the interrelatedness of formal, non-formal and informal ... · the interrelatedness of formal,...

Australian Journal of Adult Learning Volume 52, Number 2, July 2012

The interrelatedness of formal, non-formal and informal learning: Evidence from labour market

program participants

Roslyn CameronCentral Queensland University

Jennifer L. HarrisonSouthern Cross University

Definitions, differences and relationships between formal, non-formal and informal learning have long been contentious. There has been a significant change in language and reference from adult education to what amounts to forms of learning categorised by their modes of facilitation. Nonetheless, there is currently a renewed interest in the recognition of non-formal and informal learning internationally and in Australia. This has been evidenced through the New OECD Activity on Recognition of Non-Formal and Informal Learning and recent policy developments in Australia. These developments have implications for the recognition of skills derived from informal and non-formal learning, especially for those disadvantaged in the labour market. This paper reports on

278 Roslyn Cameron and Jennifer L. Harrison

data from a learning grid in a Learning Survey of labour market program participants (n = 172) from northern New South Wales and southern Queensland. We find that life (informal learning) and work experience (non-formal learning) are relatively more important for gaining self-reported skills than formal training/study. We conclude by arguing for a holistic focus on the dynamic interrelatedness of these forms of learning rather than being constrained by a deterministic dichotomy between formality and informality.

Introduction

Thisstudylooksattherelativityandinterconnectednessbetweenthethreeformsoflearning—formal,non-formalandinformal—forself-reportedskillsetsfromlabourmarketprogram(LMP)participants.LMPparticipantsareconsideredtobedisadvantagedinthelabourmarketbuttheyareapotentialsourceoflabourforamarketunderimmenseskillanddemographicpressures.DespitetherecentglobalfinancialcrisisAustraliaisexperiencingsignificantskillshortagesandwillsoonfeeltheeffectsofthedemographictsunamiofthe‘babyboomer’generationleavingtheworkforceenmasse.Governmentpolicyandfundedinitiativestoincreaseworkforceparticipationandaddresshumancapitalconcernshasbroughttherecognitionofnon-formalandinformallearning(RNFIL)totheforefrontofseveralpolicydriversaimedatgroupsexcludedandtraditionallydisadvantagedinthelabourmarket.Nowmorethanever,therecognitionofinformalandnon-formallearningwillneedtobeconsideredtoassistthesegroupsandhelpalleviatesomeofthelabourmarketpressuresbeingexperienced.

TherehavebeenthreesetsofpolicydriversbehindbringingRNFILbacktotheforefrontofpolicy.TheseincludetheSocialInclusionagenda,theCouncilofAustralianGovernments’(COAG)NationalSkillsandWorkforceDevelopmentAgreement,andthe2008

The interrelatedness of formal, non-formal and informal learning 279

MinisterialDeclarationonAdultCommunityEducation(ACE).In2009COAGestablishedtheVocational Education and Training—National Skills and Workforce Development Agreement. ThisagreementaimstoimprovethefoundationalskillsofAustralia’sworkingagepopulationtoenableeffectiveeducational,labourmarketandsocialparticipationandtoensuretheAustralianworkingagepopulationhastheskillsandcapabilitiesforthe21stcenturylabourmarketandtoincreasehumancapitalinnovation,productivityandutilisation(COAG2008).TheestablishmentoftheMinistryforSocialInclusionandrelatedpolicydirectionsfromtheAustralianGovernmentaddsanotherpolicydimensiontothepotentialrolethatRNFILcouldplayinaddressingmajorissuesthatemergefromthesocialinclusionagenda.Forexample,manyoftheprimaryandsecondaryindicatorsofsocialinclusionhavedirectrelevancetothepracticeofRNFILandthefivekeyforces(Pierson2001)thatdrivetheprocessofsocialinclusion(povertyandlowincome;lackofaccesstothejobmarket;limitedsocialsupportsandnetworks;theeffectofthelocalneighbourhood;andexclusionfromservices).

TheMinisterialCouncilforVocationalandTechnicalEducationannouncedanewMinisterialDeclarationonACEin2008(MCVTCE2008)whichacknowledgestheoriginal2002DeclarationandtheroleplayedbytheACEsectorindevelopingsocialcapital,communitycapacityandsocialparticipation.The2008DeclarationofACEextendsbeyondtheseareastotheACEsector’s‘potentialtorespondtochangedindustrial,demographicandtechnologicalcircumstances,andencouragesacollaborativeapproachtoACEtoallowthesectortomakeagreatercontributionto…skillsandworkforcedevelopment’(MCVTCE2008).Bowman(2009:1)reportsthatthe2008MinisterialDeclarationonACE‘focusesonoptimisingthenationalcapacityofACEproviderstodelivervocationallyfocusedprogramswhichleadtofurthertrainingand/orworkforceparticipationwithaparticularfocusinengagingthedisadvantagedinsuchprogramsandeconomiclife’.Ultimately,theDeclarationprovidesACEwitha


significantrole‘attheinterfacebetweenthetwonationalagendasofHumanCapitalReformandSocialInclusion’(Bowman2009:2).

Thispaperwilloverviewthekeyliteratureoninformal,non-formalandformallearning,beforereportingtwostudiesthathaveattemptedtomeasureadultlearningatanationallevel(CanadaandAustralia).ThepaperwillthendescribeinternationalbasedinitiativesandpolicyrelatedtoRNFILbeforepresentingthefindingsfromtheLearningSurveyoflabourmarketparticipantsandtherelateddiscussionsandconclusions.

Key literature on formal, non-formal and informal learning

Amuchquotedsetofdefinitionsforformal,non-formalandinformallearninghasbeendevelopedbytheOECD(2005):

Formallearning:Referstolearningthroughaprogrammeofinstructioninaneducationalinstitution,adulttrainingcentreorintheworkplace,whichisgenerallyrecognisedinaqualificationoracertificate.

Non-formallearning:Referstolearningthroughaprogrammebutitisnotusuallyevaluatedanddoesnotleadtocertification.

Informallearning:Referstolearningresultingfromdailywork-related,familyorleisureactivities.In1996,theOECDeducationministersagreedtodevelopstrategiesfor‘lifelonglearningforall’.Theapproachhasbeenendorsedbyministersoflabour,ministersofsocialaffairsandtheOECDCouncilatministeriallevel.

