the kirkpatrick award
TRANSCRIPT
December2009
www.che.com
KirKPatric
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Page 17
Building A Better Dryer
Screeners Target Efficiency
Retrieving Plant-Design Data
Millichannel Reactors
Focus on Level Measurement And Control
Heat- Transfer Fluids
Page 32
Facts At Your Fingertips: Control Valves
01_CHE_120109_COV.indd 1 11/19/09 9:52:20 AM
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Flexicon also offers a wide range of other mechanicalprocess equipment—as well as weigh batching andblending stations—as individual units or engineered,automated systems integrated with your new or existingprocess—constructed and finished to industrial, food,dairy and pharmaceutical standards.
Unlike opposing bars that pinch the spout of partiallyempty bags from two sides, thePOWER-CINCHER® flow controlvalve* cinches the spout concen-trically—on a horizontal axis foreasier tie-offs and greater flowcontrol, and vertically in a tightzigzag pattern to prevent leaks.In addition, it resists jamming,breaking and leaking, and allowsfull-open discharge from bagspouts of all popular diameters.USDA Dairy Accepted.
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The SPOUT-LOCK® clamp ring*creates a high-integrity, sealedconnection between the cleanside of the bag spout and theclean side of the telescopingtube. This prevents contaminationof the product, while eliminating the plant contamination thatoccurs when falling material rapidly displaces air and dust. It also stretches the spout down-ward in combination with theTELE-TUBE® telescoping tube* (at right).
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The BAG-VAC® system vacuumsdisplaced air and dust from thereceiving vessel and returns cleanair to the plant. The vacuum alsocauses empty bags to collapsedust-free prior to disconnect,eliminating the dust emitted during manual flattening of
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The TELE-TUBE® telescopingtube* pneumatically raises theSPOUT-LOCK® clamp ring* (atleft) for connection to the bagspout, then allows it to lower,applying continual downwardtension. As a result, the spout iskept taut at all times, preventingexcess spout material frombulging outward (creating deadspots) or falling inward (creatingflow restrictions). Works in uni-son with FLOW-FLEXER™ bagactivators to promote flow.
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Patented advances make other designs obsolete
*Patent(s) granted and/or pending. ©2005 Flexicon Corporation.Flexicon Corporation has registrations and pending applications for the trademark FLEXICON throughout the world.
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Connect bulk bags quickly,easily, safely at floor levelNew SWING-DOWN™bulkbag filler* lowers and pivots the fill head, stop-ping it in a vertically-orient-ed position that places thebag inlet spout inflatableconnection, inflator button,and four bag loop latcheswithin one arm's length ofan operator standing on theplant floor, allowing safe,rapid bag connections.Eliminates danger of step-ping onto and over rollerconveyors to access rearbag hooks and spout con-nection collars, standing onthe conveyor with head and arms inserted beneath opera-tional fill head components, and straining to pull bag spoutsupward over inflatable collars while reaching for bag inflatorbuttons. Available to industrial, food, dairy and pharmaceuti-cal standards with numerous performance enhancements.
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XX_CHE_1209_Full_pg_ads.indd 2 11/20/09 9:29:53 AM
Commentary
5 Editor’s Page Changing times present different opportunities The economic crises of this past year have accelerated changes in the CPI. Looking forward, chemical businesses are fo-cusing on what are expected to be key economic drivers — one of which is in-novation
departments
Letters . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Calendar . . . . . . . . 8, 9
Who’s Who . . . . . . . 30
Reader Service page . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Economic Indicators . . . . . 63, 64
advertisers
Literature Review . . 54
Classified Advertising . . . . .56–60
Advertiser Index . . . 61
Coming in JanUary
Look for: Feature Reports on Capital Equipment Procure-ment; and Water Treatment and En-ergy Conservation; Engineering Prac-tice articles on Pres-sure Relief During an External Fire; and Recommended Fluid Velocities; A Focus on Weighing; News articles on Scrub-bers; Catalysts; and the Personal Achieve-ment Award; Facts at Your Fingertips on Pressure Measure-ment; and more
Cover photo: Lucite International
ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com DeCember 2009 3
eqUipment & serviCes
28D-1 New Products & Services (Domestic Edition) Avoid kinking on tight turns with
this tubing; Measure oxygen drift-free with this transmitter; A magnet operates on this rupture-disc sensor; These regulators suppress internal cylinder forces for safety; Monitor hydrogen sulfide in water with these sensors; A purging compound effec-tive for biodegradeable resins; and more
28D-1 New Products & Services (International Edition) Extend level
measurement with this flexible probe; Do more with this dewpoint transmitter; A new motorized actuator for linear valves; Aggressive media are not a problem for this dosing system; Keep flange leaks from spraying with this shield; The latest in shaft-alignment systems is simple to use; A new exchange resin for industrial water treatment; and more
51 Focus Level Measurement And Control Accurate level measurement in steam applications; This pump protection switch can be used in a variety of situa- tions; An easy way to measure level is introduced; Measure levels in challenging environ- ments; A radar level transmitter that is economical; Measure sub- mersed solids under water; A hand-held device to measure levels in non-metallic containers; Detect and control interfaces with this switch; and more
Cover story
17 Cover Story 40th Kirkpatrick Award Announced Seven companies are hon-ored with the announcement of this year's Kirkpatrick Award winners. This biennial prize, bestowed since the 1930s, recognizes the most noteworthy chemical engineering technology commercialized anywhere in the world during 2007 and 2008
news
11 Chementator ”All-in-one” fluegas scrub-ber cleans up sulfur and particulate matter; Non-invasive probe measures corrosion inside boiler water tubes in realtime; Higher yields and lower cost are expected for this biomass-to-ethanol process; The commercial debut for a process that makes “natural” gas from coal; Onsite incineration of sewage sludge to be demonstrated; Using the sun to decontaminate wastewater; and more
23 Newsfront Screeners Target Efficiency Screening system manufacturers look to squeeze more out of their equipment
25 Newsfront Building A Better Dryer Al-though they are notorious energy hogs, drying systems can be made more efficient
engineering
29 Facts At Your Fingertips Control Valves This one-page guide outlines how installed gain graphs are prepared and used
32 Feature Report Maximizing Heat-Transfer Fluid Longevity Proper selec-tion, monitoring and maintenance can protect fluids from damage due to thermal degradation, oxidation and contamination
40 Feature Report Smooth Your Retrieval of Plant-Design Data Even after con-struction and startup, plant design data are needed for operations, maintenance and revamps. But working with a plethora of formats and platforms introduces its own set of challenges
44 Engineering Practice Millichannel Reactors — A Practical Middle Ground for Production Reactors with millimeter-scale dimensions provide mixing, heat trans-fer and other advantages over devices with larger dimensions, while boasting increased robustness compared to microdevices. Here are tips to consider for using them
In ThIs IssueDecember 2009 Volume 116, no. 13
www.che.com
Level Measurement
pump protection switch can be used in a variety of situa-tions; An easy way to measure level is introduced; Measure levels in challenging environ-ments; A radar level transmitter that is economical; Measure sub-
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Editor’s Page
Like it or not, 2009 will go down as a year when massive structural change began in the chemicals business. We are far from feeling the full effects of the upheaval, but there is a sense of revolution in the air
that will cause lasting change for chemical engineers everywhere.Historically, the financial crisis, and the global recession that followed it,
will be seen as accelerators of changes that were already waiting to happen. In 2009 the world realized that China and India were in the driver’s seat for determining the rate of future economic growth. It was the year that the Middle East saw the true dawn of its predominance in petrochemical production based on low-cost feedstock, and South America began to rise in industrial prominence. It was also the year when North Americans and Europeans realized that only game-changing innovation — especially in the fuels and energy sectors — was the route to lasting success for the future.
Hopefully, it was not the year that protectionism started to gain a foot-hold. But there are signs that governments will try to protect their do-mestic industries and their populations by employing covert protection-ism, dressed up as environmental legislation to manipulate markets.
In short, the last 12 months have been full of challenges. So what is the outlook and where are the opportunities? The manufacture of basic chemicals and plastics will shift eastward to an axis defined by the Mid-dle East at one end and China at the other. These regions are going to need more practiced and skilled engineers. First opportunity: Go East, young engineer!
China is going to be the new magnetic consumer market — if its econ-omy does not overheat in the short term, but certainly in the long term — replacing the U.S. as the place to sell almost everything and anything. However, the Chinese consumer is unlikely to mimic the U.S. consumer — it is simply not part of the Chinese culture to over-extend through easy bor-rowing. Second opportunity: Learn about China and its consumers’ needs.
A shift to making chemical specialties in North America and Europe will happen sooner than previously expected. An export-led petrochemi-cal recovery on the U.S. Gulf Coast seems unlikely in the face of new Mid-dle Eastern and Latin American capacities. Specialty markets, especially anything relating to food-and-water supply, and health-and-personal care, will be the safe haven for many U.S. chemical companies. Third op-portunity: Investigate specialty chemicals.
The other safe haven is innovation, where companies can obtain the funding to back the right projects. In short, North America and Europe will rely on chemical engineers to determine how they can build the new economies of the third millennium. More than anything, that means how we move from a world that depends on fossil fuels to one dependent on other technologies, and how we deal with removing greenhouse gases from our production processes. That means more biotechnology breakthroughs and more sustainable processes. Fourth opportunity: Go greener.
For chemical engineers, 2009 brought change — with both great opportunities and much uncertainty. Change can be unsettling, but we should all hang on to this guiding principle — that the world’s problems, like the housing and feeding of six billion people, issues of sustainability and global warming, can only be solved by communities like the one that reads this magazine. We hold the solutions to the crises that confront the world in the decades ahead. ■ John Pearson, Divisional President
Changing times present different opportunities
Lthat will cause lasting change for chemical engineers everywhere.
will be seen as accelerators of changes that were already waiting to happen. In 2009 the world realized that China and India were in the driver’s seat for determining the rate of future economic growth. It was the year that the Middle East saw the true dawn of its predominance in petrochemical production based on low-cost feedstock, and South America began to rise in industrial prominence. It was also the year when North Americans and Europeans realized that only game-changing innovation — especially in the fuels and energy sectors — was the route to lasting success for the future.
hold. But there are signs that governments will try to protect their domestic industries and their populations by employing covert protectionism, dressed up as environmental legislation to manipulate markets.
the outlook and where are the opportunities? The manufacture of basic chemicals and plastics will shift eastward to an axis defined by the Middle East at one end and China at the other. These regions are going to need more practiced and skilled engineers. First opportunity: Go East, young engineer!
omy does not overheat in the short term, but certainly in the long term — replacing the U.S. as the place to sell almost everything and anything. However, the Chinese consumer is unlikely to mimic the U.S. consumer — it is simply not part of the Chinese culture to over-extend through easy borrowing. Second opportunity: Learn about China and its consumers’ needs.
will happen sooner than previously expected. An export-led petrochemical recovery on the U.S. Gulf Coast seems unlikely in the face of new Middle Eastern and Latin American capacities. Specialty markets, especially anything relating to food-and-water supply, and health-and-personal care, will be the safe haven for many U.S. chemical companies. Third opportunity: Investigate specialty chemicals.
funding to back the right projects. In short, North America and Europe will rely on chemical engineers to determine how they can build the new economies of the third millennium. More than anything, that means how we move from a world that depends on fossil fuels to one dependent on other technologies, and how we deal with removing greenhouse gases from our production processes. That means more biotechnology breakthroughs and more sustainable processes. Fourth opportunity: Go greener.
with both great opportunities and much uncertainty. Change can be unsettling, but we should all hang on to this guiding principle — that the world’s problems, like the housing and feeding of six billion people, issues of sustainability and global warming, can only be solved by communities like the one that reads this magazine. We hold the solutions to the crises that confront the world in the decades ahead.
Changing times present different opportunities
Winner of Eight Jesse H. Neal Awards for Editorial Excellence
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03_CHE_120109_ED.indd 5 11/19/09 9:01:52 AM
Spontaneous combustionI enjoyed your advisory piece for chemical engineers — old and young: “Don’t wait to react” (CE, October, p. 5). Two weeks ago I gave a presentation on spontaneous combustion at a meeting of mulch facility operators. Of over 100 conference attendees, only one raised his hand when I asked how many operators had never had a problem with spontaneous combustion!
I really enjoy the Chementator section of Chemical Engineering.
Richard Buggeln, PhDManager, Environmental Programs, Center for Industrial
Services, University of Tennessee
Help us support ChE educationStriving to continually advance the chemical engineer-ing profession has been a goal for this magazine since its founding more than 107 years ago. To help cultivate new talent, CE established the annual Chopey Scholarship for Chemical Engineering Excellence in memory of Nicholas (Nick) P. Chopey, our former Editor In Chief. Nick carried many torches at CE including those for the Kirkpatrick and Personal Achievement Award competitions that are held in alternating years.
To honor and continue Nick’s valuable and lasting con-tributions to the chemical engineering profession, CE will match up to $10,000 of all donations for the 2009 scholar-ship fund that are received prior to June 1, 2010.Donations. Checks should be made out to Scholarship America with “Nicholas P. Chopey Scholarship Program” in the memo area. Please send your donations to the fol-lowing address prior to June 1, 2010:
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Details and qualifications for applicants. The schol-arship is a one-time award for current third-year students who are enrolled in a fulltime undergraduate course of study in chemical engineering at one of the following four-year colleges or universities, which include Mr. Chopey’s alma mater and those of the current editorial staff:
University of VirginiaUniversity of KansasSUNY BuffaloColumbia UniversityPolytechnic University
The program will utilize standard Scholarship America recipient-selection procedures including the consider-ation of past academic performance and future potential, leadership and participation in school and community activities, work experience, and statement of career and educational aspirations and goals. Applications must be postmarked by April 1. Guidelines are distributed directly to the chemical engineering department of the qualified schools.
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Letters
04_CHE_120109_LET.indd 6 11/19/09 12:59:59 PM
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Stem Cells World Congress. Select Biosciences (Shel-ton, Conn.). Phone: 203-926-1400; Web: selectbiosciences.comSouth San Francisco, Calif. Jan. 20–21
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8 ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com DeCember 2009
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What is your simulation software provider aiming for?At Chemstations, we aim for customer satisfaction. Providing best-in-class support is the foundation of our success. We’ve built our company on integrity and customer service. We are committed to continually providing process simulation software that meets the needs of our customers who face increasingly complex technical and business challenges.
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Scaling from Milligrams to 1–2 kg. Scientific Update Conferences (East Sussex, U.K.). Phone: +44 (0) 1435 873062; Web: scientificupdate.co.ukSan Francisco, Calif. Feb. 22–23
EuropEScreening Europe. Select Biosciences (Shelton, Conn.). Phone: 203-926-1400; Web: selectbiosciences.comBarcelona, Spain Feb. 11–12
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ChemSpec India 2010: The Fine & Specialty Chemicals Connection. Quart Business Media (Ux-bridge, Middlesex, U.K.). Phone: +44 (0) 1737 855 076; Web: chemspecindia.comMumbai April 15–16 ■ Suzanne Shelley
What is your simulation software provider aiming for?At Chemstations, we aim for customer satisfaction. Providing best-in-class support is the foundation of our success. We’ve built our company on integrity and customer service. We are committed to continually providing process simulation software that meets the needs of our customers who face increasingly complex technical and business challenges.
Put CHEMCAD to the test and see if we’ve hit the target.
Engineering advanced
© 2009 Chemstations, Inc. All rights reserved. | CMS6958 08/09
CHEMCAD Suite →→ Steady State, Dynamic→ Continuous, Batch,
Semi-Batch→ Simulation, Equipment
Design/Rating→ Offline, Online
Visit chemstations.com or call 800.243.6223 for a free trial of CHEMCAD.*
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Changes in the rate of corrosion in water tubes have been detected
within minutes by an externally mounted monitor developed by the Center for Nuclear Energy Research (CNER, Fredericton, NB, Canada; www.unb.ca/cner). The data were obtained in online tests over the past 18 months on a black liquor recovery boiler at a kraft mill operated by Irving Pulp and Paper Ltd. (Saint John, NB). Details were pre-sented at the recent TAPPI Conference (see story above).
The monitor operates on the principle of hydrogen effusion. In the corrosion process, two moles of hydrogen atoms are produced for every mole of iron that is dissolved into water, explains Kelly McKeen, a CNER project manager. The atomic H2 migrates through the wall of the steel tube and recombines to form H2 gas, which is captured in CNER’s hydrogen effusion probe (HEP). The HEP measures the rate of H2 pressure increase and converts it to a corrosion rate of millimeters per year.
The HEP consists of a silver cup that is clamped to the outside of the tube, sil-ver tubing, a pressure transducer and a valve. McKeen points out that silver is practically impermeable to H2. The sys-tem is operated under vacuum and the valve is automatically opened to allow evacuation of the H2 and to restart a cycle after a predetermined pressure setpoint is reached.
McKeen says the main advantage of the HEP over conventional methods, such
Non-invasive probe measures corrosion inside boiler water tubes in real time
A multi-stage wet scrubber that combines the removal of sulfur, hydrogen chloride,
sulfuric acid mist (SAM) and particulate matter (PM) in a single unit has reduced sulfur dioxide emissions by an average of 99.7% in its first large-scale commercial installation on a coal/oil-fired swing boiler. PM emissions were reduced to 0.005 grains/dscf (dry standard cubic feet; 12.5 mg/Nm3), according to Kimmo Peltonen, a product manager with Andritz, Inc. (Roswell, Ga.; www.andritz.com), who spoke at the recent TAPPI Engineering, Pulping and Environ-mental Conference in Memphis, Tenn. An-dritz markets the technology together with EnviroCare International (American Can-yon, Calif.; www.envirocare.com).
The installation is on a 420,000-lb/h boiler at a large pulp-and-paper mill. Pre-viously, smaller systems had been installed in rotary kilns and municipal sludge incin-erators, says Peltonen. In the first stage of the process (flowsheet), large particles are removed from hot fluegas by an atomized-water-spray quench. From the quench, the stream enters the lower half of a scrubber-separator vessel — a vertical, cylindrical unit, where the upflowing gas is scrubbed by a countercurrent water stream.
The gas flows up through a Venturi stage that consists of about 40 parallel Venturi tubes, each preceded by a high-pressure liquid atomizer. The combination of the Ven-turis with finely atomized sprays causes multiple collisions between the droplets and fine particles left in the gas, resulting
in high particulate capture as well as acid absorption, says Peltonen. Final cleanup is achieved by a set of dual-orifice mist-elimi-nation trays. Most of the water used in the process is recycled to the Venturi stage after makeup water and caustic have been added. The rest is collected in a sump at the bot-tom of the scrubber-separator and recycled to the quench section. Dissolved solids con-centration is controlled by blowing down a fraction of the recycled water.
Peltonen says the installed cost is ap-proximately 50% that of a traditional ar-rangement of a dry electrostatic precipita-tor (ESP) followed by a wet scrubber or wet ESP. Chemical costs are minimized by re-using alkali present in the fly ash.
Note: For more information, circle the 3-digit number on p. 62, or use the website designation. ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com DeCember 2009 11
(Continues on p. 12)
Edited by Gerald Ondrey December 2009Cleaned fluegasto atmosphere
Fluegasfrom boiler
Quench
Quench pumps
Quench recirculation
tank Venturi stage recirculation
tank
Venturi stage pumps inlet & throat pumps
Tray pumps
Caustic
Makeup water
Blow down
Mist eliminatorPreventing droplet carry over
Tray 2“Flushing” removal of dirty mist
Tray 1Removal of SO2 & HCl,and all PM>1 micron
Removal of coarse PM(particulate matter) and some SO2 and HCl
True venturi tubesCondensation and agglomeration of H2SO4, fumes and submicron PMRemoval of any remaining SO2
‘All-in-one’ fluegas scrubber cleans up sulfur and particulate matter
The power of osmosislast month, Statkraft (oslo, norway; www.statkraft.com) opened what is claimed to be the world's first osmotic power plant. although the prototype is very small (designed for 10 kw), the company believes data gained from the pilot study will lead to a commer-cial-scale unit by 2015.
The plant is located along the coast at Tofte, south of oslo. Fresh water flowing into the sea is diverted to a vessel containing a semipermeable membrane (spiral-wound, cellulose acetate) with brine
(Continues on p. 12)
06_CHE_120109_CHM.indd 11 11/19/09 10:11:50 AM
ChementatoR
A process that produces 75–85 gal of ethanol per dry ton of mixed cellulosic waste feed
will be commercialized by BlueFire Ethanol (Irvine, Calif.; www.bluefireethanol.com). The plant, to be built in Lancaster, Calif., will convert 130 dry ton/d of feed (post-sorted municipal solid waste, including green waste) into 4-million gal/yr (about 12,000 gal/d) of ethanol when it goes into production in the fall of 2010. It will mark the first commer-cial use of a process developed by Arkenol, Inc. (also of Irvine), although the process has been tested in three pilot plants.
The process uses concentrated sulfuric acid as a catalyst to transform cellulose and hemicellulose feedstocks into glucose and xylose (C6 and C5) sugars. The yield is 1.5–3 times those of processes that use a combina-tion of dilute sulfuric acid and enzymes for hydrolysis, says John Cuzens, senior vice-president of BlueFire and a former principal with Arkenol.
Coarsely ground feed is dried to less than 10% moisture, contacted with 75% concen-trated acid, and cooked at about 85°C and ambient pressure for under 30 min. The hydrolyzed C6 and C5 sugars and acid are then separated from lignin and other sol-ids, which are used as boiler fuel for process
steam and plant power. About 98% of the acid and 100% of the sugars are recovered in a simulated moving-bed chro-matographic separator. Acid is recycled and the sugars are converted to ethanol by con-tinuous fermentation, using yeast (conver-sion is 100% for C6 sugars and 20% for C5s). The sugars may also be converted to higher-value products, using heterotrophic algae, bacteria or fungi.
Cuzens says the key elements of the pro-cess are the use of concentrated acid and of chromatographic separation, which recovers the acid rather than neutralizing it and dis-posing of the waste. The Lancaster plant will have an operating cost of $1.50–2/gal (not in-cluding a $1.01/gal tax credit), he says, and a full-scale plant of 50-million gal/yr will have an operating cost of below 80¢/gal.
Haldor Topsøe A/S (Lyngby, Denmark; www.topsoe.com) has signed a design
contract with an undisclosed client in China for a new plant that will produce substitute natural gas (SNG). When the plant comes on stream in 2011, it will produce close to 180,000 Nm3/h of SNG using Topsøe’s methanation pro-cess, called TREMP. The plant will be the first large-scale order for TREMP technology, says general manager Jens Perregaard, New Technologies, Tech-nology Division.
The Topsøe high-temperature metha-nation process (for flowsheet, see CE,
February 2007, p. 11) uses coal-derived syngas (H2-to-CO ratio of slightly above 3), which has been passed through a sulfur-tolerant shift and acid-gas re-moval unit for removing H2S and excess carbon (as CO2). In order to protect the methanation catalyst — Topsøe’s nickel-based MCR — from poisoning, the feed is first passed through a sulfur guard bed to remove traces of sulfur compo-nents. Desulfurized feed is then mixed with recycle gas to control the maxi-mum temperature rise and passed to the first methanation reactor, where H2 reacts with CO and CO2 to form CH4.
The reaction is performed in a reactor with a very large DT and at the same time with a technology preventing the formation of nickel carbonyl. The DT ensures that heat can efficiently be re-covered from the exothermic reaction and used for generating superheated, high-pressure steam. The cooled gas then passes through two or three meth-anation reactors in series for complete conversion. Products leaving the last re-actor are cooled and compressed to meet pipeline specifications. The SNG is typi-cally 94–96 mol.% CH4, with a heating value of 950–978 Btu/scf.
The commercial debut for a process that makes ‘natural’ gas from coal
12 ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com DeCember 2009
on the other side. water from the fresh side passes through the membrane due to the con-centration difference, thereby increasing the pressure on the brine side. This osmotic pres-sure — equivalent to a 120-m column of water (about 12 bar) — is then used to drive a tur-bine for making electricity. The company estimates the global potential of osmotic power at 1,600 to 1,700 Twh/yr — equivalent to 50% of the eU’s total power production.
Efficient Cl2 productionThe oxygen-depolarized cathode (oDC) of bayer materialScience (bmS; le-
(Continues on p. 14)
Acidreconcentration
Steam
Lignin
Filter
1st stagehydrolysis
Acid/Sugar
Biomass
Dilute sulfuric acid
Sugars
Lime
Gypsum
Chromatographicseparation
Acid recovery
Yeast recycle
Water
Condensatereturn
Concentrated sulfuric acid
Solution
Steam
Sugar solution
Solids
Pump
Water
Continuousfermentation
Distillation and dehydration
Ethanol product
Ethanol beer
Processwater recycle
as weight-loss coupons, ultrasonic measure-ment and other types of H2 probes is that it provides a realtime, online response. Also, it can be operated at temperatures above 350°C, compared with a maximum of about
250°C for other H2 probes. The system’s rapid reaction to an increased corrosion rate was proved during a boiler shutdown, when the tubes were drained and cleaned with inhibited hydrochloric acid. McKeen says CNER is now negotiating with a petroleum company to do a test in a refinery.
corrosion inside boiler water tubes
(Continued from p. 15)
Higher yields and lower cost are expected for this biomass-to-ethanol process
(Continued from p. 12)
06_CHE_120109_CHM.indd 12 11/19/09 10:12:37 AM
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Incineration is becoming the only via-ble method for sewage sludge disposal
as landfilling or spreading sludge onto farmland is no longer permitted in some countries. Today, sludge is commonly in-cinerated in large, centralized incinera-tors or as an additive in coal-fired power plants or cement kilns. An alternative to these costly and inconvenient options — small, localized incinerators — has been developed by Huber SE (Berching, Ger-many; www.huber.de), in cooperation with partners in a three-year project supported under the European Commis-sion’s Life program.
The new incinerators are based on Huber’s sludge2energy process (flow-sheet). Sludge is first pre-dried in a belt dryer to a solids concentration of up to 90% by blowing hot (90°C) air through the belts. The cooled air is reheated with heat recovered from the incinera-tor and recirculated through the dryer. A slight underpressure is maintained in the dryer to prevent the release of air, vapors and odors. Dried sludge is then
conveyed to a small furnace. The hot flu-egas from the furnace passes through a heat recuperator that transfers the heat to compressed ambient air, which drives a micro gas turbine and electricity gen-erator. Even small systems can produce enough electricity and supply sufficient heat to run the entire process nearly au-tothermally, says the firm.
