Chapter x

The International Style in

Nigerian Architecture

Chapter x

The International Style in

Nigerian Architecture

1. Introduction.2. Brief History of the International Style in Nigeria.3. Characteristics of the International Style in Nigeria.4. The International Style as a Technological and Cultural Bridge.5. The International Style as a Cultural Disaster.6. Conclusion.7. Notes.8. Tests and Exercises.9. References.

Summary

This paper critically assesses contemporary modern Nigerian architecture, and in particular theInternational Style. It presents the International Style as a style dominating the urban landscape inNigeria. This is a style with its history reaching pre-independence time and its peak-period in theseventies and early eighties. This impersonal style has its own distinct characteristics. It is bestrepresented by buildings with simple geometrical forms often with exposed parapet walls, with thefree plan as a preferred option. It uses the flat roof and curtain walls. The buildings are devoid ofdecorations. They have little regard for Nigerian culture or climate. Its trends are: High-Trop, PureModern and Low Trop. The style has both the positive and the negative impact on the environment.Despite the positive fact of producing remarkable landmarks in Nigeria the paper concludes thatimported technologies in the long run do not promote the progress of the indigenous buildingsector. This exclusive architecture is for the wealthy while the masses are left in poor conditions.

This paper critically assesses contemporary modern Nigerian architecture, and in particular theInternational Style. It presents the International Style as a style dominating the urban landscape inNigeria. This is a style with its history reaching pre-independence time and its peak-period in theseventies and early eighties. This impersonal style has its own distinct characteristics. It is bestrepresented by buildings with simple geometrical forms often with exposed parapet walls, with thefree plan as a preferred option. It uses the flat roof and curtain walls. The buildings are devoid ofdecorations. They have little regard for Nigerian culture or climate. Its trends are: High-Trop, PureModern and Low Trop. The style has both the positive and the negative impact on the environment.Despite the positive fact of producing remarkable landmarks in Nigeria the paper concludes thatimported technologies in the long run do not promote the progress of the indigenous buildingsector. This exclusive architecture is for the wealthy while the masses are left in poor conditions.

The International Style in Nigerian Architecture 1

2 Modern Nigerian Architecture

1.0 Introduction

The term ‘International Style’ was coined todenote the modern style in architecture. It firstcame into existence in Central Europe in the1920s and had its classical period in the 1930sand the late 1940s. This impersonal style suitedthe development of the early 20th century.Cubes and groups of cubes were verycharacteristic of the 1930s. This uniform stylespread fast because of easy traveling, and thewell illustrated cheap printing and technicalpress. The years 1930-50 witnessed aspectacular change from a style of pioneercountries to a style succeeding with works allover the world. In Nigeria it started in the 1930sand became popular in the 1950s and the1960s.

The International Style was able to influenceNigerian architecture mainly through the changefrom personal to impersonal client. In the case ofhigh-rise buildings, government parastatals, firmsand universities were suited to this impersonal

The term ‘International Style’ was coined todenote the modern style in architecture. It firstcame into existence in Central Europe in the1920s and had its classical period in the 1930sand the late 1940s. This impersonal style suitedthe development of the early 20th century.Cubes and groups of cubes were verycharacteristic of the 1930s. This uniform stylespread fast because of easy traveling, and thewell illustrated cheap printing and technicalpress. The years 1930-50 witnessed aspectacular change from a style of pioneercountries to a style succeeding with works allover the world. In Nigeria it started in the 1930sand became popular in the 1950s and the1960s.

The International Style was able to influenceNigerian architecture mainly through the changefrom personal to impersonal client. In the case ofhigh-rise buildings, government parastatals, firmsand universities were suited to this impersonal

and universal style. Initially buildings in thistradition were designed on purely functionallines. This was however misused and led tomonotonous archi tecture part icular lyrecognisable in low-cost housing schemes inNigeria. The belief that form would follow of itsown accord often led to low aesthetic value ofthe buildings. Architects eventually realized thatit is not enough to design efficiently functioningbuildings and precisely calculated structures butthat special attention should also be paid to formand elevation.

This presentation is not about progress bygenuine transformations of tradition but rather astory of a style imposed on cultural tradition bythe desire for modernity. The International Styleis not the only existing style but it is a dominatingstyle represented by about thirty percent ofbuildings in Nigeria (Prucnal-Ogunsote, 1993).

In Nigeria motifs of the modern movement suchas the flat roof or clean forms became popular bythe late 1930s. The first modern houses werebuilt in Ikoyi, Lagos even before the SecondWorld War. Among the first modern houses inLagos can be found

(1958) and Architecture House (1958)by Olumuyiwa and Associates. However themost prestigious were the first tall buildingsincluding ,

(1960) and the 17 storey(1960). See Plate 1.

This style was able to satisfy the Nigerianconsumer in one important way. It was basicallyused as a symbol of progress. The buildings withasymmetrical composition, absence ofmouldings and large windows often inhorizontal bands became a part of thearchitectural landscape. It was immediately afterthe end of the civil war that many of the famousindigenous practices got registered. Theseinclude Archcon Nigeria, Egbor and Associates,Ella Waziri Associates and Niger Consultants –all established in 1970. Others are Deji Oyenugaand Partners (1975), Mcanto MadubukoAssociates and Towry-Coker Associates – bothestablished in 1976. The ‘Oil Boom’ in the late

Godwin and HopwoodBuilding

National House Co-op Bank,Independence HouseWestern House

Plate 1: Independence House, Lagos, by Federal Ministry of Works, 1960 (left) and Western House, Lagos, by Nickson andBorys, 1960 (right). Source: Postcard by SANANDA.

Plate x: Independence House, Lagos (1960). Source: GHKarchives.

The International Style in Nigerian Architecture 3

The term ‘International Style’ was coined todenote the modern style in architecture. It firstcame into existence in Central Europe in the1920s and had its classical period in the 1930sand the late 1940s. This impersonal style suitedthe development of the early 20th century.Cubes and groups of cubes were verycharacteristic of the 1930s. This uniform stylespread fast because of easy traveling, and thewell illustrated cheap printing and technicalpress. The years 1930-50 witnessed aspectacular change from a style of pioneercountries to a style succeeding with works allover the world. In Nigeria it started in the 1930sand became popular in the 1950s and the1960s.

The International Style was able to influenceNigerian architecture mainly through the changefrom personal to impersonal client. In the case ofhigh-rise buildings, government parastatals, firmsand universities were suited to this impersonal

and universal style. Initially buildings in thistradition were designed on purely functionallines. This was however misused and led tomonotonous archi tecture part icular lyrecognisable in low-cost housing schemes inNigeria. The belief that form would follow of itsown accord often led to low aesthetic value ofthe buildings. Architects eventually realized thatit is not enough to design efficiently functioningbuildings and precisely calculated structures butthat special attention should also be paid to formand elevation.

This presentation is not about progress bygenuine transformations of tradition but rather astory of a style imposed on cultural tradition bythe desire for modernity. The International Styleis not the only existing style but it is a dominatingstyle represented by about thirty percent ofbuildings in Nigeria (Prucnal-Ogunsote, 1993).

In Nigeria motifs of the modern movement suchas the flat roof or clean forms became popular bythe late 1930s. The first modern houses werebuilt in Ikoyi, Lagos even before the SecondWorld War. Among the first modern houses inLagos can be found

(1958) and Architecture House (1958)by Olumuyiwa and Associates. However themost prestigious were the first tall buildingsincluding ,

(1960) and the 17 storey(1960). See Plate 1.

This style was able to satisfy the Nigerianconsumer in one important way. It was basicallyused as a symbol of progress. The buildings withasymmetrical composition, absence ofmouldings and large windows often inhorizontal bands became a part of thearchitectural landscape. It was immediately afterthe end of the civil war that many of the famousindigenous practices got registered. Theseinclude Archcon Nigeria, Egbor and Associates,Ella Waziri Associates and Niger Consultants –all established in 1970. Others are Deji Oyenugaand Partners (1975), Mcanto MadubukoAssociates and Towry-Coker Associates – bothestablished in 1976. The ‘Oil Boom’ in the late

2.0 Brief History of the International

Style in Nigeria

Godwin and HopwoodBuilding

National House Co-op Bank,Independence HouseWestern House

and universal style. Initially buildings in thistradition were designed on purely functionallines. This was however misused and led tomonotonous archi tecture part icular lyrecognisable in low-cost housing schemes inNigeria. The belief that form would follow of itsown accord often led to low aesthetic value ofthe buildings. Architects eventually realized thatit is not enough to design efficiently functioningbuildings and precisely calculated structures butthat special attention should also be paid to formand elevation.

This presentation is not about progress bygenuine transformations of tradition but rather astory of a style imposed on cultural tradition bythe desire for modernity. The International Styleis not the only existing style but it is a dominatingstyle represented by about thirty percent ofbuildings in Nigeria (Prucnal-Ogunsote, 1993).