Attemptstodefineformal,informalandnon-formallearningareoftenreferredtoasproblematic,blurred,competing,contestedandcontradictory(Colley,Hodkinson&Malcolm2003;Golding,Brown&Foley2009;Hager&Halliday2006;Werquin2007).AresearchreportcommissionedbytheLearningandSkillsDevelopmentAgency(LSDA)ofEnglandtomaptheconceptualterrainaroundnon-formallearning(Colley,Hodkinson&Malcom2003)isoneofthemostrecentandcomprehensiveconceptualanalysesofinformalityand


formalityinlearningtodate.Thereportnotonlysynthesisesthebroad-basedliteratureinthisareabutalsocontributessignificantlytofuturedevelopmentofandresearchintotheseaspectsofadultlearning.Thereportacknowledgesthehighlycontestedandevencontradictorynatureoftheseconcepts.However,theauthorscategorisedefinitionalcriteriaaroundtwodimensions:atheoreticaldimensionandapoliticaldimension,asfollows:

• Differingtheoreticalapproachestolearning(theoreticaldimension);

• Contrastingclaimsabouttheeffectivenessoflearning(theoreticaldimension);

• Differingclaimsabouttherelationshipbetweenlearningandknowledge(theoreticaldimension);

• Attemptstoempowerunderprivilegedlearners(politicaldimension);and

• Attemptstoharnesslearningforinstrumentalpurposes,includingsocialinclusionandeconomiccompetitiveness(politicaldimension)(Colleyetal.,2003:64).

ThesetheoreticalandpoliticaldimensionshaveinfluencedtheoperationalisationoftheseconceptsinverydifferentdirectionsfromtheearlierwritingsofadultlearningtheoristsDeweyandKnowles,andrepresentasignificantandtheoreticallyinterestingtransition.

ThestancetakenbyGolding,BrownandFoley(2009)providesanexampleofhowinformallearningisviewedintermsofbothatheoreticalandapoliticaldimension.Theauthorsrefertothepowerdifferentialthatcreatesasystematicdevaluingofinformallearning.Theygoontostatethatthe‘verynatureofinformallearning,particularlyitsunstructuredandorganicquality,workstodis-empowerarangeofadultstakeholdersanddiminishitsvalueasameaningfuleducationalpursuitinasystemthatvalueshighlystructured,systematised,outcome-drivenapproachestoyoung


people’slearning’(Goldingetal.2009:53).Coffield(2000:8)alsotakesatheoreticalstanceintermsoftherelationshipbetweenlearningandknowledgebyarguingfortherelativere-valuingofinformallearning:

Informallearningshouldnolongerberegardedasaninferiorformoflearningwhosemainpurposeistoactastheprecursorofformallearning;itneedstobeseenasfundamental,necessaryandvaluableinitsownright,attimesdirectlyrelevanttoemploymentandatothertimesnotrelevantatall.

Intermsofinformallearning,McGivney(2002)statesthereisnounanimouslyaccepteddefinition.Sheclaimsthattryingtoexplaininformallearningislike‘tryingtograspjelly’,andthatitiseasiertodescribewhatinformallearningisnotthantotrytodescribewhatitis(McGivney2002:102).Nonetheless,theauthorfallsbackonthedefinitionwhichstatesinformallearningisaprocessbywhichindividualsacquirevalues,skillsandknowledgefromdailyexperience.Livingstone(2000a:2)definesinformallearningas‘undertakenonone’sown,eitherindividuallyorcollectively,withouteitherexternallyimposedcriteriaorthepresenceofaninstitutionallyauthorizedinstructor’.

Someauthorsandcommentatorshavenotedproblemswiththeemphasisondifferencesbetweenformsoflearning.Davies(2001:113)hasexpressedconcernsaboutthedivisionbetweendifferenttypesoflearning:

Idohavesomeconcernsthatthenotionofformal,non-formalandinformalmaybecomefixedasifthesearethreeroomswithhighwallsaroundthemsothattheintegratedholisticwayinwhichrealpeoplelearnandmakesenseoftheirworldislost.Itmaybethatwhilebreakingdownboundariesbetweensectors,newboundariesarebeingconstructedarounddifferentformsoflearning.


Colley,HodkinsonandMalcolm(2004:3)makeastrongconnectionbetweeninformalandformallearningthroughthenotionofattributes:

Itismoresensibletoseeattributes of informality and formality aspresentinalllearningsituations.Attributesofin/formalityareinterrelateddifferentlyindifferentsituations.Thoseattributesandtheirinterrelationshipsinfluencethenatureandeffectivenessoflearning.Changingthebalancebetweenformalandinformalattributeschangesthenatureofthelearning.

Marsick(2009),inaguesteditorialfocuseduponaunifyingframeworktosupportinformallearningtheory,researchandpractice,concludesthat,althoughinformallearningisalwaysdefinedincontrasttoformallearning,theyinteractinimportantways.

Adiscussiononformal,informalandnon-formallearningcannotbeadequatelycoveredwithoutmentioningtheworkofEraut(2000)inrelationtonon-formallearning,implicitknowledgeandtacitknowledgewithintheworkplace.Eraut’sresearchfoundthatadegreeofexplicitnessisneededforimprovingwork-basedperformance:

…thicktacitversionsofpersonalknowledgecoexistwiththinexplicitversions:thethickversionisusedinpractice,thethinversionfordescribingandjustifyingthatpractice…Ifpeople’stacitpersonalknowledgeandimplicitlearningaredevalued,theirconfidencewilldiminishandtheiruseof,andinterestin,moreformalknowledgewillalsosuffer(Eraut2000:29).

Eraut(2000)developedatypologytoexplorethefullrangeoflearningprocessesormodesthatfallwithinthisdomainof‘non-formallearning’.

