the individual and the state: antiquity to the modern era

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The Individual and The State:

Antiquity to the Modern Era

Social Studies 2201

Unit 3, Outcome 8.0

8.0 The Individual and the State

In this outcome, we will…

• 8.1 explain political structures during the early Medieval period

• 8.2 explain changes in governance that occurred in England from the Medieval to Early Modern eras

• 8.3 explain how the Enlightenment contributed to change governance

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8.1 The Roman Empire• In 27 BCE Rome’s republic was no more:

▫ After a civil war between Rome’s most powerful officials, Octavian took power and became the unchallenged ruler. He took the title Augustus, which means “exalted one”.

▫ He was the supreme commander of Rome’s armies, which gave him the title imperator (from which we get the word emperor).

• Rome was at the peak of its power from 27 BCE to 180 CE:

▫ There was relative peace – the Pax Romana. Most military action expanded the empire’s lengthy boarders and was far away from daily life.

▫ 1 million people lived in the city of Rome itself, up to 80 million lived in the empire.

▫ A series of able emperors, civil servants, and public services maintained stability.

▫ Agriculture and trade flourished.

Augustus Caesar as Imperator

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8.1 The Fall of The Roman Empire

• The Pax Romana ended with the death of Marcus Aurelius – the last great emperor of Rome.

▫ He was an able ruler, military leader, and “philosopher king” who cared deeply about managing the state for the good of its citizens.

• His successors were inept rulers who had great difficulty addressing the needs of citizens and protecting the empire from outside forces. Rome would begin to decline.

• The empire’s economy weakened.

▫ boarder wars and pirates in the Mediterranean affected trade

▫ lack of expansion reduced new sources of gold and silver

▫ Agriculture struggled due to reduced soil fertility from overuse

▫ Food shortages and disease contributed to population decline

Marcus Aurelius


• The empire’s military and government weakened.

▫ Rome’s armies became loyal to their wealthy commanders rather than the empire.

▫ Mercenaries – soldiers who fight for money – became common, lessening loyalty. They often fought for commanders who struggled with each other for power.

▫ This lack of political stability resulted in many citizens losing their sense of patriotism. They would become more loyal to their local leaders.

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• These economic and political problems combined with invasions of barbarian tribes from the east resulted in the empire disintegrating.

▫ In the mid 400s CE the Huns – a destructive tribe of 100,000 soldiers from central Asia –led by Attila migrated west, forcing other Germanic peoples into lands held by the Romans.

▫ This pressure collapsed local government and eventually the entire empire.

▫ In 476 CE the last Roman emperor – Romulus Augustulus – was deposed by a Germanic king, Odoacer.

▫ The empire neither had the resources nor leadership to rise again.

Complete “8.1 - Emergence of Feudal Europe” Activity

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8.1 Feudalism in Europe• From approx. 500-900 CE a series of Germanic kings ruled parts of Western

Europe.

• The most notable of these was Charlemagne (“Charles the Great”), who ruled Frankia (what is now France and parts of Germany and Italy). This contributed to political and social order being restored somewhat in Western Europe.

• He extended Frankish influence in Western Europe through military and political maneuvering. This included establishment of strong regional government through counts, over whom he held power. This would contribute to feudalism.

• He lead a cultural and educational revival – The Carolingian Renaissance:

• He surrounded himself with scholars from England, Germany, Italy, and Spain

• Opened palace schools to educate noble families

• Ordered monasteries to open schools to educate future priests and monks

• Tried to preserve Roman learning through copying of manuscripts

Charlemagne was crowned Holy

Roman Emperor by the pope on Christmas Day,

800 CE

• From approx. 800-1000 CE Vikings (also called Northmen, or Norsemen) from Denmark, Norway, and Sweden raided parts of Europe.

• These were seafaring people – well armed, ferocious warriors who sailed up rivers, attacked quickly, and looted villages and monasteries before heading back to sea.

• In 911, a Viking commander named Rollo had been attacking Northern France for years.

• Charles the Simple, king of France, was a weak ruler and made an agreement with Rollo so he would stop plundering his lands:

• Rollo was given a large territory to govern (what is today Normandy)

• In return, Rollo pledged loyalty and military support to the king

• This helped establish feudalism in France and Western Europe beyond the contribution of the stirrup.

8.1 Feudalism in Europe

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Feudalism was based on rights and responsibilities:

• A lord (wealthy landowner), granted land (a fief) to someone (a vassal), who would provide military service in exchange.

• This two-sided system depended on the control of land and the obligations one side had to the other.