In Nigeria motifs of the modern movement suchas the flat roof or clean forms became popular bythe late 1930s. The first modern houses werebuilt in Ikoyi, Lagos even before the SecondWorld War. Among the first modern houses inLagos can be found

(1958) and Architecture House (1958)by Olumuyiwa and Associates. However themost prestigious were the first tall buildingsincluding ,

(1960) and the 17 storey(1960). See Plate 1.

This style was able to satisfy the Nigerianconsumer in one important way. It was basicallyused as a symbol of progress. The buildings withasymmetrical composition, absence ofmouldings and large windows often inhorizontal bands became a part of thearchitectural landscape. It was immediately afterthe end of the civil war that many of the famousindigenous practices got registered. Theseinclude Archcon Nigeria, Egbor and Associates,Ella Waziri Associates and Niger Consultants –all established in 1970. Others are Deji Oyenugaand Partners (1975), Mcanto MadubukoAssociates and Towry-Coker Associates – bothestablished in 1976. The ‘Oil Boom’ in the late

Godwin and HopwoodBuilding

National House Co-op Bank,Independence HouseWestern House

Plate 2: National Arts Theatre, Iganmu, Lagos by Techno-Export. Source: Author's sketch.

Plate x: Co-op Bank, Ibadan. Source: GHK archives.

4 Modern Nigerian Architecture

seventies had indisputableinfluence on developments inNigerian architecture. At thattime the competition and therace for modernity was at itspeak. The building industrydepended a lot on importedbuilding materials and finishes.Buildings from that periodinclude

and, Iganmu,

Lagos. See Plate 2.

The foreign influence wasstrong because the manpowerwas not sufficient in Nigeriaand because there were manyforeign architects. In a fewinstances, the designs weresent abroad. It was thenjustified economically but nowstrongly criticised. From themid-1980s the economy hasbeen very poor. Architects hadto cut down the cost ofbuildings and simplicity ofbuildings was maintained dueto the cost constraints.

The International Style inNigeria is categorised as High-Trop, Pure Modern and Low-T r o p t r e n d s ( P r u c n a l -Ogunsote, 2001a). They allhave common characteristics.The trends represent buildingsthat can be constructedanywhere in the world, oftenwith disregard to climate andsocial conditions.

H i g h – T r o p r e p r e s e n t sb u i l d i n g s u s i n g h i g htechnologies, reflective glassand central air-conditioning.They are usually tall buildingsoften designed as glass boxes

Murtala MohammedInternational AirportNational Arts Theatre

3.0 Characteristics of

the International

Style in Nigeria

seventies had indisputableinfluence on developments inNigerian architecture. At thattime the competition and therace for modernity was at itspeak. The building industrydepended a lot on importedbuilding materials and finishes.Buildings from that periodinclude

and, Iganmu,

Lagos. See Plate 2.

The foreign influence wasstrong because the manpowerwas not sufficient in Nigeriaand because there were manyforeign architects. In a fewinstances, the designs weresent abroad. It was thenjustified economically but nowstrongly criticised. From themid-1980s the economy hasbeen very poor. Architects hadto cut down the cost ofbuildings and simplicity ofbuildings was maintained dueto the cost constraints.

The International Style inNigeria is categorised as High-Trop, Pure Modern and Low-T r o p t r e n d s ( P r u c n a l -Ogunsote, 2001a). They allhave common characteristics.The trends represent buildingsthat can be constructedanywhere in the world, oftenwith disregard to climate andsocial conditions.

H i g h – T r o p r e p r e s e n t sb u i l d i n g s u s i n g h i g htechnologies, reflective glassand central air-conditioning.They are usually tall buildingsoften designed as glass boxes

Murtala MohammedInternational AirportNational Arts Theatre

or very elegant structures andextremely expensive. Thebuildings here depend onimported technologies.

Pure Modern is mainly thearchi tecture created byarchi tects of the oldergeneration who were trained inm o d e r n i d e a s . T h e i rarchitecture often representsan idealistic approach.

Low-Trop represents housingfor the low-income group withlack of good aesthetic and lowstandard of living. It ispresented not as a helplesssituation but rather as the mostchallenging area for architects.The major characteristics of theInternational Style in Nigeriaare examined below.

In this style there is a tendencyto use the free plan as in IMBBuilding and Broking House.Also in thethere are big open spaces forthe offices. The load bearingpillars permit any arrangementof the partition walls butg e n e r a l l y t h e i n t e r n a larrangements are very simple.They explore the ideas of

3.1 Free plan

Mobil Building

Plate 3: Bookshop at University of Ibadan,Ibadan, by Design Group Nigeria,1960s. Source: Author’s sketch.

The International Style in Nigerian Architecture 5

seventies had indisputableinfluence on developments inNigerian architecture. At thattime the competition and therace for modernity was at itspeak. The building industrydepended a lot on importedbuilding materials and finishes.Buildings from that periodinclude

and, Iganmu,

Lagos. See Plate 2.

The foreign influence wasstrong because the manpowerwas not sufficient in Nigeriaand because there were manyforeign architects. In a fewinstances, the designs weresent abroad. It was thenjustified economically but nowstrongly criticised. From themid-1980s the economy hasbeen very poor. Architects hadto cut down the cost ofbuildings and simplicity ofbuildings was maintained dueto the cost constraints.

The International Style inNigeria is categorised as High-Trop, Pure Modern and Low-T r o p t r e n d s ( P r u c n a l -Ogunsote, 2001a). They allhave common characteristics.The trends represent buildingsthat can be constructedanywhere in the world, oftenwith disregard to climate andsocial conditions.

H i g h – T r o p r e p r e s e n t sb u i l d i n g s u s i n g h i g htechnologies, reflective glassand central air-conditioning.They are usually tall buildingsoften designed as glass boxes

Murtala MohammedInternational AirportNational Arts Theatre

or very elegant structures andextremely expensive. Thebuildings here depend onimported technologies.

Pure Modern is mainly thearchi tecture created byarchi tects of the oldergeneration who were trained inm o d e r n i d e a s . T h e i rarchitecture often representsan idealistic approach.

Low-Trop represents housingfor the low-income group withlack of good aesthetic and lowstandard of living. It ispresented not as a helplesssituation but rather as the mostchallenging area for architects.The major characteristics of theInternational Style in Nigeriaare examined below.

In this style there is a tendencyto use the free plan as in IMBBuilding and Broking House.Also in thethere are big open spaces forthe offices. The load bearingpillars permit any arrangementof the partition walls butg e n e r a l l y t h e i n t e r n a larrangements are very simple.They explore the ideas of

3.1 Free plan

Mobil Building

or very elegant structures andextremely expensive. Thebuildings here depend onimported technologies.

Pure Modern is mainly thearchi tecture created byarchi tects of the oldergeneration who were trained inm o d e r n i d e a s . T h e i rarchitecture often representsan idealistic approach.

Low-Trop represents housingfor the low-income group withlack of good aesthetic and lowstandard of living. It ispresented not as a helplesssituation but rather as the mostchallenging area for architects.The major characteristics of theInternational Style in Nigeriaare examined below.

In this style there is a tendencyto use the free plan as in IMBBuilding and Broking House.Also in thethere are big open spaces forthe offices. The load bearingpillars permit any arrangementof the partition walls butg e n e r a l l y t h e i n t e r n a larrangements are very simple.They explore the ideas of

3.1 Free plan

Mobil Building

Plate 4: Niger House and C.S.S. Bookshop, Lagos by Godwin Hopwood. Source:Postcard by Jolufeso Pictures

Plate 5: IBRU Building, Apapa, Lagos, by FemiMajekodunmi Associates. Source: Femi MajekodunmiAssociates Brochure.

Plate x: CSS Bookshop, House, Lagos (1965) by GodwinHopwood. Source: GHK archives.

6 Modern Nigerian Architecture

simplicity and functionality.

The buildings are characterisedby monotonous cubic generals h a p e s . E x a m p l e s a r e

(Plate 3);

and(Plate 4).

There are also instances wherethe building form consists ofcombinations of polygonalshapes like inor (Plate 5).Most often the plan is simpleand consists of a single squareor rectangle often with aprojected entrance as inKashim Ibrahim Library (Plate6),

i n I f e o rin Lagos.

Sometimes it is a simple semi-cylinder with a combination ofrectangular shapes that is usedas in the former FederalSecretariat, Lagos.

The parapet wall is often usedto enhance the modern look ofa building. In this stylearchitects “hide” the roofbehind the parapet wall andalso most of the time propose aflat roof. Technically a flat roofis a bad solution often resultingi n l e a k a g e s . S i m i l a r l yproblematic are the internalgutters that often developleakages. This combined withthe poor maintenance cultureled often to crisis situations.

To close the composition a

3.2 Use of pure

geometrical forms

3.3 Parapet wall and flat

roof

Bookshop at University ofIbadan National Oiland Chemical MarketingCompany Building (EagleHouse) C.S.S. BookshopHouse

Broking HouseIBRU Building

Faculty of Health Sciencesa t O b a f e m i A w o l o w oU n i v e r s i t yManagement House

simplicity and functionality.