Similarly,Schugurensky(2000)developedataxonomyofinformallearningbyusingtwomaincriteriafordistinguishinglearning:intentionalityandconsciousness(awareness).Thesetwocriteriaarethenmappedagainstthreeforms(types)ofinformallearning:self-directedlearning,incidentallearningandsocialisation.This


resultsinself-directedlearningatoneendofaspectrumofinformallearning,theotherendoccupiedbysocialisationandincidentallearningoccurringsomewhereinbetween(Schugurensky2000:5).Werquin(2007:5)proffersasimilarmappingexercisewithtwocomponentsusedtodefinethemodeoflearning:intentionallearning,andwhethertheactivityhaslearningobjectives.Thismappingexerciseproducesasetoffourtypesoflearning:

• FormalLearning (TypeILearning);

• Non-FormalLearning (TypeIILearning);

• Semi-Formallearning (TypeIIILearning);

• InformalLearning (TypeIVLearning).

Semi-FormalLearning(TypeIIILearning)isdefinedaslearninginwhichindividuals,‘maylearnduringactivitieswithlearningobjectivesbuttheylearnbeyondthelearningobjectives;thisissemi-formal learning…Individualshavetheintentionoflearningaboutsomethingand,withoutknowingit,learnalsoaboutsomethingelse’(Werquin2007:5).

Recently,Illeris(2009)exploredthebarriersbetweendifferentlearningspacessoastobridgethegapbetweenlearningthatoccursinsideschoolsandoutsideschools.Heidentifiedfivemainlearningspacesincontemporarysociety:

1. Everydaylearning

2. Schoolandeducationallearning

3. Workplacelearning

4. Interest-basedlearning

5. Net-basedlearning(Illeris2009:139–140).

TheinclusionofthelastlearningspacehasalsobeennotedbyHalliday-WynesandBeddie(2009:7–8),althoughtheydonotdefineitassuch.Theyrefertotheuseoftechnologyorinformationcommunicationtechnologies(e.g.websites,blogs,socialnetworking


sites)andhowthemassconsumptionofthesenewtechnologiesisexpandingthehiddenicebergofinformallearning.Thesetechnologiesarefacilitatinginformallearningandconnectingthephysicalspacesoflearningtovirtuallearningspacesthroughmobilephonesandwirelesswebaccess.

Thedefinitionoflearningspacesisnotwithoutitscontroversiesandisalsoaproblematicarea.Billett(2002:56)arguesthat‘describingworkplacelearningenvironmentsandexperiencesas“informal”…constrainsunderstandingabouthowlearningoccursthroughwork’.Hearguesthatthisdescriptionoflearningenvironmentsaseitherformalorinformalleadsto‘situationaldeterminism’insteadofviewinglearningas‘inter-dependentbetweentheindividualandthesocialpractice’(Billett2002:56).Ascanbeseenfromthediscussionoftheliterature,thedefiningofformsoflearningandlearningspacesremainsanareaofconceptualandtheoreticaldialogueanddebate.Weargueforafocusontherelativityandinterconnectednessoftheseformsoflearningandlearningspaces.

International interest in the recognition of non-formal and informal learning

Internationally,theOrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment(OECD)hasbeenresearchingandpromotingtheimportanceoflifelonglearning,careerdevelopmentandtherecognitionofnon-formalandinformallearning.SeveralstudieshavebeencommissionedbytheOECDandotherinternationalandEuropeanbodiesintheseareas(CommissionofEuropeanCommunities2000;EuropeanCommission2001;OECD2003;TheWorldBank2003).TheDirectorateofEducationwithintheOECDviewstherecognitionofnon-formalandinformallearningasacrucialpartofthelifelonglearningagenda:

Therecognitionofnon-formalandinformallearningisanimportantmeansformakingthe‘lifelonglearningforall’agenda


arealityand,subsequently,forreshapinglearningtobettermatchtheneedsofthe21stcenturyknowledgeeconomiesandopensocieties(OECD2007:1).

Therehavebeenseveralprojectsofacross-countryandinternationalnatureconductedbyinternationalbodieswhichacknowledgethevalueofrecognisingnon-formalandinformallearning.Theseinclude:Identification, assessment and recognition of non-formal learning in Europe (Bjornavold2000); Transfine TRANSsfer between formal, informal and non-formal education (Davies2003);Making learning visible (OECD2007);andtheNew OECD activity on recognition of non-formal and informal learning (Werquin2010).

Measuring the extent of non-formal and informal learning

TheworkofLivingstone(2000a,2000b,2001),throughthefirstcountry-widesurveyofinformallearningpracticesofadultsinCanada,hasexpandedthenotionsoflearningandwork.TheNationalResearchNetworkonNewApproachestoLifelongLearning(NALL)surveywasfirstconductedin1998,andhasfoundthatadults’explicitinformallearningisveryextensive.LivingstoneacknowledgestheearlierworkofTough(1978)andtheuseofthemetaphoroftheiceberg,wherethesubmergedpartoftheicebergrepresentsadults’informallearningactivities.TheNALLsurveyfoundthatrespondents’formal/informallearningrepresenteda20/80percentsplit.Twentypercentofallmajorlearningeffortswereformal,orinotherwordsinstitutionallyorganised(e.g.drivinglessons,pianolessons).Thiswasusuallyone-on-one,butinvolvedaprofessional,formalsituation.Theother80percentwereinformal.Seventythreepercentwereplannedbythelearnersthemselves,wherethelearnersdecidedthewhatandthehowofthelearning.Threepercentwereundertakenwithafriend,neighbourorco-workerteachingthelearnersomething,andfourpercentwerewithinapeergroupwithoutanykindofprofessionalhelp.AnotherfindingfromtheNALLsurveywasthatinformallearningisaverysocialphenomenonandthat‘…theremay


actuallybemoresocialinteractionininformallearningthanthereisinclassroomlearning’(Tough2002:3).

AsignificantfindingfromtheresearchwasthelevelofsurpriseNALLsurveyrespondentsexpressedatthevolumeoflearningtheyhadcompletedandthevarietyofmethodstheyhadutilisedinthislearning.

…thisispartoftheicebergphenomenon—notonlyareweasasociety(oraseducators)oblivioustoinformallearning,wedon’tevennoticeourown.That’sright,peopledon’tevennoticetheirowninformallearning.Sowhatdowedoaboutthis?Ithinkit’sreallyempoweringandhelpfulandsupportivetoencouragepeopletolookattheirownlearning(Tough2002:7).