Formation of oxides of nitrogen are prevented by staged combustion, fluegas recirculation and selective, non-catalytic
reduction. Acid gases (such as SO2 and HCl) are neutralized by lime addition, and remaining organic components are adsorbed by activated carbon.
Huber is designing the first sludge2en-ergy demonstration plant for the Bavar-ian city of Straubing. This first plant will have a capacity to incinerate 2,200 metric tons per year (m.t./yr) of dried solids and will generate approximately 100 kW of electric power. Startup for the plant is planned for the end of 2010.
14 ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com DeCember 2009
ChementatoR
verkusen, germany; www.bayermaterialscience.com) will be used to produce chlorine on an industrial scale. bmS is in negotiations with Uhde gmbh (Dortmund, germany; www.uhde.biz) to build an oDC plant scheduled to start up in 2011. The oCD technology (see CE, February 2001, pp. 31–35) enables electrolysis to be performed at a lower voltage, thereby generating energy savings of up to 30%. bmS has been using this tech-nology to recover Cl2 from hCl, and has been operating the largest hCl electrolysis plant at its site in Shanghai since 2008 (CE, october 2006, p. 16).
Direct polymerizationlast month, construction on a production plant for thermo-plastic methacrylate resin was completed in Shanghai. The facility will mark the commer-cial debut for the Continuous
Last month, a photocatalytic water-clean-ing system that removes organic and
inorganic contaminants that are difficult to breakdown from wastewater was inau-gurated at the German Aerospace Center (DLR; Stuttgart; www.dlr.de) facility in Lampildshausem. The so-called RayWOx system features a new type of solar receiver consisting of glass pipes. Wastewater mixed with an iron salt — the iron ion serving as photocatalyst — and hydrogen peroxide flows through the tubes until the absorbed solar radiation has decomposed the contam-inants. In pilot trials, the RayWOx process has been shown to be effective for decon-taminating water containing pharmaceuti-cal agents; X-ray contrast media and hor-mones as well as chlorinated hydrocarbons from contaminated groundwater; harmful substances in exhaust-air scrubbing solu-tions from textile manufacturing; and toxic materials in municipal wastewater.
The system operating at Lampildshausem, developed in collaboration with Hirschmann Laborgeräte GmbH (Eberstadt) and KACO new energy GmbH (Neckarsulm; www.kaco-newenergy.de), has a solar reactor 49-m long and 470-cm wide and can clean about 4,500
L of industrial wastewater, removing of all oxidizable contamination in 2 h (given suit-able weather conditions). The demonstration unit is able to completely clean the cooling water from the engine test facilities at the DLR Institute of Space Propulsion, which is contaminated with rocket fuels and their combustion products, such as hydrazine and its derivatives, and nitrite.
The hydrazine derivatives are slow to de-grade with previously applied ultraviolet (UV) oxidation technology, notes Christian Jung, a scientist at the DLR’s Institute for Technical Thermodynamics. The UV reac-tors consume large amounts of electrical energy — for powering lamps, and for fast pumping to dissipate waste heat — and UV oxidation typically needs 2–3 times more oxidant (H2O2 and caroate), he adds. In con-trast, the oxidant requirement of the iron-catalyzed RayWOx process is close to the theoretical demand, which saves 50–80% of the H2O2 required, he says.
Modular construction of the RayWOx technology makes is easy to install and well suited to building systems of any desired size. KACO new energy has commercialized the technology under the RayWOx tradename.
Using the sun to decontaminate wastewater
(Continues on p. 16)
T G T
Sewage sludge4% DM
Sludge25% DM
Sludge90% DM
Bufferstorage
Air AshFuture phosphate
Heat for drying
Preheated combustion air
Hot air
Flue gas
Flue gas
StackResidue
Dryer
Fluegas
Flue gascleaning
Combustion
Heatrecovery
Air
Dewatering
Filtrate
Off gas
Onsite incineration of sewage sludge to be demonstrated
(Continued from p. 12)
06_CHE_120109_CHM.indd 14 11/19/09 10:13:21 AM
*75019_2*
DOC PATH: Production:Volumes:Production:MICROSOFT:MECHANICALS:75019_Dynamics:DOCS:75019_2M_Dynamics_M4.indd IMAGES:75020_BACKGROUND_SW300_01.tif CMYK 450 ppi 100% Up to Date Production:MICROSOFT:_MASTER_ART:75020_Dynamics:75020_BACKGROUND_SW300_01.tif 75020_Schorr_Tag_SW300_02.psd CMYK 1200 ppi 100% Up to Date Production:MICROSOFT:_MASTER_ART:75020_Dynamics:75020_Schorr_Tag_SW300_02.psd 75020_Steele_Tag_SW300_02.psd CMYK 1200 ppi 100% Up to Date Production:MICROSOFT:_MASTER_ART:75020_Dynamics:75020_Steele_Tag_SW300_02.psd 75020_Price_Tag_SW300_04.psd CMYK 1200 ppi 100% Up to Date Production:MICROSOFT:_MASTER_ART:75020_Dynamics:75020_Price_Tag_SW300_04.psd 75020_Desai_Tag_SW300_06.psd CMYK 1200 ppi 100% Up to Date Production:MICROSOFT:_MASTER_ART:75020_Dynamics:75020_Desai_Tag_SW300_06.psd 75020_Mitsu_1Tag_Right_SW300_04.psd CMYK 1164 ppi 103.03% Up to Date Production:MICROSOFT:_MASTER_ART:75020_Dynamics:75020_Mitsu_1Tag_Right_SW300_04.psd 75020_Mitsu_2Tag_Left_SW300_02.psd CMYK 1215 ppi 98.72% Up to Date Production:MICROSOFT:_MASTER_ART:75020_Dynamics:75020_Mitsu_2Tag_Left_SW300_02.psd 75020_Rowe_Tag_SW300_04.psd CMYK 1200 ppi, 1437 ppi, 1281 ppi 100%, 83.49%, 93.67% Up to Date Production:MICROSOFT:_MASTER_ART:75020_Dynamics:75020_Rowe_Tag_SW300_04.psd 75020_Mitsu_1_SW300_01.psd CMYK 1666 ppi 14.4% Up to Date Production:MICROSOFT:_MASTER_ART:75020_Dynamics:75020_Mitsu_1_SW300_01.psd 75020_Price_SW300_01.psd CMYK 2040 ppi 11.76% Up to Date Production:MICROSOFT:_MASTER_ART:75020_Dynamics:75020_Price_SW300_01.psd 75020_Schorr_SW300_01.psd CMYK 2681 ppi 8.95% Up to Date Production:MICROSOFT:_MASTER_ART:75020_Dynamics:75020_Schorr_SW300_01.psd 75020_Rowe_SW300_01.psd CMYK 2876 ppi 8.34% Up to Date Production:MICROSOFT:_MASTER_ART:75020_Dynamics:75020_Rowe_SW300_01.psd 75020_Desai_SW300_03.psd CMYK 2735 ppi 8.77% Up to Date Production:MICROSOFT:_MASTER_ART:75020_Dynamics:75020_Desai_SW300_03.psd 75020_Johnson_SW300_01.psd CMYK 2287 ppi 10.49% Up to Date Production:MICROSOFT:_MASTER_ART:75020_Dynamics:75020_Johnson_SW300_01.psd 75020_Mitsu_2_SW300_01.psd CMYK 2122 ppi 11.31% Up to Date Production:MICROSOFT:_MASTER_ART:75020_Dynamics:75020_Mitsu_2_SW300_01.psd Microsoft_Logo_Black.ai 35.33% Up to Date Production:MICROSOFT:_LOGOS:Microsoft_logo:Microsoft_Logo_Black.ai Because_its_everybodys_business_LOGO_LOCKUP.eps Up to Date Production:MICROSOFT:_LOGOS:Misc:Because_its_everybodys_business_LOGO_LOCKUP.eps dyn-CRM_cmyk.eps Up to Date Production:MICROSOFT:MECHANICALS:75020_Dynamics:SUPPLIED:dyn-CRM_cmyk.epsFONTS:Felt Tip Woman Regular True Type -banhart- ver : 010 Regular True Type Segoe Regular, Bold OpenType
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ChementatoR
Last month, Nippon Oil Corp. (Tokyo, Japan; www.eneos.co.jp) started produc-
tion bio-ETBE (ethyl tertiary butyl ether), which will be blended into gasoline as an alternative to ethanol as an oxygenate. Nippon Petroleum Refining Co., a subsid-iary of Nippon Oil, inaugurated the facil-ity at its Negishi Oil Factory at Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan, on October 26. Nippon Oil is planning to mix bio-ETBE with regu-lar gasoline, which will be sold at 1,000 of its service stations in Tokyo.
Bio-ETBE is made by the catalytic reac-tion of bioethanol with iso-butene derived from the company’s fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) unit. Nippon Oil modified its exist-ing production facility for ETBE, and es-tablished a production capacity of 100-mil-
lion L/yr. The facility uses 40-million L/yr of bioethanol — produced at Hokkaido and imported from Brazil — and 70-million L/yr of FCC-based iso-butene.
The benefits of blending ETBE instead of ethanol outweigh the increased complexity of ETBE production, says Nippon Oil. For example, gasoline with more than 3% etha-nol is corrosive and leads to a higher vapor pressure. Also, ethanol must be blended at the point of distribution to prevent water contamination and phase separation. ETBE does not have these problems.
The Japanese petroleum-refining industry aims to market 840-million L/yr of gasoline with bio-ETBE (corresponding to 360-mil-lion L/yr of bioethanol) starting with the fis-cal year April 2010. ■
A Japanese push for bio-ETBE over bioethanol
Direct Polymerization (CDP)process of Evonik Industries AG (Essen, Germany; www.evonik.com), and will make products used primarily as binders in the coatings industry.
Preventing biofimsAt last month’s Watec Confer-ence (Tel Aviv, Israel), Yissum Research Development Co. of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem Ltd. (Israel; www.yissum.co.il) introduced an envi-ronmentally friendly method for preventing biofilm. The patented method, which was developed at Hebrew University, uses het-erocyclic compounds that disrupt cell-to-cell communication (quo-rum sensing), thereby interfering with the formation of biofilms.
The compounds can be ap-plied as non-leaching polymer coatings on pipes, filters, mem-branes, air-conditioning ducts and other surfaces, and are effective against both fungal and bacterial biofilms. Potential applications include municipal and industrial water pipes, ir-rigation pipelines, paper making machines, and desalination and water-recycling processes. ❏
16 CHEmICAL EnGInEERInG WWW.CHE.Com DECEmbER 2009
In February 2009, Talvivaara Mining Company Plc. (Espoo, Finland; www.
talvivaara.com) delivered its first in a series of commercial shipments of met-als to Norilsk Nickel Harjavalta refin-ery in Finland. Talvivaara expanded the crushing circuit and has restarted the metals precipitation process in September of 2009. Talvivaara expects to continue its production ramp-up targeted at eventually achieving up to 50,000 m.t./yr in nickel production in 2012 at the multi-metals ore deposit in Sotkamo, Finland. The operations — consisting of mining, crushing, leach-ing and metals recovery — utilize a bioleaching process developed in col-laboration with several companies and research institutions, including Tampere University of Technology. Bi-oleaching is said to be more environ-mentally friendly for extracting met-als than traditional smelting because it generates no gaseous emissions and requires less energy.
In the process (diagram), the crushed ore is piled on a pad into 8-m-high stacks. Piping at the bottom of the heap supplies aeration to the stacked ore. A leach solution, containing mesophilic and thermophilic bac-teria indigenous to the region, is circulated through the stack from the top. As the bacte-ria oxidize large quantities of pyrrhotite and pyrite, the exothermic reaction elevates the temperature to over 50°C — even when am-
bient conditions are at –20°C. After the met-als are leached from the ore — which takes about 1.5 yr — the metals can be recovered from the pregnant leaching solution by pre-cipitation and filtration.
Pilot-scale leaching trials were conducted with 110 m.t. of ore in 2005, followed by a 17,000-m.t. demonstration trial carried out from 2005–2008. The commercial opera-tion will process approximately 15-million m.t./yr of ore.
n February 2009, Talvivaara Mining
ery in Finland. Talvivaara expanded the crushing circuit and has restarted the metals precipitation process in
to continue its production ramp-up targeted at eventually achieving up to
2012 at the multi-metals ore deposit in
ing and metals recovery — utilize a
and research institutions, including
A bioleaching process moves closer to commercialization
(Continued from p. 14)
06_CHE_120109_CHM.indd 16 11/19/09 10:15:01 AM
Last month at the Chem Show, Chemical Engineering (CE) had the pleasure of honoring this year’s finalists and the winner
of the 2009 Kirkpatrick Chemical Engineering Achievement Award, a biennial prize that the magazine has bestowed continuously since the early 1930s (for more, see CE, January 2009, p.19) The award recognizes the most noteworthy chemical engineering technology commercialized anywhere in the world during 2007 or 2008.
CE presented the top prize to Lu-cite International UK Ltd. (Wilton, U.K.; www.lucite.com) for its Alpha process for making methyl methacry-late (MMA). Honor awards were also presented to: The Dow Chemical Co. (Midland, Mich.; www.dow.com) and BASF SE (Ludwigshafen, Germany; www.basf.com), for a jointly devel-oped process for the production of propylene oxide (PO) via hydrogen peroxide (HPPO); Evonik Industries AG (Essen; www.evonik.de) and Uhde GmbH (Dortmund, both Germany;
www.uhde.biz), for a jointly developed process for the production of PO via hydrogen peroxide; Solvay S.A. (Brus-sels, Belgium; www.solvay.com), for its Epicerol process for making epichloro-hydrin; and to DuPont (Wilmington, Del.; www.dupont.com), for Cerenol — a new family of renewably sourced, high-performance polyether glycols.
Lucite’s Winning AchievementA new route to MMATwo existing processes dominate the manufacture of MMA. In the original ACH process — still the predomi-nant process in Europe and the U.S. — hydrogen cyanide and acetone are reacted to form cyanohydrin, which is then isomerized in the presence of 100% sulfuric acid to methacrylamide sulfate. This is reacted with methanol to yield MMA and ammonium hydro-gen sulfate, which can either be con-verted to ammonium sulfate fertilizer or incinerated to SO2 with subsequent conversion back to sulfuric acid. The
ACH process uses toxic and corrosive chemicals and the MMA production is generally limited by the availability of HCN as a byproduct from acrylonitrile production. The selectivity, based on acetone, is 85–90%.
In Asia alongside the ACH process is the so-called C4 process, whereby isobutene is extracted from cracker-intermediate streams, then oxidized in two stages into methacrylic acid (MAA). The MAA is then esterified into MMA. Although the C4 process is simpler that the ACH process, it has a very low selectivity (about 70% of the isobutene is converted to MMA) and scale is limited by the design of the oxidation reactors and feedstock avail-ability to approximately 80,000 metric tons (m.t.) per year.
The Alpha process developed from a need identified by the then ICI (Im-perial Chemical Industries) board to escape from the straitjackets of high capital and variable cost plants and limited scale of production, all of which were believed to have held back MMA
ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com DeCember 2009 17
cover story
Seven companies are honored for innovation in chemical engineering
2009 Board of Judges Klavs S. Jensen, MIT
Norman J. Wagner, University of DelawareTom Spicer, University of Arkansas
Michael D. Graham, University of Wisconsin, MadisonT.J. Lakis Mountziaris, University of Massachusetts
Jean-Claude Charpentier, President European Federation of Chemical Engineers,
Institut National Polytechnique de Lorraine, France
40th KirKpatricK award announced
Lucite International
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against other high-volume plastics, such as polystyrene and polyacrylates.
In 1990, a team of Lucite chem-ists and engineers identified several processes that, on paper at least, ap-peared to be alternatives for existing technology. These were investigated experimentally through catalyst de-velopment and conceptual process design of separations. Variants were assessed for economic attractiveness using predictive models for the long-term future of feedstocks, such as eth-ylene, propylene, methanol, acetone and isobutene. Using this iterative process, the technology best suited to the company was chosen for piloting.
The Alpha process is a two-step route to MMA (Figure 1). In the first step, carbon monoxide, ethylene and metha-nol are reacted together in a single, homogeneous catalyzed reaction step to produce methylpropionate (MeP). In the second step, MeP is reacted with formaldehyde in a single heteroge-neous reaction step to form MMA.
The MeP synthesis is carried out in a continuous stirred tank reactor under moderate conditions of temperature and pressure. A proprietary agitation and gas-liquid mixing arrangement is used to ensure optimal reactant con-centration and mass transfer rates. The catalyst — a palladium bisphos-phine — displays enzyme-like selec-tivity with excellent activity. Because the reaction is highly selective, there are no byproducts to separate.
The MMA synthesis reaction takes place in a fixed bed of catalyst, which has cesium oxide on silica as its ac-tive component. This catalyst converts MeP and anhydrous formaldehyde into MMA with a selectivity of 95% (from MeP). Two parallel MMA reactors are used to allow in-situ catalyst regenera-tion without disruption of the process. The reactor product is separated by an initial distillation, which produces a crude MMA stream free of water, MeP and formaldehyde. Unreacted MeP and formaldehyde are recycled, via a form-aldehyde dehydration process, and the crude MMA further refined, by a series of conventional (but unique to this pro-cess) vacuum distillations to a product MMA stream of >99.9% purity.
MMA plant capital cost using the Alpha process is about 30–40% lower
than equivalent scale ACH, or C4 plants. The Alpha process also has a number of safety and environmental advantages, including the following: There are no significant inventories of hazardous chemicals; byproduct for-mation is low, and waste treatment re-quirements are minimal (trivial); and the principal hazards are only those associated with flammability of inven-tories. With Alpha, MMA manufactur-ing locations are no longer constrained by feedstock availability, and there are no engineering scale limitations to at least 250,000 m.t./yr.
Lucite’s Alpha MMA Process was successfully demonstrated in a 120,000-m.t./yr plant that started up in the 4th Q of 2008 at Jurong Island in Singapore (photo, p. 17).
Honor AwArd:THe dow CHemiCAl Co. And BASF SeIndustrial Process for the production of PO via H2O2Propylene oxide (PO) is a widely used chemical intermediate, with a world-wide demand estimated to be in ex-cess of 6.5 million m.t./yr. PO is used for the production of a broad range of industrial and commercial products, including polyurethanes, propylene glycols and glycol ethers.
Traditionally, four commercial-scale PO processes have been used globally, the chlorohydrin (CHPO) route and three hydroperoxidation processes: propylene oxide/tertiary butyl alcohol (PO/TBA), styrene monomer/propyl-ene oxide (SMPO) and cumene hy-droperoxide (CPO).
In the HPPO process developed by Dow and BASF, the organic peroxides
or chlorinated oxidants used in the hy-droperoxidation processes are replaced by hydrogen peroxide — a clean, ver-satile, environmentally benign oxidant. The reaction of H2O2 with propylene produces only water as a co-product, as well as minor amounts of PO deriva-tives, such as propylene glycol.
The key to the HPPO process de-veloped by the Dow, BASF team is the patented catalyst — a shaped body titanium-containing MFI-type zeolite with channels of about 0.5 nm in dia., which was developed and is produced by BASF. The catalyst is used in a fixed-bed reactor, and the reaction of H2O2 and C3H6 takes place in the liq-uid phase (methanol as solvent) under mild conditions. A patented reaction sequence with a main and finishing reactor and an intermediate separa-tion tower (Figure 2) allows high H2O2 conversion at high selectivity by pre-venting PO-consuming reactions that lead to the formation of byproducts. The primary reactor is operated at an optimum conversion of H2O2. The effluent product from this reactor is then sent to a separation tower that re-moves PO from unreacted H2O2. H2O2 conversion is then completed in a sec-ond reactor to enable a complete H2O2 conversion in a single pass, while opti-mizing the PO yield. The combination of the highly selective catalyst, the two-stage reactor concept and an opti-mization of the methanol solvent con-centration in the process enables the reaction system to be operated with a relatively small excess of propylene to H2O2, while still maintaining a high overall yield. The crude PO product is purified by distillation, and the meth-anol purified and recycled. The small
MMA process
MeP + CH2O MMA + Water (95% Reaction selectivity)
Formalin process 2CH3OH + O2 2CH2O + 2H2O
(93% CH3OH reaction selectivity)
Conventional Formalin process
Methanol
Alpha stage 1 (MeP)
Alpha stage 2 (MMA)
Licensed Formalin process Formalin process
Formaldehyde dehydration
Crudeseparation
Refining
MMA reactor 1
MMA reactor 2
ReactorRegen loop
MMA feed vaporization& superheat
Waste water
MMA
Heavyesters
MeP process
CO + C2H4 + CH3OH MeP (No reaction byproducts)
MePreactor
MePseparation
Carbon monoxide
Ethylene
Methanol
Carbon monoxide Carbon monoxide Carbon monoxide
Ethylene Ethylene Ethylene
Methanol
Figure 1. Lucite's award-winning Alpha MMA Process is based on completely new chemistry and a radically different flowsheet
07_CHE_120109_NF1.indd 18 11/20/09 2:02:35 PM
Bryan Research & Engineering, Inc.P.O. Box 4747 • Bryan, Texas USA • 77805979-776-5220 • www.bre.com • [email protected]
Comparing Physical Solvents for Acid Gas Removal
PROCESS INSIGHT
Physical solvents such as DEPG, NMP, Methanol, and Propylene Carbonate are often used to treat sour gas. These physical solvents differ from chemical solvents such as ethanolamines and hot potassium carbonate in a number of ways. The regeneration of chemical solvents is achieved by the application of heat whereas physical solvents can often be stripped of impurities by simply reducing the pressure. Physical solvents tend to be favored over chemical solvents when the concentration of acid gases or other impurities is very high and the operating pressure is high. Unlike chemical solvents, physical solvents are non-corrosive, requiring only carbon steel construction. A physical solvent’s capacity for absorbing acid gases increases signifi cantly as the temperature decreases, resulting in reduced circulation rate and associated operating costs.
DEPG (Dimethyl Ether of Polyethylene Glycol) DEPG is a mixture of dimethyl ethers of polyethylene glycol. Solvents containing DEPG are marketed by several companies including Coastal Chemical Company (as Coastal AGR®), Dow (Selexol™), and UOP (Selexol). DEPG can be used for selective H2S removal and can be confi gured to yield both a rich H2S feed to the Claus unit as well as bulk CO2 removal. DEPG is suitable for operation at temperatures up to 347°F (175°C). The minimum operating temperature is usually 0°F (-18°C).
MeOH (Methanol) The most common Methanol processes for acid gas removal are the Rectisol process (by Lurgi AG) and Ifpexol® process (by Prosernat). The main application for the Rectisol process is purifi cation of synthesis gases derived from the gasifi cation of heavy oil and coal rather than natural gas treating applications. The two-stage Ifpexol process can be used for natural gas applications. Methanol has a relatively high vapor pressure at normal process conditions, so deep refrigeration or special recovery methods are required to prevent high solvent losses. The process usually operates between -40°F and -80°F (-40°C and -62°C).
NMP (N-Methyl-2-Pyrrolidone) The Purisol Process uses NMP® and is marketed by Lurgi AG. The fl ow schemes used for this solvent are similar to those for DEPG. The process can be operated either at ambient temperature or with refrigeration down to about 5°F (-15°C). The Purisol process is particularly well suited to the purifi cation of high-pressure, high CO2 synthesis gas for gas turbine integrated gasifi cation combined cycle (IGCC) systems because of the high selectivity for H2S.
PC (Propylene Carbonate) The Fluor Solvent process uses JEFFSOL® PC and is by Fluor Daniel, Inc. The light hydrocarbons in natural gas and hydrogen in synthesis gas are less soluble in PC than in the other solvents. PC cannot be used for selective H2S treating because it is unstable at the high temperature required to completely strip H2S from the rich solvent. The FLUOR Solvent process is generally limited to treating feed gases containing less than 20 ppmv; however, improved stripping with medium pressure fl ash gas in a vacuum stripper allows treatment to 4 ppmv for gases containing up to 200 ppmv H2S. The operating temperature for PC is limited to a minimum of 0°F (-18°C) and a maximum of 149°F (65°C).
Gas Solubilities in Physical Solvents All of these physical solvents are more selective for acid gas than for the main constituent of the gas. Relative solubilities of some selected gases in solvents relative to carbon dioxide are presented in the following table. The solubility of hydrocarbons in physical solvents increases with the molecular weight of the hydrocarbon. Since heavy hydrocarbons tend to accumulate in the solvent, physical solvent processes are generally not economical for the treatment of hydrocarbon streams that contain a substantial amount of pentane-plus unless a stripping column with a reboiler is used.
Choosing the Best Alternative A detailed analysis must be performed to determine the most economical choice of solvent based on the product requirements. Feed gas composition, minor components present, and limitations of the individual physical solvent processes are all important factors in the selection process. Engineers can easily investigate the available alternatives using a verifi ed process simulator such as ProMax® which has been verifi ed with plant operating data. For additional information about this topic, view the technical article “A Comparison of Physical Solvents for Acid Gas Removal” at http://www.bre.com/tabid/147/Default.aspx. For more information about ProMax, contact Bryan Research & Engineering or visit www.bre.com.
Typical Physical Solvent Process
Gas Component DEPGat 25°C
PCat 25°C
NMPat 25°C
MeOHat -25°C
H2 0.013 0.0078 0.0064 0.0054
Methane 0.066 0.038 0.072 0.051
Ethane 0.42 0.17 0.38 0.42
CO2 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Propane 1.01 0.51 1.07 2.35n-Butane 2.37 1.75 3.48 -COS 2.30 1.88 2.72 3.92H2S 8.82 3.29 10.2 7.06n-Hexane 11.0 13.5 42.7 -Methyl Mercaptan 22.4 27.2 34.0 -
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propylene offgas stream is recycled (after catalytic removal of O2 for safety reasons). Product yields, based on pro-pylene and H2O2 exceed 90%.