The buildings are characterisedby monotonous cubic generals h a p e s . E x a m p l e s a r e

(Plate 3);

and(Plate 4).

There are also instances wherethe building form consists ofcombinations of polygonalshapes like inor (Plate 5).Most often the plan is simpleand consists of a single squareor rectangle often with aprojected entrance as inKashim Ibrahim Library (Plate6),

i n I f e o rin Lagos.

Sometimes it is a simple semi-cylinder with a combination ofrectangular shapes that is usedas in the former FederalSecretariat, Lagos.

The parapet wall is often usedto enhance the modern look ofa building. In this stylearchitects “hide” the roofbehind the parapet wall andalso most of the time propose aflat roof. Technically a flat roofis a bad solution often resultingi n l e a k a g e s . S i m i l a r l yproblematic are the internalgutters that often developleakages. This combined withthe poor maintenance cultureled often to crisis situations.

To close the composition a

3.2 Use of pure

geometrical forms

3.3 Parapet wall and flat

roof

Bookshop at University ofIbadan National Oiland Chemical MarketingCompany Building (EagleHouse) C.S.S. BookshopHouse

Broking HouseIBRU Building

Faculty of Health Sciencesa t O b a f e m i A w o l o w oU n i v e r s i t yManagement House

parapet wall was used in the

, in the,

and in the. In the

e igh t ie s a rch i tec t s s t i l lmaintained the cube-like shapeof a building but sometimeshad the courage to add a roof.Chellarams Building in Lagoshas a small pyramid as a roofwhile the parapet wall is alsomore stylish (Plate 7).

The new approach of makingthe elevation independent ofthe structure of the buildingwas frequently exhibited by theuse of curtain walls as in

(Plate 8) or. Such buildings with

mullions and in-fill panels ortinted glass windows aredifficult to maintain. Theexternal surfaces have to bewashed periodically and alsothe air conditioning costincreases due to lack ofsufficient insulation resultingfrom the characteristics of thematerials used. It is alsocharacterized by structuralhonesty and clarity expressedby big glass surfaces as inglazed buildings such as

(Plate 9).The surface is often very plainand sometimes with regularand monotonous rhythm ofmouldings as in IndependenceHouse, or in ,Lagos (Plate 10).

The Modern Movement withi t s most representa t iveInternational Style rejectedd e c o r a t i o n . A r c h i t e c t s

National Oil and ChemicalMarketing Company Building(Eagle House) BenueState Secretariat CabinetOffice Bookshop atUniversity of Ibadan

IMBBuilding BrokingHouse

FirstBank Headquarters

IBWA House

1

3.4 Curtain walls

3.5 Ornamentation

Plate 6: Kashim Ibrahim Library by Egbor andAssociates. Source: Author’s sketch, 1990.

, Ahmadu Bello Univeristy, Zaria

Plate 6: Kashim Ibrahim Library, Ahmadu Bello Univeristy, Zaria by Egbor andAssociates. Source: Author’s photograph, 2005.

The International Style in Nigerian Architecture 7

simplicity and functionality.

The buildings are characterisedby monotonous cubic generals h a p e s . E x a m p l e s a r e

(Plate 3);

and(Plate 4).

There are also instances wherethe building form consists ofcombinations of polygonalshapes like inor (Plate 5).Most often the plan is simpleand consists of a single squareor rectangle often with aprojected entrance as inKashim Ibrahim Library (Plate6),

i n I f e o rin Lagos.

Sometimes it is a simple semi-cylinder with a combination ofrectangular shapes that is usedas in the former FederalSecretariat, Lagos.

The parapet wall is often usedto enhance the modern look ofa building. In this stylearchitects “hide” the roofbehind the parapet wall andalso most of the time propose aflat roof. Technically a flat roofis a bad solution often resultingi n l e a k a g e s . S i m i l a r l yproblematic are the internalgutters that often developleakages. This combined withthe poor maintenance cultureled often to crisis situations.

To close the composition a

3.2 Use of pure

geometrical forms

3.3 Parapet wall and flat

roof

Bookshop at University ofIbadan National Oiland Chemical MarketingCompany Building (EagleHouse) C.S.S. BookshopHouse

Broking HouseIBRU Building

Faculty of Health Sciencesa t O b a f e m i A w o l o w oU n i v e r s i t yManagement House

parapet wall was used in the

, in the,

and in the. In the

e igh t ie s a rch i tec t s s t i l lmaintained the cube-like shapeof a building but sometimeshad the courage to add a roof.Chellarams Building in Lagoshas a small pyramid as a roofwhile the parapet wall is alsomore stylish (Plate 7).

The new approach of makingthe elevation independent ofthe structure of the buildingwas frequently exhibited by theuse of curtain walls as in

(Plate 8) or. Such buildings with

mullions and in-fill panels ortinted glass windows aredifficult to maintain. Theexternal surfaces have to bewashed periodically and alsothe air conditioning costincreases due to lack ofsufficient insulation resultingfrom the characteristics of thematerials used. It is alsocharacterized by structuralhonesty and clarity expressedby big glass surfaces as inglazed buildings such as

(Plate 9).The surface is often very plainand sometimes with regularand monotonous rhythm ofmouldings as in IndependenceHouse, or in ,Lagos (Plate 10).

The Modern Movement withi t s most representa t iveInternational Style rejectedd e c o r a t i o n . A r c h i t e c t s

National Oil and ChemicalMarketing Company Building(Eagle House) BenueState Secretariat CabinetOffice Bookshop atUniversity of Ibadan

IMBBuilding BrokingHouse

FirstBank Headquarters

IBWA House

1

3.4 Curtain walls

3.5 Ornamentation

parapet wall was used in the

, in the,

and in the. In the

e igh t ie s a rch i tec t s s t i l lmaintained the cube-like shapeof a building but sometimeshad the courage to add a roof.Chellarams Building in Lagoshas a small pyramid as a roofwhile the parapet wall is alsomore stylish (Plate 7).

The new approach of makingthe elevation independent ofthe structure of the buildingwas frequently exhibited by theuse of curtain walls as in

(Plate 8) or. Such buildings with

mullions and in-fill panels ortinted glass windows aredifficult to maintain. Theexternal surfaces have to bewashed periodically and alsothe air conditioning costincreases due to lack ofsufficient insulation resultingfrom the characteristics of thematerials used. It is alsocharacterized by structuralhonesty and clarity expressedby big glass surfaces as inglazed buildings such as

(Plate 9).The surface is often very plainand sometimes with regularand monotonous rhythm ofmouldings as in IndependenceHouse, or in ,Lagos (Plate 10).

The Modern Movement withi t s most representa t iveInternational Style rejectedd e c o r a t i o n . A r c h i t e c t s

National Oil and ChemicalMarketing Company Building(Eagle House) BenueState Secretariat CabinetOffice Bookshop atUniversity of Ibadan

IMBBuilding BrokingHouse

FirstBank Headquarters

IBWA House

1

3.4 Curtain walls

3.5 Ornamentation

Plate 7: K. Chellarams Building, Marina, Lagos by James Cubitt & Partners.Source: Author’s Sketch.

Plate 8: IMB (International Merchant Bank), Victoria Island, Lagos by InchscapeArchitects, 1985. Source: Author’s sketch.

8 Modern Nigerian Architecture

followed the Miesian formulafor tall buildings and LeCorbusier’s concepts ofimpersonal style.

Archi tects of the oldergeneration in Nigeria wereeducated in the mainstream ofModern Movement and theyrejected decoration. Thearchitecture of Deji Oyenuga isdevoid of cosmetics. Arc.E g b o r ’ s b u i l d i n g s a r echaracterized by simplesolutions with no use ofdecoration. Arc. OluwoleOlumuyiwa preferred thesimplicity of forms. Hisbuildings demonstrate hisbelief that the form of buildingsshould not be meaningless(

, Plate 11).Similarly Ella Waziri Associates’designs are simple and noornaments or decorations areused (buildings at BayeroUniversity in Kano). In thistrend decoration is consideredan apology in architecture.Other examples are the earlierworks of Fola Alade, HabitatAssociates, Design GroupN i g e r i a a n d G o d w i nHopwood. Generally thesearchitects do not like muchdecoration. They prefer towork with the form of thebuilding. However it soonbecame obvious especially inthe United States that thisimpersonal style can lead tocrime and to vandalization ofhousing estates (Venturi,1977). Nigerian architects thenstarted exploring more originaland individual approaches thatresulted in a regionally-sensitive Modern architectureof their own referred to as TheNew West African Style andthe Regional Trend (Prucnal-

Management House, EkoHoliday Inn

followed the Miesian formulafor tall buildings and LeCorbusier’s concepts ofimpersonal style.

