the incalculable scientific benefits of space probes

The Incalculable Scientific Benefits of

Space Probes

Robert Christian Taylor

October 10, 2011

The Incalculable Scientific Benefits of Space Probes Robert C. Taylor

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The Incalculable Scientific Benefits of Space Probes

Exploring space using autonomous probes has shed scientific light on much of the

solar system and Earth. However, the cost of these programs falls upon the government

due to a lack of private incentive. Unfortunately, claims have been circulated around

saying space exploration has provided nothing of scientific value. Aggravating the issue,

the political pressure to balance the government‟s budget has repeatable left less and less

money going to these programs citing the claim of no scientific value. Consequently, less

and less resources are being directed to space probe based exploration and the idea that

space probes have no benefit continues to be perpetuated injuring the future through the

denying of an increase in technological and scientific understanding. As stated, these

conditions have resulted from the erroneous claim autonomous space exploration

produces no benefits. Autonomous space exploration has produced incalculable amounts

of scientific information along with advancements in technology.

First, the early space probes expanded the scientific knowledge of Earth‟s

exosphere, magnetosphere. The motivation to study Earth from space was sourced from

the international event termed the International Geophysical Year which, according to

Dickson, “involved more than 5,000 scientists in the effort to find out as much as they

could about the Earth, the Sun, and outer space.1” The first spacecraft launched in

accordance with this initiative was the launch of Sputnik One by the USSR on October 4,

1957. Some scientific facts returned included the general temperature variance of the

exosphere, orbital decay characteristics, and propagation characteristics of space based

1 Paul, Dickson. Sputnik: the shock of the century (United States: Walker Publishing Company, Inc. 2001),

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communication in the ionosphere.2 Another significant achievement was the discovery of

the Van Allen Radiation belt by the United State‟s Vanguard III, launched September 19,

19593. The discovery of the radiation belt was called “the first major space discovery and

the most important finding of the IGY. 4

” This claim was no understatement because the

radiation plays havoc on satellite electronics5. Therefore, if satellites are to last any

appreciable amount of time then the electronics will require protection from the

radiation6.

Second, the space probe technologically benefits society and provides scientific

foresight. From the early age of exploration using space probes, subsequent satellite

designs would benefit from the discovery of the radiation belt, and would benefit from

the experience gained from shielding space probes from the radiation. Thus, these early

probes began the trend of increasing reliability and durability of both later and modern

spacecrafts. Moreover, technological progress was fostered from the research and

development undertaken to build the Vanguard satellite series. Ultimately, the research

used to develop the Vanguard probes would further help develop the integrated circuit

and promote the miniaturization of electronics which was a crucial development leading

2 “Soviet Craft – Sputnik.” Journey Through the Galaxy. Last Modified: January 11, 2006. (accessed

September 30, 2011),

http://burro.cwru.edu/stu/advanced/20th_soviet_sputnik.html 3 Paul, Dickson. Sputnik: the shock of the century (United States: Walker Publishing Company, Inc. 2001),

183 4 Paul, Dickson. Sputnik: the shock of the century (United States: Walker Publishing Company, Inc. 2001),

182 5 "RADIATION BELTS." (n.d.): Funk & Wagnalls New World Encyclopedia, EBSCOhost (accessed

September 17, 2011). 6 Some readers will argue the Sputnik series launched by the USSR, and the Vanguard series launched by

the United States are not true space probes but instead artificial satellites. However, they can be considered

space probes because before their time there existed no satellites and little was known about the space

around Earth. Thus, they did what a space probe does which is exploring the little to unknown paving the

way for the entry of manned exploration and commercial enterprise.


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to the digital age7. Finally, Vanguard 1, launched by the United States, provided scientific

foresight by discovering photons, and solar winds have an impact on the orbit of a space

vehicle which allowed later interplanetary space missions to compensate for their

effects8.

Third, space probes have performed reconnaissance for later missions and have

returned valuable scientific information and the occasional technological benefit. The

first space probes launched toward the outer solar system were Pioneer 10 and 11,

launched in 1972 and 1973 respectively9. The two probes showed space probes could

cross the asteroid belt without being destroyed, additionally these probes provided the

first measurements of the intensity of Jupiter‟s radiation belts, and provide the first close

up pictures of Jupiter. Also, these probes proved the feasibility of a gravity assist which

was important in its own right as this maneuver would be used on practically all later

missions as a way to gain speed and reduce fuel cost10

. Additionally, these probes

indirectly helped advance the sensitivity of radio receivers because NASA had to

“sharpen the communication apparatus for the deep-space communication.” 11

Next came

the two Voyager probes, named Voyager 1 and Voyager 2, launched toward the end of

1977 by the United States12.