Compared with existing PO tech-nology, this HPPO process reduces wastewater by 70–80%; reduces en-ergy usage by 35%; and reduces in-frastructure and physical footprint with simpler raw material integration and avoidance of co-products. New PO plants using HPPO technology require up to 25% less capital to build.
In 2008, Dow and BASF successfully started up the first commercial-scale PO production plant with a capacity of 300,000 m.t./yr based on the BASF/Dow-developed HPPO technology at BASF’s Antwerp, Belgium, facility. A second plant based on this technol-ogy is scheduled to begin production in Map Ta Phut, Thailand, in the first half of 2011.
Honor AwArd:Evonik induStriES AG And uHdE GmbHIndustrial process for the production of PO via H2O2As mentioned in the previous section, conventional routes to PO generate considerable amounts of co-products. Per ton of PO, the chlorohydrin route generates 2.1 tons CaCl2; the PO/SM route makes 2.3 tons of styrene; PO/TBA coproduces 2.4 tons of MTBE; and the cumene route makes dimeth-ylbenzyl alcohol that needs to be hy-drogenated and recycled. The Evonik-Uhde HPPO process produces no co-products.
With the HPPO process (Figure 3), propylene is catalytically oxidized with H2O2 to PO and H2O. The highly exothermic reaction (DHR° = –220 kJ/mol) takes place in a methanol solvent over a solid titanium silicalite (TS-1) catalyst. The key to the Evonik-Uhde HPPO process is the oxidation reac-tor. A shell-and-tube reactor of an en-tirely new design is used, making it possible for the liquid to flow through each of several thousand catalyst-filled tubes. The reaction takes place at a pressure of about 30 bar and at a temperature well below 100°C. The new design and an optimized process configuration guarantee good removal of the reaction heat and nearly ideal
flow characteristics in each tube, re-sulting in very high PO selectivity. Reactor internals, such as distribu-tors and collectors, were developed for this special application. The inno-vative design combines efficient heat transfer with an almost ideal plug-flow characterization. Subsequently, the unconverted propylene and the solvent methanol are separated from the PO product by decompression and distillation to be fed back into the reactor. Finally, the PO is further processed to achieve a product purity greater than 99.97 wt.%.
During the development phase, the cost efficiency of the process de-velopment was continually checked and controlled with the help of IRR (internal rate of return) calculations. All process steps and the core equip-ment are patented. The complete pro-cess was demonstrated in a miniplant featuring all of the process steps, and described by means of a simulation model. This is particularly important in order to detect trace components in the closed recycle loops at an early stage and to permit a low-risk scaleup to commercial scale. The scaleup pro-cedure — from miniplant to a world-scale PO facility with a capacity of 100,000 m.t./yr as a reference plant — was carried out in a single develop-ment step. The scaleup risk was mini-mized for the reaction unit by increas-ing the number of miniplant reactor tubes and connecting them in parallel. Especially for the downstream pro-cessing, intensive process simulation was performed and verified using the miniplant data. Finite element meth-ods (FEM) and computational fluid
dynamics (CFD) calculations comple-mented the development work.
The first large-scale industrial plant to use this HPPO process was built for SKC Co., Ltd. (Seoul, South Korea) at Ulsan, approximately 300 km south-east of Seoul. The 100,000-m.t./yr plant came onstream in March 2008. After a short time of parameter adap-tion, the plant operated at full capac-ity and within specifications in July, 2008. Since then, the plant has been producing top quality PO at 100% ca-pacity.
Honor AwArd:du PontA new family of renewably sourced polyether glycolsOn June 4, 2007, DuPont announced the commercial launch of DuPont Cerenol, a new family of 100% renew-ably sourced, high-performance poly-ether glycols made from corn-derived 1,3-propanediol (Bio-PDO), instead of a petroleum-based ingredient. There are now five commercial grades of Cerenol homopolymer, which are man-ufactured in batch operations span-ning the molecular weight range of 650 to 2,400 g/mol. Cerenol polymers possess a unique combination of prop-erties that make them exceptionally attractive for a variety of end-use ap-plications, including performance coat-ings, inks lubricants, functional fluids and personal care products. Cerenol polymers can also be used as building blocks for several value-added ther-moplastic elastomers, such as polyure-thanes, spandex, copolyether esters and copolyether ester amides.
Cerenol polymers are linear, ether-
C3H6 C3H6
H2O2
MeOH
H2O, glycols
Pure PO
Lowboilers
Mainreactor PO
separation
Finishingreactor
Offgas
O2removal Crude
PO
Water glycols
separation
MeOHpuri-
fication
POpuri-
fication
Figure 2. In the HPPO process developed by BASF and Dow, a patented reaction sequence with a main and finishing reactor and an intermediate separation tower al-lows high H2O2 conversion at high selectivity
07_CHE_120109_NF1.indd 20 11/20/09 2:01:18 PM
ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com DeCember 2009 21
linked, long-chain molecules with three carbon atoms in the repeat unit. This three-carbon linkage pro-vides Cerenol polymers improved low-temperature flexibility and tough-ness in elastomers when compared to alternative polyether glycols. The poly(trimethylene ether) glycol mol-ecule can be synthesized from either a polycondensation of 1,3-propanediol (Figure 4, top) or by the cationic ring opening of oxetane (Figure 4, bottom).
The production of Cerenol through the polycondensation of Bio-PDO re-quired several process and product innovations to engineer cost-effective methods for manufacturing the prod-uct. One of the key enabling tech-nologies was the use of Bio-PDO to eliminate costly and energy intensive pre- and post-polymerization treat-ments that had previously been re-quired for polymers from petroleum based PDO.
The use of polycondensation of Bio-PDO to produce Cerenol enables an in-herently safer process than the cationic ring opening of oxetane — a hazardous material that is highly flammable, vol-atile, toxic and highly reactive. In con-trast, Bio-PDO is renewably sourced and biodegradable with low volatility, flammability and toxicity.
Polycondensation of Bio-PDO is also less equipment intensive than
the oxetane alternative. The polycondensation process in-volves the self-condensation of diol in the presence of a soluble acid catalyst (<1 wt.%) and subsequent re-moval of the acid during the purification process. Since this reaction can be executed under an inert atmosphere at ambient pressure without the use of an organic solvent, it does not require the high-pressure reactors needed for the ring-opening reaction of oxetane. The polycondensa-tion process also simplifies the control of the reactor as the evaporation of the water
byproduct creates an endothermic process as opposed to the strongly exo-thermic reaction process utilized by the oxetane process.
Beyond the environmental benefits of making Cerenol from Bio-PDO in-stead of petroleum-derived PDO, Cere-nol also provides unique functionality over alternative polyether glycols.
Honor AwArd:SolvAy S.A.The Epicerol process for making epichlorohydrinEpichlorohydrin (ECH) is a basic chemical for the production of epoxy resins, which are used in a variety of applications, including the automotive and aircraft industries; windmills; electronics; packaging; and sports equipment. ECH is also used in other chemical fields, such as for the produc-tion of water-treatment chemicals and pharmaceuticals. The world demand for ECH is 1.3 million m.t./yr with an estimated growth rate of 4–5% in the coming years.
The traditional production route to ECH uses propylene and chlorine as feedstocks and follows a three-step process: First, propylene is reacted with chlorine to make allyl chloride and hydrogen chloride; allyl chloride then reacts with Cl2 and water to form dichloropropanol and HCl; finally, di-
chloropropanol reacts with sodium hydroxide to form epichlorohydrin and NaCl. This process is not very se-lective; some amounts of chlorinated byproducts are produced that cannot be utilized or sold. Also, the process is energy and water intensive, and based on an inflammable, petroleum-based feedstock.
Meanwhile, the rapid evolution of the biodiesel industry in the last few years has significantly increased the availability of glycerin — a byproduct of the transesterification technology of biodiesel production.
In the past, glycerin had even been made by using ECH as a feedstock. Studying the opportunity to invert this process lead Solvay to the devel-opment of its Epicerol process.
In the Epicerol process (details not disclosed), dichloropropanol is made in one step by the reaction of glycer-ine and HCl over a proprietary cata-lyst, thus avoiding the need to use Cl2. In addition, the process is said to generate fewer chlorinated byprod-ucts with a sharp reduction of water consumption. Epicerol has the extra advantage of replacing a hydrocarbon feedstock by glycerin, which is a by-product from the biodiesel and oleo-chemical industries.
After preliminary laboratory and pilot trials were made, the first industrial-scale unit — with a pro-duction capacity of 10,000 m.t./yr — was started in Tavaux, France, in 2007. This unit helped the company to improve the process conditions and to prepare for the construction of a 100,000-m.t./yr Epicerol unit for Solvay’s integrated site of Map Ta Phut, Thailand, which is slated to startup at the end of 2011.
Compared to the conventional route to ECH, Epicerol requires one-tenth the water demand; reduces emissions of chlorinated residues by a factor of eight; reduces CO2 emissions by 20% for the value-added chain; and halves the consumption of non-renewable en-ergy resources. ■
Gerald Ondrey
HO OH
OOH
OH
H n+
+
O OH H2O
BF3Et2O
CH2Cl2
(1)
(2)
Acid
H n
O OH
Propene H2O2
Propenerecycle
MeOHrecycle
Reactionunit
Decompressing/propane recyling
POpurification
PO Wastewater
Methanolprocessing
Figure 3. The key to the HPPO process devel-oped by Evonik and Uhde is the shell-and-tube oxidation reactor
Figure 4. The poly(trimethylene ether) glycol molecule can be synthe-sized from either a polycondensation of 1,3 propanediol [Reaction (1)] or by cationic ring opening of oxetane [Reaction (2)]
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As bulk-solids processors look for ways to save money, manufactur-ers of screening equipment are concentrating on maximizing
the efficiency of the equipment they offer. Screening has been prominent in solid-solid separations in the chemical process industries (CPI) for decades. It is usually performed either to remove oversize particles and foreign materi-als from a bulk solid (scalping), to sep-arate different size fractions of a bulk material to create multiple products (classification), or to remove fines or dust from feed material.
While the basic principles of screen-ing technology have changed little over time, screening companies are focus-ing on efficiency and have developed ways to improve throughput, reduce screen blinding, and make screening systems easier to use and maintain.
Screening efficiency can be defined in several ways, depending on the ap-plication and the desired outcome. For removal of undersized material, ef-ficiency could be expressed as a ratio between the amount of feed that ac-tually passes through the screen and the amount that should pass. For classification, efficiency can be the amount of on-size product separated by the screen over the amount of on-size material available in the feed. When screening to remove oversized particles, engineers could define effi-ciency as the actual amount of over-sized material over the amount of feed that passes.
Screening equipment manufactur-
ers that exhibited at the 2009 Chem Show in New York from November 17–19 provide examples of this focus on efficiency. These companies include Russell Finex (Feltham, U.K.; www.russellfinex.com), SMICO Manufac-turing Co. (Oklahoma City, Okla.; www.smico.com) and Virto-Elcan (Mamaroneck, N.Y.; www.virto-elcan.com). Virto-Elcan is a business name recently added to the company known also as Elcan Industries Inc. and as Minox-Elcan. Virto-Elcan added the moniker for its business selling, ser-vicing and testing screening equip-ment from Kroosh Technologies (Ash-dod, Israel; www.kroosh.com).
Efficiency is kingThe current economic environment has prompted companies in the CPI to concentrate on maximizing efficiency in every area of their processes. Among the general approaches to reach opti-mal screening efficiencies pursued by those who handle powders and other solids are: increasing throughput; boosting separation specificity; reduc-ing maintenance requirements; and shrinking the physical footprint, along with other screening parameters that
can impact process efficiency.“No one can survive running inef-
ficiently anymore,” says Bob Grotto, president of Virto-Elcan. This asser-tion applies equally to those devel-oping screening equipment as well as those using it. Many processing problems need to be solved more precisely now, he explains, and that requires screening equipment ca-pable of more specific separations or higher throughput.
Tim Douglass, product manager at SMICO Manufacturing Co. and its subsidiary Symons Screens (www.symonsscreens.com), agrees, saying that CPI companies are trying to save money and save on capital equipment costs, and that the drive to save in-cludes searching for value in screen-ing equipment.
“People are focusing on ‘How much can you process?’ and ‘How well can you do it?’” because they want to pro-cess “more with less,” Douglass says. Processors are trying to reclaim more product, recycle materials, reduce waste or make productive use of waste material. Efficiency is of primary im-portance to customers, and screening companies are trying to design equip-
ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com DeCember 2009 23
Newsfront
Screening system manufacturers look to
squeeze more out of their equipment
The SMICO/Symons V screen (left) has the capability to combine centrifugal
force with vibratory energy to enhance screening. Above, one of Virto-Elcan’s
Kroosh machines is equipped with a mul-tifrequency vibration adapter to amplify
vibratory energy.
Virto-Elcan
ScreenerS target efficiency
SMICO/Symons
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ment to maximize productivity. “It all goes back to efficiency,” he adds.
Combining screen motionsSize-based separation with a screen involves some kind of motion or vibra-tion, since the mechanism by which particles are separated depends on motion of the bed to continously renew the layer of material exposed to the screen. Screener motions are usually vibratory, gyratory or centrifugal.
Symons Screens, a subsidiary of Chem Show exhibitor SMICO Manu-facturing Co., offers a product that combines the three modes of motion — vibration, rotation and gyration — to pursue larger capacities and more efficient separations. The cen-trifugal force enhances the gravita-tional pull, and the screener drum gyrates as it rotates, subjecting the material to over 1,000 pulsations per minute on the screening surface. The company says the design causes the material to strike the screen surface 50% more often than with a conven-tional screener.
Multifrequency vibrationAnother efficiency-improving innova-tion on display at the Chem Show was the multifrequency vibration adapter developed by Kroosh Technologies. Kroosh machines are tested, ser-viced and distributed by Virto-Elcan in North America. The specially de-signed adapter is capable of convert-ing the single frequency vibration of a screener motor into higher-energy, multifrequency vibrations.
The adapter captures and amplifies energy from the vibratory motor and transfers it to a support screen. Vibra-tory screens on Kroosh instruments are designed to use untensioned work-ing meshes. “The support screen grabs the energy,” says Virto-Elcan’s Grotto, “and we lay down a fine mesh over that.” The Kroosh adapter is mounted directly underneath the mesh, and uses the energy of the screener motor to distribute a wide range of sub- and super-harmonic frequencies — what the company calls “a chaotic sym-phony of vibrations” — through the screening media.
Screeners with multifrequency vi-bration can achieve higher accelera-
tions of the screening surface than a conventional setup. Acceleration gravitational forces experienced by the sur-face mesh are increased sig-nificantly by the adapter — to around 1,000 × g — which is a factor of ten more than the gravitational force observed in many conventional screening systems. The high acceleration applied to the mesh provides a mechanical means of deblind-ing, potentially a major source of inefficiency in screening pro-cesses. The amount of energy in the screening area makes it impossible for blinding to occur, explains Grotto. In addition, the high energy stirs powders and de-agglomerates material clusters, which helps increase processing efficiency. The Kroosh technology can increase throughputs by 10-fold, Grotto says. The built-in antiblinding capabil-ity of the multifrequency adapter eliminates the need for other types of screen-blinding countermeasures, such as sweeping arms or loose plastic spheres on the screening surface.
The vibration action afforded by the multifrequency adapter broadens the capabilities of the screening system. An efficient screening system could represent a possible replacement for more expensive technologies. Grotto points to air classifiers as one possible example. Separations on an efficient screener can save money compared to an air classifier system, he notes. The vibration mechanism also would make possible finer separations that would be impractical with a conven-tional screener. Grotto says particles as close in size as 12 μm can be sepa-rated using a tensionless mesh on the Kroosh equipment.
Ultrasonic deblindingUltrasonic deblinding — the applica-tion of ultrasonic frequency energy to the screening mesh to effectively reduce friction in the wire mesh and prevent particles close in size to the mesh openings from blocking the screen — is another approach aimed at maximizing efficiency.
Screening equipment maker Rus-sell Finex, another Chem Show exhib-
itor, has observed success in customer applications where the ultrasonic de-blinding approach was used. The tech-nique allows higher screening capaci-ties and screening on finer meshes.
The main operating component of the ultrasonic deblinding system is an acoustically developed transducer, which is bonded to a velocity trans-fer plate on the sieving mesh. When the transducer (sometimes called the probe) is excited at its resonant fre-quency, the velocity transfer plate vi-brates each wire of the mesh and pre-vents particles from sticking to them. Current screeners equipped with ul-trasonic deblinding systems give op-erators control over the ultrasonic ac-tivity, so engineers have the ability to pulse the ultrasonic signals or vary the activity across the screening surface.
Rob O’Connell, Midwest regional sales manager at Russell Finex, says recent improvements in the company’s products are mainly aimed at making them easier to use and maintain. For example, Russell-Finex offers screen-ers with hand-operated clamps, which obviates the need for tools and makes changing screens a quicker and easier job. The company has also worked on reducing the level of noise produced by the equipment. Other efforts include a screener design that allows the equip-ment to fit into smaller spaces, and sys-tems that allow for enclosed streams, for harmful materials, and those that convey solids through screens with the aid of vacuum or positive pressure rather than relying on gravity. ■
Scott Jenkins
Russell Finex
An ultrasonic deblinding probe from Russell Finex is shown applied to a working screen.
08_CHE_120109_NF2.indd 24 11/19/09 11:01:26 AM
Drying as a process is one of the most energy-intensive unit op-erations on the planet. Add to that the fact that dryers are
used extensively throughout the chemical process industries (CPI) and it becomes obvious that there ought to be more attention paid to reducing the energy consumption and upping the “green” ante of drying processes. Unfortunately, the current economy is putting any such projects and plans on hold for many processors. Drying equipment experts, however, say it doesn’t have to be this way as there are a variety of methods and mea-sures, ranging in price from no or low to high cost, that can be taken to re-duce the environmental impact of dry-ing processes, many of which will sig-nificantly reduce operating expenses down the road.
What makes dryers so energy in-tensive is that the equipment’s func-tion is to dry product by evaporat-ing moisture, which means it must provide enough latent heat so that the moisture particles change from liquid to gas and then that gas must be extracted. “There is no magic bullet to change this,” says Darren Traub, executive vice president with Drytech Inc. (Irvine, Calif.). “The latent heat is a defined amount of heat and, depending on the mois-ture level, you have to invest that energy into the process to achieve the drying. However, there do exist opportunities to reduce the amount of energy consumption and environ-mental impact.”
The right tool for the jobThe biggest energy savings comes from wise selection of new drying equipment. “In order to have the piece of equipment that has the least energy consumption, you need to ensure that you’re picking the right dryer for the right application,” says Geoff Pridham, director of business development with General Air Products (Exton, Pa.). He says this is something that is often ignored due to the current economy. “Equipment is often selected because it’s the cheapest option on the front end, but if it is the wrong type of dryer for the application, it will cost an arm and a leg in operating costs,” he says. On the contrary, selecting the most appropriate dryer, even with a higher upfront cost, will almost always save in energy and operating costs over the life of the application.
For this reason, experts suggest that rather than looking strictly at investment cost, engineers should re-view the overall cost of the equipment from a lifecycle perspective. This as-sessment includes not only the initial cost loading from analysis, specifica-tion and purchase, but also the op-erational demands of energy, main-tenance, retrofitting and ultimately disposal and replacement.
“When you examine this broad spec-trum for opportunities, one of the easi-est to analyze is energy efficiency as a function of operational cost,” notes Paul Branson, regional director of the industrial group with Aeroglide Corp.’s National Drying Division (Tre-vose, Pa.).
This cost can often be related in terms of a cost per unit weight of ma-terial through a dryer. This calculable number allows comparisons between investments in both the initial selec-tion of the dryer, as well as selection of energy management strategies. The relative cost of energy in a dryer is very significant. For example, a typical dryer used in acrylic polymer processing may have a capital cost of $1.5 million with a total installed cost approaching $2.5 million. This initial investment, ignoring the per-sonnel cost, can be amortized across the first five years at about $500,000 per year. The corresponding thermal energy demand on such a system, however, can approach triple that value, so any reduction in energy will have a dramatic impact, especially over a longer period.
“There are strategies for reduc-ing this investment and outlay in the short, as well as the long term,” says Branson.
Optimizing operationThe simplest of these strategies is to make sure the equipment is running in optimal condition. “To reduce the amount of energy used, it is important to improve the operation of the dryer,” explains Traub. “One of the biggest steps is to eliminate thermal losses that stem from breakdowns in insula-tion and to get rid of heat sinks and air ingress that cool the drying medium.”
Also, optimizing the electrical de-vices within the dryer will help reduce the energy load. For instance, using
ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com DeCember 2009 25
Newsfront
Although they are notorious energy hogs, drying systems can be made more efficient Heat exchangers can be used in heat recovery
systems to preheat the mass of fresh air required
Building a Better dryer
GEA Process Engineering
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26 ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com DeCember 2009
Newsfront
variable frequency drives in fans will only allow the fan to produce the required amount of air, as opposed to using mechanical damp-ers where the fan produces more air than is required and uses more energy to run the fan. “There are many similar aspects of the drying system that can be corrected to contribute to-ward reducing the energy consumption and increas-ing environmentally re-sponsible processing,” says Traub.
While it is not related to energy consumption, opti-mizing the system will also reduce the environmental footprint in another way. Dryers have two major en-vironmental emissions is-sues associated with them: the heat source (the resource used to generate heat for the dryer) and par-ticulate-matter emissions. To reduce emissions related to the heat source, Traub suggests making sure the com-bustion and cleaning system are meet-ing or exceeding current codes. Adding technology on the back end, such as cyclones, dust collectors and scrub-bers, will reduce the amount of par-ticulate matter generated during the process that is normally carried over with the air.
Thermal demandAnother strategy for upping efficiency is to reduce the thermal demand of the system. The easiest and most im-mediate impact on thermal demand for dryers is the use of heat recovery. “Standard heat recovery schemes can be routinely deployed in over 70% of industrial dryers,” notes Branson.
A typical example of heat recovery systems is the straightforward pre-heating of makeup air to a dryer using the spent exhaust from the dryer it-self. This allows a close-connected sys-tem and is not subject to upstream or downstream swings in operating char-acteristics from other unit operations. It also provides a stable and repeat-able recovery of energy throughout the full operation of the dryer.
On a typical dryer, the spent ex-haust air can be passed through an air-to-air heat exchanger to preheat the mass of fresh air required. This ex-haust air is hot and heavily laden with water vapor. The makeup air is gen-erally significantly cooler and lower in humidity. As the exhaust air cools, the inlet air is preheated. In its most efficient operation, the air-to-air heat exchanger will allow a cross over point so that not only is sensible heat cap-tured as the two air streams pass each other, but there can be significant la-tent heat recovered as the exhaust air is suppressed below the dew point and condensation occurs.
In such systems, these simple static devices can recover as much as 75 to 80% of the waste heat directly into the system. “As an example, in conveyor dryers routinely used in a Canadian operation, the exchangers are capable of preheating 80,000 acfm (actual cfm)of air from 40 to 115°F, while reducing the exhaust from the dryer from 140°F with corresponding condensation,” explains Branson. “This overall effi-ciency achieves 77%. At an effective cost of $6 per million Btu, this type of machine can save over $250,000/yr at these latitudes.”
He adds that in addition to the im-mediate thermal payback, there are
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The easiest and most immediate impact on ther-mal demand for dryers is the use of heat recovery. Here, a heat recovery system is used on a dryer exhaust line
Aeroglide
09_CHE_120109_NF3.indd 26 11/19/09 12:47:44 PM
ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com DeCember 2009 27
added benefits from a reduction in total exhaust, as well as in a reduction in the odor exiting the dryers themselves.
While heat recovery does provide benefits, Fred Shaw, vice president of the chemical division of GEA Process Engineering, Inc. (Columbia, Md.), reminds us that the heat recovered from dryers is often low-grade heat, which can be a challenge to find a good use for. He adds that even with a use for recovered heat, an invest-ment in capital equipment is still needed to install a heat recovery system. “There is always competition between projects that require capi-tal to save energy and those that re-quire capital to purchase equipment used to make more product to sell,” says Shaw. “In order to justify heat recovery equipment, you will have to demonstrate a good return, and, with the volatile prices of energy, it can be difficult to justify.”
Branson agrees that many compa-nies choose not to invest in thermal
recovery units because the payback is often beyond two years. However, he says this is a very shortsighted ap-proach on the part of management. “As experience has shown in the last two cycles of increased energy costs, the upward spikes in energy are very rapid. At times such as this, with ther-mal costs doubling or even tripling, the payback can drop from this theoretical two to three year term to one year or even less,” stresses Branson.
Product pretreatmentAnother method to manage and re-duce the total energy demand of the dryer is to reduce the actual drying requirements of the product. In many chemical processes, this can be accom-plished by substitution of upstream manufacturing technology or raw ma-terials to reduce the amount of water in the residual product. This has a direct reduction in the total thermal load of evaporation.
Mechanical dewatering, which com-
Waste-to-energy applications for Dryers
The potential use of agricultural waste materials, such as biomass, or waste materials from other processes as viable raw materials for different applications has created a whole new life for dryers.
“Right now in terms of the environmental movement, there is a big push for waste to energy and this is creating a growing segment for dryers that are processing environ-mentally friendly materials and turning them into something else,” says Darren Traub executive vice president with Drytech Inc. (Irvine, Calif.).
He says all kinds of products such as bamboo, peanut shells and rice hulls can be sent to a recycling facility and turned into a product with an energy value that can be used as a fuel source and sold to someone else.
Currently the most viable application for this is biomass use. Biomass, whether it is conventional timber feedstock grown specifically for pelletization or various cellulosic grasses under new development, is being reviewed for overall thermal capability. And, most of these biomass systems require a drying unit somewhere in the process.
For example, in wood pelletization, moisture of wood feedstock needs to be reduced from 50% to approximately 10% to support proper size reduction and pelletization. “These pellets are then used for direct combustion from the industrial level down to the consumer level,” says Paul Branson with Aeroglide Corp. (Trevose, Pa.).
Additional technologies are taking the energy conversion a few steps further — where reduced moisture biomass is fed to gasification units. These produce hydrocarbons in a much more useable gaseous and liquid form, allowing conversion to biofuels or direct combustion for power generation, or both.