▫ At the top: the monarch owned all land and had the greatest power. Monarchs made laws and policies affecting the kingdom and was responsible for providing justice.

▫ In the middle: nobles (aristocrats) held fiefs from the monarch, which gave them wealth, but they owed military and political service in return. They subdivided their fiefs to grant to others (mounted knights) to provide for their military obligations to the monarch.

▫ At the bottom: peasants worked the lord’s land and received protection in return.


Feudalism in Europe

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Social Status

• There were three broad classifications within society:

▫ Those who fought – nobles, knights, and soldiers

▫ Those who prayed – bishops, priests, monks, nuns

▫ Those who worked – peasants

• The majority of society was composed of peasants. Serfs were peasants who were tied to their lord’s land and helped provide for the estate. They were not slaves, but their freedom was restricted.


Involvement in politics and society

• Those of the highest social status (kings, nobles, church leaders) held most of the power and had a direct say in issues affecting daily life.

• Monarchy was the most common form of government.

• Good and poor rulers came and went, as positions of power were often inherited.

• The vast majority of people had no fair and legal means of being involved in political decisions.


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• During the middle ages in Western Europe, Christianity was widespread as the most common religion.

• The Christian worldview affected not only people’s lives, but their government.


• On the one hand, the source of a monarch’s power came from their vassals, the size of their kingdom, and wealth created within it. On the other, their power was granted to them by God (this is referred to as “rule by divine right”).

• No earthly authority was higher than the monarch. This idea helped ensure that feudalism, its hierarchy, and the importance of the church became a constant of medieval life.






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Anglo-Saxon Assemblies

• Anglo-Saxon is a term that refers to inhabitants of England during the early Middle Ages (c. 6th – 11th centuries CE)

• These people originally came from Germanic tribes that invaded England during the decline of the Roman Empire.

• The British Parliament has its origins in two early Anglo-Saxon assemblies, the Witan and the moots.

8.2 England’s Evolving Government


• The Witenagemot, or Witan, dates back to the 8th

century and advised the King on matters such as royal grants of land, taxation, defence and foreign policy.

• Membership in this group was not permanent and could change.

• It could not make laws, but the King was careful to consult the assembly because he relied on the support of the nobles to rule.


Factoid: The Witenaġemot

means "meeting of wise men", rt

is more commonly

referred to as Witan

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• Moots were local assemblies held in each county or shire (district) to discuss local issues and hear legal cases.

• Made up of local lords, bishops, the sheriff, and four representatives from each village in the shire.

• Moots made decisions on local affairs, whereas the Witan advised the king directly on affairs affecting the realm.


The Norman Conquest

• William, Duke of Normandy (in France), was a wealthy and influential lord, who claimed the throne of England.

• He was known as William the Bastard for much of his life, illustrating his titles were not always considered legitimate.

• October 14, 1066 he invaded England and narrowly won the decisive Battle of Hastings. This is the last time England was successfully invaded.

• After his successful conquest and subjugation of England, he became known as William the Conqueror.


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The Norman Conquest

• William introduced formal feudalism to England

• William ruled with the help of a much smaller, but permanent group of advisers known as the Curia Regis (the King’s Council).

• It consisted of noblemen and church leaders appointed by the King.

• It only offered advice at the King’s request and he was under no obligation to act on this advice.

• Even though other besides the monarch had input into public policy, this was nothing like a democracy. Ultimately, all decisions were still at the king’s discretion.


The King’s Justice and Common Law

• Henry II (1133-1189) ruled over England during the height of its powers

▫ He controlled England, Ireland, and a large portion of France.

• Since a crucial responsibility of the king was to provide justice to his subjects, he created itinerant justices – judges who would travel to every part of England at least annually. They settled legal disputes, while conducting the king’s business (e.g., tax collection).

• He made juries (12 neighbours of the accused) a part of the court system.

• Consistent legal decisions all over England over many years led to the establishment a unified body of law called common law.


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Magna Carta

• King John (a son of Henry II), inherited the throne in 1199.

• John was a weak ruler and over the course of his reign lost most of England’s lands in France to the French king Philip Augustus. His failure as a military leader gave him the nickname John Softsword.

• He was cruel to his people and over taxed them to support his failed military campaigns. It was during his reign that the story of Robin Hood developed.

• He tried to extend his control over towns and their economies by taking away charters that guaranteed independence.


Magna Carta

What does this visual suggest about the relationship between King John and his barons?


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Magna Carta

• The result of King John’s poor rule was that the barons rebelled against him in May 1215 and captured the capital, London.

• However, they did not defeat John entirely and by the spring of 1215, both sides were willing to discuss matters.

