at a rate
that offsets the normal sediment deposits of the valley. Sediment deposits are important for the
integrity of delta fronts because they act as a natural balance between deposition and erosion.
This balance has been affected severely, and was not originally taken into consideration when
the dam was proposed (Yang et al., 2007). Sediment load at the river’s mouth dropped to one-
third the amount previously recorded before the dam’s completion. It is estimated that about 4
kilometers of brackish wetlands are lost to erosion each year as a result. This has the ability to
destroy arable land and threaten drinking water supplies as salt water moves inland
(“3gorgesfactsheet_feb2012_web.pdf,” n.d.).
Green House Gas Emissions
Hydro-electric power, for many years, has been considered “clean” energy, replacing the
need to combust fossil fuels or to build nuclear power plants as a source of energy generation.
Hydro-electric power generation is clean in the sense that no greenhouse gases (GHG’s) are
released during actual power generation from the spinning of turbines. However, the impounded
reservoirs resulting from the construction of dams are known to be major contributors to GHG’s
worldwide. Rotting vegetation and slow moving water cause stagnation and algal blooms which
release GHG’s such as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide (“The-Impact-of-China-s-3-
gorges.pdf,” n.d.). It is estimated that reservoirs can account for as much as 28% of the world’s
global warming potential associated with GHG emissions, releasing as much as 104 million
metric tons of methane yearly (“annual report 1-7 - WCD_DAMS report.pdf,” n.d.).
Eutrophication within the TGD reservoir is being exacerbated by slower moving water
than is normally attributed to the hydrologic cycle, holding back much of the fertilizer run-off
and industrial waste that would have normally flowed out to sea. Before the completion of the
TGD, eutrophication was not a problem in the Yangtze River Valley (“Environmental impact
assessments of the Three Gorges Project in China: Issues and interventions,” n.d.).
Water Quality
Water quality in the Yangtze River Valley, its tributaries, surrounding catchments, and
coastal wetlands at the mouth of the river have been affected by a number of anthropogenic and
natural factors that have been exacerbated by the construction of the TGD and reservoir
inundation. It is estimated that there is discharge of 28,000 tons of nitrogen and 80 tons of
pesticides from agricultural run-off each year, and a daily discharge of 10 million tons of
industrial waste and domestic sewage upstream of the TGD (“Assessing the influence of
environmental impact assessments on science and policy: An analysis of the Three Gorges
Project,” n.d.). The Yangtze River is considered one of the most polluted water-ways in the
world with over 40% of China’s sewage and effluent wastes being released in to its waters yearly
(López-Pujol & Ming-Xun Ren, 2009). Also, it is estimated that 10 million tons of garbage,
trees, animal corpses, and plastic bottles have accumulated behind the dam since completion
(“China’s Three Gorges Dam, by the Numbers,” n.d.).
Dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) and total phosphorus (TP) loads are good indicators
of the water quality within a given region (“Historical trend of nitrogen and phosphorus loads
from the upper Yangtze River basin and their responses to the Three Gorges Dam - Springer,”
n.d.). The reservoir shows high levels of DIN and TP loads when water is retained, and lower
levels when water is discharged, supporting a positive correlation between water speed and the
ability for the Yangtze to flush pollutants downstream. The DIN and TP loads in the reservoir
are directly affected by fertilizer and pesticide run-off, livestock effluent run-off, and industrial
waste run-off (“Historical trend of nitrogen and phosphorus loads from the upper Yangtze River
basin and their responses to the Three Gorges Dam - Springer,” n.d.).
On top of this, reservoir is estimated to contain over 1,600 abandoned mines, waste
dumps, industrial factories, and potentially toxic sites that were submerged when the dam was
completed and the reservoir was inundated(“3gorgesfactsheet_feb2012_web.pdf,” n.d.). It is
believed that the contaminants associated with these sites are now spreading throughout the
reservoir affecting water quality and ecosystem biodiversity.
The Chinese River Dolphin
With approximately 6,000 plant species, 500 different species of terrestrial vertebrates,
and around 160 species of fish once recorded in the area, the Yangtze River Valley is considered
one of the richest areas in China with regards to biodiversity (López-Pujol & Ming-Xun Ren,
2009). The entire Yangtze River Basin, including all tributaries, is home to an incredible 361
native fish species, 148 of which are endemic. The Upper Yangtze River Valley alone is home
to 118 endemic species of fish, housing many species considered to be living fossils
(“Identifying freshwater conservation priorities in the Upper Yangtze River Basin - HEINER -
2010 - Freshwater Biology - Wiley Online Library,” n.d.) due to the area being a glacial refuge
from the Tertiary and Quaternary ice periods (López-Pujol & Ming-Xun Ren, 2009).