In2007theAustralianBureauofStatistics(ABS)conductedasurveyofAdult Learning in Australia(ABS2007)andfoundthat:

Oneineight(12%or1.3million)Australiansaged25to64yearsparticipatedinsomeformofformallearninginthe12monthspriortointerviewin2006–07.Almostone-third(30%or3.3millionpersons)participatedinnon-formallearningandapproximatelythree-quarters(74%or8.1millionpersons)participatedinsomeformofinformallearning…Thoseemployedfull-timeweremorelikelytohaveparticipatedinsomeformoflearningthanpersonsnotinthelabourforce(84%comparedto62%).Unemployedpersonshadlowerparticipationinnon-formal(25%comparedto38%)andinformallearningcomparedtopersonsemployedfull-time(71%comparedto79%)(ABS2007:3).

TheABSsurveyalsofoundthatthemostcommonformofnon-formallearningwaswork-relatedcourses(78%or2.6millionpersons)followedbyarts,craftsorrecreationallearning(12%).Themainfieldsofnon-formallearningwereinmanagementandcommerce(25%)andhealth(22%)(ABS2007:4–5).Forinformallearning,thesurveyfound8.1millionAustraliansparticipatedintheprevious12monthswithrelativelyevennumbersacrossgender(76%ofmalesand73%offemales).Themostcommonformofinformallearningwasreading


manuals,referencebooks,journalsorotherwrittenmaterials(75%),followedbyusingcomputersortheInternet(71%).Thosewhoindicatedtheydidnotparticipateinanyformoflearningrepresentedone-fifthofAustraliansandweremorelikelytonotbeinthelabourforcethanthoseemployedfull-timeorunemployed(38%comparedto16%and24%).Labouringwasthemostcommonoccupationalgroupfornon-participators(18%)andthemostcommonindustryforthosewhodidnotparticipatewasthemanufacturingindustry(14%)followedbytheretailtradeindustry(11%)(ABS2007:5).

Inconsiderationoftheseissues,thepresentstudysoughttoinvestigatethecombiningandrelativeimportanceofformal,non-formalandinformallearning.Inparticular,tworesearchquestionsrelatedtocombiningformsoflearningwereaddressed:

RQ1:Areskillsgainedbyasingleformoflearningorbycombinationsofforms?

RQ2:Aretheredifferencesincombiningofformsoflearningbasedondemographicfactors?

Afurtherthreeresearchquestionsrelatedtotherelativityofformsoflearningwereaddressed:

RQ3:Aretheredifferencesbetweenthepercentagesofskillsgainedfromdifferentformsoflearning?

RQ4:Arethereinteractionsbetweenthepercentageofskillsgainedfromdifferentformsoflearninganddemographicfactors?

RQ5:Isthereaninteractionbetweenthepercentageofskillsgainedfromdifferentformsoflearningandcategoryofskill?

Method and sample description

TheapproachtakeninthisstudywasexploratoryandutiliseddatadrawnfromabroaderLearningSurveyadministeredto247labourmarketprogramparticipantsinvariousprogramsruninsoutheastQueenslandandnorthernNewSouthWalesinAustralia.Thesurvey


addressedissuesacrossseveralthemes:currenttraining/study;computeraccessanddigitalliteracy;previouseducationandtraining;awarenessofrecognitionofpriorlearning(RPL);experiencewithRPL;futureintentionsforlearning;andmotivationsandinfluencesonlearning.Thesurveywasadministeredbytheresearcherorbytrainers/facilitatorsoflabourmarketprogramstogroupsoflabourmarketprogramparticipants.Anaimoftheresearchwastoaccessasampleofpeopleconsideredtobedisadvantagedinthelabourmarket.AmajorcriticismoftwolargeAustralianresearchreportsonRPL(Bowmanetal.2003;Wheelahanetal.2003)wasthattheresearchutilisedlargesecondarydatasetsofexistingpopulationsofstudentswithinformallearningsettings;thatis,peoplealreadyengagedinsomeformofformallearningwithaneducationalinstitution.Amajoraimofthisresearchwastoaccessasamplenotengagedinsomeformofformallearningwithintheexistingeducationalsectors,alongwithbeingdisadvantagedwithinthelabourmarket.Itwasdecidedthataccessingparticipantsonlabourmarketprogramswouldbeanefficientmeansbywhichtocapturesuchademographic.ParticipantsonlabourmarketprogramsareusuallyregisteredasunemployedorseekingemploymentwithCentrelinkand/orreceivingsomeformofgovernmentbenefitorallowance.Labourmarketprogramsareusuallytargetedtocertaingroupsofdisadvantagedjobseekersinreceiptofbenefits/allowances.Limitationscommontosurveyswereaddressedinthebroaderstudy.

Thesamplingframeforthebroaderstudywasthoseindividualswhowerecurrentlyunemployedandparticipatinginalabourmarketprogram.Thesamplingtechniquesusedwerepurposefulandsnowballsamplingwherelabourmarketprogramswereidentifiedthroughgovernmentfundingbodywebsitesandthenbyrequestingreferralstoothersimilarprogramsbythoseorganisationsfundedtoconductthelabourmarketprograms.Samplebiasoccurredwhenagroupattendingacoursenotconsideredtobealabourmarket


programwasincluded.Thisgroupwasengagedinatrainingcoursethatwasfulltime,fee-payingandataCertificateIIIAQFlevelandwasincludedastheyrepresentedthoseindividualsconsideredhiddenunemployed—registeredwithCentrelinkbutnotreceivingunemploymentbenefitsduetotheemploymentstatusoftheirspouse.Duetothenatureofthesample,thefindingsarelimitedtounemployedadults.Validskillsdataforthepurposeofthepresentstudywereprovidedby172oftheparticipants.SampledemographicsareprovidedinTable1.ThesamplelargelyconsistsofunemployedadultsandthehighesteducationalachievementofthesamplebroadlymatchesthedistributionforunemployedintheSurvey of Education and Training(ABS2005).