Archi tects of the oldergeneration in Nigeria wereeducated in the mainstream ofModern Movement and theyrejected decoration. Thearchitecture of Deji Oyenuga isdevoid of cosmetics. Arc.E g b o r ’ s b u i l d i n g s a r echaracterized by simplesolutions with no use ofdecoration. Arc. OluwoleOlumuyiwa preferred thesimplicity of forms. Hisbuildings demonstrate hisbelief that the form of buildingsshould not be meaningless(

, Plate 11).Similarly Ella Waziri Associates’designs are simple and noornaments or decorations areused (buildings at BayeroUniversity in Kano). In thistrend decoration is consideredan apology in architecture.Other examples are the earlierworks of Fola Alade, HabitatAssociates, Design GroupN i g e r i a a n d G o d w i nHopwood. Generally thesearchitects do not like muchdecoration. They prefer towork with the form of thebuilding. However it soonbecame obvious especially inthe United States that thisimpersonal style can lead tocrime and to vandalization ofhousing estates (Venturi,1977). Nigerian architects thenstarted exploring more originaland individual approaches thatresulted in a regionally-sensitive Modern architectureof their own referred to as TheNew West African Style andthe Regional Trend (Prucnal-

Management House, EkoHoliday Inn Ogunsote 2001a; Prucnal-

Ogunsote 2001b).

Buildings in this style usually donot respect local conditionsconcerning weather andculture. They often dependentirely on artificial means ofcoo l i ng . They a re no tappropriate because of theconstant power failures andhigh maintenance cost

. H igh -T ropbuildings depend on importedtechnologies and this makesthem very expensive. Buildingsstay unoccupied for longperiods due to high rent. Thebuildings use imported finishesthat are now difficult to replacewhen damaged. The limitedmaintenance efforts are ratherineffective due to lack ofsubstitutes in the country.

3.6 Disregard for climate

and social conditions

(IMBBuilding, IBRU Building,Che l la rams)

Plate x: First Bank Headquarters, Marina, Lagos by Ronald Ward & Associates,1982/83. Source: Author’s sketch.

Plate 9: First Bank Headquarters, Marina, Lagos by RonaldWard & Associates, 1982/83. Source: Author’s sketch.

The International Style in Nigerian Architecture 9

followed the Miesian formulafor tall buildings and LeCorbusier’s concepts ofimpersonal style.

Archi tects of the oldergeneration in Nigeria wereeducated in the mainstream ofModern Movement and theyrejected decoration. Thearchitecture of Deji Oyenuga isdevoid of cosmetics. Arc.E g b o r ’ s b u i l d i n g s a r echaracterized by simplesolutions with no use ofdecoration. Arc. OluwoleOlumuyiwa preferred thesimplicity of forms. Hisbuildings demonstrate hisbelief that the form of buildingsshould not be meaningless(

, Plate 11).Similarly Ella Waziri Associates’designs are simple and noornaments or decorations areused (buildings at BayeroUniversity in Kano). In thistrend decoration is consideredan apology in architecture.Other examples are the earlierworks of Fola Alade, HabitatAssociates, Design GroupN i g e r i a a n d G o d w i nHopwood. Generally thesearchitects do not like muchdecoration. They prefer towork with the form of thebuilding. However it soonbecame obvious especially inthe United States that thisimpersonal style can lead tocrime and to vandalization ofhousing estates (Venturi,1977). Nigerian architects thenstarted exploring more originaland individual approaches thatresulted in a regionally-sensitive Modern architectureof their own referred to as TheNew West African Style andthe Regional Trend (Prucnal-

Management House, EkoHoliday Inn Ogunsote 2001a; Prucnal-

Ogunsote 2001b).

Buildings in this style usually donot respect local conditionsconcerning weather andculture. They often dependentirely on artificial means ofcoo l i ng . They a re no tappropriate because of theconstant power failures andhigh maintenance cost

. H igh -T ropbuildings depend on importedtechnologies and this makesthem very expensive. Buildingsstay unoccupied for longperiods due to high rent. Thebuildings use imported finishesthat are now difficult to replacewhen damaged. The limitedmaintenance efforts are ratherineffective due to lack ofsubstitutes in the country.

3.6 Disregard for climate

and social conditions

(IMBBuilding, IBRU Building,Che l la rams)

Ogunsote 2001a; Prucnal-Ogunsote 2001b).

Buildings in this style usually donot respect local conditionsconcerning weather andculture. They often dependentirely on artificial means ofcoo l i ng . They a re no tappropriate because of theconstant power failures andhigh maintenance cost

. H igh -T ropbuildings depend on importedtechnologies and this makesthem very expensive. Buildingsstay unoccupied for longperiods due to high rent. Thebuildings use imported finishesthat are now difficult to replacewhen damaged. The limitedmaintenance efforts are ratherineffective due to lack ofsubstitutes in the country.

3.6 Disregard for climate

and social conditions

(IMBBuilding, IBRU Building,Che l la rams)

Plate 10: IBWA House, Victoria Island Professional Centre, Lagos by ModulorGroup. Source: Author’s sketch.

Plate 12: The Panorama of Marina, Lagos in the mid eighties. Source: Postcard by Elizabeth Seriki Cards.

10 Modern Nigerian Architecture

4.0 The International

Style as a

Technological and

Cultural Bridge

The International Style wasable to satisfy the people’sdesire for modernity and itundoubted ly in f luencedNigerian architecture by thetechnological advancements itbrought along. Nigeria like therest of the world looked up tothe Western countries whichbecame a yard stick of globalprogress. The InternationalStyle in Nigeria made a very bigimpact on the townscape ofevery city especially through itsHigh-Trop trend with sleek andextra-modern buildings and thePure Modern trend. PureModern also represents theidealistic architecture ofpioneer architects in Nigeriatransforming the new ideas ofmodern architecture into theNigerian reality.

The publications of famousarchitectural critics like CharlesJencks, Nikolaus Pevsner,Patric Nuttgens or KennethFrampton do not analyse theInternational Style in thirdworld countries includingNigeria. On the contrary –there are remarkable modernbuildings in Nigeria.

The International Style with itsHigh-Trop and Pure Moderntrends is actually responsiblefor the general look of Nigeriancities with many corporate andinstitutional buildings. Seepanorama of Lagos from theearly eighties (Plate 12). High-Trop introduced modern

4.1 High-Trop as a

technological bridge

The International Style wasable to satisfy the people’sdesire for modernity and itundoubted ly in f luencedNigerian architecture by thetechnological advancements itbrought along. Nigeria like therest of the world looked up tothe Western countries whichbecame a yard stick of globalprogress. The InternationalStyle in Nigeria made a very bigimpact on the townscape ofevery city especially through itsHigh-Trop trend with sleek andextra-modern buildings and thePure Modern trend. PureModern also represents theidealistic architecture ofpioneer architects in Nigeriatransforming the new ideas ofmodern architecture into theNigerian reality.

The publications of famousarchitectural critics like CharlesJencks, Nikolaus Pevsner,Patric Nuttgens or KennethFrampton do not analyse theInternational Style in thirdworld countries includingNigeria. On the contrary –there are remarkable modernbuildings in Nigeria.

The International Style with itsHigh-Trop and Pure Moderntrends is actually responsiblefor the general look of Nigeriancities with many corporate andinstitutional buildings. Seepanorama of Lagos from theearly eighties (Plate 12). High-Trop introduced modern

4.1 High-Trop as a

technological bridge

techniques with the use ofl ighter metals and newconstruction methods toNigeria. This architectureexpressed the spirit of thetimes, and is presented onsome selected examplesbelow.

The architects James Cubittand Partners, established in1957, gained their popularitymainly through

and, both in Lagos

(Plate 13). The architects areidealistic with their approach oftrying to attain a perfect result.One of their achievements isthe in Lagos(Plate 14). The characteristicfeatures are the four towers ateach “corner” of the building.Very attractive is the sky light,which is placed diagonally overthe square atrium, which is onlyslightly smaller than the size of

itself. Thearchitects experimented on thesite by constructing someportions of the building insearch of the best effects. Theastonishing effects are not onlythe results of good ideas butalso of very demanding work.This building demonstrates thathigh-tech could be locallyobtained by employing theimagination, by experimentingand by strict supervision.

In case of inIbadan (Plate 15) the buildingdemonstrates that the qualitydepends both on the client andthe architect. The client FemiJohnson had a desire to havesuch a building which can becalled his monument. Manypeople know the building as

. The sitefor the building was very small,

ChellaramsBuilding Senate buildingat UNILAG

Mobil Building

Chellarams Building

Broking House

Femi Johnson HousePlate 11: Eko Hotel (Eko Holiday Inn) Victoria Island, Lagos by OluwoleOlumuyiwa and Associates in collaboration with Americans. Source: Author’ssketch.

Plate x: National Oil and Chemical Marketing CompanyBuilding (Eagle House), Lagos. Source: GHK archives.