• John, in such a week position politically and militarily, was forced to approve the Magna Carta, which is Latin for “Great Charter”.


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Magna Carta

• The document was a series of written promises between the king and his subjects that he, the king, would govern England and deal with its people according to the customs of feudal law – note this would involve feudal responsibility.

• Magna Carta was an attempt by the barons to stop a king - in this case John - from abusing his power.



Some key points from the Magna Carta

Magna Carta

I, King John have to rule according to the law. I agree...

1. Not to imprison barons without a trial

2. To hold trials in court, not in secret.

3. To have fair taxes for the barons.

4. To let freemen travel where they like.

5. Not to interfere with the Church

6. Not to seize crops without paying.

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Magna Carta in video

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FfAq0Lp-AmA

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7xo4tUMdAMw

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RQ7vUkbtlQA

http://www.c-spanclassroom.org/Video/1848/CLIP+History+and+Significance+of+the+Magna+Carta.aspx

http://www.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/otist14-soc-maglaw/magna-carta-rule-of-law/


The Model Parliament

• Despite the reforms of Magna Carta, King John’s successors continued to clash with the barons.

• The Witan and Moots of Anglo-Saxon times evolved into what we know as parliament –an assembly of officials that decide on affairs affecting the realm.

• In 1258 the barons forced the King Henry III to agree to rule with the advice of a 15-member baronial council, and to consult with Parliament more regularly.

• They wanted Parliament to meet three times a year and to include 12 non-noble representatives chosen from the counties. However, the King did not honour the agreement.


https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FfAq0Lp-AmA

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7xo4tUMdAMw

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RQ7vUkbtlQA

http://www.c-spanclassroom.org/Video/1848/CLIP+History+and+Significance+of+the+Magna+Carta.aspx

http://www.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/otist14-soc-maglaw/magna-carta-rule-of-law/

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• Led by Simon de Montfort, a baron who believed King Henry III’s power should be limited, the barons went to war with the King and defeated him in 1264.

• The following year, de Montfort attempted to boost his support by summoning knights of the shires and burgesses (commoners) from cities and towns to attend his own parliament.

• First time commoners had been represented at such a meeting. Due to the inclusion of commoners, de Montfort’s Parliament is seen as the forerunner of the modern parliament.



• Soon after his parliament met, de Montfort was killed in battle by Henry III’s son, King Edward I.

• He too had reason to convene Parliament during his reign.

• King Edward I called parliament to meet more regularly. Parliament also included two elected representatives from each county (knights of the shire) and city or town (burgesses), making it more representative of the people.


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• Edward I summoned parliament on 13 November 1295. This meeting is today considered the model parliament.

• In calling Parliament, Edward proclaimed in his writ of summons, "what touches all, should be approved of all, and it is also clear that common dangers should be met by measures agreed upon in common."



• Parliaments’ role was limited at this time to matters of taxation.

• Edward’s goal was to raise taxes for his wars abroad.

• While the King wanted to exploit Parliament to this end, they seized upon the opportunity to highlight and to discuss grievances with the King.

• Essentially, taxation demands would only be met if specific certain grievances were addressed


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• In the mid 1600s, England had a civil war against the absolute power of the monarchy.

• The reason for this was arguments over money, taxes, and power between Parliament and the King.

• These problems began in 1215 when King John signed Magna Carta which limited his power as king.

• 400 years after Magna Carta was signed, King James I was ruling England with absolute authority and ignored Parliament’s requests for power.

▫ He was basically pretending that Magna Carta didn’t exist.

8.2 The English Civil War

• When Charles I took the throne after his father, James I, he also refused to let Parliament have any power.

• Charles called parliament together numerous times during his reign to approve taxes which he needed for his wars with France and Spain.

▫ On a number of occasions Parliament refused his requests.

• In 1628, Parliament refused to approve taxes for Charles until he agreed to sign the Petition of Right, which he signed. This agreement stated that Charles would not…

▫ imprison subjects without due cause.

▫ levy taxes without Parliament’s consent.

▫ house soldiers in private homes.

▫ impose martial law in peacetime (military force used to reject ordinary law.


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• In 1629, Charles dissolved Parliament and refused to allow it to assemble again for eleven years (this is called the Eleven Years Tyranny).

• Charles I and Parliament often fought over money and raising taxes.

• Over time, these disagreements became more serious and eventually Charles tried to arrest 5 members of Parliament.

• Since parliament represented the people, many saw the arrests of Parliament members as an attack on the people of England.

• In 1642, Civil war broke out between two groups:

▫ The New Model Army was led by Oliver Cromwell.