Table 1: Sample demographics

Gender(n=169):

Male 75

Female 94

Age(n=170):

15–19 11

20–24 15

25–29 6

30–34 4

35–39 11

40–44 26

45–49 35

50–54 29

55–59 23

60+ 10

Employment status(n=170)

Employed 18


Unemployed 152

Length of unemployment(n=138):

<6months 30

6monthsto1year 29

>1year 79

Highest education level(n=166):

UptoSchoolCertificate/Year10/equivalent 71

HigherSchoolCertificate/Year12/equivalent 37

TAFE/CollegeCertificate 33

Diploma 9

Bachelordegree 9

Postgraduate 7

TheLearningSurveyincludedalearninggridforlistingandproportioningself-reportedskillsacrossformsoflearning.Morespecifically,surveyrespondentswhereaskedtolistuptothreeoftheirskillsand,foreachskill,allocatetheirlearningofthatskillacrossthreeformsoflearning:lifeexperience,workexperienceandformaltraining/study.Asmentionedearlierinthispaper,definitionsofformal,non-formalandinformallearningareproblematicandcontested.Wedonotassumealllifeexperienceisinformallearning,allworkexperienceisinformalorallformaltrainingisformallearning.However,forthepurposesofthisdatacollectionexercisethesethreecategorieswereutilised.

Allocationsforeachofthethreecategories(lifeexperience,workexperienceandformaltraining/study)werepercentages,sothatforeachskillthetotalacrossthethreeformsoflearningequals100%.Atotalof460skillswerereportedbyrespondentsalongwithproportionsacrossthethreeformsoflearning.Atotalof129respondentsprovideddataforthreeself-reportedskills,


30respondentsprovideddatafortwoskillsand13respondentsprovideddataforonlyoneskill.

Theself-reportedskillswerecodedusingtheAustralian Standard Classification of Education (ASCED)(ABS2001).The6-digitcodesfromtheASCEDwereusedininitialcoding.Aggregationto4-and2-digitcodeswaslaterperformedusingSPSS’srecodefeature.Codingwasundertakenusingthefollowingprocess.First,theauthorsandaresearchassistantdiscussedthecodingschemeandasagroupcodedtensurveys.Theresearchassistantthencodedtheremainingsurveys.However,oninstruction,anyskillsthattheresearchassistanthadanydoubtsoverwereasteriskedandlistedonaseparatesheet,indexedbacktotheoriginalsurvey.Whentheresearchassistantcompletedworkingthroughthesurveys,the‘asteriskedlist’wasforwardedtotheauthors,whoeachconsideredtheskillsonthelistandcodedthem.Discrepanciesincodeswerediscussedandagreementreached.Itisnoted,however,thatagreementwasevidentintheinitialcodingforthemajorityoftheseasteriskedskillssuggestingahighlevelofinter-coderreliability.

Table2presentsthefrequencyandpercentageofself-reportedskillsfallingintoeachofthe2-digitlevelclassificationsindescendingfrequencyorder.Thetablealsoincludesexamplesoftheskillsrepresentedineachcategory.Managementandcommerceskillsrepresentthehighestpercentage(41%)ofself-reportedskillsandallother2-digitclassificationsrepresented10%orlessofallreportedskills.Veryfewrespondentsreportedskillsrelatedtonaturalandphysicalsciences(2mentions),informationtechnology1(6mentions),health(8mentions)andeducation(11mentions).ExaminationoftheexamplesinTable2indicatesthatmostarelowlevelskills,aswould

1 ‘Computerskills’wascommonlymentioned,howeverthiswasclassifiedundermanagementandcommerce,whichincludesacode(080905)for‘PracticalComputingSkills’.ThiswasconsideredmorerelevantforgeneralcomputerskillsthanthecomputerscienceorientationcapturedbytheInformationTechnology2-digitclassification.


begenerallyexpectedfromthissample.Forexample,33%oftheskillsreportedintheengineeringandrelatedtechnologiescategory,whichmadeup10%ofallskillsreported,relatedtocleaning.

Table 2: Self-reported skills

2-digit classification n % Examples

Management&Commerce 188 40.9 Sales;secretarialandclerical;practicalcomputing

Engineering&RelatedTechnologies

46 10.0 Cleaning;automotive;mechanical

MixedFields 42 9.1 Socialandinterpersonal;workpractices

CreativeArts 38 8.3 Artsandcrafts;music;writing

Food,Hospitality&PersonalServices

37 8.0 Cooking;barservice;waiting;driving;massage

Society&Culture 33 7.2 Sportandrecreation;childandagedcare

Architecture&Building 28 6.1 Building;painting;laboring

Agriculture,Environmental&Related

21 4.6 Gardening;mowing;animalhusbandry

Education 11 2.4 Teaching;training

Health 8 1.7 Nursing;firstaid

InformationTechnology 6 1.3 IT;programming;technician

Natural&PhysicalSciences 2 0.4 Maths;chemistry

Total 460 100

Giventheprevalenceofmanagementandcommerceskillsreportedbythesample,thesearebrokendownfurtherinTable3.Practicalcomputingskillsmadeupthelargestnumberofskillsinthiscategoryat37%.Thenextmostcommontypeofmanagementandcommerce


skillreportedwassales.Allothercategoriesrepresentedlessthan10%ofmentionedmanagementandcommerceskills.

Table 3: Management and commerce skills

n %Examples of respondents’ wording

Practicalcomputingskills 69 36.7 Computer,wordprocessing,MicrosoftOffice

Sales 42 22.3 Customerservice,cashiering,sales,retail

Secretarialandclerical 15 8.0 Reception,secretarial,clerical

Office 12 6.4 Officeadmin,recordkeeping,

Accounting 10 5.3 Accounting,bookkeeping,budgeting

Businessandmanagement

10 5.3 Supervisory,manager,changemanagement

Purchasing,warehousinganddistribution

10 5.3 Packer,courier,truckdriving,forklift,stores

Keyboardskills 7 3.7 Typing

Marketing 5 2.7 Marketing,promoting

Humanresourcemanagement

3 1.6 Humanresources,recruitment

Publicrelations 2 1.1 Publicrelations

Publicandhealthcareadmin.