The International Style in Nigerian Architecture 11

The International Style wasable to satisfy the people’sdesire for modernity and itundoubted ly in f luencedNigerian architecture by thetechnological advancements itbrought along. Nigeria like therest of the world looked up tothe Western countries whichbecame a yard stick of globalprogress. The InternationalStyle in Nigeria made a very bigimpact on the townscape ofevery city especially through itsHigh-Trop trend with sleek andextra-modern buildings and thePure Modern trend. PureModern also represents theidealistic architecture ofpioneer architects in Nigeriatransforming the new ideas ofmodern architecture into theNigerian reality.

The publications of famousarchitectural critics like CharlesJencks, Nikolaus Pevsner,Patric Nuttgens or KennethFrampton do not analyse theInternational Style in thirdworld countries includingNigeria. On the contrary –there are remarkable modernbuildings in Nigeria.

The International Style with itsHigh-Trop and Pure Moderntrends is actually responsiblefor the general look of Nigeriancities with many corporate andinstitutional buildings. Seepanorama of Lagos from theearly eighties (Plate 12). High-Trop introduced modern

4.1 High-Trop as a

technological bridge

techniques with the use ofl ighter metals and newconstruction methods toNigeria. This architectureexpressed the spirit of thetimes, and is presented onsome selected examplesbelow.

The architects James Cubittand Partners, established in1957, gained their popularitymainly through

and, both in Lagos

(Plate 13). The architects areidealistic with their approach oftrying to attain a perfect result.One of their achievements isthe in Lagos(Plate 14). The characteristicfeatures are the four towers ateach “corner” of the building.Very attractive is the sky light,which is placed diagonally overthe square atrium, which is onlyslightly smaller than the size of

itself. Thearchitects experimented on thesite by constructing someportions of the building insearch of the best effects. Theastonishing effects are not onlythe results of good ideas butalso of very demanding work.This building demonstrates thathigh-tech could be locallyobtained by employing theimagination, by experimentingand by strict supervision.

In case of inIbadan (Plate 15) the buildingdemonstrates that the qualitydepends both on the client andthe architect. The client FemiJohnson had a desire to havesuch a building which can becalled his monument. Manypeople know the building as

. The sitefor the building was very small,

ChellaramsBuilding Senate buildingat UNILAG

Mobil Building

Chellarams Building

Broking House

Femi Johnson House

techniques with the use ofl ighter metals and newconstruction methods toNigeria. This architectureexpressed the spirit of thetimes, and is presented onsome selected examplesbelow.

The architects James Cubittand Partners, established in1957, gained their popularitymainly through

and, both in Lagos

(Plate 13). The architects areidealistic with their approach oftrying to attain a perfect result.One of their achievements isthe in Lagos(Plate 14). The characteristicfeatures are the four towers ateach “corner” of the building.Very attractive is the sky light,which is placed diagonally overthe square atrium, which is onlyslightly smaller than the size of

itself. Thearchitects experimented on thesite by constructing someportions of the building insearch of the best effects. Theastonishing effects are not onlythe results of good ideas butalso of very demanding work.This building demonstrates thathigh-tech could be locallyobtained by employing theimagination, by experimentingand by strict supervision.

In case of inIbadan (Plate 15) the buildingdemonstrates that the qualitydepends both on the client andthe architect. The client FemiJohnson had a desire to havesuch a building which can becalled his monument. Manypeople know the building as

. The sitefor the building was very small,

ChellaramsBuilding Senate buildingat UNILAG

Mobil Building

Chellarams Building

Broking House

Femi Johnson HousePlate 13: Senate Building at UNILAG in Lagos by James Cubitt and Partners.Source: Author’s sketch.

Plate x: Senate Building at UNILAG in Lagos by JamesCubitt and Partners. Source: Author’s photograph, 2004.

12 Modern Nigerian Architecture

only 60m x 30m. The structure underneath isremarkable, there are two and a half floors forparking and utilities. The structure basicallydepends on the pillars. The external glazedcurtain walls are hung from suspended slabs.While the building is so luxurious outside it isalmost ordinary inside. It is designed with theidea of open spaces. If the floor is not occupied itis left with no partitions which are assembledwhen the need arises. The office areas andcorridor are then provided. Most successful isthe design of the elevation of the building on theground and first floor level. In the Nigeriancontext it still appears as a building more for thefuture than for the current economic situation.The users complained of the high cost ofmaintenance, for there are three generators andcentral air conditioning. In conclusion thebuilding stands as a technological bridge. Itproves that Nigeria can produce sleek modernstructures and that the maintenance can also beeffective.

The byElla Waziri is the tallest building in the North.2 Ithas a strategic position - it is at the entrance tothe city coming from the South. It closes a vistaof the main road and is well seen even from along distance. The main structure seems to beseparated from the base. It appearsunexpectedly light as if able to turn round its axis.The verticality of the building is enhancedthrough contrasting elements running acrossand reaching the very top of the building. Itenhances the light appearance of the solidindeed structure. The sculptural elements on thevery top form a kind of object pointing to the sky.High quality materials and good finishes add tothe aesthetics of this building which is basicallyan office building. Without the use of high-techthis building would not have been possible.There are negative sides of this development,however. Often problematic is the relevance ofsuch buildings to the Nigerian culture.

In the case of the Pure Modern trend it embracesthe bulk of the works of such pioneer architectsas Onafowokan, Olumuyiwa, VaughanRichards, Fry Drew, Design Group Nigeria orGodwin Hopwood to mention just a few. The

Bank of the North Headquarters in Kano

4.2 Pure Modern Trend as a cultural

bridge

only 60m x 30m. The structure underneath isremarkable, there are two and a half floors forparking and utilities. The structure basicallydepends on the pillars. The external glazedcurtain walls are hung from suspended slabs.While the building is so luxurious outside it isalmost ordinary inside. It is designed with theidea of open spaces. If the floor is not occupied itis left with no partitions which are assembledwhen the need arises. The office areas andcorridor are then provided. Most successful isthe design of the elevation of the building on theground and first floor level. In the Nigeriancontext it still appears as a building more for thefuture than for the current economic situation.The users complained of the high cost ofmaintenance, for there are three generators andcentral air conditioning. In conclusion thebuilding stands as a technological bridge. Itproves that Nigeria can produce sleek modernstructures and that the maintenance can also beeffective.

The byElla Waziri is the tallest building in the North.2 Ithas a strategic position - it is at the entrance tothe city coming from the South. It closes a vistaof the main road and is well seen even from along distance. The main structure seems to beseparated from the base. It appearsunexpectedly light as if able to turn round its axis.The verticality of the building is enhancedthrough contrasting elements running acrossand reaching the very top of the building. Itenhances the light appearance of the solidindeed structure. The sculptural elements on thevery top form a kind of object pointing to the sky.High quality materials and good finishes add tothe aesthetics of this building which is basicallyan office building. Without the use of high-techthis building would not have been possible.There are negative sides of this development,however. Often problematic is the relevance ofsuch buildings to the Nigerian culture.

In the case of the Pure Modern trend it embracesthe bulk of the works of such pioneer architectsas Onafowokan, Olumuyiwa, VaughanRichards, Fry Drew, Design Group Nigeria orGodwin Hopwood to mention just a few. The

Bank of the North Headquarters in Kano

4.2 Pure Modern Trend as a cultural

bridge

Pure Modern trend stands as a cultural bridgebecause of the way the modern ideas spread andthe architects came up with very original ideaswhile tapping from the world culture.

Some of the young architects (foreigners) whowere behind the first modern buildings came toNigeria as to an unknown exotic country. AllNigerians practising were also educated abroad.They came with all the hopes and dreams thenew generation had about modern architecture.The way they interpreted architecture had someidealistic approach like in the case of

by Olumuyiwa. There, it isonly by working and reworking that the idea of abrain was embodied in architectural form. In thisdesign most characteristic is the concept of thebrain presented as a box suspended in space.Despite all difficulties the architect pronouncedit in an architectural form and as a result theunique floating feeling was achieved. It can beeasily perceived from the atrium. One can sensea particularly important space celebrated in anunusual but pleasant manner. The building looksvery ordinary from the outside.

Mcanto Madubuko Associates designedin a way that phase

construction was made possible. In this buildingthe architects used curved concrete surfacesexternally. This structure also incorporates anexternal sit out on the roof of the lower portionof the building. It is meant for outdoor recreation(Plate 16). Arc. Madubuko still believes that formmust follow function.

In conclusion the Pure Modern Trend stands as acultural bridge because the modern ideasinterpreted by Nigerian masters wereincorporated in Nigerian townscape (Plate 17)and brought a modern look to the cities. Thereare however problems to be overcome heresuch as the lack of a maintenance culture.

In the sixties and the seventies the InternationalStyle in Nigeria was at its peak. This dominatingstyle brought along a sense of modernity. On theother hand the universal and anonymousarchitecture lacked relevance to local traditions

Management House

BCCIHead Office in Enugu

Plate 14: Headquarters for Mobil Oil and Mobil ProducingCompany (Mobil Building) in Lagos by James Cubitt andPartners, 1991. Source: Author’s sketch.