These two discovered many new moons, Voyager 1 and

7 Dickson, Paul. Sputnik: the shock of the century (United States: Walker Publishing Company, Inc. 2001),

180

8 Paul, Dickson. Sputnik: the shock of the century (United States: Walker Publishing Company, Inc. 2001),

181 9Stephen, Pyne. Voyager: seeking newer worlds in the third great age of discovery (New York, New York:

Penguin Group (USA) Inc. 2010),156 10

Stephen, Pyne. Voyager: seeking newer worlds in the third great age of discovery (New York, New

York: Penguin Group (USA) Inc. 2010),156 11


York: Penguin Group (USA) Inc. 2010),154-155 12


York: Penguin Group (USA) Inc. 2010),XIV


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Voyager 2 shed scientific light on the magnetosphere of the outer Jovian planets.

Furthermore, Voyager 2 discovered the presence of a ring around Uranus, and made the

astonishing discovery of intense geological activity on Triton, a moon of Neptune which

would become the target of further scientific exploration by the Cassini probe. Thus the

scientific data provided by these missions would be used to formulate the targets and

goals of later space probes.

Next, the Cassini and Galileo mission provided data on the outer solar system

planets, and their moons, which led to insight into Earth weather patterns, and the origin

of life. Galileo was launched toward Jupiter in October of 1989 and entered into orbit

around the gas giant December of 1995 and immediately began sending back scientific

data13

. Some of the data sent back indicated the presence of a liquid ocean beneath the

moon surface of the moon Europa. Additionally, Galileo was armed with a planetary

probe designed to explore the workings of Jupiter‟s atmosphere which was successfully

launched into the planet‟s atmosphere sending back valuable scientific data useful for

scientific study of our atmosphere14

. According to Koupelis, “Jupiter may provide an

even better study of weather systems [..] for weather patterns in the upper atmosphere of

Jupiter are far removed from any solid surface [..] and, therefore, are [..] unaffected by

13

"SPACE EXPLORATION." (n.d.): Funk & Wagnalls New World Encyclopedia, EBSCOhost (accessed

September 17, 2011).

http://web.ebscohost.com.db07.linccweb.org/ehost/delivery?sid=b1b976a4-45a4-40a1-8544-

f00983106882@sessionmgr112&vid=7&hid=123&db=FUNK&ss=AN+%22PL093800%22&sl=ll

“Shuttle Launched After Delay And Galileo Is Sent to Jupiter.” New York Times (1923-Current File),

October 19, 1989.

http://search.proquest.com/docview/110213400?accountid=10674 14

“Goodbye to Gallant Galileo.” New York Times (1923-Current File), September 24, 2003.

http://search.proquest.com/docview/92501449?accountid=10674|


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[..] surface irregularities.15

” Essentially Koupelis is illustrating that by using the data

from Jupiter, Earths weather system can be better understood because Jupiter‟s weather

system is much less complicated then Earth‟s atmosphere16

. Second, Cassini was

launched toward Saturn on October 15, 1997 and entered in orbit around the planet on

July 1st, 2004

17. In the course of orbiting the planet the probe learned more about Saturn

atmosphere, its rings, and observed many of its moons. Additionally, scientific data was

gained from the launching and landing of the Huygens probe onto Titan whose

environment, scientist believe, is similar to Earth‟s early environment. Thus, scientists

have used the data to better understand the conditions which led to the formation of life

on early Earth.18

.

Third, an increase in the understanding of the inner planets was facilitated by

space probe based exploration. First, scientific understanding of Venus was gained from

the ten to fifteen space probes launched by the USSR‟s Venera program between the

years of 1973-198419

. Collectively, these probes exposed Venus‟s surface through the use

of radar, sampled the condition of the planet‟s atmosphere, and returned the first pictures

15

Theo, Koupelis. In Quest of The Universe Sixth Edition. Sudbury, Massachusetts (Jones and Bartlett

Publishers, 2011), 247 16



“The Cassini Mission to Saturn.” Cassini Solstice Mission. Last Modified October 1999.

http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/multimedia/products/pdfs/cassini_msn.pdf

18

“Cassini Solstice Mission: About Saturn & its Moons.” Cassini Solstice Mission. Accessed October 4,

2011.

http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/science/index.cfm?SciencePageID=73 19






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of the planet‟s surface20

. Additionally, the US„s Pioneer-Venus probes, launched on May

20th

, and August 8th

of 1978, and the Magellan probe, launched in 1989, used radar to

map the surface of Venus21

. Noteworthy, the study of Venus by these probes provided

insight about Earth‟s weather system as Venus suffers from a severe green house effect.