In power generation, in particular, the theme of energy recovery again resurfaces, where the low-calorific-value spent exhaust from turbines can actually be used to pre-heat and pre-dry the initial feedstock, again greatly increasing the overall energy bal-ance of the installations, says Branson.
In addition to standard pelletization or gasification, a third option is Torrefaction, where the biomass is pre-dried and thermally converted to a denser pellet that not only reduces overall transport costs, but can also closely replicate the performance of coal pellets in combustion, capitalizing on being combusted in the highly controlled and ef-ficiently designed burners already in existence at power plants, says Branson. ❏
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09_CHE_120109_NF3.indd 27 11/19/09 12:48:44 PM
bines the dryer with other process equipment, is another approach, says Shaw. “If you can remove water by use of a filter or centrifuge, it may reduce the moisture content of feed to the dryer, so you get more product with less drying time and effort,” he says.
However, this can be a bit tricky. A typical example of this effort would use a leaf or rotary filter upstream of the dryer, explains Branson. In conveyor dryers, this can have a very positive thermal effect but can be limited by handling issues. Examples with poly-mer extrusion have shown that while it’s possible to operate rotary filters at higher suction and dwell times in an effort to change the inlet moisture, there is sometimes an overall decrease in thermal efficiency. “While the ma-terial is fed to the dryer at a reduced moisture content and evaporative load, the physical handling character-istics of the extrudate are such that it limits the processing capability of the
dryer itself,” he says. “The extrudate actually breaks more easily and re-duces the air permeability of the prod-uct in the dryer, forcing the system to work less efficiently.”
This, notes Branson, can result in re-duced production or upset conditions, which have a net result of greater en-ergy load per unit mass. “The key with this strategy is to review the synergy of water reduction in both the filter model, as well as the dryer model, to come up with an overall system that has a net positive effect.”
Shaw also suggests considering the
use of evaporators to concentrate the feed to the dryer because evapora-tors use less energy. “In a multistage evaporator with mechanical vapor recompression, you can get two or three pounds of water evaporation for every pound of steam you put into the dryer or evaporator,” he explains. “Whereas, you can’t achieve this in a drying system alone because you don’t have the ability to use multiple effect evaporation.”
Dehumidification is also seeing some action as an energy reduction strategy, according to Svend Bojgaard, regional sales manager with Anhydro (Soeborg, Denmark). “In many cases we combine different dehumidifica-tion systems to optimize total energy cost to meet our customer’s require-ments, meaning that the system will be tailor made,” says Bojgaard. While such customization prevents him from providing exact energy savings, he does say Anhydro has seen energy cost savings of up to 50% resulting from combining dehumidification systems with drying equipment.
While it may be difficult to justify the higher price of a more appropri-ate, and therefore more efficient, drying system or the capital needed to include heat recovery or pretreat-ment, drying experts feel that it is worth the effort and expense. “Even though the economy is actually driv-ing processors away from being green and more energy efficient regarding drying systems, spending less on the upfront cost of the dryer and related equipment is only a short term so-lution,” says General Air Products’ Pridham. “Over a longer period, it will cost more to operate and have a negative impact on production. The wiser choice is to choose drying equipment based on the total life op-erating cost.” n
Joy LePree
28 ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com DeCember 2009
Newsfront
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09_CHE_120109_NF3.indd 28 11/19/09 12:52:05 PM
Avoid kinking on tight turns with this tubingTex-Flex fluorinated ethylene propylene (FEP) corrugated tub-ing (photo) can turn sharp corners without kinking. The manufac-turer asserts that the tubing can handle bend diameters four times smaller than a typical smooth-bore tube of the same size. The tubing’s ability to bend without kinking makes it perform well in confined spaces, wrapping around machine legs and other obstacles that would normally restrict or kink a smoothbore tube. Tex-Flex corrugated tubing is lightweight, seamless and clear, allowing op-erators to monitor material pass-ing through the tube. Tex-Flex is also offered in a high purity poly-fluoroalkoxy (PFA). For higher-pressure applications, the tubes can be stainless-steel braided. Available sizes range from ¼ to 2 in. — Parker Hannifin Corp., Fort Worth, Tex. www.parker.com
Measure oxygen drift-free with this transmitterThe XTP600 oxygen transmitter (photo) is a self-contained oxy-gen transmitter for the process industries that measures oxygen content between 0.01 and 100%. Using the latest thermo-paramag-netic technology, the transmitter is almost drift-free. The XTP600 has no moving parts, so it can operate in harsh industrial environments without any interference from vibration. It is also stable at high hydrogen concentra-tions. The XTP600’s compact size, sim-ple design and explosion-proof housing make it ideal for installation next to the measurement point. — Michell In-struments, Cambridgeshire, U.K.www.michell.com
A magnet operates on this rupture-disc sensor The Flo-Tel rupture disc detection system (photo) is a noninvasive sensor
that operates with a reed-switch and magnet technology. The design avoids several challenges of standard rupture disc sensors. Some sensors require re-placement or rewiring after one use, and are often in contact with the pro-cess flow, creating possible leak paths. Designed to work with the Opti-Gard rupture disc, the Flo-Tel sensor posi-tions a magnet over the rupture disc so that when the disc bursts, the magnet and disc arc away from the sensor, cre-ating an open circuit signal. After rup-turing, the disc is the only element of the system requiring replacement. The
sensor is not in contact with the pro-cess flow, so there are no potential leak paths. — Oseco, Broken Arrow, Okla. www.oseco.com
These regulators suppress inter-nal cylinder forces for safetyPurox and Oxweld oxygen cylinder reg-ulators (photo) have a patented design that suppresses internal forces from a cylinder explosion within the cylinder walls. The design minimizes risk of in-jury in the event of an explosion. The regulators are machined from solid brass bar stock to ensure longterm
ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com DeCember 2009 28D-1Note: For more information, circle the 3-digit number on p. 62, or use the website designation.
Parker Hannifin
Michell Instruments
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Oseco
10_CHE_120109_NPd.indd 1 11/19/09 4:27:03 PM
performance with minimum mainte-nance. — ESAB Welding and Cutting Products, Florence, S.C.www.esabna.com
A vacuum conveyor that is GMP-compliantThe UC Series of vacuum con-veyors (photo) comply with Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) standards, and are suit-able for pharmaceutical processing applications, including loading and unloading coating pans, manufacturing tablet cores and handling or transferring phar-maceutical powders. Fully pneu-matic, the UC Series is built with unibody construction for tool-free dis-mantling and easy cleaning. Powered by pneumatically air-driven vacuum pumps, the UC Series can safely and quietly transport pharmaceutical ingredients such as sugar, dextrose, magnesium oxide, or starch. Con-structed of stainless-steel AISI 316L, the UC Series features an ultra-san-itary butterfly valve and a Gore Sin-bran filter, which can trap particles down to 0.5 μm. The UC Series also includes FDA-approved silicone seals with a working range of –4 to 176°F. The conveyors can also be custom built per application to meet specific user requirements. — Piab Vacuum Conveyors, Hingham, Mass.www.piab.com
Monitor hydrogen sulfide in wa-ter with these sensorsS10 and S17 Sulfide Analytical Sen-sors (photo) provide accurate, reliable analysis of sulfide levels in water-treatment, sewage and wastewater-treatment applications. The S10 Sen-sor is an immersion- or insertion-style sensor, while the S17 is a valve-re-tractable-style sensor. Both feature a 316 stainless-steel body that incorpo-rates the sensing element, a tempera-ture module and a signal conditioner with cabling. The sensors’ pIon elec-trode cartridge measures the activity of “free” sulfide ions in solution in con-centrations from 0.01 to 32,000 ppm over a pH range of 11 to 14. The elec-trode cartridge can measure sulfide ions across a temperature range of 0 to 80ºC. The S10 immersion sensor is
designed to allow a variable insertion length to accommodate installation in pipe tees, flow cells or through tank walls. The S17 retractable sensor is designed with a ball valve and a com-pression fitting that allows it to slide freely for insertion into the process or retraction from the process. — Electro-chemical Devices Inc., Irvine, Calif.www.ecdi.com
Use this keyboard in industrial settingsThe DT-102-SS industrial keyboard (photo) is constructed of stainless steel and is specially designed to withstand the rigors of industrial processing areas. The DT-102-SS meets NEMA 4X and IP68 specifications, and can withstand rain, snow, splashing water and hose-directed water. With an oper-ating temperature range of 0 to 60°C, it can be used outdoors and in other lo-cations where extreme temperatures exist. The stainless-steel keyboard is also a nonincendive device that will not ignite flammable gases or vapors in hazardous locations. The keyboard’s integrated touchpad features left- and right-click buttons, with a full-size number pad above it. It is built with brushed stainless-steel keys and is 100% humidity resistant. — iKey Inc., Austin, Tex.www.ikey.com
Gas leak simulation tool is available in trial versionSaid to be the world’s first, this gas-leak-simulation tool for ultrasonic gas detection can be accessed in a trial
version online at the Website www.gas-sonic.com/simulator. The simulator al-lows users to experience the benefits of ultrasonic gas leak detectors for quick leak detection in challenging conditions found in most outdoor oil-and-gas in-stallations. The system responds to the distinctive ultrasound created by the leak. The detectors pick up gas leaks at the speed of sound without having to wait for the gas to accumulate and physically enter a point-sensor head (conventional point detector) or within a narrow beam (open-path gas detec-tor). The acoustic detection method is thereby unaffected by unknown fac-tors, such as wind conditions, gas di-lution and leak direction. — Gassonic A/S, Ballerup, Denmarkwww.gassonic.com
In field tests, this grit washer achieves 95% grit retentionThe Pista Turbo grit washer contains new technology that can achieves grit retention of 95% down to 140 mesh particle size. It can produce drier and cleaner grit with less putrescible or-ganic material. The new technology, called Tri-cleanse, features intense hydro-flushing and high air-infusion to aid in organic separation, as well as a custom-engineered and patented screw to further clean grit through ad-ditional agitation. Machine design is sleeker, with a smaller total footprint, and the washer can be retrofitted in the place of traditional screw classifi-ers and conveyors. — Smith and Love-lace Inc., Lenexa, Kan.www.smithandlovelace.com
28D-2 ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com DeCember 2009
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This mixer is available in a wide size rangeThe VersaMix Model VMC (photo)is offered in sizes ranging from 1– to 750–gal working capacity. The model has an air/oil lift sys-tem that raises and lowers the agitators from the mixing vessel. The vessel is attached to a frame that has a manual tilting mecha-nism, allowing 120-deg tilting for full discharge and thorough cleaning after completion of the mixing cycle. The VersaMix com-bines up to three separate agita-tion systems — a three-wing an-chor, a high-speed disperser and a high-shear, rotor-stator mixer. The mixer is ideal for manufacturing viscous dispersions and emulsions with viscosities up to 1,000,000 cp. — Charles Ross and Son Co., Haup-pauge, N.Y.www.mixers.com
A purging compound effective for biodegradeable resinsThe commercial purging compon-Purgex 461 Plus is effective for purg-ing new biodegradeable and com-postable polyethylene resins. The compound comes ready-to-use, and is recommended for color or material changes and the removal of residual contamination. The new compound blends low-linear polyethylene carrier with FDA-approved active ingredients that are designed to be non-toxic, non-abrasive and safe. — Neutrex, Inc., Houston, Tex.www.purgexonline.com Measure non-condensing steam with these flowmetersThe RNS and RWS Series flowmeters are designed to measure non-con-densing steam and saturated process steam at pressures of up to 150 psi in energy-related applications. Both se-ries types have no moving parts and require negligible maintenance. All meters in the series are loop-powered devices with standard HART com-munication for field programming. Operating temperatures for the me-ters are –20 to 366°F. An internal re-sistance temperature detector (RTD) and an external pressure sensor pro-vide data to the flowmeter software,
which compensates for changes in temperature and pressure to achieve accuracies of ±1%. — Racine Feder-ated, Racine, Wisc.www.racinefed.com
Transfer flammable liquids safely with this pumpThe SCP-6500 (available March 1, 2010) is designed to accommodate the transfer of alcohols, volatile hydro-carbons and flammable solvents. The pump features a lug with a ground-ing wire to allow users of flammable liquids to ground it, making the pump safe for use with Class 1 and 2 flam-mable substances. All components that come in contact with the fluid are created with conductive plastic, so there is grounding of the liquid, the pump, and, with correct bonding, the container. The pump is designed to fit containers and drums from 5 to 55 gal, and have a cost-effective life ex-pectancy of 10–15 years. — Westcott Distribution Inc., Milford, Conn.www.goatthroat.com
Handle high-volume applications with this screenerThe Megatex XD Screener provides high-capacity throughput for large-volume applications in agriculture, plastics and chemicals. The screener has a unique elliptical-linear motion designed for high screening perfor-mance with low energy consumption. A single-screen deck change can be completed in 10 min, and all decks can be changed in 2 h. The Megatex XD provides 25%–50% greater capac-
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Circle 27 on p. 62 or go to adlinks.che.com/23021-27
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28D-4 ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com DeCember 2009
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Circle 28 on p. 62 or go to adlinks.che.com/23021-28
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ity per square foot of screen cloth in a compact footprint measuring a 12-ft.cube. for the standard model. Its mo-tion is generated by an external drive cartridge and separates from ¼ in. to 100 mesh. The accessible external drive of the Megatex XD is a cartridge with two spherical roller bearings that run for 200,000 h and is powered by a single 15- or 20-hp motor. — Rotex Global LLC, Cincinnati, Ohiowww.rotex.com
Vacuum systems for areas with noise or space constraintsVacuum systems in the Com-pak Plus blower series (photo) are positive dis-placement, tri-lobe blower packages that provide consistent, reliable vac-uum. They feature heavy-duty con-struction and low noise levels. The Com-pak Plus Series delivers flows to 3,305 ft3/min and vacuum to 15 in. Hg. The packages include inlet and discharge silencers, a high-efficiency, Energy
Policy of 2005 Act-compliant totally enclosed, fan-cooled motor and an automatic V-belt tensioning device. The blower packages offer lower pulsations and significantly reduced footprint. — Kaeser Compressors Inc., Freder-icksburg, Va. www.kaeser.com
These pipe caps can be installed without toolsThe skirts on the new CE Series pipe caps are designed to stretch over the pipe edges while retaining their shape and tight fit. This feature allows them to be installed without tools. Ribbed skirts provide ventilation to ensure that the caps will not blow off under pressure. The pipe caps are made of linear low-density polyethylene, and are available in a range of sizes. — Caplugs, Buffalo, N.Y.www.caplugs.com
This membrane bioreactor is a complete packaged systemThe Puron Plus membrane bioreac-tor (MBR) system is a skid-mounted packaged plant that provides custom-ers with a full scope of supply from prescreening and biological treat-ment through to the final membrane clarification step. The Puron Plus is designed for both industrial and municipal wastewater applications and offers a modular, small footprint solution which has been optimized for effluent requirements. The pre-engineered, membrane bioreactor plants are available with capacities ranging from 5,000 to 100,000 gal/d
28D-6 ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com DeCember 2009
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Circle 30 on p. 62 or go to adlinks.che.com/23021-30
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Circle 29 on p. 62 or go to adlinks.che.com/23021-29
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and feature Puron MBR membrane modules. The packaged MBR sys-tems allow users to single-source an MBR system from one company if need be. — Koch Membrane Systems Inc., Wilmington, Mass. www.kochmembrane.com
These blowdown valves can be fully serviced inlineFully serviceable inline, Clampseal blowdown valves provide control for continuous boiler or turbine blowdown, as well as bottom blow-off service. The valves feature a uniform, single-piece gland, a cartridge-type packing chamber and pressure seal backseat. For continuous blowdown service, Clampseal valves are available in ½- through 4-in. sizes with socket weld, butt weld or other end connection. Standard material for the valves is carbon steel A105, low alloy F22 and F91. — Conval Inc., Somers, Conn.www.conval.com
Measure three variables with this transmitterThe Rosemount 3051S MultiVariable transmitter measures three variables and provides mass and energy flow output, reducing the number of de-vices traditionally required to make differential pressure (DP) flow mea-surement from ten to one. Patented compensation techniques increase accuracy and provide faster updates. The Rosemount instrument provides full compensation of more than 25 different parameters to achieve a five-fold improvement in flow perfor-mance compared to uncompensated differential pressure flow. The 3051S instrument updates flow measure-ment 22 times per second so users can more effectively track produc-tion, demand and total usage for process gas, steam and natural gas. — Emerson Process Management, St. Louis, Mo.www.emersonprocess.com
This industrial drive module has a removable memory blockThe ACS850 industrial drive module has a removable memory block that stores the drive’s complete firmware, user settings and motor data, a fea-ture that increases the flexibility of the drive and provides for easy main-tenance. The drive module is designed for industrial machinery in the power range of 1.5 to 600 hp, including mix-ers, extruders, cranes and others. An-other aspect of the ACS850 is its auto-matic energy optimizer, which allows the drive to operate at maximum effi-ciency. An onboard energy-saving cal-culator monitors energy usage and in-dicates the amount saved in kilowatt hours, dollars and tons of carbon diox-ide. The ACS850 is also equipped with an integrated safety-torque-off feature that removes torque from the motor shaft. — ABB, New Berlin, Wisc.www.abb.com ■
Scott Jenkins
28D-8 ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com DeCember 2009
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Circle 32 on p. 62 or go to adlinks.che.com/23021-32
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Extend level measurement with this flexible probe The Procap capacitance probe (photo) features a flexible, ex-tendable cable design for high-, middle- or low-level detection when the probe must be mounted on top of the bin. The device is especially suitable for applica-tions where a probe is used as a high-level alarm or needs to be extended more than 4 ft. This flexible probe is also suitable for use with any lump material that might bend, damage or break a rigid probe. The first ten inches of the probe are rigid and the rest of the probe is flexible. The cable can be any length up to 35 ft. — BinMaster Level Controls, Lincoln, Neb.www.binmaster.com
Now HMIs are also offered by this firmIn addition to sensors, fieldbus, inter-face and connectivity solutions, this firm now also offers a new product line of human machine interfaces (HMIs). The VT250 (photo) is the first model available — other models will follow next year — and it provides visu-alization, controlling and variable gateway functionality for commu-nication between fieldbus structures and realtime Ethernet. The VT250 has a 5.7-in. touchscreen, and can be configured as a master or slave, re-gardless of the communication direc-tion. Providing two realtime Ethernet ports, the VT250 allows the user to set up a line topology. A communication port supporting RS 232 and RS 485, and the additional USB port are also included. — Hans Turck GmbH & Co. KG, Mülheim an der Ruhr, Germanywww.turck.com
This one transmitter does the job of ten devicesThe Rosemount 3051S MultiVariable Transmitter (3051SMV; photo) mea-sures three variables and provides mass and energy flow output, thereby
reducing the number of devices tradi-tionally required to make differential pressure (DP) flow measurements from ten to one. The 3051SMV sim-plifies mass and energy flow mea-surement, increases accuracy and provides faster updates through pat-ented, advanced compensation tech-niques. Full compensation of over 25 different parameters achieves a five-fold improvement in flow perfor-mance compared to uncompensated DP flow, says the manufacturer. The device updates flow measurement 22 times per second, enabling users to
effectively track production, demand and total usage for process gas, steam and natural gas. — Emerson Process Management, Baar, Switzerlandwww.emersonprocess.eu
Do more with this dewpoint transmitterThe Easidew PRO I.S. (photo) is a rug-ged, intrinsically safe, dewpoint trans-mitter suitable for use in the natural gas, petrochemical and process indus-tries. The device is ATEX-certified for use in hazardous area Zone 0, as well as for use with galvanic isolators.
ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com DeCember 2009 28I-1Note: For more information, circle the 3-digit number on p. 62, or use the website designation.