Supporters of Charles I (The Royalists, a.k.a. the Cavaliers)

Supporters of Parliament (The New Model Army, a.k.a. the Roundheads )

Cromwell

• The New Model Army defeated Charles I and the Cavaliers and by 1647 the king was held prisoner.

• Charles was tried, found guilty and beheaded.

• Cromwell became the leader of England.

• He was a very strong leader and ruled with unlimited power as Lord Protector (military dictator).

• He abolished the monarchy and House of Lords, putting in place a republican form of government.

• England during this period was known as The Commonwealth of England

• Over time, the English citizens grew tired of Oliver Cromwell’s government because of his enforcement of strict religious laws.

▫ He and his supporters were Puritans – a group who wanted to reform the English Church by abolishing many common activities they thought sinful (e.g., dancing, theatre, sports)


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• When Cromwell died, his son took over, but he was so weak that he resigned after less than a year. In 1659, parliament voted to return England to a monarchy.

• In 1660, Charles II (son of Charles I) was invited to assume the throne.

• The Restoration is the term used to refer to the monarchy being restored in England.

• The most notable political development under Charles II was the passing of the Habeas Corpus Act:• Latin for “to have the body”• Meant that every prisoner had the right be brought before a judge to

specify the charges against him/her.• The judge would decide whether the prisoner should be tried or set free.

Because of the Habeas Corpus Act, a monarch could not put someone in jail simply for opposing the ruler. Also, prisoners could not be held indefinitely without trials.

8.2 The Restoration

• When Charles II died in 1685, his brother, James took over.

• King James II was a catholic and many in England feared he would promote Catholicism instead of Anglicanism in England.

• He appointed several catholic supporters to high offices in government.

• He also argued with Parliament, over issues of power, just as his grandfather had.

8.2 The Glorious Revolution

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• James II had a daughter named Mary, who was a Protestant (Church of England).

• Mary was married to William of Orange, a prince of the Netherlands

• In order to prevent Catholicism from taking hold in England, seven members of Parliament invited William and Mary to overthrow James II and assume the throne.

• The English Parliament joined together with William of Orange and Mary to force James II to give up the throne.

• In 1688, William led his army to London and James II fled to France. The overthrow was bloodless (no fighting).

• This event was called the Glorious Revolution.


• William and Mary became king and queen, but had little power.

• They had agreed, upon coronation, that they would rule with Parliament as their partner. Most of the power was in the hands of the English Parliament.

• To ensure this arrangement was clear, Parliament introduced the Bill of Rights in 1689. This law greatly restricted the monarch’s power:

▫ no suspending of Parliament’s laws

▫ no levying of taxes without a specific grant from Parliament

▫ no interfering with freedom of speech in Parliament

▫ no penalty for a citizen who petitions the king about grievances

• England became a constitutional monarchy:

▫ A government ruled by a king or queen that is limited by a constitution - a collection of fundamental principles that dictate how a state is governed.


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8.3 Scientific Revolution to Enlightenment

• The new ideas of the scientific revolution prompted philosophers to think about society and how it operates.

• These new ideas begin what is now called the Age of Enlightenment, or simply the Enlightenment.

• The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement that said thought, reason and the power of individuals could solve problems.

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8.3 Enlightenment and Government

• Thomas Hobbes and John Locke both experienced political turmoil and conflict in England in the mid-1600s C.E. during the English Civil War.

• Both men came to very different conclusions about the nature of government and human nature based on their experience.

8.3 Enlightenment Thinkers

Thomas Hobbes• Thought that all humans were essentially selfish and

wicked.

• Without a government to keep order he said that there would be a “war…of every man against every man,” and that life would be “nasty, brutish and short.”

• Hobbes’s view was that people had to hand over power to a strong ruler and that in return there would be order. He called this the social contract.

• He believed the ruler (an absolute monarch) had to have the absolute power to impose order on the people.

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John Locke

• Locke had a more positive view of human nature.• Locke’s view was that all people were born free and

equal with three natural rights:

• Life• Liberty• and Property

• For John Locke government’s purpose was to protect those natural rights.

• If a government does not protect those rights he thought it should be overthrown.

• Locke rejected the idea of the absolute power of monarchs.


Legacy of Locke and Hobbes on Government

• Locke's theory had a deep influence on modern ideas about government, such as the belief that government rules at the consent of the people.

• Hobbes, despite his negative views, did still affect ideas on government, that people must give up some rights for the benefit of the whole.


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The Philosophes

• The Enlightenment reached its height in France by the mid-1700s as thinkers met to discuss politics and ideas.