1 0.5 Clinicalcoding

Realestate 1 0.5 Realestatesales

Tourism 1 0.5 Touristindustry

Total 188 100.0

Thestatisticalanalysismethodsemployedtoaddresstheresearchquestionsareoutlinedinthenextsectionastherelevantfindingsarepresented.


Findings

Combining forms of learning

WefirstexaminedwhetherrespondentsreportedthatskillsweregainedbyasingleformoflearningorbycombinationsofformsinordertoaddressResearchQuestion1.Forthisexamination,weusedthedataforall460validlyreportedskills.Figure1presentstheresults.2Onlysmallproportionsofallself-reportedskillswerelearntbydrawingupononeformoflearning(thatis,lifeexperienceonly,workexperienceonlyorformaltraining/studyonly).Intotal,only16%oftheself-reportedskillswerelearntusingasingleformoflearning,leavingthevastmajority(84%)ofskillsbeinglearntusingsomecombinationofformsoflearning.Therefore,themajorityofskillsreportedbyrespondentswerelearntusingacombinationoflearningforms.

2 Figure1wasalsogeneratedusingonlythefirst-listedskillinthematrixbyeachrespondent.Thepercentagesforthedifferentformsandcombinationsoflearningwereessentiallythesameandsoarenotreportedhere.Wealsocontrolledforskillbyincludingonlythoseskillsinthelargestcategory(managementandcommerce)andagainthepatternwasverysimilar.


Figure 1: Forms of learning as a percentage of self-reported skills

Twoformsoflearningwereusedfor42%oftheself-reportedskills.Themostcommoncombinationoftwoformswaslifeandworkexperience,relevantto26%ofskills.Thisfindingindicatesthatnon-formalandinformallearning,representedbylifeandworkexperiencerespectively,incombinationrepresentasignificantbasisforlearningthelowerlevelskillssoprevalentamongstthosedisadvantagedinthelabourmarket.

Despitethis,byfarthemostcommoncombination,at42%,wassomemixofallthreeformsoflearning.Thisresultindicatesthatformallearningisrelevanttolowerlevelskillsandpeopledisadvantagedinthelabourmarketbutnotinisolation,asindicatedbythelowpercentageofskillsgainedentirelythroughformallearning(4%).Henceacombinationofformallearningwithotherformsoflearningseemsprevalentanddemonstratestheinterrelatednessofthethreeformsoflearninginskilldevelopment.

WeaddressedResearchQuestion2byexaminingwhetherthereweredifferencesincombiningformsoflearningbasedondemographic


factors.Thefindingsreportedherearebasedonanalysesofonlythefirstmentionedskillbyeachrespondent.Itisnoted,however,thatthesefindingswereessentiallythesameasthoseusingallskills.Itwasconsideredmoreappropriate,however,toreportfindingsusingonlythefirst-mentionedskillbecausedemographicfactorsattheskilllevelarenotnecessarilyindependent.

AMann-WhitneyU-testindicatednodifferencebetweenmalesandfemalesinthemeanrankingofthenumberofformsoflearningused(U=3343;Z=-0.628;p=0.530).However,testingindicateddifferencesbasedonthedemographicfactorsofageandeducation.AKruskal-WallisRanktestindicatedthatthemeanrankingofthenumberofformsoflearninguseddifferedacrossagegroups(χ2=6.825;df=2;p=0.033).Todeterminewhichofthethreeagegroups(15–29years;30–44years;45+years)differed,multiplecomparisontestsusingMann-WhitneyUwerecarriedoutwithBonferroniadjustmentininterpretingprobabilityvalues.Thisindicatedthatthe30–44yearsgrouphadasignificantlyhighermeanrankingofthenumberofformsoflearningusedthanthe45+agegroup(U=1492;Z=-2.515;p=0.12).

Similarly,aKruskal-WallisRanktestindicatedthatthemeanrankingofthenumberofformsoflearninguseddifferedacrossgroupsdefinedbyhighestlevelofeducation(χ2=10.915;df=2;p=0.004).Thethreeeducationgroupswere(1)uptoschoolcertificate,(2)higherschoolcertificate(HSC),and(3)TAFE/collegecertificateorabove.MultiplecomparisontestsindicatedthatthosewithahighesteducationleveluptoschoolcertificatehadsignificantlylowermeanrankingofthenumberofformsoflearningusedthanboththeHSC(U=924.5;Z=-2.719;p=0.007)andfurthereducation(U=1538;Z=-2.707;p=0.007)groups.Figure2presentsamoredetailedpictureofthesedifferences.Thedistributionacrosssingleandcombinedformsoflearningforthosewithuptoschoolcertificateeducationisshownintheupperpanel,whilethemiddlepanelshows


thedistributionforthosewithaHSCandthelowerpanelforthosewithaTAFE/collegecertificateorabove.Thefigureshowsthatalowerpercentageofuptoschoolcertificaterespondentscombineallthreeformsoflearning.

Figure 2: Forms of learning as a percentage of first-mentioned skills, by education

Relativity of forms of learning

Next,toaddressResearchQuestion3,weperformedanoveralltestofdifferenceinlabourmarketprogramparticipants’percentageofskillslearningthroughthethreeformsoflearning:lifeexperience,workexperienceandformaltraining/study.Themeanpercentageofskillslearningfromeachformoflearningwascalculatedforeachrespondent,givinganoverallmeasure(acrossskills)oftherelativeimportanceofeachformoflearningforeachrespondent.ThisdatawasthenanalysedusingasinglegrouprepeatedmeasuresANOVA.3

3 InallanalysesthereportedFstatisticanddegreesoffreedomarebasedonmultivariatetestswithPillai’scriterion.


Therewasasignificanteffectofformofskillslearning(F(2,172)=20.071,p<0.001).PairwisecomparisonsundertakenwithBonferroniadjustmentindicatedsignificantdifferencesbetweenlifeexperienceandformaltraining/study(p<0.001)andbetweenworkexperienceandformaltraining/study(p<0.001).Therewasnosignificantdifferencebetweenlifeexperienceandworkexperience(p=1).Themeansforlifeexperience(37.8%)andworkexperience(39.1%)aresignificantlyhigherthanthemeanforformaltraining/study(23.2%),indicatingthatthelatterformoflearningisrelativelylessimportantforgainingskills.