Extend level measurement
The Procap capacitance probe (photo) features a flexible, ex-tendable cable design for high-, middle- or low-level detection when the probe must be mounted on top of the bin. The device is especially suitable for applica-tions where a probe is used as a high-level alarm or needs to be extended more than 4 ft. This flexible probe is also suitable for use with any lump material that might bend, damage or break a rigid probe. The first ten inches of the probe are rigid and the rest of the probe is flexible. The cable can be any length up to 35
BinMaster Level Controls,
Now HMIs are also offered
In addition to sensors, fieldbus, interface and connectivity solutions, this firm now also offers a new product line of human machine interfaces (HMIs). The VT250 (photo) is the first model available — other models will follow next year — and it provides visu-alization, controlling and variable gateway functionality for communication between fieldbus structures nication between fieldbus structures and realtime Ethernet. The VT250 has a 5.7-in. touchscreen, and can be configured as a master or slave, re-gardless of the communication direc-
BinMaster Level Controls,
In addition to sensors, fieldbus, inter-face and connectivity solutions, this firm now also offers a new product line of human machine interfaces (HMIs). The VT250 (photo) is the first model available — other models will follow
-alization, controlling and variable gateway functionality for commu-nication between fieldbus structures
BinMaster Level Controls
Hans Turck
Emerson Process Management
Michell Instruments
GEMÜ
11_CHE_120109_NPi.indd 1 11/19/09 11:20:07 AM
28I-2 ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com DeCember 2009
New Products
As with other transmitters in the Easidew Range, the PRO I.S. is part of the Sensor Calibration Ex-change Program, enabling users to maintain traceability through pe-riodic recalibration while keeping the process in operation. All the calibration data are stored within the transmitter’s flash memory, so calibration exchange, or service, can be affected in seconds. — Mi-chell Instruments, Ely, U.K.www.michell.co.uk
A new motorized actuator for linear valvesThis firm has introduced a new motorized open/close actuator for globe and diaphragm valves. The 24-V d.c. actuator (photo, p. 28I-1)is an alternative to current designs and also to solenoid valves. Valves using this actuator are especially suited to applications without plant air. Also, the operating costs of the motorized actuator are said to be lower than those of a compa-rable pneumatic actuator or even a solenoid valve. The actuating speed is between 4–10 mm/s, depending on the nominal size. The S680 diaphragm valve, for example, closes in about 0.5 s in nominal size DN 15, and about 2 s for DN 25. The design of motorized diaphragm valves makes them insen-sitive to particles and solids in the medium — even grains of sand and pieces of lime scale in water pipes im-pair neither the function nor the tight-ness of the valves. — GEMÜ Gebrüder Müller Apparatebau GmbH & Co. KG, Ingelfingen-Criesbach, Germanywww.gemue.de
Aggressive media are not a problem for this dosing systemThe combination of FMI rotary pis-ton pump and Ismatec drives results in a range of pumps (photo) for very accurate and reliable dispensing, even when highly aggressive chemicals or viscous media need to be transferred. The pump heads are available with ceramic pistons and ceramic cylinder heads. There are no valves to clog, leak or maintain, and the piston is the only moving part. Drift-free operation (±1% from set point) is provided with flowrates from microliters per minute
up to 2.3 L/min with positive displace-ment pumping up to 6.9 barg. Control options include RS232 and analog in-terfaces. — Michael Smith Engineers Ltd., Woking, Surry, U.K.www.michael-smith-engineers.co.uk
Higher temperatures are okay for this flowmeterThe Optisonic 6300 XT (photo) is a clamp-on ultrasonic flowmeter ca-pable of measuring fluids with tem-peratures up to 200°C, which makes the device suitable for applications involving heated hydrocarbons, mol-ten sulfur, thermal oil and carbam-ate. The 6300 XT can be installed on heated and insulated pipes without the need to cool or shutdown the pro-cess. Two sensor types are available for covering pipe diameters of DN 15 to DN 400. — Krohne Messtechnik GmbH, Duisburg, Germanywww.krohne.com
Treat the offgas from solar cell production with this systemSpectra ZW (photo) is a single, com-pact system for abating the deposi-tion and clean gases used in the very high gas flow, chemical-vapor deposi-
tion (CVD) process steps in the man-ufacture of solar cells and flat panel displays. A wet scrubbing system is integrated within the Spectra ZW for a total abatement/waste-processing solution. The system has a maximum, standard process-gas flow of more than 16 L/min of silane, 200 L/min of H2 and 40 L/min of NF3 — all of which are commonly used during the CVD processing step in solar-cell manufac-turing. In addition, most dopant mate-rials, such as phosphine, diborane or trimethyl borate, as well as etch ma-terials, can be abated and processed effectively by these units. — Edwards Ltd., Crawley, U.K.www.edwardsvacuum.com
Keep flange leaks from spraying with this shieldA new type of TÜV-approved, stain-less-steel spray guard (photo, p. 28I-4) provides effective protection from dan-gerous spray-outs of fuel oils and other flammable liquids from pipes and flanges. The safety shield incorporates a steel band and an internal stainless-steel mesh that wraps around flanges and valves. The mesh is designed to sit against the flange — between it and
Michael Smith Engineers
Krohne Messtechnik
Edwards
11_CHE_120109_NPi.indd 2 11/20/09 2:49:53 PM
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Circle 33 on p. 62 or go to adlinks.che.com/23021-33
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28I-4 ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com DeCember 2009
New ProductsNew Products
an outer steel band — and compresses against it to ensure that sprays or leaks are dispersed, while also pre-venting lateral spray. The shield has been pressure tested to 50 bar, and has a quick-release connection for simple installation and removal. — Allison Engineering, Basildon, U.K.www.allison.co.uk
A migration solution for fail-safe controllersThe Gateway CM104 TSAA (photo) — a new migration solution for in-tegrating Triconex fail-safe control-lers into Simatic PCS 7-based control systems — enables existing systems to be expanded or modernized inex-pensively and step-by-step. The new Gateway was developed to bring both the process control system and safety engineering up to the state-of-the art at the same time. It facilitates con-tinuous communication between the Triconex, Trident or Tricon fail-safe controller and this firm’s automation system. The Gateway is completely integrated into the PSC 7, and can be laid out as a single or fully redundant link between the systems. — Siemens Industry Sector, Industrial Solutions Div., Erlangen, Germanywww.siemens.com
A full range of FRP products, from pipes to tanksThe new Filamaster line of fiber-rein-forced plastic (FRP) products includes a full range of ducts, tanks and pipes that are all made of corrosion-resistant materials. Filamaster vertical tanks come in capacities from 1,300 to over 30,000 gal. The round duct and pipe series are available with diameters from 2 to 60 in. A full set of connec-
tions can also be added, including bell ends, field kits, flanges, gaskets and elbows. The pipe and duct can be built for both high-temperature and caustic applications. — Filamat Composites Inc., Mississauga, Ontario, Canadawww.filamat.com
The latest in shaft-alignment systems is simple to useShaftalign (photo, p. 28I-6) is a new, laser-shaft-alignment system that combines simplicity of operation with precise measurement. The device features a backlit color display and the computer’s built-in display light sensor optimizes image quality and the device power management. The “Active Clock” measurement mode automatically collects the laser coor-dinates for the corresponding shaft position. Only three or four readings over a rotation angle of less than 70 deg are required to achieve a precise alignment. — Prüftechnik Alignment Systems GmbH, Ismaning, Germanywww.pruftechnik.com
Precise analytical balances for harsh industrial environmentsFor rough environmental conditions, the Excellence XP balances offer sev-eral features for hands-free weighing and protection from exposure to oily or dirty samples. All Excellence XP ana-lytical and microbalances are equipped with adjustable, motor-driven wind-shields, which make operating the balance much easier and faster, espe-cially when wearing gloves. The bal-ances can be operated with two built-in SmartSens infrared sensors and up to two optional ErgoSens sensors. All weighing operations, including open-ing and closing the windshield, zero,
tare and print/transfer results, can be performed without introducing any impurities. The windshields can be quickly removed and washed, and the mechanical concept of the SmartGrid hanging weighing pans means there are no difficult-to-reach gaps for ease of cleaning. — Mettler Toledo GmbH, Greifensee, Switzerlandwww.mt.com
A new exchange resin for indus-trial water treatmentLast month, this firm launched a new generation of gel-type, cation-exchange resins for industrial water treatment. Lewatit MonoPlus S 108 and S 108 H have optimized leaching behavior, which is an important qual-ity characteristic regarding the effec-tiveness and commercial efficiency of an ion-exchange unit; the lower the resin’s tendency for self-leaching, the less total organic carbon (TOC) is re-leased, says the firm. This release of organic substances is undesirable because it can lead to blocking of the anion exchanger. The new resin beads also remain in excellent condition after many operating cycles. Even with short cycle times, the special monodisperse ion-exchange matrix ensures long service life. — Lanxess AG, Leverkusen, Germanywww.lewatit.com
Gear pumps that can also handle highly viscous food additivesGear pumps are commonly used for applications where fluids with high viscosities, high pressures and high temperatures have to be handled. Now, this firm has redesigned a gear pump, which has been used for years for conveying highly viscous, molten
Allison Engineering
Siemens
11_CHE_120109_NPi.indd 4 11/19/09 11:28:54 AM
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Circle 34 on p. 62 or go to adlinks.che.com/23021-34
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New Products
plastics, to handle all other chemical fluids with similar properties, such as resins or silicones, polyurethanes and polymer solutions, and highly viscous food additives. The pump features a slim construction and a large inlet, which makes it possible to reduce the net positive suction head required to be as low as 100 mm Hg. The de-sign is capable of reliably conveying viscous fluids from vacuum contain-ers. — Maag Pump Systems AG, Oberglatt, Switzerlandwww.maag.com
Full-scale, PV-module durability testing is now possibleThe XR360 is the latest technology for accelerated exposure testing of complete photovoltaic (PV) modules. The unit integrates recent develop-ments in environmental-chamber and xenon solar-simulation technology. The XR360 is capable of testing mod-ules up to 1.9 m X 1.4 m, a capability that covers more than 90% of today’s production modules. The system fea-tures a chamber equipped with four water-cooled, long-arc lamps, has full climatic functionality and has an ex-panded utility for running IEC tests not requiring light, such as a damp-heat test. — Atlas Material Testing Solutions, Chicago, Ill.www.atlas-mts.com
A vacuum conveyor that is GMP-compliantThe UC Series of vacuum conveyors (photo) comply with Good Manufac-turing Practice (GMP) standards, and are suitable for pharmaceutical processing applications, including loading and unloading coating pans, manufacturing tablet cores and han-dling or transferring pharmaceutical powders. Fully pneumatic, the UC Se-ries is built with unibody construction for tool-free dismantling and easy cleaning. Powered by pneumatically air-driven vacuum pumps, the UC Se-ries can safely and quietly transport pharmaceutical ingredients such as sugar, dextrose, magnesium oxide or starch. Constructed of stainless-steel AISI 316L, the UC Series features an ultra-sanitary butterfly valve and a Gore Sinbran filter, which can trap particles down to 0.5 μm. The UC
Series also includes FDA-approved silicone seals with a working range of –4 to 176°F. The conveyors can also be custom built per application to meet specific user requirements. — Piab Vacuum Conveyors, Hingham, Mass.www.piab.com
A new decanter generation for food-and-drink applicationsThe F Series represents a new genera-tion of decanter. The GCF 405 is de-signed for products that are difficult to discharge, which makes it suitable for use as a clarifying decanter in brewing and beverage industries. The multifunctional machine with a bowl diameter of 400 mm ensures maxi-mum performance combined with high clarifying efficiency and maxi-mum dry matter in the solids. This is achieved by high speed, a high torque, large clarifying area and the deep pond in conjunction with minimum space requirements. The machine is a so-called hydro-hermetic decanter with a pressurized separation cham-ber; pressure buildup enables the sol-ids to discharge reliably. The new de-sign also provides major advantages for foaming and degassing products. — GEA Westfalia Separator GmbH, Oelde, Germanywww.westfalia-separator.com
Labels that withstand very cold temperaturesThe new CIL 91000 range of Self-Lam-inating Labels have been developed to survive cryogenic storage. The labels incorporate a clear wrap-around tail to permanently protect your computer-printed variable data, providing clear and reliable identification. These la-bels are suitable for vials and tubes, are waterproof and can withstand mul-tiple freeze-thaw cycles, water-baths,
solvents, abrasion and long-term stor-age in liquid nitrogen and ultra-low temperature freezers — even down to –196°C — without detaching, cracking or fading. Labels can be printed using a PC and laser or thermal-transfer printer. — Computer Imprintable Label Systems Ltd., Worthing, U.K. www.cils-international.com
Refillable cylinders for handling calibration gasesEcocyl OSQ is a refillable cylinder for portable calibration and testing of highly sensitive, environmental moni-toring devices. It uses a unique, neg-ative-pressure technology that guar-antees precision in the calibration-gas delivery requirements for ultra-sensi-tive instruments, which can be suscep-tible to damage from the positive gas pressure usually applied by other gas cylinders. Such instruments include detection monitors with integrated pumps or those monitors calibrated in docking stations with built-in pump-ing devices. These cylinders have in-tegrated valve, pressure regulator and flow control, which are permanently protected by a protective cowling, re-ducing the risk associated with con-necting hoses. — Linde Gases, a div. of The Linde Group, Munich, Germany www.linde.com
Improve communication between production and managementWith the introduction of the manufac-turing execution system (MES) Info-Carrier, this firm has bridged the gap between management and production, even for complex, continuous produc-tion processes. InfoCarrier is particu-larly suitable for manufacturing bulk products, but can also be used for lot management of raw and final products. A powerful logistics component of the MES for silo, packaging, storage and dispatch offers additional advantages.
Prüftechnik Alignment Systems
solvents, abrasion and long-term storage in liquid nitrogen and ultra-low
Piab Vacuum Conveyors
11_CHE_120109_NPi.indd 6 11/19/09 11:38:15 AM
Extended Control Room for System 800xA With the operator in focus
ABB’s Extended Control Room for System 800xA offers a unique work environment, better than anything experienced before. We aim to give you as an industrial process operator exactly what you want: the right tools for the job, and an attractive and ergonomic environment in which you stay alert and effective.
System 800xA provides a unified environment for operations and control that includes the ability to personalize workplaces, seamlessly integrate safety, electrical, and third party plant applications or systems, and implement advanced alarm strategies.
All of these benefits are realized in ABB’s latest operator console technology, the Extended Operator Workplace, giving you unparalleled ergonomics and visualization solutions, and promoting control room consolidation. Find out more at: www.abb.com/controlsystems
Circle 35 on p. 62 or go to adlinks.che.com/23021-35
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New Products
Developed by Provis GmbH & Co. KG (Waltrop, Germany), InfoCarrier has already been deployed by both small companies with a single production line, as well as Asia’s largest producer of pigments and fillers. — on/off engi-neering GmbH, Wunstorf, Germanywww.onoffeng.de
A new perfluoroelastomer for pumps and valvesA new, explosive decompression-re-sistant perfluoroelastomer has been launched for use in ultra-agressive pro-cessing applications. The Perlast G92E elastomer combines high levels of chemical resistance with an increased explosive decompression capability, setting a new performance standard for seals in pumps, valves and other processing eqiuipment exposed to high gas pressures (up to 20,000 psi). The material is suitable for temperatures up to 260°C. — Precision Polymer En-gineering Ltd., Blackburn, U.K.www.prepol.co.uk
NIR moves from the laboratory to production environment NIRQuest is a fiber-optic, near-infra-red spectrometer easily adaptable for cost-effective, online process control measurements. The instrument cov-ers the spectral range from 900 to 2,500 nm, making it suitable for ap-plications such as moisture detection in grains and meats, materials char-acterization of semiconductor compo-nents, bacterial detection in food and beverage production and chemical analysis of pharmaceuticals. — Ocean Optics, Duiven, the Netherlandswww.oceanoptics.eu
Avoid kinking on tight turns with this tubingTex-Flex fluorinated ethylene propyl-ene (FEP) corrugated tubing (photo) can turn sharp corners without kink-ing. The manufacturer asserts that the tubing can handle bend diam-eters four times smaller than a typi-cal smoothbore tube of the same size. The tubing’s ability to bend without kinking makes it perform well in confined spaces, wrapping around machine legs and other obstacles that would normally restrict or kink a smoothbore tube. Tex-Flex corru-gated tubing is lightweight, seam-less and clear, allowing operators to monitor material passing through the tube. Tex-Flex is also offered in a high purity polyfluoroalkoxy (PFA). For higher-pressure applications, the tubes can be stainless-steel braided. Available sizes range from ¼ to 2 in. — Parker Hannifin Corp., Fort Worth, Tex. www.parker.com
A magnet operates on this rupture-disc sensor The Flo-Tel rupture disc detection system (photo) is a noninvasive sensor that operates with a reed-switch and magnet technology. The design avoids several challenges of standard rupture disc sensors. Some sensors require re-placement or rewiring after one use, and are often in contact with the pro-cess flow, creating possible leak paths. Designed to work with the Opti-Gard rupture disc, the Flo-Tel sensor posi-tions a magnet over the rupture disc so that when the disc bursts, the magnet and disc arc away from the sensor, cre-
ating an open circuit signal. After rup-turing, the disc is the only element of the system requiring replacement. The sensor is not in contact with the pro-cess flow, so there are no potential leak paths. — Oseco, Broken Arrow, Okla. www.oseco.com
Measure oxygen drift-free with this transmitterThe XTP600 oxygen transmitter (photo) is a self-contained oxygen transmitter for the process industries that mea-sures oxygen content between 0.01 and 100%. Using the latest thermo-para-magnetic technology, the transmitter is almost drift-free. The XTP600 has no moving parts, so it can operate in harsh industrial environments with-out any interference from vibration. It is also stable at high hydrogen con-centrations. The XTP600’s compact size, simple design and explosion-proof housing make it ideal for installation next to the measurement point. — Michell Instruments, Ely, U.K.www.michell.com
These regulators suppress inter-nal cylinder forces for safetyPurox and Oxweld oxygen cylinder regulators (photo) have a patented design that suppresses internal forces from a cylinder explosion within the cylinder walls. The design minimizes risk of injury in the event of an ex-plosion. The regulators are machined from solid brass bar stock to ensure longterm performance with minimum maintenance. — ESAB Welding and Cutting Products, Florence, S.C.www.esabna.com ■
Gerald Ondrey and Scott Jenkins
Parker Hannifin
Michell Instruments
ESAB Welding and Cutting Products Oseco
11_CHE_120109_NPi.indd 8 11/19/09 11:44:50 AM
Department Editor: Scott Jenkins
Creating Installed Gain Graphs for Control Valves
Installed gain graphs can help improve the selection of control valves for chemical processing. The graphs are plotted to analyze together control-valve flow characteristics and process-system flow character-
istics, and better illustrate the relationship between a control valve and the system. Predicting installed gain can help to increase controllability of the system and help avoid oversized valves. Installed gain graphs can reveal ranges of valve travel where the valve gain might impede controllability. They can also show the travels for which the control valve will perform optimally.
GeneratinG an installed Gain GraphStep 1: Determine the control valve’s inherent flow characteristica) Inherent flow characteristic describes how the capacity of a control valve changes with valve travel.b) The inherent flow characteristic plot has the same shape as valve flow coefficient (CV) curve. Common curve shapes are: Linear — Slope changes little over the normal working range of the valveQuick-opening — Slope changes faster over first 25% of valve travel and slower at high travelsEqual percentage — Slope changes more slowly at low travels and faster at high travelsc) Plot CV versus valve travel.
Step 2: Determine sys-tem characteristic curveThe system curve defines piping head and friction losses. Plot flowrate vs. pressure. Assuming the control valve is not un-dersized, it will have one position that can fulfill both the flowrate and pressure conditions required by the system.
Step 3: Determine installed flow characteristic grapha) Pressure conditions across a control valve are not constant. Values of the liquid-pressure recovery factor and the pressure-drop ratio factor for control valves vary with valve travel. b) For several values of valve travel, determine where on the system curve (flow versus pressure) the process will be operated and what the flowrate would be. The location on the system curve can be determined
by using the equations in the ISA/IEC valve sizing standard (ANSI/ISA-75.01.01).
Step 4: Express the flowrate in terms of percent process variable (%PV)Use the range of the process-variable measurement device and its rela-tionship to flowrate to determine the %PV for the installed characteristic graph points. For example, if the process variable is flowrate, divide each flowrate on the curve by the full span of the flowmeter.
Step 5: Develop installed gain graphFind the slope of the installed flow characteristic graph at each valve travel. The plot of ∆%PV / ∆%travel for each percent travel increment is the installed gain graph.
Step 6: Interpret resultsThe installed gain graph can aid in the analysis of whether the control valve inherent characteristic is suitable for the system. An installed gain equal to one for the entire valve travel would indicate that the other components of the control system would not have to compensate for the installed valve gain (that is, the control system tuning parameters used at one value of valve travel would allow equally acceptable controllability at other travels).
It is more than likely the installed gain will not equal one across the full valve travel. Guidelines for desirable installed gain values have been established. In most cases, installed gain values of between 0.5 and 2.0 should be the target.
If the installed gain falls outside this range for valve travels that are expected to be used for controlling the process, the controllability will not be optimal. For example, controller tuning setpoints that function well at low valve travel values might cause system instability if used at travels with a high installed gain.
definitionsValve gain — The change in flow for a given change in travelValve travel — The degree of openness of the valve; the valve strokeControl range — The control range of an installed valve is the range of travels for which the installed gain remains within the recommended 0.5 to 2.0 rangeCV — The valve flow coefficient of a device (such as a valve) represents a relative measure of its efficiency at allowing fluid flow. It involves the relationship between the pressure drop across a valve system and the corresponding flowrateInherent flow characteristic — The relationship between control valve capacity and valve stem travelInstalled flow characteristic — Actual system flow plotted against valve opening. Pressure drops vary with valve travel when valves are installed with pumps, piping, fittings and other process equipment
References1. Niesen, M., Using installed gain to improve valve selection. Chem. Eng.
October 2008, pp. 34–37.2. Fitzgerald, B. and Linden, C., The control valve’s hidden impact on the
bottom line. Valve Manufacturer’s Association, Washington, D.C., 2003. 3. “Perry’s Chemical Engineer’s Handbook,” 8th ed., McGraw Hill, N.Y.,
2008.
Pres
sure
, psi
a
225
200
175
150
125
100
75100 500 1,000 1,500 2,000
Flow, gal/min
Maximum
Normal
Minimum
P1 for valve
P2 for valve
System pressure characteristic
2,500 3,000 3,500 4,000
Gai
n
2.22.0
1.81.61.4
1.2
1.00.8
0.6
0.4
0.20
0 10 20 30 40
Valve travel, %
Maximumgain
Minimumgain
Installed gain
50 60 70 80 90 100
Flow
, gal
/min
3,000
2,500
2,000
1,500
1,000
500
00 10 20 30 40
Valve travel, %
Maximum
Normal
Minimum
50 60 70 80 90 100
Installed flow characteristic
Per
cent
of r
ated
flow
coe
ffici
ent
100
00 100Percent of rated travel
0
Quick o
penin
g
Linea
r
Equal per
centa
ge
12_CHE_120109_FAC.indd 29 11/19/09 11:59:04 AM
People
30 ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com DeCember 2009
Paul Bradley becomes business man-ager —specialties peroxygens group for Solvay Chemicals (Houston).
W. Troy Roder, president and CEO of Houston-based Foster Wheeler USA becomes chairman and CEO of Foster Wheeler Energy Ltd. (Reading, England).
ABB (Zurich, Switzerland) names Daniel Huber business unit manager, open control systems.
Ellen Kullman, CEO of DuPont
(Wilmington, Del.), has been ap-pointed chair by the board of direc-tors, succeeding Charles Holliday, Jr., who is retiring.
Raymond Peat is named director of business development at Bord na Mona Environmental Products U.S. (Greensboro, N.C.).
Fluoropolymers manufacturer Dy-neon LLC (Oakdale, Minn.), a 3M company, names Robert Moore U.S. business director and appoints Dawn McArthur to lead the U.S. sales team.
Rob Gellings is the new leader of the advanced manufacturing solutions business for engineering and sys-tems integration company Maverick Technologies (Columbia, Ill.).
Scott Thibault becomes vice-president of sales and marketing for CPFD Software LLC (Albuquerque, N.M.).
Herman Purutyan becomes CEO of bulk-solids-handling specialist Jenike & Johnson (Tyngsborough, Mass.). ■
Suzanne Shelley
Bradley PurutyanKullmanHuber
WHO’S WHO
Thibault
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Faced with increased workloads and time and budget constraints that often restrict external train-ing support, many chemical pro-
cess operators are forced to get the most out of their heat transfer system with less help. This article offers rec-ommendations for how to carry out proactive maintenance on heat-trans-fer fluids, to maximize their useful life and minimize problems associated with fluid degradation, such as exces-sive downtime for unplanned mainte-nance when the heat transfer system has become unsafe or is no longer able to carry heat in a reliable manner. It is useful for anyone developing or re-freshing asset-care-management pro-grams related to heat-transfer fluids and systems.
Discussed below are the most com-mon fluid-related problems encoun-tered by heat-transfer systems and a variety of potential solutions. While individual system designs and varia-tions in process and operating condi-tions make each application unique, all heat-transfer fluids share many common attributes, making these recommendations widely applicable.
Ultimately, our goal is to educate those involved with the operation and maintenance of liquid-phase heat-transfer systems, both large and
small, that use an organic-based heat-transfer fluid. The organics include chemical aromatics, fluids based on petroleum derivatives, silicone or gly-col, the polyalphaolefins (PAO; also referred to as API Group IV-based fluids) and more. A properly designed and operated heat-transfer system can be the biggest ally in maintain-ing (and even increasing) productivity while reducing overall maintenance and production costs.
It starts with smart selectionThe selection of the heat-transfer fluid — whether at the system design phase, or on an ongoing basis after commissioning — should not be taken lightly. Fluid selection should not be dictated solely by the purchase price or any single physical characteristic. Rather, a variety of factors should be considered: •Thepotential impactonworkersof
a given fluid, in terms of adequate training and protection that must be implemented to address hazards related to potential exposure to the fluid, in both its vapor form (inha-lation risk and mist concentration) and liquid form (skin contact). In ad-dition to direct exposure, the choice of the fluid could impact productiv-ity engendering additional handling
and paperwork protocols involving other internal resources within the company, such as the health and safety advisors, medical care per-sonnel, personnel in the receiving department and so forth
•Freight charges related to deliveryof fresh product
•Cost associated with the pickup,handling and disposal of the used oil and drums
•Proven fluid performance beyondfresh oil data (for instance, if vendor data is able to demonstrate the re-tention of fresh oil properties after some time in service, as demon-strated by extensive oxidation and thermal stability data)
•Can the current system accommo-date the fluid being considered (in terms of compatibility with sealing materials, existence of a properly sized expansion reservoir, suitable match between the fluid properties and the existing hardware, such as the pump and safety-relief valve)
•Miscibilitywithcurrentheat-trans-fer fluids if partial (rather than full) changeout is needed
•Documented success by the vendorin your type of application
•Level of liability coverage, serviceand expertise the fluid maker and distributor bring to the table
Feature Report
32 ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com DeCember 2009
Feature Report
CC
CC
CC
CC
CC
CC
CC
CC
CC
CC
CC
CC
CC
HH
HH
HH
HH
HH
HH
HH
HH
HH
HH
HH
HH
HH
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HH
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HH
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H
CC
CC
CC
CC
CC
CC
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H
n-Hexocosane (C26H54)COC flash point : 215°C / 419°F
Molecular weight : 366.7 grams/mole
n-Dodecane (C12H26)COC Flash Point: 71°C / 160°F
Molecular weight: 170.34 grams/mole
Excess Heat
n-Tetradecane (C14H30)COC flash point : 99°C / 210°F
Molecular weight : 198.4 grams/mole
Heavy carbonaceous residues
Maximizing Heat-Transfer Fluid Longevity
Proper selection, monitoring and maintenance can protect fluids
and components from damage due to thermal degradation,
oxidation damage and contamination
FIGURE 1. In this example with heat-transfer fluid n-hexa-cosane, thermal degradation occurs when excess heat
drives the cracking of a straight-chain hydrocarbon (not shown is the formation of reactive free radicals,
which have been omitted for clarity)
Gaston ArseneaultPetro-Canada Lubricants, a Suncor Energy business
14_CHE_120109_SAS.indd 32 11/19/09 1:23:35 PM
Further discussion of initial fluid selection is beyond the scope of this article, but is covered in Ref. [1–7].
Over time, the most common threats to the life of heat-trans-fer fluids (and sometimes the en-tire system) include the following: • Thermal degradation • Oxidative degradation • Process contamination • Contamination by other materials Each threat is discussed below, along with findings from real case studies, and practical recommendations for how to deal with these challenges.
Thermal degradaTion Regardless of the chemistry of the heat-transfer media, thermal degra-dation can occur whenever the heat source provides more energy than the heat-transfer media can absorb and carry away at that particular time [8].
Figure 1 shows a simple example of the thermal degradation of a typi-cal petroleum-based heat-transfer fluid (n-hexacosane) with ISO viscos-ity grade 32. In this case, the fluid is a distribution of molecules of various lengths, averaging 26 carbons long.
As shown in Figure 1, when the en-ergy submitted to the fluid exceeds the threshold necessary to start breaking the stable covalent carbon-carbon bonds, the result is the formation of shorter hydrocarbons. The example in Figure 1 shows the scission (crack-ing) of a perfect straight, long-chain alkane into shorter molecules, such as dodecane (C12) and tetradecane (C14), each having a lower boiling and flashpoint and viscosity compared to the starting C26 hydrocarbon.
The systematic result of thermal degradation is a reduction in the overall fluid viscosity and increased volatility, which increases the risk of
leakage and loss through evaporation. Thermal cracking increases the vapor pressure, lowers the flashpoint and fire point, and sometimes, reduces au-toignition temperature (AIT). As the name implies, the AIT is the tempera-ture at which the fluid vapors are hot enough to ignite spontaneously in ab-sence of an ignition source [9, 10].
As shown in Figure 2, the problem worsens if left unaddressed. Reynolds discovered in 1883 [12, p. 86], that low-viscosity fluids offer the best heat transfer behavior in a forced-convec-tion situation such as a typical heat transfer system. Based on these find-ings, one may think thermal cracking is advantageous from a thermal con-ductivity point of view. However, the resulting drop in viscosity is not nec-essarily favorable.
Safety risksThe concern is that the associated po-tential reduction of the AIT of the de-graded fluid can make the operation of a closed system unsafe if the operat-ing temperature nears or exceeds the AIT. Moreover, shortened molecules are not the only species formed during thermal degradation of the fluid.
On the other hand, an open system — that is, one in which the heated fluid is constantly in contact with the atmosphere — is even less forgiving. Any drop in the heat-transfer fluid’s flashpoint and fire point (defined as the temperature at which the fluid sustains a fire for five seconds in the ASTM-D92 Cleveland Open Cup, or COC flashpoint test apparatus) could jeopardize the entire operation, considering that the fluid was likely chosen, in part, based on its fresh oil, open-cup flashpoint rating (to which a safety margin was likely added).
Efforts to determine a definitive re-
lationship between a drop in flashpoint and a drop in AIT have not proven suc-cessful. Fortunately for users, in many cases where a petroleum-based fluid exhibits a relatively low flashpoint, we have seen the AIT remained high, but this is not always the case.
The performance data shown in Table 1 demonstrate how progressive thermal degradation leads to steadily diminishing flashpoint and viscos-ity of the heat-transfer fluid. The gas chromatography distillation (GCD) test consists of a simulated distilla-tion of the fluid in the laboratory. In the cited example, the initial distilla-tion point (GCD 10%) drops over time, which again confirms the increased concentration of low-boiling compo-nents present in the fluid.
Performance problemsAnother major consequence of thermal cracking is the formation of carbona-ceous residues (Figure 2), which result from reactions of recombination. To a certain extent, these particles can be compared to soot that is produced dur-ing fuel combustion in a diesel engine, where it is documented that soot is harder than the metallic components of the engine [13].
Such unwanted carbon residues are not only abrasive toward the piping, but they also tend to stubbornly ad-here and harden onto the hot surface points, forming an insulation layer inside the pipe. This occurrence often forces the user to increase the heater set temperature (increasing energy consumption) to maintain the desired operating fluid temperature.