Large dams are considered one of the major threats to freshwater biodiversity and habitat,
and the TGD has had many negative impacts on the richness and the health of the multitude of
life in the region. For example, the Chinese River Dolphin (Lipotes vexillifer), which has seen
declining numbers in population since the 1950’s due to a loss of mobility, habitat, and food
resources, is now considered functionally extinct. In 2006, an international research team of
biologists, including members of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s
(NOAA) National Marines Fishery Service, were unable to find any signs of the dolphin’s
survival (Turvey et al., 2007). The apparent extinction of the Chinese River Dolphin is attributed
purely to anthropogenic activities; with fishing related deaths and the construction of large dams
(TGD in particular) topping the list of factors.
Freshwater Ecosystems
Freshwater ecosystems can be extremely sensitive to variations in water temperature,
water velocity, water depth, dissolved oxygen levels, and food availability; all of which are
affected by the TGD Project. An anthropogenic process known as hydro-peaking has negatively
impacted downstream habitats due to causing extreme variations in water level directly related to
the discharge rate and reservoir levels (“Taylor & Francis Online :: Eco-hydraulics and eco-
sedimentation studies in China - Journal of Hydraulic Research - Volume 51, Issue 1,” n.d.).
Extreme changes in sediment transport related to reservoir discharge can have negative impacts
on benthic macro-invertebrates and riparian plant species, which are known to thrive in stable
stream environments with reliable fluvial properties. Hydro-peaking can occur from variations
in water level due to unexpected dam malfunctions, high prices for energy causing an increase in
dam use, and grid balancing causing more drastic changes than would occur naturally (“Slide 1 -
02_Bakken_WS Hydropeaking Zurich 2012-06-19.pdf,” n.d.). It is has been noted that hydro-
peaking has the ability to kill most species within short distances downstream of discharge
(“Taylor & Francis Online :: Eco-hydraulics and eco-sedimentation studies in China - Journal of
Hydraulic Research - Volume 51, Issue 1,” n.d.).
China does not require fish ladders to be integrated into the construction of their dams
which can often result in the complete loss of habitat for spawning species due to a
fragmentation of migration routes (López-Pujol & Ming-Xun Ren, 2009). Prior to the
completion of TGD, 25 species of fish were harvested commercially, providing a source of
income and food to the region’s population (“Assessing the influence of environmental impact
assessments on science and policy: An analysis of the Three Gorges Project,” n.d.). It is
estimated that there was a 50-70% decrease in annual carp harvest along with a 95% decrease in
the carp’s ability to reproduce due to impacts associated to the dam within its first 3 years of
completion (“Assessing the influence of environmental impact assessments on science and
policy: An analysis of the Three Gorges Project,” n.d.). “Fragmentation of habitat, especially the
cutting off riparian lakes from the river in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River, stressed the
ecosystem and reduced the number of macro-invertebrates species by about 60% and reduced the
fishery harvest by about 80%. Re-linkage of riparian lakes and wetlands with the river may
restore the complex habitat” (“Taylor & Francis Online :: Eco-hydraulics and eco-sedimentation
studies in China - Journal of Hydraulic Research - Volume 51, Issue 1,” n.d.).
Littoral Zones
Littoral zones are an important transition, or interface, between land and water, and
provide habitat to many different flora and fauna. Littoral zones are ecological hotspots
providing an area for many important biogeochemical processes to function. Littoral zones, both
upstream and down, are fragile and extremely affected by fluctuation in the reservoir’s depth.
Slower moving water, caused by reservoir inundation, adds to the growth of phytoplankton along
these zones, which can become stagnant and cause algal blooms and eutrophication. This is
amplified by the lowering of the reservoir in summer months allowing for rapid plant growth.
When the reservoir is returned to normal levels the vegetation begins to rot. This unnaturally
rapid plant growth and decay disrupts natural hydrological processes and has the ability to
threaten entire aquatic ecosystems. Littoral zones also play an important role in helping to
control non-point source pollution, especially fertilizer run-off (“The littoral zone in the Three
Gorges Reservoir, China: challenges and opportunities - Springer,” n.d.).
Terrestrial Ecosystems
Habitat loss and fragmentation are the most visible effects of the TGD; having affected
not only humans and aquatic life, but numerous plant and animal taxa as well. Effects are varied
depending on location. For instance, plants and animals may be affected in the reservoir region
due to an increase in water causing a loss of habitat, while downstream they will be affected by a
loss of water and sediment levels changing habitat by causing a regression of wetlands,
floodplains, estuaries, deltas, and beaches (López-Pujol & Ming-Xun Ren, 2009).