The International Style in Nigerian Architecture 13

only 60m x 30m. The structure underneath isremarkable, there are two and a half floors forparking and utilities. The structure basicallydepends on the pillars. The external glazedcurtain walls are hung from suspended slabs.While the building is so luxurious outside it isalmost ordinary inside. It is designed with theidea of open spaces. If the floor is not occupied itis left with no partitions which are assembledwhen the need arises. The office areas andcorridor are then provided. Most successful isthe design of the elevation of the building on theground and first floor level. In the Nigeriancontext it still appears as a building more for thefuture than for the current economic situation.The users complained of the high cost ofmaintenance, for there are three generators andcentral air conditioning. In conclusion thebuilding stands as a technological bridge. Itproves that Nigeria can produce sleek modernstructures and that the maintenance can also beeffective.

The byElla Waziri is the tallest building in the North.2 Ithas a strategic position - it is at the entrance tothe city coming from the South. It closes a vistaof the main road and is well seen even from along distance. The main structure seems to beseparated from the base. It appearsunexpectedly light as if able to turn round its axis.The verticality of the building is enhancedthrough contrasting elements running acrossand reaching the very top of the building. Itenhances the light appearance of the solidindeed structure. The sculptural elements on thevery top form a kind of object pointing to the sky.High quality materials and good finishes add tothe aesthetics of this building which is basicallyan office building. Without the use of high-techthis building would not have been possible.There are negative sides of this development,however. Often problematic is the relevance ofsuch buildings to the Nigerian culture.

In the case of the Pure Modern trend it embracesthe bulk of the works of such pioneer architectsas Onafowokan, Olumuyiwa, VaughanRichards, Fry Drew, Design Group Nigeria orGodwin Hopwood to mention just a few. The

Bank of the North Headquarters in Kano

4.2 Pure Modern Trend as a cultural

bridge

Pure Modern trend stands as a cultural bridgebecause of the way the modern ideas spread andthe architects came up with very original ideaswhile tapping from the world culture.

Some of the young architects (foreigners) whowere behind the first modern buildings came toNigeria as to an unknown exotic country. AllNigerians practising were also educated abroad.They came with all the hopes and dreams thenew generation had about modern architecture.The way they interpreted architecture had someidealistic approach like in the case of

by Olumuyiwa. There, it isonly by working and reworking that the idea of abrain was embodied in architectural form. In thisdesign most characteristic is the concept of thebrain presented as a box suspended in space.Despite all difficulties the architect pronouncedit in an architectural form and as a result theunique floating feeling was achieved. It can beeasily perceived from the atrium. One can sensea particularly important space celebrated in anunusual but pleasant manner. The building looksvery ordinary from the outside.

Mcanto Madubuko Associates designedin a way that phase

construction was made possible. In this buildingthe architects used curved concrete surfacesexternally. This structure also incorporates anexternal sit out on the roof of the lower portionof the building. It is meant for outdoor recreation(Plate 16). Arc. Madubuko still believes that formmust follow function.

In conclusion the Pure Modern Trend stands as acultural bridge because the modern ideasinterpreted by Nigerian masters wereincorporated in Nigerian townscape (Plate 17)and brought a modern look to the cities. Thereare however problems to be overcome heresuch as the lack of a maintenance culture.

In the sixties and the seventies the InternationalStyle in Nigeria was at its peak. This dominatingstyle brought along a sense of modernity. On theother hand the universal and anonymousarchitecture lacked relevance to local traditions

Management House

BCCIHead Office in Enugu

5.0 The International Style as a

Cultural Disaster

Pure Modern trend stands as a cultural bridgebecause of the way the modern ideas spread andthe architects came up with very original ideaswhile tapping from the world culture.

Some of the young architects (foreigners) whowere behind the first modern buildings came toNigeria as to an unknown exotic country. AllNigerians practising were also educated abroad.They came with all the hopes and dreams thenew generation had about modern architecture.The way they interpreted architecture had someidealistic approach like in the case of

by Olumuyiwa. There, it isonly by working and reworking that the idea of abrain was embodied in architectural form. In thisdesign most characteristic is the concept of thebrain presented as a box suspended in space.Despite all difficulties the architect pronouncedit in an architectural form and as a result theunique floating feeling was achieved. It can beeasily perceived from the atrium. One can sensea particularly important space celebrated in anunusual but pleasant manner. The building looksvery ordinary from the outside.

Mcanto Madubuko Associates designedin a way that phase

construction was made possible. In this buildingthe architects used curved concrete surfacesexternally. This structure also incorporates anexternal sit out on the roof of the lower portionof the building. It is meant for outdoor recreation(Plate 16). Arc. Madubuko still believes that formmust follow function.

In conclusion the Pure Modern Trend stands as acultural bridge because the modern ideasinterpreted by Nigerian masters wereincorporated in Nigerian townscape (Plate 17)and brought a modern look to the cities. Thereare however problems to be overcome heresuch as the lack of a maintenance culture.

In the sixties and the seventies the InternationalStyle in Nigeria was at its peak. This dominatingstyle brought along a sense of modernity. On theother hand the universal and anonymousarchitecture lacked relevance to local traditions

Management House

BCCIHead Office in Enugu

Plate 15: Broking House, Ibadan by Design Group Nigeria,1983. Source: Author’s sketch.

14 Modern Nigerian Architecture

and it is also behind the low standards of housingestates due to monotonous designs.

The Low-Trop trend represents the architectureof the masses, the architecture of draughtsmen,and low income estates reminiscent ofmonotonous housing estates in Eastern Europe.Very disastrous are the rentable residentialapartments commonly referred to as “face me, Iface you”. The family unit is usually contained intwo-room apartments (room and parlour) whilethe service areas with the kitchens, toilets andlaundry areas are located at the rear of thecorridor (Izomoh, 1997). It is a fact that thelandlord is able to maximise his profit while suchconditions limit privacy and are climatologicallynot advisable. Generally conditions of living arepoor. They were never that poor in thetraditional settings which catered for materialand spiritual needs and was sensitive to the

5.1 Low-Trop as a cultural disaster

and it is also behind the low standards of housingestates due to monotonous designs.

The Low-Trop trend represents the architectureof the masses, the architecture of draughtsmen,and low income estates reminiscent ofmonotonous housing estates in Eastern Europe.Very disastrous are the rentable residentialapartments commonly referred to as “face me, Iface you”. The family unit is usually contained intwo-room apartments (room and parlour) whilethe service areas with the kitchens, toilets andlaundry areas are located at the rear of thecorridor (Izomoh, 1997). It is a fact that thelandlord is able to maximise his profit while suchconditions limit privacy and are climatologicallynot advisable. Generally conditions of living arepoor. They were never that poor in thetraditional settings which catered for materialand spiritual needs and was sensitive to the

5.1 Low-Trop as a cultural disaster

microclimate of a given region.

The design and orientation of the family housesand rentable blocks of flats are influenced by theshape of the plots and the position of the mainaccess roads. The architectural designs of suchbuildings are handled too often by draughtsmenand other allied professionals in the buildingindustry. The designs are often not functional.

The way of life among the people of third worldcountries is constantly changing. Small familymodel contrasting with the extended family isjust one example of modern way of life. It is alsoembodied in architecture and in people’s desirefor Western architecture. Imported technologiesdo not help in solving housing problems. Theyare affordable only for the elite, and in somecases for big administrative bodies such asparastatals, governments, et cetera. Affordabilityis a very important factor in case of increasingdemand for housing. Here the cost of housingconstruction is still too high while it can bereduced by use of available local buildingmaterials and changes in techniques.

In Nigeria there are researches going in search oflocal building materials and new techniques.There is however a problem of propagatingthese findings. Adesina (1985, pp. 278-285)

Plate 17: City Centre, Lagos. Source: Postcard printed in Great Britain by J. Arthur Dixon for Leventis Stores Limited,Nigeria.

The International Style in Nigerian Architecture 15

and it is also behind the low standards of housingestates due to monotonous designs.

The Low-Trop trend represents the architectureof the masses, the architecture of draughtsmen,and low income estates reminiscent ofmonotonous housing estates in Eastern Europe.Very disastrous are the rentable residentialapartments commonly referred to as “face me, Iface you”. The family unit is usually contained intwo-room apartments (room and parlour) whilethe service areas with the kitchens, toilets andlaundry areas are located at the rear of thecorridor (Izomoh, 1997). It is a fact that thelandlord is able to maximise his profit while suchconditions limit privacy and are climatologicallynot advisable. Generally conditions of living arepoor. They were never that poor in thetraditional settings which catered for materialand spiritual needs and was sensitive to the

5.1 Low-Trop as a cultural disaster

microclimate of a given region.