As a general rule of thumb, Wheeler [14] reports that the widely used heat-transfer fluids based on poly-alkylene glycols (PAGs) begin to ex-perience thermal degradation near 250°C (482°F). Meanwhile, Wheeler also reports that the thermal degrada-tion of uninhibited polyethylene glycol results in a mix of five organic acids [15]. The formation of these byproduct acids leads to increased corrosion over time in high-temperature systems.
Of similar importance is the fact that even systems running at tem-peratures that are considered to be relatively mild (for example, around 149–204°C or 300–400°F), are not ex-
ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com DeCember 2009 33
FIGURE 2. Excessive thermal stress often results in a breakdown of the heat-transfer fluid, and the carbonaceous byproducts can build up on the inside surfaces of pipes
All photos: Petro-Canada Lubricants, a Suncor Energy business
14_CHE_120109_SAS.indd 33 11/19/09 1:24:59 PM
Feature Report
34 ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com DeCember 2009
empt from the ravages that elevated temperatures can bring, in terms of the thermal cracking of the heat-transfer fluid. For example, consider a system in which the fluid experienced a change in physical properties, com-bined with oil-flow issues (for instance, from a defective pump, a fluid contain-ing solids, or some piping restriction or pluggage) or a problem with the heater (for instance, the heater coil or electrical element has baked-on car-bon that acts as an insulation layer forcing a higher energy demand to maintain the target fluid outlet tem-perature). Such factors can cause a rise in the skin-film temperature (the temperature of the fluid immediately touching the heated surface).
Any combination of the conditions mentioned above can cause the skin-film temperature to be significantly higher than the temperature of the fluid circulating in the center of the heated pipe (which is called the bulk oil temperature). The larger the gap between skin film and bulk oil tem-perature, the more energy the fluid tries to distribute within itself through turbulence. At some point, the fluid at the heated surface will receive more energy than it can absorb (its heat ca-pacity), carry and release (its thermal conductivity), resulting in thermal degradation of the fluid.
Minimization strategiesDiscussed below are ways to minimize the thermal degradation of a heat-transfer fluid in open systems.Use the right fluid for the job. By choosing a fluid with a high thermal stability, Guyer and Brownell [16] suggest that most problems associ-ated with localized or temporary tem-perature excursion can be prevented. Ashman [17] also emphasizes the im-portance of using a heat-transfer fluid with a suitable thermal stability for the application. Hudson, Sahasrana-man [6, 7] and many others acknowl-edge that petroleum-based fluids of pharmaceutical quality produced by a severe hydrogenation and hydrocrack-ing process (also referred to as “white mineral oils”) tend to have greater thermal stability compared to petro-leum base oils that are produced from other refining methods [6, 7].
Use appropriate venting. Venting involves the periodic release (from the fluid and the system) of the light, more highly volatile hydrocarbons that form during thermal cracking. Venting is typically carried out by circulating some of the hot fluid to the expansion reservoir, so that those molecules with a relatively high vapor pressure can naturally migrate into the gas phase above the fluid. Then, depending on the system design, the vapors are re-leased directly into the atmosphere or sent to a collection drum or tank, al-though laws governing volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and other environ-mental trends cause most users to collect the condensed low-boilers and properly dispose of them.
Fresh fluid needs to be added pe-riodically, to maintain the desired fluid level (to prevent pump starva-tion and cavitation when the system charge contracts after a shutdown). As a precautionary note, users should re-member that fresh fluid must never be added directly into the hot oil stream; rather it should be added into the ex-pansion tank or other cool reservoirs connected to the system.
Venting continuously or for extended periods is not advised, because the re-sulting rise in the bulk fluid tempera-ture in the expansion tank will accel-erate oxidation (discussed below).
We recommend the use of an oil-analysis program to determine the rate of generation of low-boilers dur-
ing any operation. With proper vent-ing and analysis, users can establish how often, and for how long, the fluid must be periodically vented, in order to safely operate a high temperature system with a fluid that stays in good condition (maintaining characteristics that are similar to the fresh oil for as long as possible).Adopt proper startup and shut-down procedures. The successful startup of any heat-transfer system is important, since the faster the heat-transfer fluid reaches its desired op-erating temperature, the faster the facility can produce its products and begin to fulfill orders. This becomes even more important for systems that stop and start up regularly.
One may say that running the pump and the heater for a few extra hours to accommodate a slower, more-gentle startup is not cost-effective, but for many applications, such an approach pays its own dividends. For instance, by maintaining a more-gradual heat-ing profile at startup, the fluid will be able to effectively remove heat and reduce the risk of thermal degrada-tion, and minimizing the formation and buildup of baked-on residues. The net result will be extended planned-maintenance intervals and greater component life expectancy.
Shutdown procedures also impact system efficiency and fluid life. For instance, Stone [19] and others recom-mend maintaining oil circulation after
Table 1. AnAlysis DAtA showing thermAl DegrADAtion of the heAt-trAnsfer fluiD At A meAt-processing fAcility
sample date,
mm/dd/yy
flash-point, °c
(coc)*
watercontent, ppm
(Karl fisher)
Viscosityat 40 °c,
(centist-okes, cst)
gas chromatoraphy distillation (gDc)**
10% boiling, °c
90% boiling, °c
% boilingbelow335°c
04/04/00 154 660 27.0 327 512 10.49
08/10/01 155 580 23.2 307 507 14.40
06/11/02 175 313 22.7 317 490 12.80
09/09/02 171 51 21.2 201 481 31.90
12/09/02 161 220 20.5 304 489 16.20
03/12/03 175 42 19.8 294 490 19.00
After startup and shutdown procedure modification of April 2003
06/11/03 169 156 23.0 310 497 15.70
New fluid properties
209 — 35.6 382 498 0.80
* COC represents analysis via the ASTM-D92 Cleveland Open Cup (COC) flashpoint test apparatus.** GCD = gas chromatography distillation. The GCD test consists of a simulated distillation of the fluid in the laboratory. Comparison with the fresh-oil boiling curve allows for the detection of lighter and heavier molecules in the fluids.
14_CHE_120109_SAS.indd 34 11/19/09 1:30:24 PM
ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com DeCember 2009 35
the heater is turned off until it’s been cooled to 65°C (150°F). The refrac-tory material in a furnace is designed to retain heat for as long as possible, so stopping the oil flow immediately after the heat source has been turned off provides an opportunity for the stagnant fluid to crack, forming low-boiling fractions and carbon residues. This negatively impacts the life of the fluid and the overall heater efficiency.
With regard to smaller systems such as temperature-controlled units (TCUs) or extruders, many designs have improved greatly in recent years and now maintain fluid circulation for some period of time following shut-down as a common approach.
An insufficient shutdown interval was the overall problem at the facil-ity whose degraded fluid was shown in Table 1. After a service call, it was de-termined that the 249°C (480°F) sys-tem was shut down on Friday evening with only a short circulation period following shutdown. It was fired up again at 7:00 a.m. on Monday, to allow for production to start at 9:00 a.m.
A full system shutdown and clean-ing was deemed impossible by the user at that time, so the fluid was left untouched, but better future prac-tices were implemented. The last set of results in Table 1 shows that two months after the initial analysis, the rate of generation of low-boilers had
diminished (as seen in the percentage boiled below 335°C). As a direct result, the facility did not add any new oil. The increase in kinematic viscosity and flashpoint, and the fact that the strainer no longer collected carbon residues in any appreciable amount, provided evidence of improvement.Consult your suppliers about proposed design or operational changes. Business is booming, more production is expected from the plant, more parts must be produced, and lines need to be added. Do you need to increase the operating temperature? What about the flowrate, is it ade-quate? What does your heater manu-facturer think of the proposed addi-tion? Operators should get as much input as possible from their system designer. manufacturers, and parts and fluid suppliers before any major changes are implemented. Stone [18] recommends that operators should maintain an updated list of contacts and keep it handy for questions or troubleshooting help.
It is relevant to document the skin-film temperature in the current sys-tem and in the proposed operating conditions. Make certain your fluid supplier confirms your current heat-transfer fluid’s ability to handle any new operating parameters.Maintain, inspect and perform preventative maintenance on sys-
tem components. Even though liq-uid-phase systems commonly operate above the flashpoint of the fluid (but below its auto-ignition temperature), the risk of fire should be very low in a normal, well-designed system, espe-cially one that is kept oil-tight, leak-free and subject to regular inspection and maintenance [19].
For any system where heat is pur-posely generated to raise the fluid temperature, ensuring proper opera-tion of the heat source is critical to achieve optimum performance. Daily inspections, using a consistent check-list of items to monitor are recom-mended [18, 20]. For instance, fired heaters should be inspected for flame impingement, especially if the burner is oversized or cycles frequently. In the case of flame impingement, the flame (whose temperature is typi-cally on the order of 1,093–1,650°C, or 2,000–3,000°F) subjects the oil tubes to excessive localized heat flux, which can cause tube deformation and cok-ing (resulting from thermal degrada-tion, as seen in Figure 2), and leakage with increased risk of fire [21].
In the case of systems equipped with immersed electrical heaters, excessive watt density, lack of fluid turbulence around the hot tubes, or insufficient flowrate often causes premature deg-radation of the fluid. Such degrada-tion can be offset in part by proper fluid selection and maintenance prac-tices [22, 23].
In any system, the oil-circulation pump can be compared to the heart, moving the fluid around. The pump should be well-maintained. Specifi-cally, drive bearings on the electric motor and pump seals should receive proper attention. Centrifugal pumps should ideally operate at or near their best efficiency point (BEP), with bearings well-maintained and seals working properly. Finally, the expan-sion reservoir, piping, connections and valves should be selected and maintained appropriately, as part of a world-class maintenance program.
Meanwhile, the life blood of the op-eration — the fluid itself — should be tested regularly. While further discussion of the types of tests, their significance and data interpretation is beyond the scope of this article, the
FIGURE 3. These illustrations shows the type of varnish (left) and sludge (center, right) that can result from oxidation-related degradation of a petroleum-based, chemi-cal aromatic and polyalkylene glycol (PAG) fluid
14_CHE_120109_SAS.indd 35 11/19/09 1:32:17 PM
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36 ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com DeCember 2009
American Society for Testing and Ma-terials (ASTM) Method D5372 should be followed to properly monitor the condition of heat-transfer fluids [24].
Oxidative degRadatiOnFor the purpose of this article, we de-fine fluid oxidation as the reaction of the heat-transfer fluid with oxygen from air. The oxidative degradation of organic compounds is extremely com-plex, as it involves a series of chemical reactions that result in the formation of high energy, unstable and reactive free-radicals and peroxides. One initial free-radical allows for the possibility of forming two radical species, which results in the formation of a variety of oxygen-containing species, mainly organic acids. These long-chained or-ganic acids may be weak on their own, but as their concentration grows in the fluid, the oil eventually becomes more corrosive [25].
These acids also polymerize — often to a level that is sufficient to modify the fluid properties, causing an in-crease in viscosity, discoloration and eventually, precipitation as lacquer, varnish and sludge [26] such as that shown in Figure 3. The varnish for-mation is seldom a concern in heat transfer applications because of rela-tively large pipe diameters and valves with high tolerances. However, further oxidation will lead to the formation of heavier acids and sludge. Oxidation-related sludge is not very soluble in heat-transfer fluids, so it tends to ad-here to metallic surfaces or settle in areas of low flow and low turbulence.
Such sludge also tends to settle at the bottom and the sides of the ex-pansion tank, and can also circulate throughout the system and make its way into control valves.
Fluids for a specific project are gen-erally chosen based on their proper-ties in a fresh state. Any alteration of the fluid physical properties (resulting from degradation or contamination) could negatively impact the heat ab-sorption and dissipation capabilities of the heat-transfer media.
Table 2 provides oil-analysis data for an uninhibited, chemical aromatic (synthetic), heat-transfer fluid that ex-perienced oxidation in a large 27,000-L (7,132-gal) system in Europe. (In this
context, the term “uninhibited” refers to the fact that the fluid does not con-tain additives such as anti-oxidants and rust-corrosion inhibitors to pre-vent degradation.) The acid number (AN) — as determined by ASTM D664 Method and used to quantify the level of acids in an oil sample — was in-creasing over time.
The distillation of the fluid, repre-sented by the GCD 10% boiling point, shows the initial boiling is at the same temperature as fresh oil, so thermal degradation does not seem to be an issue in this example. We notice the viscosity has risen by 30% over time and the end of the distillation curve (GCD 90%) is shifting toward higher temperatures, indicating the increas-ing presence of heavy compounds not found in the fresh oil.
An increasing amount of insoluble particles are forming, and the AN values are rising. By connecting the dots, we conclude that oil oxidation is causing an increased formation of heavy acidic polymers that will foul the low-flow areas of the system. This degraded oil, with its higher viscosity, cannot deliver the same performance capabilities as fresh oil, and in today’s context of high energy costs, any loss of efficiency is costly.
In the example discussed above, the company could not afford a shutdown to clean its system this year. Instead, operators opted for a partial fluid re-placement of 50% of the entire charge this year (incurring an expenditure of roughly $175,000, excluding waste oil disposal and labor) and are plan-ning a full drain, clean, flush and refill next year. In general, fluid oxidation imposes great cost penalties on any system; the selection of a fluid with better oxidation stability could have avoided this massive spending and of-fered many more years of useful life.
Minimization strategiesDiscussed below are several options that are available to avoid or minimize potential oxidative degradation.Inert gas blanketing. In closed sys-tems, the most effective way to elimi-nate the potential for oxidation is to install an inert gas blanket in the ex-pansion tank headspace. Hudson [29] provides details and recommenda-
tions on how to install such systems. The basic principle relies on substitut-ing air (which contains oxygen) with an inert gas (most often nitrogen, al-though carbon dioxide and argon may also be considered) in the only location where warm oil can come into contact with oxygen from air — the expansion tank headspace. Displacing oxygen that might react with the fluids virtu-ally eliminates oxidation.
The pressure of the inert gas is maintained slightly above atmospheric pressure. Gas-blanketing systems, in-cluding the safety-relief valve, require ongoing inspection and maintenance to prevent inert gas leaks and limit unnecessary, costly gas consumption.Choose a fluid formulated for the job. Oxidation-inhibitor additives are also available to enhance the perfor-mance of heat-transfer fluids. Most chemical aromatics sold today contain one or a few varieties of molecules and do not contain any performance enhancing additives such as antioxi-dants or rust and corrosion inhibitors.
The additives that are used in heat-transfer fluids are different from the ones found in other industrial lubri-cants that are not subjected to such elevated temperatures. Specifically, in the case of antioxidants, some tech-nologies combat oxidation by reacting with free radicals before they can lead to acid formation, while others attack intermediate peroxides [25].
Fluid selection is complicated by the fact that it is extremely difficult to determine the oxidation stability of a heat-transfer fluid by its techni-cal data sheet. Even though many of the heat-transfer fluids on the market today are unadditized, their respec-tive marketing materials often praise their fouling resistance and promote their outstanding oxidation stability. Thus, users should assess all product claims with a critical eye.
In general, systems with an enor-mous amount of oil tend to be more forgiving because it takes a longer time to oxidize a larger volume of fluid to a point where it raises concerns in terms of oil analysis results. In these cases, user experience, references, testimonials and competitive bench-marking studies should be evaluated in conjunction with vendor data, to
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ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com DeCember 2009 37
assess the likely longevity of a fluid for the application at hand and avoid costly changeouts in large systems.
Compared to closed or blanketed systems, open systems allow the hot fluid to come in direct contact with air, making oxidative damage a harsh reality rather than a possibility. In these cases, the importance of choos-ing a robust product to maintain high productivity standards becomes even more important.
For example, an electronic company operating an open system at 175°C (350°F) was replacing its heat-trans-fer fluid every six months, after which time the fluid had become viscous and dark with a burnt odor. Switching to a fluid with better resistance to oxida-tion enabled longer service life. In fact, judging by the oil-analysis results, the oil properties still look like new after more than 24 months of service in these harsh conditions. This obviously saves the facility money in terms of time, labor and fluid purchases.
In closed systems with no inert gas blanketing, the key is to maintain the fluid temperature in the expansion tank below 65°C (150°F), if possible. The main reason is because there is a direct relationship between the tem-perature and the rate of oxidation. For instance, the rate of reaction between a petroleum-derived oil with oxygen (doubles for every 10°C (15°F) increase above 80°C (175°F) (with slight varia-tions depending on the author) [28], so the higher the temperature the more severe the degradation. And this does not take into account the fact that the oxidation reaction is exponential and is accelerated by contaminants such as copper or iron particles, water and other catalysts.
Oxidation could occur in systems with a design that allows the oil to circulate through the expansion res-ervoir with full flow, either directly after the heater or on the return from the heat users. Such design exposes the hot fluid directly to oxygen from
air, thereby acceleraing oxidation and greatly reducing fluid life.
Using the oil-analysis results, fluid oxidation can be monitored by paying close attention to acid number (AN) and gas chromatographic distillation (GCD) results.
MiniMizing process contaMinationProcess contamination can be ex-tremely damaging to the heat-transfer fluid and the system components. As is often the case, logic suggests that contamination is unlikely since the pressure is greater on the fluid side, but real life experience has shown on many occasions that process mate-rial can enter the heat-transfer fluid stream. The urgency required to fix a process leak really depends on the se-verity, the type of contaminant (chem-istry), and the heat transfer media it comes in contact with. The case of contamination by water is discussed in the next section, although water is sometimes part of the process.
For example, in the oil-and-gas in-dustry, a natural-gas-extraction fa-cility may experience an unintended leak of the process hydrocarbons into the heat-transfer fluid system. Being hydrocarbon-based, the heated gas-eous molecules will mix very well with heat-transfer fluids of a similar chem-istry, such as petroleum-based fluids, chemical aromatics and PAO Group IV synthetic fluids ([4] provides de-tails on competing fluid types). Within a short time, the viscosity of the entire fluid charge will be greatly reduced and its overall volatility increased.
In a situation such as this one, em-phasis must be put into venting the heat-transfer fluid to release those light hydrocarbons into the proper col-lection device in order to maintain a safe operation, and if at all safely pos-sible, to keep the unit running until the next shutdown opportunity to re-pair the leak.
Another example of process con-
tamination in the petroleum industry occurs frequently at asphalt termi-nals. Similar to the example discussed above, any unintended ingress of as-phalt in the heat-transfer fluid circuit will mix very well with most of the fluids, since the majority are based on long hydrocarbon chains. However, the highly viscous hydrocarbon asphalt will quickly thicken the fluid.
We have seen heat-transfer fluids in-crease to several hundred centistokes or even become too thick to measure at 40°C (104°F), thereby ruining the fluid’s ability to transfer heat effec-tively. The heavy asphalt components will also coat the system internals and plug small lines, meaning a full sys-tem cleaning and flushing will even-tually become necessary to restore the system to efficient operation.
In some cases, the contaminant it-self may be inert to the fluid but it may still react with traces of moisture to form acidic or insoluble compounds. These byproduct contaminants can ac-celerate rust and cause corrosion and fluid degradation.
Depending on the process contami-nants that are inadvertently leaking into the fluid system, it might be pos-sible to detect them (qualitatively) via oil analysis, using the common elemental analysis method like In-ductively Coupled Plasma – Atomic Emission Spectrometry (ICP-AES). Sometimes the contaminant can be detected indirectly after it has reacted with another compound in the fluid. In some cases regular oil analysis will not detect the process contaminant and specialized methodology and in-struments are needed, such as those found in specialized research-and-de-velopment facilities.
A quantitative evaluation to de-termine the type and extent of the contamination generally requires so-phisticated equipment (such as an electronic microscope, or gas chroma-tography coupled with mass spectrom-etry), as well as well-trained analysts
Table 2. OIl-aNalYSIS DaTa DeSCRIbING a FlUID THaT HaS eXPeRIeNCeD OXIDaTION (SOURCe : PeTRO-CaNaDa lUbRICaNTS, a SUNCOR eNeRGY COMPaNY)
Sample date, mm/dd/yy
Flash point (COC), °C
Water content, ppm (Karl Fisher)
Viscosity at 40°C, cSt
acid num-ber (aN*), mg/KOH/g
Solids (insolu-bles), wt.%
GCD
10% boiling, °C
90% boiling, °C
% boiling below 335°C
05/12/04 193 301 30.4 <0.1 0.1 333 423 10.5
04/25/06 179 382 29.6 0.11 0.24 324 426 11.0
04/15/08 201 138 39.4 0.23 0.48 336 431 9.4
*Acid Number (AN) is obtained using ASTM D664 titration method, which is used to quantify the levels of acid in an oil sample.
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38 ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com DeCember 2009
who are knowledgeable about the product being tested and informed on what contaminant types to look for.
Whenever a process leak is sus-pected, it is advisable to reach out to your fluid supplier’s technical contact immediately and explain the situa-tion. A sample of the fluid should be analyzed right away.
OtheR sOuRces OF cOntaminatiOnIn addition to contamination that can arise from process materials (dis-cussed above), heat-tranfer fluids may also become contaminated by the envi-ronment (rain or snow), condensation, foreign liquids (such as the wrong fluid put in the system), or the ingress of air. For systems where the expansion reservoir is outside and vented to the atmosphere, it is critical to have — at a minimum — an enclosed tank with a 180-deg, goose-neck pipe on the top.
This may sound very basic, but we were once called to investigate un-usual noise coming from the hot oil piping at a saw mill. After assessing the noise, we climbed up to the top of the burner building to examine the expansion tank. The 12-by-12-in. steel cover normally bolted to the side of the 250-gal expansion tank was lay-ing on the catwalk, covered by a foot of dirt, wood dust and snow and no one could remember who had been up there last. Rainwater and snow falling directly into the expansion tank from the open hole was responsible for the high water content we later measured in the fluid and the knocking noise in the piping below.
New construction or recently cleaned systems or heat exchangers are not typically flushed before commission-ing. However, in systems where a full or partial cleaning was performed, traces of aggressive cleaning fluids or water-based solutions that are not re-moved could accelerate corrosion, foul-ing or create their own polymerization and insoluble residues [29]. In newly commissioned systems, aside from the typical wood debris, welding rods and rags, residual water from pressure testing is most often the culprit for startup problems. Unlike many indus-trial applications, water in the heat-transfer fluid is more easily detectable
by operators and unforgiving because it is heated above its boiling point dur-ing service in most applications.
Entrained water will affect various fluid chemistries in different ways. In lubricating and circulation fluids based on mineral and synthetic Group IV PAO oils, prolonged exposure to water may cause the following [30]: •Hydrolysis or precipitation of
oil additives (for those oils that have them)
•Accelerated rust and corrosion of system internals
•Acceleratedegradation(oxidation)•Causepumpcavitationandwear•Createagarglingnoiseintheexpan-
sion tank and knocking in the hot oil piping
Based on years of examining real-life oil-analysis results, we can say that in general, water does not appear to pose immediate productivity concerns at concentrations below 500 ppm (0.05 wt.%), although we have encountered certain, more-sensitive systems where lower concentrations did have a notice-able impact. However, residual water at concentrations above 1,000 ppm (0.1 wt.%) becomes alarming and calls for investigation and removal.
In the case of mineral oils, the best practical way to remove the water from a heat-transfer fluid while the system is running involves more of a two-step process. First, vent the fluid, allowing the water vapor to migrate into the expansion tank. Once inside the expansion tank, some of the steam will have sufficient vapor pressure to leave through the vent pipe or safety-relief valve when it opens.
In the case of PAG-based fluids, the numerous oxygen atoms in their structure produces strong hygroscopic behavior that is directly proportional to relative humidity in the environ-ment. Wheeler [15] reports that at 50% relative humidity, pure ethylene gly-col absorbs 20% water at equilibrium. This can cause serious concerns.
Lastly, operators must take steps to guard against potential contamination by airborne vapors or particles that could affect the fluid. Just think of a saw mill example, where entrained cellulose dust from the wood dust may not degrade the fluid itself, but will affect the fluid's ability to flow, which
will reduce the thermal efficiency and accelerate fouling in the system [29]. Such an occurrence is more likely to happen if the expansion tank is lo-cated in a very dusty environment.
Minimization strategiesDiscussed below are a variety of techniques for minimizing con-tamination that can threaten heat- transfer fluids.Investigate and fix. All cases of con-tamination should be investigated and fixed, and such incidents should also be reported to your fluid supplier, for advice on the potential impact on the fluid. As mentioned earlier, sometimes the contaminant can be evacuated, boiled off or it could ruin the fluid and foul the system in a short time.Flush new constructions or re-cently cleaned systems before startup. Operating companies and builders seldom factor in the cost of a system flush, since they often assume the blowing of the water will be done correctly and the contractors will not leave debris in the piping. Unfortu-nately, discovering such contaminants after the system is running can prove to be costly down the road. While no-body needs the extra costs of flushing a new system (especially when the fluid of choice is relatively expensive, like PAGs or silicone-based fluids), it is nonetheless a good practice. With systems filled with mineral oils, cir-culating a virgin base oil of the same viscosity as the heat-transfer fluid of choice is a cost-effective way to remove any potential contaminants. Keep an eye on filters and strain-ers. Solids collection in the oil filters or strainers should be noted in a log book and monitored closely, preferably with photos taken. The size, texture and color of the deposits all tell a story, and such residues can be sent periodi-cally to a laboratory with sophisticated analytical equipment for accurate identification.
Keep in mind that different solids may come from more than one source, and may become discolored, so don’t jump to conclusions.
Similarly solids from the previ-ous fluids may reside in the system for a long time before an event such as pipe work or partial fluid replace-
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ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com DeCember 2009 39
ment creates enough disturbance to loosen them. We see this in cases where a used furnace is bought and commissioned without cleaning and flushing prior to the connection to the main system.
Often solids may have a familiar smell or texture that suggests an origin, but could well be something else. For example, a plant was using a heat-transfer fluid that caused valve malfunction because of deposits accu-mulating inside the valve spools. The black, abrasive deposits looked and felt like carbon particles (abrasive, gritty between the fingers). However, lab analysis identified the material as copper sulfide, formed by the localized chemical attack of sulfur present in the fluid’s base stock onto the copper from the brass valves.