• The French word for philosopher or philosophebecame the name given to these social critics.

• The philosophes believed that people could apply reason to all aspects of life.

• Their attitude can be summarized by the phrase, “Dare to know.”


The Philosophes

The Philosophes focused on 5 key ideas:

1. Reason - truth could be discovered through reason or logical thinking.

2. Nature - what was natural was also good and reasonable.

3. Happiness - rejected the medieval notion that people should find joy in the hereafter and urged people to seek well-being on earth.

4. Progress - society and humankind could improve.

5. Liberty - called for the liberties (freedoms) that the English people had won in their Glorious Revolution and Bill of Rights.


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Complete “8.3 – The Enlightenment” activity.


Voltaire Combats Intolerance

• The most brilliant and influential of the philosophes was Voltaire. He wrote over 70 books of political essays, philosophy, and drama.

• He fought for tolerance, reason, freedom of religion, and freedom of speech.

• He thought humanity’s worst enemies were intolerance, prejudice and superstition.


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Montesquieu and the Separation of Powers

• Another philosophe Montesquieu studied the powers of government and how to make sure that one person or group did not get all the power.

• He proposed that there should be a separation of powers to avoid one group gaining total control.

• The three powers to be separated were:

1. The Legislative power that make the laws.

2. The Executive power that implement the laws.

3. The Judicial power to make sure the laws are interpreted fairly.


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Beccaria and Criminal Justice

• An Italian philosophe, Beccaria, believed that laws existed to preserve social order, not to punish crimes.

• He criticized common abuses of power:

▫ Torture of witnesses and suspects

▫ Irregular court proceedings

▫ Cruel or arbitrary punishment

▫ Capital punishment (the death penalty) should be abolished

• These ideas would influence criminal law in North America to this day.


Wollstonecraft and Women’s Rights

• During the 1700s, Mary Wollstonecraft challenged the idea that women should only prepare for life as wives and mothers.

• In her 1792 essay, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, she argued that women’s education should not be secondary to men’s, but that women like men need a good education to become virtuous and useful in society.

• Mary had little education herself and learned through studying and reading at home with her sisters. At one point she ran her own school for women.

• She urged women to get involved in traditional male fields of politics and medicine.


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Rousseau: Individual Freedom

• Jean Jacques Rousseau believed that all people were equal and free.

• In his book The Social Contract he said that the social contract is an agreement between free individuals to create a society and a government.

• Rousseau believed that the only good government was one that was freely formed by the people and guided by the people – a direct democracy.

• Under such a government, people agree to give up some of their freedom in favor of the common good.

• He would be very influential to the leaders of the French and American Revolutions.

• Believed all titles of the nobility should be abolished.


Enlightenment ideas helped spur the American colonies to shed British rule and create a new nation.

The American Colonies Grow

• American colonies grow large and populous during the 1600s and 1700s

• Colonies thrive economically through trade with Europe

• Trade laws add restrictions and taxes for the North American colonies

• Colonists identify less and less as British subjects

8.3 The Enlightenment and The American Revolution

Boston in the 1760s

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British-Colonial Tensions Arise

• Britain and American colonies win the French and Indian War in 1763

• Britain taxes colonists to help pay the war debts

• Colonists argue that British cannot tax them without their consent


Growing Hostility Leads to War

• Colonists protest tea tax with “Boston Tea Party” in 1773

• Colonists meet in Philadelphia to address British policies in 1774

• British and Americans exchange fire at Lexington and Concord in 1775


Battle of Lexington 1775

Colonist’s meet in 1774 What are some modern examples of when

people go against their government?

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The Influence of the Enlightenment

• Colonial leaders push for independence, rely on Enlightenment ideas

• Declaration of Independence—document justifying colonial rebellion (1776) and declaring independence from Britain.

• Leader Thomas Jefferson writes Declaration, uses ideas of John Locke

In 1776 what could be the consequences for the men who signed the Declaration of independence?


Declaration of Independence

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Success for the Colonists

• Despite British military might, colonists have advantages:

▫ Motivating cause of freedom

▫ French assistance

▫ War’s expense for Britain

• British surrender at Yorktown in 1781; colonists win the war


Yorktown (1781)

These Enlightenment ideas were directly used by the Americans as they decided how to organize their government and write a constitution.

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Complete “8.3 - The American Revolution Begins” Activity.

An eye to the past

• The Americans used ancient Rome and Greece as a model for the architecture of its capital when it was being built in the 1800s.

• What parts of the Greek and Roman system of government did the Americans borrow?

the individual and the state: antiquity to the modern era

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