The design and orientation of the family housesand rentable blocks of flats are influenced by theshape of the plots and the position of the mainaccess roads. The architectural designs of suchbuildings are handled too often by draughtsmenand other allied professionals in the buildingindustry. The designs are often not functional.

The way of life among the people of third worldcountries is constantly changing. Small familymodel contrasting with the extended family isjust one example of modern way of life. It is alsoembodied in architecture and in people’s desirefor Western architecture. Imported technologiesdo not help in solving housing problems. Theyare affordable only for the elite, and in somecases for big administrative bodies such asparastatals, governments, et cetera. Affordabilityis a very important factor in case of increasingdemand for housing. Here the cost of housingconstruction is still too high while it can bereduced by use of available local buildingmaterials and changes in techniques.

In Nigeria there are researches going in search oflocal building materials and new techniques.There is however a problem of propagatingthese findings. Adesina (1985, pp. 278-285)

microclimate of a given region.

The design and orientation of the family housesand rentable blocks of flats are influenced by theshape of the plots and the position of the mainaccess roads. The architectural designs of suchbuildings are handled too often by draughtsmenand other allied professionals in the buildingindustry. The designs are often not functional.

The way of life among the people of third worldcountries is constantly changing. Small familymodel contrasting with the extended family isjust one example of modern way of life. It is alsoembodied in architecture and in people’s desirefor Western architecture. Imported technologiesdo not help in solving housing problems. Theyare affordable only for the elite, and in somecases for big administrative bodies such asparastatals, governments, et cetera. Affordabilityis a very important factor in case of increasingdemand for housing. Here the cost of housingconstruction is still too high while it can bereduced by use of available local buildingmaterials and changes in techniques.

In Nigeria there are researches going in search oflocal building materials and new techniques.There is however a problem of propagatingthese findings. Adesina (1985, pp. 278-285)

Plate 16: BCCI Head Office, 28 Okpare Avenue, Enugu by Mcanto Madubuko Associates. Source: Researcher’sPhotograph.

16 Modern Nigerian Architecture

demonstrated a good example of constructingthree different experimental models of low costhouses. They were three to four times cheaperthan houses where the contractor usedconventional construction methods. There aregood efforts made as in the case of The NigerianBuilding and Road Research Institute (NBRRI,1997) or in the case of the low-cost rowprototype house designed and built by Prof.Olusanya in Lagos. There are other problemsrelated to security issues. People tend to buildvery high fences which are of low artistic valueand constitute ugly elements in the urbanlandscape and in addition reduce the streetventilation. The expectation from the architectshere is to make this architecture more humane.

The height of buildings in Nigeria is very limitedcompared to other skyscrapers in the world. Thetallest buildings in the world, the

in Malaysia are a spectacular 452m tall.Nigerian buildings can not also compare to thecollapsed before the crashof the hijacked planes into each of the towerswhich caused about three thousand deaths.Despite the limited height of tall buildings,Nigeria also experienced its horrors when

in Lagos (Plate 18) and inIbadan were set ablaze. In the event of firefighting, tall buildings are much more dangerousin developing countries. Here the degree ofdamage is even greater due to lack of requiredequipment and skilled personnel.

The International Style in Nigeria has a very richhistory starting from the thirties with its peak inthe late seventies and early eighties. It ischaracterized by the free floor plan, use of puregeometrical forms, parapet walls, flat roofs andthe use of curtain walls. Its buildings have littleregard for climate and social conditions. SeeTable 1.

This paper has revealed the positive and thenegative sides of this architecture. The positive isthe fact that it forms a cultural and technologicalbridge by linking this developing country withthe more advanced ones by means of moderntechnologies and exchange of ideas. It also

5.2 Fire hazards in tall buildings

PatronasTowers

World Trade Centre

NETBuilding Cocoa House

6.0 Conclusion

demonstrated a good example of constructingthree different experimental models of low costhouses. They were three to four times cheaperthan houses where the contractor usedconventional construction methods. There aregood efforts made as in the case of The NigerianBuilding and Road Research Institute (NBRRI,1997) or in the case of the low-cost rowprototype house designed and built by Prof.Olusanya in Lagos. There are other problemsrelated to security issues. People tend to buildvery high fences which are of low artistic valueand constitute ugly elements in the urbanlandscape and in addition reduce the streetventilation. The expectation from the architectshere is to make this architecture more humane.

The height of buildings in Nigeria is very limitedcompared to other skyscrapers in the world. Thetallest buildings in the world, the

in Malaysia are a spectacular 452m tall.Nigerian buildings can not also compare to thecollapsed before the crashof the hijacked planes into each of the towerswhich caused about three thousand deaths.Despite the limited height of tall buildings,Nigeria also experienced its horrors when

in Lagos (Plate 18) and inIbadan were set ablaze. In the event of firefighting, tall buildings are much more dangerousin developing countries. Here the degree ofdamage is even greater due to lack of requiredequipment and skilled personnel.

The International Style in Nigeria has a very richhistory starting from the thirties with its peak inthe late seventies and early eighties. It ischaracterized by the free floor plan, use of puregeometrical forms, parapet walls, flat roofs andthe use of curtain walls. Its buildings have littleregard for climate and social conditions. SeeTable 1.

This paper has revealed the positive and thenegative sides of this architecture. The positive isthe fact that it forms a cultural and technologicalbridge by linking this developing country withthe more advanced ones by means of moderntechnologies and exchange of ideas. It also

5.2 Fire hazards in tall buildings

PatronasTowers

World Trade Centre

NETBuilding Cocoa House

World Trade Centre, New York. Source: http:/ /www.Greatbuildings.com.

Petronas Towers, Kualar Lumpur, Malaysia. Source:http://www.arrakeen.ch.

The International Style in Nigerian Architecture 17

demonstrated a good example of constructingthree different experimental models of low costhouses. They were three to four times cheaperthan houses where the contractor usedconventional construction methods. There aregood efforts made as in the case of The NigerianBuilding and Road Research Institute (NBRRI,1997) or in the case of the low-cost rowprototype house designed and built by Prof.Olusanya in Lagos. There are other problemsrelated to security issues. People tend to buildvery high fences which are of low artistic valueand constitute ugly elements in the urbanlandscape and in addition reduce the streetventilation. The expectation from the architectshere is to make this architecture more humane.

The height of buildings in Nigeria is very limitedcompared to other skyscrapers in the world. Thetallest buildings in the world, the

in Malaysia are a spectacular 452m tall.Nigerian buildings can not also compare to thecollapsed before the crashof the hijacked planes into each of the towerswhich caused about three thousand deaths.Despite the limited height of tall buildings,Nigeria also experienced its horrors when

in Lagos (Plate 18) and inIbadan were set ablaze. In the event of firefighting, tall buildings are much more dangerousin developing countries. Here the degree ofdamage is even greater due to lack of requiredequipment and skilled personnel.

The International Style in Nigeria has a very richhistory starting from the thirties with its peak inthe late seventies and early eighties. It ischaracterized by the free floor plan, use of puregeometrical forms, parapet walls, flat roofs andthe use of curtain walls. Its buildings have littleregard for climate and social conditions. SeeTable 1.

This paper has revealed the positive and thenegative sides of this architecture. The positive isthe fact that it forms a cultural and technologicalbridge by linking this developing country withthe more advanced ones by means of moderntechnologies and exchange of ideas. It also

5.2 Fire hazards in tall buildings

PatronasTowers

World Trade Centre

NETBuilding Cocoa House

Building Location Architect

Architecture House Lagos Olumuyiwa and Associates (1958)

Bank of the North Headquarters Kano Ella Waziri Associates

BCCI Head Office EnuguMcanto Madubuko Associates (1st phase

1978 / 2nd phase 1984)

Benue State Secretariat, Cabinet

OfficeMakurdi Archcon Nigeria

Broking House (Femi Johnson House) Ibadan Design Group Nigeria (1983)

Buildings at Bayero University Kano Ella Waziri Associates

C.S.S. Bookshop House Broad Street, Lagos Godwin Hopwood (1965)

Eko Hotel (Eko Holiday Inn) Victoria Island, LagosOluwole Olumuyiwa and Associates in

collaboration with Americans

Faculty of Health SciencesObafemi Awolowo

University, Ile-IfeDeji Oyenuga and Partners

Federal Secretariat Lagos Fola Alade/ Federal Ministry of Works

First Bank Headquarters Marina, Lagos Ronald Ward Architects (1982/83)

Godwin and Hopwood Building Boyle Street, Lagos Godwin Hopwood (1958)

IBRU Building Apapa, Lagos Femi Majekodunmi Associates

IBWA House Victoria Island, Lagos Modulor Group

IMB (International Merchant Bank) Victoria Island, Lagos Inchscape Architects (1985)

Independence House Lagos Federal Ministry of Works (1960)

K. Chellarams Building Marina, Lagos James Cubitt and Partners (1985)

Kashim Ibrahim LibraryAhmadu Bello

University, ZariaEgbor and Associates

Management HouseIdowu Taylor Street,

Victoria Island, LagosOluwole Olumuyiwa and Associates

Mobil Building Lagos James Cubitt and Partners (1991)

NAL Towers (NAL Merchant Bank

Headquarters)Lagos Femi Majekodunmi Associates

National Arts Theatre Iganmu, Lagos Techno-Export (Bulgarian Architects)

NET Building Marina, Lagos Nickson & Borys

Senate Building UNILAG, Lagos James Cubitt and Partners

University BookshopUniversity of Ibadan,

IbadanDesign Group Nigeria (1960)

Western House Lagos Nickson and Borys (1960)

Table 1: Details of buildings in the International Style referenced in the paper.