The facility could have spent sev-eral thousands of dollars in parts and labor to upgrade all the valves to more expensive stainless steel. Instead it
switched to a properly formulated fluid based on highly refined API Group II base oils containing only traces of sul-fur. This replacement fluid has proven to be harmless to copper components after years of service, and has had the added benefit of extending oil changes considerably, based on oil-analysis results. ■
Edited by Suzanne Shelley
AuthorGaston Arseneault is a se-nior technical advisor with Petro-Canada Lubricants, a Suncor Energy business (1310 Lakeshore Road West, Missis-sauga, Ontario, Canada L5J 1K2; Phone: 973-673-3164; E-mail: [email protected]), located in the Newark, N.J., area. With the company for more than ten years, Arseneault holds an M.S.
in analytical chemistry from the Université de Montréal in Canada and is a member of Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers, from which he has obtained the Certified Lubrication Specialist (CLS) and Oil Monitoring Analyst (OMA I) certifications. He also holds the Ma-chinery Lubrication Technician I certification from the International Council for Machinery Lubrication.
Circle 20 on p. 62 or go to adlinks.che.com/23021-20
References 1. Guffey II, G.E., Sizing up heat transfer flu-
ids and heaters”, Chem. Eng., Oct. 1997, pp. 126–131.
2. Shanley, A., and Kamiya, T., Heat transfer fluids: A buyers’ market, Chem. Eng., Sept. 1998, pp. 63–66.
3. Arseneault, G., Seven criteria for selecting heat transfer fluid, Process Heating, January 2008, pp. 2–3.
4. Arseneault, G., Safe handling of heat trans-fer fluids, Chem. Eng. Prog., April 2008, pp. 42–47.
5. Crabb, C., A fluid market for heat transfer, Chem. Eng., April 2001, pp. 73–76.
6. Hudson, J., Choosing the heat transfer fluid, Process Heating, January 2007.
7. Sahasranaman, K., Get the most from high-temperature heat-transfer-fluid systems, Chem. Eng., March 2005, pp. 46–50.
8. Guyer E.C. and Brownell D.L., “Handbook of Applied Thermal Design,” McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0070253536, 1988, pp. 5–46.
9. Singh, J., “Heat Transfer Fluids and Systems for Process and Energy Applications,” CRC, ISBN 0824771915, 1985, p. 214.
10. Petro-Canada, “TechData: Handbook of Pe-troleum Product Terms,” Revised Edition 89.06, 1989.
11. Kay, J.M., and Nederman, R.M., “Fluid Me-chanics and Transfer Processes”, ISBN 0521303036, 1985, p. 18.
12. Peters, M.S., “Elementary Chemical Engi-neering,” McGraw-Hill, 1984, p. 85.
13. Petro-Canada, “TechBulletin: The Truth About Soot,” Edition 89.06, 1989.
14. Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engi-neers (STLE), “Basic Handbook of Lubrica-tion,” 2nd ed., 2003, Section 3, p. 8.
15. Wheeler, K., Technical Insights into Uni-hibited Ethylene Glycol, Process Cooling & Equipment, July/August 2002.
16. Guyer, E.C., and Brownell, D.L., “Handbook
of Applied Thermal Design,” McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0070253536, 1988, pp. 5–47.
17. Ashman, L.A., Troubleshooting problems in heat transfer systems, Process Heating, Octo-ber 1988, www.process-heating.com.
18. Stone, C.D., “Eight tips to extend your ther-mal fluid system’s service life,” Process Heat-ing, April 2003.
19. BP (British Petroleum), “Transcal Heat Transfer Fluids”, BP Printing, England, Doc-ument # MP59, 1979.
20. Arseneault, G., Preventative maintenance for heat transfer systems, World Pumps, April 2008, pp. 40–43.
21. Vinagayam, K., Minimizing flame impinge-ment in fired heaters, Chem. Eng., pp. May 2007, pp. 70–73.
22. Klein, R., Immersion heaters: Selection and implementation, Chem. Eng., January 2006, pp. 44–50.
23. Arseneault, G., Preventive maintenance for heat transfer systems using electrical im-mersion heaters, Process Heating, November 2006, p. 12.
24. ASTM International, ASTM D5372-04: Stan-dard Guide for Evaluation of Hydrocarbon Heat Transfer Fluid, 2004, p. 3.
25. The Lubrizol Corporation, “Ready Reference for Grease,” The Lubrizol Corp., Wickliffe, Ohio, Version 2.00, May 2007, pp. 36–37.
26. Singh, J., “Heat Transfer Fluids and Systems for Process and Energy Applications”, CRC, ISBN 0824771915, 1986, p. 179.
27. Hudson, J., The Expansion Tank, Process Heating, September 2007, accessed online at www.process-heating.com.
28. Society of Tribologists and Lubrication En-gineers, Alberta Section, “Basic Handbook of Lubrication,” 2nd ed., Section 26, 2003, p. 8.
29. Guyer, E.C., and Brownell, D.L., “Handbook of Applied Thermal Design,” McGraw-Hill, New York, 1988, pp. 5–50.
30. Bloch, H.P., “Practical Lubrication for Indus-trial Facilities,” The Fairmount Press, 2000, pp. 464–465.
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Most chemical engineers in-volved with operating large chemical process facilities have encountered the fol-
lowing challenge: Several large engi-neering contractors built the facility in multiple phases, using different computer-software models. Retriev-ing drawings or data in both digital and non-digital form in such a situ-ation only adds complexity to opera-tions, maintenance and revamp activ-ities and often introduces yet another problem to solve in each instance. Obviously, these plants would be bet-ter off with one complete computer model of the entire operating facility. And with the recent shift by software vendors to support interoperability, a single model can be achieved without having to reenact the design of the entire plant.
Interoperability is a term used in-creasingly in engineering circles to refer to the sharing and exchange of digital information. In principle, it’s
as if all members of a networked engi-neering team can exchange data freely across different software products and sources of engineering content. How-ever, integration is not achieved with the simple click of a mouse. Informa-tion is often locked away in “silos”, so creating a complete knowledge base from disparate engineering infor-mation can seem like knitting with spaghetti. Such spaghetti conspires against plant information integrity.
The role of engineering portalsAt the individual interaction level, the operations engineer would be much more effective with common, transpar-
ent access to all engineering content via one engineering portal that sup-ports integrated operations. An engi-neering portal is primarily read-only. The purpose is to give the (operations) engineer the widest access to all plant information from his or her screen, which helps in planning and decision making. The purpose of the portal is not to carry out changes in engineer-ing design (greenfield or brownfield). Changes should still be carried out in the “integrated engineering and design” software applications where the engineering design changes are mastered. Typically changes are car-ried out in two-dimensional (2D) and
Feature Report
40 ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com DeCember 2009
Feature Report
Neil McPhaterAveva Group plc
Smooth Your Retrieval of Plant-Design Data
AreAs ripe for integrAtion
•Integratingsimilarmodeltypes (such as 3Dmod-els) from different soft-warevendors
•Integratingdatabetweendifferenttypesofmodels(suchas3DmodelswithP&IDs)
•Integratingsimilarmodeltypesbutdifferent typesofdata(suchas3Dme-chanicaland3Dprocessdesigndata)
Even after construction and startup, plant design data are needed for operations,
maintenance and revamps. But working with a plethora of formats and platforms introduces
its own set of challenges
15_CHE_120109_RM.indd 40 11/19/09 3:14:23 PM
three-dimensional (3D) design appli-cations. Once the design or changes to it have been completed according to the engineering approval process (ap-proved for construction, approved for fabrication and so on) the correspond-ing data — appropriately version con-trolled — might be downloaded to the engineering portal to help manage construction planning, for example.
Such portals require, in particular, structure to navigate throughout the portal to make engineering “sense” of the diverse content. This is where structured and intelligent 2D and 3D models originating from plant design can add substantial value to
the portal by making navigation user friendly for the engineers who are using it.
Long after project design and con-struction is complete, plant owners and operators can reap rewards from such systems by organizing ongoing operations around it. A major oil and gas producer, for example, uses intel-ligent, 2D inspection-piping isometrics as its “engineering bible” for both on-shore and offshore plant maintenance.
Meanwhile, legacy 3D data for the same plant from other plant design systems can be transferred to the portal, so that all maintenance and engineering upgrades can be man-
aged together on a single system. Such data structure and information integration are made possible by con-temporary data standards such as the International Organization for Standardization’s (ISO) 15926 stan-dard, which has advanced so it can bridge the 3D gap between legacy and incumbent plant data with no loss of engineering intelligence, for example, in piping or steelwork.
This article helps bring home the benefits of interoperability and the costs that result from its absence.
Costs of doing nothing The lack of a single computer model and structure for an entire operating facility can be found everywhere and represents a serious obstacle to the engineering industry. Indeed, a report from the National Institute of Stan-dards and Technology (NIST; Gaith-ersburg, Md.; www.nist.gov) estimates that inadequate software interoper-ability may cost the U.S. capital facili-ties industry $15.8 billion annually — nearly 2% of the industry’s revenues. Some other reports and industry au-thorities set the cost at twice the NIST estimate. These reports suggest that the chemical process industries (CPI) and the architecture engineering and construction industries experience the greatest pain.
The reality is that information tech-nology often is incompatible across software products and, specifically, data models. Paradoxically, while engi-neering data standards were intended to address the issue and enable so-called digital convergence, they have actually been part of the problem. Nevertheless, recent progress in stan-dardization is making inroads in sev-eral key facets of interoperability (see box, left, for more).How does digital convergence bring value to chemical engineers? The catalytic ingredient for value through digital convergence of plant design data is the networked engi-neering team. In this context, interop-erability delivers collaborative advan-tage on three specific dimensions. The first is its total number of users in the collaborative network. An associated sub-dimension is the number of net-worked engineering teams working to-
ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com DeCember 2009 41
standards make interoperability possible
In the mid-to-late 1990s, the Norwegian Posc Caesar Assn. (PCA), assisted by the Dutch SPI-NL consortium established and developed ISO 15926 for the Offshore oil and gas industry that has now become an international data standard. In recent
years, Fiatech has brought fresh U.S. vigor to accelerate the deployment of ISO 15926 and ensure its wider acceptability. This American-European double act is speeding up industry adoption of market-acceptable standards.
As PCA’s efforts over the last decade have shown, the development and successful adoption of such data standards and methodologies as ISO 15926 and BIM (the Build-ing Information Model being adopted in architecture and building design) take time and effort. When handling projects measured in millions of dollars per day — or even per hour — engineers are justifiably cautious about adopting new practices. For in-stance, market adoption of BIM by structural engineers isn’t expected to reach a tipping point until after 2015.
However, the extent of Norway’s ambitions is exemplified by its vision of the offshore future — integrated operations. It strives toward a digital infrastructure and information platform to enable remote operation from an onshore control center of unmanned oil-and-gas production facilities in the North and Barents Seas within the next decade.
What you need to know about standards There are many technical ins and outs to standards that are not important for a chemi-cal engineer. The main thing to keep in mind is to stipulate applicable data standards on commercial contracts. The consequences can be significant when close cooperation between engineering contractors and sub-contractors is necessary during the design and construction contract or during project handover to the owner/operator.
In fact, the handover phase is where a lot of valuable engineering intelligence can be lost if standards are not part of the process. Companies giving out engineering orders, for instance, should dictate in their contract to suppliers where data are part of the deliverable, that the data be provided in a standard format such as ISO 15926. ■
Figure 1. A digital information hub is the ultimate interoperabil-ity solution, providing
a centralized and secure integration
platform for col-laboration between
different types of teams and their needs to either create, change or simply read
plant design data
15_CHE_120109_RM.indd 41 11/20/09 2:06:26 PM
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42 ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com DeCember 2009
gether in that network. In general, the value of a network increases dispro-portionately depending on the greater the number of users. For example, this is true on a much larger scale for tele-phone networks.
The second value dimension reflects the number of sources of engineering content. Another way to describe this is the number of information “silos” connected together. As with network users, the greater the number of in-formation “silos” that can be inte-grated, the greater the potential to deliver value.
Finally, the third dimension of business value from the network represents the number of business boundaries spanned by the networked engineering team. Business boundar-ies include the number of geographi-cal sites spanned, functions crossed, organizations covered and links in the supply chain.
Ripe opportunities in the CPIIntegrating P&IDs and the 3D models that parallel them. Many plant engineers still rely on hard-copy schematic drawings, or P&IDs, many of which have been produced at a number of different stages on differ-ent computer systems. It is much more efficient, however, to have the P&IDs in a consistent digital format. In order to do so, all the P&ID data must be as-sembled together. This will let the en-gineers manage the entire plant in a consistent way that hasn’t previously been possible.
The missing piece for assembling all of this data together is one common language. Fiatech (Austin, Tex.; www.fiatech.org) — an industry consortium that provides global leadership in iden-tifying and accelerating the develop-ment, demonstration and deployment of fully integrated and automated technologies to deliver business value throughout the life cycle of all types of capital projects — like its European counterpart PCA, has determined that ISO 15926 be the common denomina-tor. In theory, the use of standards is very straightforward, but often gets complicated in practice.
The most basic requirement that has been met for solving the interoperabil-ity challenge is that software vendors
are now beginning to deliver the in-teroperability demanded by their cus-tomers by complying with ISO 15926. This enables all P&ID schematics across the entire plant to be consoli-dated and managed consistently. And it gives plant engineers the ability to check consistency between the 2D schematics model and the 3D model of the plant. A second data standard that is going to have increasing importance is Mimosa. This sets out a standard for plant operations and maintenance. Al-though less utilized than ISO 15926, Mimosa is likely to have at least as big a business impact.Integrating 3D mechanical design of equipment. Another challenge for interoperability has been the inte-gration of 3D computer aided design (CAD) systems for mechanical design with those for plant design. Histori-cally, mechanical CAD with its em-phasis on manufacturability has been incompatible with multi-disciplinary 3D plant design. The disconnection of these two systems is a key opportu-nity for efficiency improvements.
Consider, for instance, a plant engi-neer who is faced with an upgrade of a specialized piece of equipment, such as a reaction vessel. But this new item has a different shape from its decom-missioned predecessor and has been designed using 3D mechanical CAD software. Interoperability between these two 3D systems would ensure accurate spatial arrangement and en-gineering tie-in.
How can this new piece of complex
equipment be incorporated into the existing plant without loss of engi-neering integrity? Recent advances allow complex, mechanical equip-ment items to be stored as intrinsic parts of a 3D plant-design database. A data standard called STEP AP 203 can transfer 3D mechanical CAD data. Airbus and Boeing use it to digitally verify that jet-engine designs from any manufacturer can be installed first time on their airframes. Using STEP AP 203, the plant engineer can also integrate the new equipment design into the plant design with no loss of engineering integrity, enabling error-free and timely installation.
Required infrastructureWhat sort of infrastructure is needed to overcome barriers to interoperabil-ity and deliver sustainable value from ever increasing volumes of digital in-formation on operating plant assets? Fundamentally, a centralized and se-cure integration platform, or digital information hub (Figure 1), is required to provide a neutral, collaborative en-vironment that is independent of soft-ware application and data format.
Such a digital information hub needs to address not only longterm information integrity of the opera-tional plant, but also take into ac-count shorter term requirements for greenfield engineering projects, not to mention smooth data handover for op-erational startup.
In this hub, engineering content from disparate data and document
StepS to take toward interoperability
When executed effectively, the ele-ments below will deliver value individually from interoperability.
The more points executed together, the greater the beneficial business impact.
Engineering content•Employdatastandardsinapragmatic
value-driven way now; no need exists to wait for “postponed perfection”
•CompareandintegrateP&IDswith3Dplant design
•Migrate mechanical equipment itemsfrom3DmechanicalCADintothe3Dplant design system without loss of in-telligence
Business directives•Prescribedatadeliverables fromproj-
ects to be contractually binding, prefer-
ably in the form of an accepted indus-trydatastandardlikeISO15926
•Be able to define/redefine businessprocesses in a flexible way to suit value/supplychain
•Beabletoredefinedocumentworkflowin a flexible way
Integration platform•Use proven, quality tools to capture
and validate data from third parties•Takeadvantageofflexibleandgeneric
data associations•Be able to integrate non-engineering
enterprise data with the operational engineering plant model
•Beabletointegraterealtimeengineer-ing operations data with operational engineering plant models ❏
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ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com DeCember 2009 43
sources needs to be harmonized and controlled with appropriate portal ac-cess given to networked engineering teams in plant activities like mainte-nance and revamps. It must support flexible administration of team pro-cesses and related document work-flow. It must also use data standards to accommodate extensive data cap-ture and validation from widely used third-party authoring tools, as well as enterprise-wide systems.
A proven way to harmonize dispa-rate structured and unstructured data in engineering portals is to associate topical data with related data in a ge-neric way. Such generic data modeling also underpins the ISO 15926 data standard. This way, data associations required for operations activities can be easily set up. For example a reac-tion vessel mentioned above may be connected to Pump 123, be contained in P&ID number 456, be part of a maintenance workpack AB12 and be available as a specialist piece of equip-ment P123.
Conclusion Data interoperability is a longterm trend that inexorably changes the business environment. Yet, it’s as much about the journey as the destination. This journey offers chemical and other
engineers the potential to overcome software incompatibility and add value progressively in achievable steps.
Already, substantial value is being gained in the marine- and building-de-sign industries by the pragmatic use of appropriate standards like ISO 15926. The CPI is the next frontier. Wider use of networked engineering teams
and the molding of working practices to take account of digital convergence and thereby enable greater advantage from the collaborative power of com-puter networks. A digital information hub appropriate to your operational needs can deliver value — both now and in the future. ■
Edited by Rebekkah Marshall
AuthorNeil McPhater is product marketing manager — in-teroperability & special proj-ects at Aveva Solutions Ltd. (High Cross, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0HB, U.K.; Phone: +44-1223-556626; Fax: +44-1223-556666; Email: [email protected]; Website: www.aveva.com) an Aveva Group plc company, where he has responsibility
for interoperability strategy and deployment in Aveva products. Originally trained as a mechani-cal engineer in his native Scotland and on ship at sea, McPhater worked in Switzerland, Germany and England before turning his attentions to the application of computers to support engineering. He first joined Aveva at its Cambridge headquar-ters in 1980 involved in a wide variety of software development, marketing and management roles. This included responsibility for delivering inte-gration and translation solutions to the process industries. Over the last 15 years he has been an international champion of business benefit derived from data integration using standards in the process industries in such initiatives as Epis-tle, ISO 10303 (STEP), PISTEP, POSC Caesar Assn. and Fiatech. This experience is academi-cally reinforced by an MBA (IT Hybrid) awarded in the year 2000. McPhater has also served on the Computer Committee of the Institute of Mechani-cal Engineers for a number of years and has been a member of the German Verein Deutscher Ing-enieure (VDI) for the last three decades.
Gorman-Rupp has been manufacturing pumps for chemical applications since the 1930’s. They can be found in chemical and petrochemical plants, canneries, commercial laundries, pharmaceutical and automotive plants. Whether your application requires standard centrifugal, self-priming centrifugal, submersible or positive displacement pumps, you’ll find the right Gorman-Rupp pump for the job.
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The desire to move from batch to continuous processes for the production of high-value organic molecules has become more widespread in recent years as evidenced by the increasing number of related studies published
in the literature. The benefits of continuous flow include increased product yield, increased utility and energy uti-lization, improved safety and greater automation. A quest to improve the overall production economics for smaller or-ganic molecules and many inorganic chemicals forced this change on the bulk chemicals industry many decades ago. But strong interest has not yet translated into the wide-spread use of continuous processes for specialty chemi-cals, fine chemicals and pharmaceutical manufacturing. This article proposes that the use of small-scale reactions can provide the missing link that brings continuous opera-tion within practical reach.
Consider, first, that the great number of publications that describe laboratory experiments involving dozens of differ-ent chemistries (for instance, experiments that are seeking yield improvements or hazard reductions, or simply dem-onstrating the translation of a batch process to continu-ous mode), often champion the use of microreactors. These ultra-small-scale devices work on the principle of creating short characteristic transport lengths (on the order of tens or hundreds of micrometers) with their very small, internal physical structures, and this helps to improve mixing and heat transfer rates.
However, pilot and production plant managers are often resistant to adopting microdevices, wary of blockage or damage, and uncertain in the face of a general absence of demonstrated high-capacity units. This article explores the following questions: Is it necessary for fine chemicals and
pharmaceutical chemical manufacturers to move all the way from stirred-tank reactors (STRs), with volumes on the order of hundreds or thousands of liters, down to mi-crodevices, whose channels have dimensions on the order of hundreds of micrometers, in order to realize improvements in heat and mass transfer? Or might there be some use-ful intermediate size of equipment that would enable con-tinuous production and provide the desired performance advantages?
This article presents the case for that middle ground, dis-cussing reactors whose critical dimension are of the order of millimeters (so-called milliscale or millichannel reac-tors) and explores relevant information and approaches for using such milliscale reactors to carry out small-scale, continuous reactions. Relevant questions that users should answer when considering what equipment to utilize are also addressed.
Scales of reactorIn any reactor, continuous or batch, the main performance characteristics are how well mixing, mass transfer and heat transfer can be carried out. One of the main purposes for using continuous-flow reactors is to gain increased control and improve the homogeneity of the reaction mass. This is based on the expectation that continuous operation yields more-consistent and predictable mixing and heat transfer capacity, and allows for the precise setting of operating pa-rameters, all of which lead to improved product quality.
The microdevices used in the laboratory today are, be-cause of their dimensions, good tools for demonstrating “fast chemistry” — that is, rapid reactions that are nor-mally finished within a few seconds. The question we are
Feature Report
44 ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com DeCember 2009
Engineering Practice
Martin Jönsson and Barry JohnsonAlfa Laval
Millichannel Reactors: A Practical Middle Ground for Production
Diameter volume
Stirredtank reactor
Pipe Millichannel Micro-channel
Flow regime
Turbulent Intermediate Laminar
Figure 1. As shown (left to right), the progressive downsiz-ing of reactor devices brings with it corresponding changes in the dominant flow regime
Reactors with millimeter-scale dimensions provide mixing,
heat transfer and other advantages over devices with larger dimensions, and increased robustness compared
to microdevices. Here are tips to consider for using them
16_CHE_120109_EP_SAS.indd 44 11/19/09 3:48:27 PM
considering here is: Can milliscale devices give sufficient performance benefits, in terms of mixing and heat transfer, while giving producers an option for robust production in an industrial environment?
As shown in Figure 1, as the characteristic dimensions of competing devices get smaller, there are competing changes from a reaction engineering viewpoint (for instance, the movement in and of the liquid decreases as the flow be-comes laminar, so there is less help from the fluid in gener-ating mixing and heat transfer; thus the dominant mixing mechanism becomes diffusion). During progressive down-sizing, the surface-area-per-unit-volume increases, thereby aiding thermal control. Another way of thinking about the fluid dynamics is that in large vessels we must consider, macro-, meso- and microscale mixing phenonenon, in the middle domain meso and macro scale mixing takes place, while in microdevices, only micromixing takes place.
Mixing in the milliscale device will generally be much more uniform than in a stirred tank of similar capacity, thereby providing a less-varied processing history for all molecules and yielding a more uniform product.
The actual geometry of the flow path in a milliscale pipe or channel can also be designed (although with potential tradeoffs in terms of pressure drop) to increase the mix-ing and heat-transfer performance of the device, bringing it closer to what might be achieved using microchannel de-vices. Inserts in a pipe (called static mixers) or channels with varying diameters or added twists and turns along their length are additional options to increase the fluid dy-namics inside the reactor. Such structures help to break up larger fluid structures and reduce transport distances. Several milliscale devices bring greatly improved mixing, retention time and plug-flow characteristics to low Reyn-olds number (laminar) flows through enhanced flow in their radial direction caused by Dean vortices.
When investigating inter-phase mass transfer using such milliscale devices (for instance, for immiscible liquid-liquid systems), the speed at which individual molecules cross the phase boundary cannot be greatly affected. But the rate of generation of surface area and the total amount of surface area available for mass transfer can both be in-creased, thereby increasing the overall mass-transfer rate. In addition, more-advantageous modes or flow regimes, such as plug flow or engulfment flow, can be established in continuous devices with smaller channels.
In addition to the performance characteristics mentioned above, the degree of plug flow also needs to be considered when evaluating continuous reactor options. In general, the degree of plug flow is determined from the residence-time distribution of the reactor, and indicates the uniformity of processing history that each molecule or fluid element ex-periences. A typical target requirement for plug flow in a reactor is a Bodenstein number of 100 or greater. This can-not be achieved in a straight milliscale pipe (Figure 2).
The process requirements and capabilities of any contin-uous reactor must also be matched to the practical capabil-ities of the feed pumps that are coupled to them. “Perfect” plug flow calls for “perfect” pumps — if the required feed ratios are not achieved at all times in a perfect plug-flow reactor then there will be unreacted material remaining at the outlet. Thankfully for pump manufacturers and process developers, all reactors do have some extent of axial disper-sion that can act to “correct” initial stoichiometry devia-tions created by fluctuation in the flows from real pumps.
ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com DeCember 2009 45
Table 1. AverAge properties relevAnt to temperAture control for the devices shown in figure 1reactor device stirred-tank reactor pipe
(static mixer in shell-and-tube configuration)
millichannel reactor
(plate reactor)
microchannel reactor
(glass “chip”)
Device dimension 1 m 12.5 mm 2 mm 100 micrometers
Surface area, m2/m3 4 300 1,500 40,000
Overall heat transfer coeffi-cient (HTC), Uav (W/m2K)
400 1,000 3,000 10,000
Volumetric heat transfer coefficient,* MW/m3K
0.002 0.3 4.5 400
Note: Volumetric heat transfer coefficient = HTC x surface area per unit volume. The volumetric heat transfer coefficient can be combined with a low estimate for the temperature difference between the utility and process temperatures (1 to 10 K) and used to screen which reactors would be capable of controlling the heat output from a particular exothermic reaction.
0.20
0.10
0.00
Time (s)0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
0.30
0.40
Inlet probe
Outlet probe
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
Pro
be
volt
age
(V)
FIGURe 2. Shown here is a residence-time distribution from a milliscale device corresponding to a Bodenstein number of roughly 150. Key features to note are the fact that the shape of the peak changes little on passage through the device, and there is no long “tail” on the outlet peak, which would indicate retention of material in the device
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Engineering Practice
46 ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com DeCember 2009
Table 1 shows some of the average properties that are relevant to temperature control for the devices shown in Figure 1.