Wethenexploredanybetween-subjectinteractioneffectsassociatedwithage,genderandhighestlevelofeducationalattainmentinordertoaddressResearchQuestion4.Duetosmallcellsizesforafullmultivariatemodel,eachdemographicvariablewasconsideredseparately.Therefore,theresultshereshouldbeconsideredonlytentativebecauseinteractionsbetweendemographicfactorswerenottakenintoaccount,onlyinteractionswithformoflearning.

Genderdidnothaveasignificantinteractionwithformofskillslearning(F(2,168)=0.397,p=0.673).Hencegenderdoesnotinfluencetherelativeimportanceoftheformsoflearning.Surprisingly,agealsohadnosignificantinteractionwithformoflearning(F(4,338)=1.728,p=0.143).Therefore,agedoesnotinfluencetherelativeimportanceoftheformsoflearning.Incontrast,highesteducationlevelhadasignificantinteractionwithformoflearning(F(6,328)=1.984,p=0.067)atthe0.10level.Notethatforgreaterclarificationinthisanalysisweusedfour,ratherthanthree,educationgroupsbysplittingthe‘TAFE/collegecertificateorabove’groupintotwo:(1)TAFE/collegecertificateand(2)Diplomaorhigher.However,theanalysisusingthreegroupsalsohadasimilarlysignificantinteraction(F(4,330)=2.296,p=0.059).ProfilesofthefoureducationlevelsacrosstheformsoflearningareshowninFigure3.Thefigureshowsthattherelativeimportanceofformaltraining/studyincreasesat


highereducationlevels.Inparticular,therelativeimportanceofformaltrainingandstudytothosewithadiplomalevelorhigherqualification(mean=33.6%)isgreatercomparedwiththosewithuptoschoolcertificate(mean=17.7%).Consequently,andnotsurprisingly,thosewithuptoschoolcertificaterelymoreheavilyonlifeandworkexperiencefortheirskilldevelopment.

Figure 3: Profiles of percentage of skill gained from forms of learning for education levels

ThefinalanalysisinvolvedexploringwhetherthepercentageofskillsgainedfromeachformoflearningdifferedbytypeofskillinordertoaddressResearchQuestion5.Skillswereclassifiedaccordingtotwo-digitASCEDcodes.Duetolownumbersofskillsfallinginthenaturalandphysicalsciences,informationtechnology,healthandeducationcategories,thesewereexcludedfromtheanalysis.Arepeatedmeasuresanalysiswithformoflearningastherepeatedmeasureandskillcategoryasthebetween-subjectsfactorwasundertaken.Themultivariatetestsforformoflearningandtheinteractionofformoflearningandskillcategoryweresignificant(respectively,


F(2,424)=51.441,p<0.0005andF(14,850)=4.056,p<0.001).Theformsoflearningdifferedinthesamewayasthepreviouslyreportedanalysis(thatis,themeansforlifeexperienceandworkexperience,overall,weregreaterthanthemeanforformaltraining/study).Theinteractioneffectbetweenformoflearningandskillcategoryindicatedthattherelativeweightinggiventoformoflearningdependsonskillcategory.Figure4showstheprofilesoftheskillcategoriesacrosstheformsoflearning.Itshowsthatformaltrainingandstudyisrelativelylessimportantfordevelopingarchitectureandbuilding,andagricultureandenvironmentalskills.Architectureandbuildingskillsappeartodrawmoreuponworkexperiencethanotherskills.Architectureandbuilding,managementandcommerceandengineeringandrelatedskillsseemtorelylessonlifeexperiencethanotherskillscategories.

Figure 4: Profiles of percentage of skill gained from form(s) of learning for skill categories


Conclusion

Thereportedfindingsaddresseachoftheidentifiedfiveresearchquestions.Conclusionsabouteachofthequestionsarepresentedbeforeoverallconclusionsaredrawn.

Thefirsttworesearchquestionsareconcernedwithcombiningformsoflearningandthefactorsthatmayimpactonthis.ResearchQuestion1asked,Are skills gained by a single form of learning or by combinations of forms?.Thefindingsofthestudyindicatethatforpeopleinlabourmarketprogramsmostskillsaregainedbycombinationsofformsoflearning;inparticular,combinationsof:

• lifeexperienceandworkexperience,representingnon-formalandinformallearning;and

• lifeexperience,workexperienceandformaltraining/study,representingnon-formal,informalandformallearning.

ResearchQuestion2,whichasked,Are there differences in combining of forms of learning based on demographic factors?,subsequentlybuildsonResearchQuestion1byinvestigatingwhetherdemographicfactorsarerelevanttounderstandingthecombiningofformsoflearning.Thestudyfoundnodifferencesbasedongenderbutthereweresomedifferencesbasedonageandhighestlevelofeducation;inparticular:

• thosebetween30and44yearsagetendtocombinemoreformsoflearningthantheirolderpeers;and

• thosewithuptoschoolcertificateleveleducationarelesslikelytocombineallthreeformsoflearningthanthosewithahigherlevelofeducation.

Onthewhole,however,itcanbeconcludedthatdemographicsdonotneatlydistinguishthewayinwhichformsoflearningarecombinedbypeopleinlabourmarketprograms.Thesecomplexitiesneedtoberecognisedwhenusingdemographicstotargetsub-groupsinthedevelopmentandimplementationoflabourmarketpolicies.


Thefinalthreeresearchquestionsareconcernedwiththerelativeimportanceofthedifferentformsoflearningandthefactorsthatmayimpactonthis.ResearchQuestion3asked,Are there differences between the percentages of skills gained from different forms of learning?Thefindingsofthestudyindicatethattherearedifferences.Inparticular,thepercentagesofskillsgainedfromlifeandworkexperiencewerehigherthanthepercentageofskillsgainedfromformaltraining/study.Thissupportstheliterature,indicatingthatrecognitionofinformalandnon-formallearningisimportantasameansofrecognisingnon-credentialledskillsets,orwhatTough(2002)referredtoasthesubmergedpartoftheadultlearningiceberg.IndustriesandthebusinesscommunityareexperiencingmajorHRMchallengesandtherecognitionofthesesignificantformsoflearningcouldbethefirststepintappingintoapotentialpoolofworkforceapplicantstraditionallyviewedassemiorunskilled.