Like Jupiter, by observing Venus we learn much more about how carbon dioxide affects

our own ecosystem on earth22

. Additionally, through the launch of probes an increased

understanding of the Martian planet was learned. The stream of scientific data about Mars

began with pictures take of Mars by the flyby of Mariner 4 in 1964. In 1971, Mariner 9

passed the red planet providing much higher quality photos of the planet. The question of

life on Mars was answered by two Viking landers through an experiment they conducted

on the surface of Mars23

. Eventually, our modern understanding of Mars was established

in the late 1990‟s from a series of highly successful space probes sent there. The first

probe, the Mars Global Surveyor, began its orbit around Mars in September of 1997 and

provided scientific data about the Martian crust24

. More information on the crust

followed from the successful landing of the Sojourner rover, the Spirit Rover, the

Opportunity Rover, and the Phoenix lander. All in all, these robotic landers sent details

20




f00983106882@sessionmgr112&vid=7&hid=123&db=FUNK&ss=AN+%22PL093800%22&sl=ll 21




f00983106882@sessionmgr112&vid=7&hid=123&db=FUNK&ss=AN+%22PL093800%22&sl=ll 22




Publishers, 2011), 228-229 24






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on the composition of the Martian crust, the atmosphere, and one, the Phoenix lander,

proved the presence of water on Mars25

.

Therefore, much of what we know about the solar system would still be unknown

if it were not for space probes. They have been sent many places, have learned many new

things, and have made fundamentals scientific discoveries which have answered old

questions but have led to the rising of new ones. They have contributed technologically to

the future and have provided valuable scientific insight for future projects. By sending

these probes out to other planets scientist have learned more about the solar planets and

in doing so have learned more about Earth through the use of these other planets as

models. While not immediate, these space probes have been worth their cost as their

benefits have been felt in the short run and in the decades and centuries to come. Thus,

funding should continued to be allocated to them else risk losing their scientific

advantage.

25


Publishers, 2011), 224-225


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“Cassini Solstice Mission: About Saturn & its Moons.” Cassini Solstice Mission.

Accessed October 4, 2011.

http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/science/index.cfm?SciencePageID=73

Dickson, Paul. Sputnik: The Shock of The Century. United States: Walker Publishing

Company, Inc. 2001.

“Goodbye to Gallant Galileo.” New York Times (1923-Current File), September 24,

2003.

http://search.proquest.com/docview/92501449?accountid=10674|

Koupelis, Theo. In Quest of The Universe Sixth Edition. Sudbury, Massachusetts: Jones

and Bartlett Publishers, 2011.

Pyne, Stephen. Voyager: Seeking Newer Worlds in the Third Great Age of Discovery.

New York, New York: Penguin Group (USA) Inc. 2010.

"RADIATION BELTS." (n.d.): Funk & Wagnalls New World Encyclopedia,

EBSCOhost (accessed September 17, 2011).

“Shuttle Launched After Delay And Galileo Is Sent to Jupiter.” New York Times (1923-

Current File), October 19, 1989.

http://search.proquest.com/docview/110213400?accountid=10674

“Soviet Craft – Sputnik.” Journey Through the Galaxy. Last Modified: January 11, 2006.

(accessed September 30, 2011).

http://burro.cwru.edu/stu/advanced/20th_soviet_sputnik.html

"SPACE EXPLORATION." (n.d.): Funk & Wagnalls New World Encyclopedia,

EBSCOhost (accessed September 17, 2011).

http://web.ebscohost.com.db07.linccweb.org/ehost/delivery?sid=b1b976a4-45a4-

40a1-8544-

f00983106882@sessionmgr112&vid=7&hid=123&db=FUNK&ss=AN+%22PL0

93800%22&sl=ll

“Sputnik in Flight.” New York Times (1923-Current File), October 13, 1957.

http://search.proquest.com/docview/114102220?accountid=10674.

“The Cassini Mission to Saturn.” Cassini Solstice Mission. Last Modified October 1999.

http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/multimedia/products/pdfs/cassini_msn.pdf


10

"Venera Program." Astronomy & Space: From the Big Bang to the Big Crunch, Gale

Science In Context. August 30, 2007. (accessed September 21, 2011).

http://ic.galegroup.com/ic/scic/ReferenceDetailsPage/ReferenceDetailsWindow?d

isplayGroupName=Reference&disableHighlighting=false&prodId=SCIC&action

=e&windowstate=normal&catId=&documentId=GALE%7CCV2640050188&mo

de=view&userGroupName=lincclin_ecc&jsid=532791ce6b98014afd05df4166a29

4b3

"Viking Program." Astronomy & Space: From the Big Bang to the Big Crunch, Gale

Science In Context. June 30, 2008. (accessed September 17, 2011).

http://ic.galegroup.com/ic/scic/ReferenceDetailsPage/ReferenceDetailsWindow?d

isplayGroupName=Reference&disableHighlighting=false&prodId=SCIC&action

=e&windowstate=normal&catId=&documentId=GALE%7CCV2640050191&mo

de=view&userGroupName=lincclin_ecc&jsid=29b522f746f68c4eaa554fa90fa31

7b3


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the incalculable scientific benefits of space probes

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