The TGD reservoir is China’s largest artificially created wetland ecosystem resulting
from many anthropogenic alterations. A total of 47 threatened and endangered species that are
protected by law (“Environmental Impacts,” n.d.) still inhabit the area such as the golden snub-
nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana), the rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta), and the
Himalayan black bear (Ursus thibetanus) which have seen a great decline in suitable habitat due
to the construction of the TGD (López-Pujol & Ming-Xun Ren, 2009). Animals face less of a
threat than plant species due to having the ability to move uphill(López-Pujol & Ming-Xun Ren,
2009). Although many impacts are not fully understood, the animals at greatest risk are those
associated with low altitude grassland habitat loss, and animals affected by changes in their food
web due to reservoir inundation (“Assessing the influence of environmental impact assessments
on science and policy: An analysis of the Three Gorges Project,” n.d.).
China’s Increasing Energy Demand
China’s demand for energy is immense and growing. One study compiled by The China
Sustainable Energy Program claims that China’s air-conditioners alone have the ability to absorb
all of the power that the TGD is able to generate (“China Sustainable Energy Program Brochure
— Energy Foundation China,” n.d.). Along with holding the world’s largest population, China is
also the world’s largest energy consuming and producing nation. They are the global leader in
coal consumption for energy generation, accounting for 47% of total global coal usage in 2011
alone (a growth of 9% from the year before), nearly as much as the rest of the world combined
(“China consumes nearly as much coal as the rest of the world combined - Today in Energy -
U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA),” n.d.).
In 2013, China accounted for one-third of total global oil consumption, and was second
only to the United States in oil imports and oil consumption. It is expected to surpass the United
States in these regards in 2014 (“china.pdf,” n.d.).
In 2011, as a direct result of energy production, China led the world with nearly 9 million
metric tons of CO2 emitted into the atmosphere. China plans to reduce their total CO2 emissions
by 40% before the year 2040. They plan, in part, to do this by reducing their reliance on coal
and fossil fuels as a source for primary energy generation. In 2011, nearly 70% of energy
consumed in China was coal generated, oil accounted for about 18% of power generation, and
hydro-electric accounted for only 6%. Even though China is a world leader in the development
of sustainable, renewable energy sources, these sources only account for about 1% of the power
generated in 2011, which compares with nuclear at about 1% also (“china.pdf,” n.d.).
Conclusion
Worldwide there are approximately 48,000 dams over 50 feet in height, 26,000 of which
are found on China’s waterways(“The Dam Building Boom: Right Path to Clean Energy? by
David Biello: Yale Environment 360,” n.d.). Approximately one-half to two-thirds of the
world’s rivers are dammed. Fresh water only accounts for 2.5% of the total water on Earth, only
about 30% of which is liquid, with only about 2% of that being surface water (“annual report 1-7
- WCD_DAMS report.pdf,” n.d.). It is estimated that the second half of the 20th century saw
dams built at a rate of one dam per hour (“annual report 1-7 - WCD_DAMS report.pdf,” n.d.).
With so many dams being built and competition for water occurring at a rate never before seen,
there have been a number of critics who say China’s mega-dam model should not be replicated.
Some consider the TGD Project a social, cultural, economic, and ecological disaster. However,
there are plans in the works to build a large number of these dams along the Yangtze River, and
throughout the rest of the world.
China’s dedication to implementing renewable sources of energy into their infrastructure
is commendable, but when it comes to large scale dams like the TGD, the benefits do not
necessarily outweigh the negative impacts. It has been argued that China would have been better
off building a number of small dams, or improving the efficiency of pre-existing power plants
(due to many of their technologies being outdated) in place of the TGD. According to Douglas
Ogden, the Director for China’s Sustainable Energy Program and Vice President for China’s
Energy foundation, “It would have been cheaper, cleaner and more productive for China to
have invested in energy efficiency [than in new power-plants]
(“3gorgesfactsheet_feb2012_web.pdf,” n.d.).
Energy Efficiency Power Plants (EPP’s) are an option being explored in China. EPP’s
reduce emissions and energy use by implementing efficiency measures in existing power plants
by using cleaner technologies in areas such as improved lighting, refrigeration, and electric
motors (“Doug Ogden - JP Morgan Hands-On China Series.pdf — Energy Foundation China,”
n.d.). It is believed that these options should be explored before considering the construction of
new power plants.
Nations implementing large scale dam projects similar to the TGD should consider
weighing options by investing in non-bias, accurate, and thorough environmental impact
assessments before beginning construction. This will help to ensure that the decisions that are
made now do not have negative impacts on future generations or habitat biodiversity within a
region. It is important to realize that all ecosystems have interconnectedness; they are a chain in
which the survival of one species is often connected to the survival of another. This chain could
ultimately lead to humans being the final species being affected.
Given the negative impacts addressed by this paper, the TGD Project seems a step
backwards for China with regards to clean, safe energy generation. It does not seem a viable
option when such a large loss of species, biodiversity, human habitat, economy, and water
quality are the risks, and air conditioning is the benefit. Other options should be examined
before a nation decides to build a mega-dam. Perhaps the TGD Project should be used as a
guideline for future generations when comparing the inputs and outputs involved with such
large-scale projects.
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