ResearchQuestion4,whichaskedAre there interactions between the percentage of skills gained from different forms of learningand demographic factors?,buildsonResearchQuestion3byinvestigatingwhetherdifferencesintheimportanceofformsoflearningvaryacrossdemographicfactors.Suchinteractionswerenotfoundforgenderorage.Althoughageprovidesmoreopportunitytolearnskillsthroughlifeexperienceitalsoallowsmoretimetolearnthroughworkexperienceandtoundertakeformaltrainingandstudy.Hence,therelativitiesofformsoflearningarenotlikelytobeaffectedsimplybecauseonebecomesolder.Conversely,highestlevelofeducationalattainmentwasfoundtointeractwiththeimportanceofformsoflearning.Specifically,gainingskillsthroughformaltrainingandstudyismoreimportantthanlifeandworkexperienceforthosewithahighlevelofeducationcomparedtothosewithonlyabasiclevelofeducation.Thisfindingconfirmstheobvious,butaddressestotheauthors’knowledgethepreviouslyuntestedassumptionthatinformalandnon-formallearningisrelativelymoreimportantforpeoplewithlesseducationandtraining.However,withrespectto


ResearchQuestion4overall,itcanbeconcludedthatdemographicsdonothavealargeimpactontherelativeimportanceofformsoflearningforpeopleinlabourmarketprograms.

ResearchQuestion5asked,Is there an interaction between the percentage of skills gained from different forms of learning and category of skill? Thestudyfoundevidenceofsuchaninteraction,indicatingthatdifferentskillcategoriesshowdifferentpatternsoftherelativeimportanceofthethreeformsoflearning.Formaltrainingandstudyisrelativelylessimportantforlearningthearchitecture,building,agricultureandenvironmentalskillsheldbylabourmarketprogramparticipants.Instead,workexperienceismoreimportantthanotherformsoflearningforarchitectureandbuildingskills.Theseskills,alongwiththoserelatedtomanagement,commerceandengineering,alsorelylessonlifeexperiencethanotherskillcategories.

Theresultsareparticularlyinterestinginthecontextofthesampleexaminedinthisstudy;thatis,thosedisadvantagedinthelabourmarketwhoaremainlyunemployedandreportedmainlylowerlevelskills.Overall,theresultssuggestthatcombiningformsoflearningisthenormandthatnon-formalandinformallearningareparticularlyimportant.ThissuggestsRNFILhaspotentialapplicationtothissampleandothersimilarpeopleinlabourmarketprograms.

Thestudywasexploratoryandhashighlightedthesignificanceofinformalandnon-formallearningintheacquiringofskillswhichmayberelevantinassistingingainingemployment.AstudybyGolding,MarginsonandPascoe(1996)usedasomewhatsimilarmethodwithasampleofstudentswhohadmovedfromhighereducationtoTAFEtoshowthatevenpeoplewithtertiary(TAFE&university)backgroundsattributedmostoftheirskillstocombinationsofhome,familyandwork(andoccasionallyschool).Atadefinitionallevel,wenotedthechangeinlanguageandreferencefromadulteducationtowhatamountstoformsoflearningcategorizedbytheirmodesof


facilitationandthecurrenttheoreticalandpoliticaldimensionsoftheseconcepts.

Thestudycouldbeextendedtofurtherinvestigateskillsetsforthoseconsidereddisadvantagedinthelabourmarket.Forinstance,thosegroupstargetedbywelfarereformsaimedatincreasingworkforceparticipationtendtobeconsideredsemiorunskilled.Furtherresearchcouldinvestigatespecificskillsetsandgaugethelevelsofinformalandnon-formallearningthatinformtheseskillssetsforthepurposesofskillsrecognition.ManyindustriesarefacingimmenseHRissuesintermsoftheageingworkforce,skillshortagesandloweringratesofworkforceparticipation.Thisstudyhasimplicationsforfuturepracticesintermsoftheenactmentofpoliciesattheinterfaceofhumancapitaldevelopmentandsocialinclusion.

Duetothenatureofthesample,thefindingsarelimitedtounemployedadults.Despitethis,thepaperhashighlightedtheimportanceandextentoftheinterrelatednessofinformal,non-formalandformallearning,especiallyforthoseconsidereddisadvantagedinthelabourmarket.Thestudyhasidentifiedareasforfurtherresearchinrelationtotheconfigurationsattachedtotherelativityandinterconnectednessbetweeninformal,non-formalandformallearningforspecificselfreportedskillsetsandhassignificantimplicationsfortherecognitionofskillslearnedthroughnon-formalandinformallearning.Weargueforareframefromthefocusonthedifferencesbetweenformsoflearningtoafocusontheconnections,relationshipsandinterrelatednessbetweentheselearningforms.Weassertthiswillprovideamuchricherandfullerpictureofthevariablesandcontextualinfluencesatplaywhenindividualsandgroupsengageinlearningacrossadiverserangeoflearningspacesandacrosstime.Thisreframerecognisesthefluidanddynamicnatureofthecomplexinterplaythatislearning.


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About the authors

Dr Roslyn Cameron is a senior lecturer in the School of Management and Marketing at Central Queensland University. She teaches in both undergraduate and postgraduate programs in the field of Human Resource Management and Development. Roslyn is a Fellow of the Australian Human Resources Institute (FAHRI) and has a particular interest in skill recognition systems from a human resource development perspective.

Dr Jennifer L. Harrison is a senior lecturer in Southern Cross Business School at the Gold Coast campus of Southern Cross University. Her research interests include entrepreneurial learning, collaboration and innovation.

Contact details

Dr Roslyn Cameron, School of Management and Marketing, Central Queensland University, Gladstone Campus, PO Box 1319, Gladstone, Queensland 4680 Tel: 61–7 4970 7627 Fax: 61–7 4970 7252 Email: [email protected]

Dr Jennifer L. Harrison, SCU Business School, Southern Cross University, Gold Coast Campus, Locked Bag 4, Coolangatta, Queensland 4225 Tel:61–755893064 Fax:61–755893701Email:[email protected]

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