18 Modern Nigerian Architecture

satisfies the desire for modernity.

The disaster lies in the lowered standard of livingdue to non-affordability of decent dwelling unitsby the common man compared to the traditionalsettings. The buildings are unsatisfactoryclimatologically and depend on mechanicalmeans of ventilation and artificial light despitethe ever-present NEPA failures.

The tall buildings although generally admired arenot suitable for the country because of themaintenance costs and uncontrollable firehazards. The imported technologies in the longrun do not promote progress because theysuppress the development of the local industry.

satisfies the desire for modernity.

The disaster lies in the lowered standard of livingdue to non-affordability of decent dwelling unitsby the common man compared to the traditionalsettings. The buildings are unsatisfactoryclimatologically and depend on mechanicalmeans of ventilation and artificial light despitethe ever-present NEPA failures.

The tall buildings although generally admired arenot suitable for the country because of themaintenance costs and uncontrollable firehazards. The imported technologies in the longrun do not promote progress because theysuppress the development of the local industry.

1. The roof design of this building also places it inthe Post Modern Trend.

2. The plan of the building – the Northern Knotalso places it in the Post Modern Trend.

Adesina S. O. and Utgikar (1985). Materials andConstruction Techniques for Low Cost Housingin Nigeria. In: Onibokun, P.(A Book of Readings). NISER, Ibadan, pp. 265-276.

C u r t i s , W . ( 1 9 8 9 ) . C o n t e m p o r a r yTransformations in Modern Architecture. In:

. June, pp. 108-117.

Frampton, K. (1992).Thames and Hudson, London.

NBRRI (1997). Spotlight: The Nigerian Buildingand Road Research Institute, Lagos. In:

, July/August, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 10 - 17.

Ogunsote, O. O. and Prucnal-Ogunsote, B.(2006).

Amonograph of the Department of Architecture,School of Environmental Technology, FederalUniversity of Technology, Akure.

Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (1993). A Study of ModernTrends in Some Aspects of Architecture inNigeria. Ph.D. Dissertation, Department ofArchitecture, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.

Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2001a). Classification ofNigerian Architecture. In: Vol.1, No. 6., pp. 48 – 56.

Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2001b). PortrayingNational Architecture in Modern Buildings.Paper presented during AARCHES Conference,Akure, September, 15 pp.

Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2002). The InternationalStyle in Nigeria: Technological and CulturalBridge - or Disaster? Journal of EnvironmentalTechnology, 1:1, 102-114. School ofEnvironmental Technology, Federal Universityof Technology, Akure.

Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2005). Reflection of

Housing in Nigeria.

Architectural Record

Modern Architecture. ACritical History.

HousingToday

Campus Planning and Architecture:Memoirs from Seven American Universities.

AARCHES Journal.

Cocoa House, Ibadan. Source: GHK archives.

Culture and Climate in the Vernacular andModern Architecture of Akure. Proceedings ofthe International Conference on Science andTechnology, Federal University of Technology,Akure. 14-19 August, 2005.

Uzor (2001). Tragedy as Thousands Die:Pentagon, WTC Razed, Four Hijacked PlanesCrashed. In: This Day. September 12, p 1,4-6.

Venturi, R. (1977).The Architectural Press Ltd.,

London.

Complexity and Contradictionin Architecture.

Plate 18: NET Building, Marina, Lagos by Nickson & Borys.Source: Author’s sketch.

The International Style in Nigerian Architecture 19

satisfies the desire for modernity.

The disaster lies in the lowered standard of livingdue to non-affordability of decent dwelling unitsby the common man compared to the traditionalsettings. The buildings are unsatisfactoryclimatologically and depend on mechanicalmeans of ventilation and artificial light despitethe ever-present NEPA failures.

The tall buildings although generally admired arenot suitable for the country because of themaintenance costs and uncontrollable firehazards. The imported technologies in the longrun do not promote progress because theysuppress the development of the local industry.

7. Notes

9. References

1. The roof design of this building also places it inthe Post Modern Trend.

2. The plan of the building – the Northern Knotalso places it in the Post Modern Trend.

Adesina S. O. and Utgikar (1985). Materials andConstruction Techniques for Low Cost Housingin Nigeria. In: Onibokun, P.(A Book of Readings). NISER, Ibadan, pp. 265-276.

C u r t i s , W . ( 1 9 8 9 ) . C o n t e m p o r a r yTransformations in Modern Architecture. In:

. June, pp. 108-117.

Frampton, K. (1992).Thames and Hudson, London.

NBRRI (1997). Spotlight: The Nigerian Buildingand Road Research Institute, Lagos. In:

, July/August, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 10 - 17.

Ogunsote, O. O. and Prucnal-Ogunsote, B.(2006).

Amonograph of the Department of Architecture,School of Environmental Technology, FederalUniversity of Technology, Akure.

Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (1993). A Study of ModernTrends in Some Aspects of Architecture inNigeria. Ph.D. Dissertation, Department ofArchitecture, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.

Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2001a). Classification ofNigerian Architecture. In: Vol.1, No. 6., pp. 48 – 56.

Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2001b). PortrayingNational Architecture in Modern Buildings.Paper presented during AARCHES Conference,Akure, September, 15 pp.

Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2002). The InternationalStyle in Nigeria: Technological and CulturalBridge - or Disaster? Journal of EnvironmentalTechnology, 1:1, 102-114. School ofEnvironmental Technology, Federal Universityof Technology, Akure.

Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2005). Reflection of

Housing in Nigeria.

Architectural Record

Modern Architecture. ACritical History.

HousingToday

Campus Planning and Architecture:Memoirs from Seven American Universities.

AARCHES Journal.

1. The roof design of this building also places it inthe Post Modern Trend.

2. The plan of the building – the Northern Knotalso places it in the Post Modern Trend.

Adesina S. O. and Utgikar (1985). Materials andConstruction Techniques for Low Cost Housingin Nigeria. In: Onibokun, P.(A Book of Readings). NISER, Ibadan, pp. 265-276.

C u r t i s , W . ( 1 9 8 9 ) . C o n t e m p o r a r yTransformations in Modern Architecture. In:

. June, pp. 108-117.

Frampton, K. (1992).Thames and Hudson, London.

NBRRI (1997). Spotlight: The Nigerian Buildingand Road Research Institute, Lagos. In:

, July/August, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 10 - 17.

Ogunsote, O. O. and Prucnal-Ogunsote, B.(2006).

Amonograph of the Department of Architecture,School of Environmental Technology, FederalUniversity of Technology, Akure.

Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (1993). A Study of ModernTrends in Some Aspects of Architecture inNigeria. Ph.D. Dissertation, Department ofArchitecture, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.

Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2001a). Classification ofNigerian Architecture. In: Vol.1, No. 6., pp. 48 – 56.

Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2001b). PortrayingNational Architecture in Modern Buildings.Paper presented during AARCHES Conference,Akure, September, 15 pp.

Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2002). The InternationalStyle in Nigeria: Technological and CulturalBridge - or Disaster? Journal of EnvironmentalTechnology, 1:1, 102-114. School ofEnvironmental Technology, Federal Universityof Technology, Akure.

Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. (2005). Reflection of

Housing in Nigeria.

Architectural Record

Modern Architecture. ACritical History.

HousingToday

Campus Planning and Architecture:Memoirs from Seven American Universities.

AARCHES Journal.

Culture and Climate in the Vernacular andModern Architecture of Akure. Proceedings ofthe International Conference on Science andTechnology, Federal University of Technology,Akure. 14-19 August, 2005.

Uzor (2001). Tragedy as Thousands Die:Pentagon, WTC Razed, Four Hijacked PlanesCrashed. In: This Day. September 12, p 1,4-6.

Venturi, R. (1977).The Architectural Press Ltd.,

London.

Complexity and Contradictionin Architecture.

�

Culture and Climate in the Vernacular andModern Architecture of Akure. Proceedings ofthe International Conference on Science andTechnology, Federal University of Technology,Akure. 14-19 August, 2005.

Uzor (2001). Tragedy as Thousands Die:Pentagon, WTC Razed, Four Hijacked PlanesCrashed. In: This Day. September 12, p 1,4-6.

Venturi, R. (1977).The Architectural Press Ltd.,

London.

Complexity and Contradictionin Architecture.