To illustrate the suitability of the different scales of flow devices shown in Table 1 for re-moving the heat generated in a reaction, we consider a simple neutralization reaction where all of both reactants are added together very quickly. This would be considered a very fast process and therefore difficult to control in the case of a batch reactor. (The solution in a batch reactor would be to slowly add parts of one re-agent to all of the second reactant.)
Neutralization of 1 m3 of a one molar acid so-lution in a reactor (independent of type), with a residence time of 60 seconds, would release 60,000 kJ of energy in 60 s, creating heat output of 1 MW. This heat will be removed by the mil-liscale and microscale reactors discussed above, and it might be made to fit in the larger shell-and-tube reactor by spreading out the process along the reactor length by using multiple reac-tant feed points.
However the calculation does not account for variations in the reaction rate as it proceeds. More realistically for a second-order kinetic pro-cess, 75% of this heat might be released in the first 10 s of reaction, giving an initial heat-release rate of 4.5 MW that would need to be accommodated by the reactor. This fur-ther reduces the options to milliscale and microscale chan-nels. It does not, of course, mean the reactor will provide isothermal operation along its entire length, but the extent and timescale of the temperature rise does limit the occur-rence of side or degradation reactions.
Converting batch to continuousTypically for an exothermic reaction, either the feedrate to a batch reactor will be designed or controlled such that the temperature in the vessel does not rise significantly (isothermal operation), or the operating temperature will (also) be decreased to reduce reaction and heat release rates (although this is a more costly option). These modi-fications to a true batch operation are important not only from a safety perspective, but also from a product-quality perspective.
For instance, with longer operating times (on the order of hours) associated with many batch processes, it is impor-tant to design a system that avoids or minimizes potential thermal degradation. Further complicating the issue, the temperature inside a tank reactor can vary significantly throughout the vessel, but point or averaging measure-ments often do not record such variation.
When we consider a continuous reactor, the simplest op-eration mode is to add all the reactants together at once. This approach leads to high initial reaction rates and therefore high rates of heat evolution. In a reactor with relatively large dimensions (that is, not on the milliscale or microscale), this would cause the temperature of the reac-tion medium to rise. It is the magnitude of this rise — and
the time that the molecules are exposed to higher tempera-tures — that influence the degradation of product quality. To combat this phenomenon, continuous reactor devices with higher heat-transfer rates are necessary and the type of reactor must be determined by the amount of energy re-leased, the heat transfer timescale, and the kinetics of the degradation processes. Because many of the smaller-scale reactor technologies are relatively new, it is important to discuss requirements with the reactor supplier.
The high thermal capacities of milliscale and mi-croscale devices (Table 1) can help to limit and control the temperature rise — to a much greater extent than with a stirred-tank reactor — that accompanies so many organic chemical reactions. So the question for the process devel-oper becomes: Can I withstand a small, non-isothermal temperature profile along the reactor? In other words, will a temporary excursion — even one that lasts just a few seconds — cause significant product degradation? Even if significant deviation from isothermal operation is not an option, there is the added possibility of using multiple feed points along the reactor, in essence to help “spread out” the exotherm, although this might complicate the en-gineering.
Moving to industrial scaleContinuous reactors for replacing current small-scale, batch-production equipment (for instance, for use by fine chemicals and pharmaceutical manufacturers) must be capable of providing residence and reaction times rang-ing from a few seconds to many minutes, and yet still be capable of throughput rates on the order of one or more metric tons per year (m.t./yr). These simple criteria call for a reactor volume on the order of 0.1–1 L. Such a unit has
FIGURE 3. In this small-scale, continuous reactor installation, the utility and reactant supply are shown on the left and the reactor is on the right. The reaction channel dimensions are 2 mm. Although the reactor footprint is very small, this apparatus could perform many campaigns in a year, making tens of kilograms of pharmaceutical candidates. Or, if fitted into an existing, multipurpose batch plant (using existing reactors as feed and collection vessels), such a setup could produce 10 m.t./yr of a single product
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ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com DeCember 2009 47
a relatively small footprint and could be accommodated in most standard fume hoods — thereby opening the way to industrial-scale production, for at least clinical phases, in-side the laboratory setting (Figure 3).
To reach even greater production levels — for instance, to produce a 1,000 m.t./yr or more — larger reactor volumes (to 20 L) are required. This scaleup of production capacity also means the reactor would have to move out from the fume cabinet to a larger-scale production plant.
When it comes to scaling up promising lab-based reac-tions, the following options should be considered:Traditional scaleup — move from a smaller-diameter flow path to a larger-diameter flow path. This ap-proach can be applied to pipes and milliscale channels. An increase in channel diameter from 2 mm to 10 mm provides a 25-fold increase in area, and correspondingly, potential throughput rate. However, the user, or supplier, must be sure that the required performance is maintained, particu-larly for flows with low Reynolds number (laminar). For ex-ample, the plug flow characteristics of a simple pipe would degrade significantly. This degree of increase of the chan-nel dimensions is significantly less than for stirred tanks, so using traditional chemical engineering principles can provide a faster and more robust procedure, thereby reduc-ing development time.
However, the main limitation of the traditional scaleup approach is the decrease in surface area per unit volume of reactor — which affects the heat removal. But this is significant only in the very fast reactions. Numbering up — use a greater number of the same reactor device that was used in the laboratory. This approach has been considered for many years as the route to achieve greater throughtput using microreactor devices, and as a concept, this approach is very attractive. The claim is that because the fluid dynamics and heat transfer will remain the same in each of the many repeating channels or devices, such a larger-scale setup will produce the same quality of product as that of the laboratory setup.
However, the ability to achieve large-scale production may require hundreds or thousands of microchannel de-vices, which will engender considerable engineering re-
quirements for distribution, manifolding, measurement and control of divided flows.
A combination of scaleup and numbering up can also be applied with milliscale reactors so that the number of ac-tual units required can be reduced, while still achieving considerable scaleup. Recently DSM Pharma Chemicals re-ported a small-scale, continuous nitration process produc-ing 25 m.t. of product over a four-week campaign. This pro-cess used several parallel lines of devices with individual channel cross-sections on the order of 1–2 mm2 and dem-onstrated that it is practical to combine limited numbering up with limited scaleup.
Important performance criteriaWhat is often overlooked is that in addition to mixing and cooling capabilities, competing reactor options for indus-trial-scale production should also be assessed for their per-formance capabilities in the following areas:•Solids. Resistance to blockage or availability of strategies
to remove any buildup inside the reactor before fouling becomes an issue
•Physical robustness. This refers to the ability of the reac-tor to remain unaffected by small changes in shape or finish
•Cleanabilty and inspectability. This is especially impor-tant in fine chemical and pharmaceutical applications
•Flexibility. Modern plants have to enable multipurpose operation
•Mechanical design. The design must be considered with regard to its ability to meet industry and regulatory standards
Solids handling. The specter of entrained solids hangs ominously over the application of any small-scale, continu-ous reactor device. Most chemical processes run the risk of involving solids, whether intended (reactants or products) or unintended (byproducts, fouling, debris or as a result of loss of process or equipment control). The risk of solids-related problems very often precludes consideration of mi-crodevices for use in applications that require reliable and uninterrupted production runs.
There are two primary options for addressing the problem
Table 2. Comparison of Capabilities for Different reaCtor typesreactor device pipe
(static mixer in shell-and-tube configuration)
milliscale channel
(plate reactor)
microscale channel
(Glass “chip”)
Device dimension 12.5 mm 2–8 mm 100 micrometers
Surface area (relative) 100 1,000 10,000
Mixing time (relative) Medium Medium-fast Fast
Solids handling Possible Possible Limited
Flexibility Limited Good Limited
Scaleup Limited work on chemistry Limited work on chemistry Numbering up represents a big engineering challenge
Production equipment
Industry standard Industry standard Limited due to potential safety issues
Cleaning options CIP and manual CIP and manual CIP only
16_CHE_120109_EP_SAS.indd 47 11/19/09 3:54:37 PM
Engineering Practice
of solids-related damage: 1) Transform the process in some way to remove the solids involved (that is, by going back to the chemists); or 2) Select equipment whose dimensions are large enough to manage any potential entrained solids without detrimental effect (an engineering approach).
Reactor devices with milliscale channels will handle some solids entrained in liquid flows, but currently there is very little information available to the end user, and the knowledge base is further restricted by a lack of extensive literature on scales less than one inch, and of systems for pumping slurries. Because particles with a diameter of 100 micrometers or less can often be assumed to remain suspended in flow, the ability to keep velocities as high as possible for particles larger than this is an important con-sideration during reactor selection.Physical robustness. The robustness of the process (that is, its ability to keep producing products that meet speci-fications) is a reflection of both the chemistry’s ability to withstand small deviations in operating conditions and in the performance of the reactor itself. Hence, the resistance of the reactor to being changed by the process is important. The ultra-small structures of micro devices are susceptible to damage and erosion by particles over the operating life-time. Similarly, any solids deposition could quickly affect the heat transfer and alter the flow patterns significantly.
Cleanabilty and inspectability. The user’s ability to clean and inspect any reactor is of enormous importance, and unfortunately, this aspect of reactor selection often re-ceives too little attention. Today a number of sealed reac-tor-plate units (made from glass, plastic or metal) are on the market. In a number of examples, such reactors have been shown in a laboratory setting to perform the target chemical reactions successfully (Figure 4).
However, when scaling up the process to commercial
FIGURE 4. Some milliscale reactors can be fully dis-mantled for clean-ing and inspection. Up to 25 plates can be stacked in the unit shown, each with a potential throughput of sev-eral hundred liters per hour, and they can be connected either in series or in parallel
48 ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com DeCember 2009
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ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com DeCember 2009 49
production, it is less clear if and how those responsible for quality in production and cleaning will adopt these sealed units. Will there be a demand to visually inspect a produc-tion reactor or will cleaning in place (CIP) be acceptable to regulators? From an efficiency standpoint, CIP is the fast-est way, but the ability to open a unit and inspect it might still be necessary to validate the CIP method.
Meanwhile, in reactor devices where plates, channels or pipes can be opened, other issues arise. For instance:•Microscaleandothersmallchannelsareverydifficultto
inspect visually•Ifanumbering-upapproachisusedtoincreasethrough-
put volume, then the number of channels or plates to be inspected may become large. If, as some claim, these ul-tra-small-scale reactors themselves become inexpensive enough to become disposable, there would still be a work-load associated with acceptance, validation and commis-sioning steps that must be repeated with each new set of disposable reactors
In general, more-uniform reaction mixtures and increased fluid motion might limit the deposition of solids. Modu-lar continuous units, which can be disassembled and in-spected in an hour or two, are available to ease inspection and cleaning.
New strategies for continuous-flow reactors, such as the
use of short, periodic flushing cycles to reduce deposits mid-campaign (steps that resemble CIP practices), may also be considered, since associated startup and shutdown times are short. However, what still needs to be developed are consistent, industry-wide operating and quality-assurance and quality-control (QA/QC) protocols to govern their use.Flexibility. Flexibility is the hallmark of the traditional STR, which can be utilized for heating, cooling, mixing, re-action and separation. However, the STR flexibility brings its own associated costs. For instance, lower performance leads to deoptimization of the process to reduce the duty, and greater safety concerns when operating with large volumes of hazardous processes or harmful reagents. Any continuous reactor technology must offer the user some flexibility to be able to perform all of these different pro-cess operations with different performance requirements, and unlike the STR, be able to have different throughputs (in terms of turn up and turndown, which requires spare capacity in the pumping and utility systems).
When it comes to millichannel reactors, flexibility can be achieved by using reactor systems that offer modular con-struction, whereby channels or pipes of differing size can be configured in a common frame or shell. The alternative to this would be a multi-reactor plant where a number of different reactors are permanently installed in a way that
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Engineering Practice
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they can be plumbed together, as needed, to configure a composite reactor that meets the needs of the application.Mechanical design considerations. Chemical reactors that are operated as pressure vessels must comply with various local and international codes for pressure vessels, for instance, from the American Society of Mechanical En-gineers (ASME) in the U.S., and from the European Pres-sure Vessel Directive (PED) in Europe.
It is possible to gain the confidence and experience of operating a reaction continuously in a “homemade” equip-ment configuration (using, for instance, capillary tubing), and to gather proof-of-concept and reaction kinetics infor-mation for future scaleup in a milliscale reactor or static-mixer-based unit. Due to the general absence of produc-tion-scale reactors that are able to fulfill the mechanical requirements of plant production, many continuous-flow technology transfer investigations have stalled, resulting in missed opportunities to reduce production costs.
Closing thoughtsTable 2 provides a comparison of the general characteris-tics and capabilities of the various types of reactors dis-cussed here. In general, milliscale channel reactors have mixing and heat transfer advantages over STRs. It is ques-tionable how often the additional heat transfer and mixing capabilities of a microscale reactor over a milliscale reac-tor is essential to performing a continuous reaction process successfully.
Milliscale reactors also provide sufficient performance and offer a good compromise between performance and industrial robustness, which can help to meet the varied needs of the chemistry, the operator and the production plant. This should not be a surprising conclusion, after all, compact plate heat exchangers are becoming increasingly widespread in the process industries and they operate very robustly with channel dimensions that are on the order of just a few millimeters. Similarly, a number of the claimed microreactor successes have actually been performed in millimeter-scaled channels. ■
Edited by Suzanne Shelley
AuthorsBarry Johnson is product & process development manager for the Alfa Laval Reactor Technology divi-sion, at the company’s site in Tumba, Sweden (Phone: +44 7710 194365; Email: [email protected]). With the company since 2002, Johnson works with the commercial investigation and development of various technologies and products for process intensification. In his current role, he is engaged in the worldwide launch and early implementation phases of the company’s Plate Reactor technology. Prior to joining Alfa Laval, Johnson was with a chemical engineering consulting firm in the U.K., where, among other things, he managed mixing re-
search consortia. Johnson holds a B.S. in chemistry, and a Ph.D. in physical chemistry from the University of Leeds (England). He has also completed post-doctorate studies in analytical science and chemical chaos.
Martin Jönsson has been working as a chemical engi-neer for the last 12 years. He holds an M.S.Ch.E. from Lund University (Sweden), he started as a commis-sioning and design engineer (and eventually served as project manager) for formaldehyde and resins plants. He joined Alfa Laval in 2001 as an application engineer, with responsibilities for the design of heat exchangers for the fine and specialty chemical industries. He also worked as a market development manager for conden-sation and evaporation duties before taking the respon-sibility for the launch of Alfa Laval reactor products.
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16_CHE_120109_EP_SAS.indd 50 11/20/09 7:33:11 AM
Accurate level measurement in steam applications Dynamic Vapor Compensation (DVC) is a new option available for the Rose-mount 5300 Series of High Perfor-mance Guided Wave Radar (GWR) level transmitters (photo). DVC elimi-nates accuracy errors associated with varying pressure and temperature that occur in vessels where steam vapor is present, such as in boilers, boiler feedwater heaters and steam drums. Unlike traditional technolo-gies, such as displacer and mechani-cal gages, the DVC option, which com-prises of a probe with built-in reflector and software, is corrosion-resistant, offers improved safety with a gastight dual seal, has no moving parts and is maintenance-free. Designed for chal-lenging level and interface measure-ments on liquids, slurries and solids, the 5300 series GWR transmitters have minimal installation require-ments. The DVC uses a reference re-flector at a fixed distance on a rigid, single probe to measure the vapor dielectric. This measurement is then used to automatically compensate for vapor dielectric changes resulting in a final accuracy of within 2% (compared with up to 30% specific gravity error in density-based level measurements or up to 20% for GWR if no compen-sation is made). — Emerson Process Management, Austin, Tex.www.emersonprocess.com
This pump protection switch can be used in a variety of situationsThe Gladiator pump protection switch (photo) can be used in applications where pipe or wall mounting with minimal protrusion is required. It can also be used to detect the presence of liquids to ensure the pump will never run dry. The switch has immunity to build-up and monitors materials with a wide range of dielectric con-stants. Designed to operate in tough industrial environments, the switch is simple to set up and calibrate, and is temperature stable. The Gladiator
communicates using Modbus, HART, or Pro-fibus protocols. A re-mote amplifier can be positioned up to 500 m (1,640 ft) away from the unit. Applications include monitoring liq-uids in the petrochemi-cal, food-and-beverage, water and wastewater industries, as well as monitoring levels of dry powdered material for industries including cement, glass, pharma-ceutical, mining and minerals and fertilizers. — Hawk, Melbourne, Australiawww.hawkmeasure.com
An easy way to measure level is introducedThe Level Sensor (photo) for continuous level mea-surement uses the principal of buoy-ancy by weighing an inert plastic chain, secured below the fluid surface, determining the inverse of liquid level and converting it to an analog, digital or wireless electronic signal for indi-cation, alarming or other applications. The products are easy to install, easy to use and easy to maintain. These level instruments install with screw or flange connections; may be repaired in place, by replacing modular com-ponents; interface with most common industrial signals or protocols; meet standards for explosion-proof or in-trinsic safe applications; and use no moving parts to foul, drift or degrade. — Levelese, Inc., Denver, Colo.www.levelese.com
Measure levels in challenging environmentsThe PT4500 and PT4510 submersible pressure transmitters (photo) have been optimized for detecting the level of water or other media with simi-
lar density in challenging industrial environments. To
deliver accurate level detection, a transmitter is placed at the bottom of the tank holding the liquid, and the transmitter then converts the pressure reading to an analog 4–20-mA-output signal. The electrical connection to the transmitter is routed through the top of the tank and contains power and sig-nal wires. It also includes a breathing tube that is used as a reference port to determine the atmospheric pressure outside of the tank. These IP-68 rated, stainless-steel pressure transmitters may be used in industrial applica-tions, as well as hazardous classified areas. — Turck, Plymouth, Minn. www.turck.us
A radar level transmitter that is economicalThe Model R82 radar transmitter (photo) is based on pulse-burst-radar technology, and is an economical so-lution for simple applications. The 26-GHz, loop-powered, non-contact transmitter provides ease of configu-ration with either the menu-driven four-pushbutton, two-line by 16-char-
ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com DeCember 2009 51Note: For more information, circle the 3-digit number on p. 62, or use the website designation.
Focus on
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lar density in challenging industrial environments. To
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17_CHE_120109_CUS.indd 51 11/19/09 4:06:20 PM
Focus
52 ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com DeCember 2009
acter display, HART digital communi-cation or PACTware. This allows com-plete configuration via the local user interface, or remotely with the added capability of capturing echo wave-forms and viewing trend data, diag-nostic conditions and all transmitter configuration parameters. — Magnet-rol, Downers Grove, Ill.www.magnetrol.com
Measure submersed solids under waterThe SmartBob-SS sensor (photo) is de-signed for applications of submersed solids under water, such as measuring the level of settled salt. The Smart-Bob-SS sensor drops a weighted bob through the liquid; when the bob comes into contact with solid settled material at the bottom of the tank, it retracts and sends a measurement to a Smart-Bob control console or a PC loaded with eBob software. The SmartBob-SS sensor comes configured with a 3-in.
standpipe for ease of instal-lation, a stainless-steel cable that stands up to corrosive materials, and a SureDrop cap that prevents the weight from being retracted into the pipe and protects the device from unwanted material entering through the standpipe. — Bin-Master, Lincoln, Nebr. www.binmaster.com
A hand-held device to measure levels in non-metallic containersDesigned for use in a wide variety of applications, the C-Level sensor (photo) is a quick, inexpensive way to detect the level of liquid or solids within non-metallic containers. The C-Level provides a quick assessment of partial containers and offers accurate level identification, accurate to within ¼ in., without opening or weighing drums. The device is powered by a standard 9-V battery and includes a
power-saving automatic shut-off fea-ture. Applications include inventory, plant operations, auditing, quality control and others. — Tecmark Corp., Mentor, Ohiowww.tecmark.com
Detect and control interfaces with this switchThe FlexSwitch FLT93S flow/level/temperature switch provides accu-rate interface detection and control in applications such as the operation of separation tanks and other ves-
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ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com DeCember 2009 53
sels with mixed density media. The FLT93S Switch monitors, controls and alarms flowrates or levels of critical fluids, such as foams, emulsion lay-ers, liquids and slurries. Its rugged industrial design and housing pro-vide reliability and long service life under harsh plant environments. The FLT93S Switch is a dual-function, in-sertion-style instrument that offers ei-ther flow/temperature sensing or level/temperature sensing in a single device. Unlike density displacers, which are often used for level and interface con-trol, the FLT93S Switch relies on the specific heat-transfer properties of the media to identify the interface of dif-ferent products. With its thermal dis-persion sensing capability, the FLT93S monitors the interface of products with similar densities and can identify the interface between various types of media including foam, emulsion lay-ers, liquids and slurries. The FLT93S Switch’s dual-switch-point option al-lows one instrument to control two dif-ferent product interfaces. Two or more switches are used to control product discharge and intake at specified points. — Fluid Components Interna-tional, San Marcos, Calif.www.fluidcomponents.com
Transmit level data with this wireless system The DX80 (photo) provides a low-cost method for transmitting data between process sensors and higher level sys-tems, such as DCS or SCADA sys-tems. The DX80 includes two devices, a node (wireless transmitter) that resides in the field and interfaces to measurement devices, and a gateway (wireless receiver) that resides in the main control panel and interfaces to a PC or PLC. Each node accepts up to two analog and two discrete-switch inputs. Each gateway accepts up to 55
nodes. The DX80 wireless transmit-ter and receiver communicate via a frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) radio system that ensures the message is delivered and is secure. The DX80 is available in two different models: the 900 MHz frequency (U.S., Canada and Australia) or the 2.4 GHz (rest of world) ISM (instrumentation,
scientific and medical) band. The sig-nal range is three miles, line of sight, and especially suited for tank farms; plastic pellet, cement, and aggre-gated storage silos; and hydrocarbon storage tanks. — K-TEK Corp., Prai-rieville, La.www.ktekcorp.com ■ Dorothy Lozowski
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BWB Technologies Model XP Flame PhotometerThe BWB- XP is a high quality, high perfor-mance instrument employing modern technol-ogy to measure alkali and alkaline earth met-als Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), Lithium (Li), Calcium (Ca) and Barium (Ba). Liquid samples, when introduced to a flame fuelled by pro-pane or lpg, will emit light of a specific wavelength, the intensity of which will be proportional to the concentration of the ions present. The principle has been understood for over one hundred years, but the BWB-XP brings 21st century technology to the technique, mak-ing analysis more reliable, accurate and simple than ever before.BWB Technologies www.bwbtech.com/ce
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Design Flow SolutionsDesign Flow Solutions is the most comprehensive, cost ef-fective engineering aid available for complete hydraulic analysis of complex piping systems. This powerful software package provides engineers with complete hydraulic analysis of complex
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Literature Review
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Measure Color for Optimal QualityThe UltraScan VIS spectrophotometer objec-tively quantifies slight lot differences in yel-lowness and color for clear and chromatic chemicals. It measures both reflected and transmitted color, and meets CIE and ASTM guidelines. As recommended by the CIE, spectral data is measured, and tristimulus color calculated, from 360 to 780nm. Its light source is controlled in the ultraviolet region
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56 ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com DeCemBer 2009
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ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com DeCemBer 2009 59
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www.amistco.com 1-800-839-6374Circle 253 on p. 62 or go to adlinks.che.com/23021-253
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Advertisers’ Index
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* A Box 4 U THIRD COVER877-522-6948 adlinks.che.com/23021-02
• ABB Automation Technology Products AB 28I-7
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Alstom Power Inc 301-877-661-5509 adlinks.che.com/23021-19
ARC Advisory Group 53781-471-1175 adlinks.che.com/23021-25
Auma Riester GmbH & Co KG 27 adlinks.che.com/23021-16
Bryan Research & Engineering 191-800-776-5220 adlinks.che.com/23021-13
Check-All Valve Mfg Co 8515-224-2301 adlinks.che.com/23021-09
Chemstations Inc 91-800-243-6223 adlinks.che.com/23021-10
Dechema EV 50 adlinks.che.com/23021-24
* Dipesh Engineering Works 26
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Dow High Temp SECOND 1-800-447-4369 COVER adlinks.che.com/23021-01
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Endress + Hauser FOURTH 1-888-ENDRESS COVER adlinks.che.com/23021-03
Fauske & Assoc 301-877-FAUSKE1 adlinks.che.com/23021-18
FCI 391-800-854-1993 adlinks.che.com/23021-20
Flexicon Corp 11-610-814-2400 adlinks.che.com/23021-04
Franken Filtertenchnik KG 2849 (0) 2233 974 40-0 adlinks.che.com/23021-17
• GEA Niro A/S 28I-545 39 54 54 54 adlinks.che.com/23021-34
Gorman Rupp Co 43419-755-1011 adlinks.che.com/23021-21
Heinkel USA 28D-4856-467-3399 adlinks.che.com/23021-27
Honeywell Process Solutions 131-877-466-3993 adlinks.che.com/23021-11
Hytorc Inc 28D-5201-512-9500 adlinks.che.com/23021-28
Load Controls Inc 28D-81-888-600-3247 adlinks.che.com/23021-32
Microsoft Dynamics 12 adlinks.che.com/23021-15
Petro-Canada Lubricants 7 adlinks.che.com/23021-08
Rembe GmbH Safety + Control 4849 29 61 7405 0 adlinks.che.com/23021-22
Rotex Inc 491-800-453-2321 adlinks.che.com/23021-23
Samson AG 6 adlinks.che.com/23021-07
Solutia Therminol 21-800-246-2463 adlinks.che.com/23021-05
SRI Consulting 22 adlinks.che.com/23021-14
Sulzer Chemtech AG 28D-61-918-446-6672 adlinks.che.com/23021-29
Swagelok Co 4 adlinks.che.com/23021-06
• Vega Grieshaber Beteiligungs GmbH 28I-3
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Veolia Environment 31 adlinks.che.com/23021-31
* Western States Machine Co 28D-6
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• International Section
* Additional information in 2010 Buyers’ Guide
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Alloy Screen Works 59800-577-5068 adlinks.che.com/23021-248
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Avery Filter Company 59201-666-9664 adlinks.che.com/23021-247
Charles Ross & Son Company 60866-797-2660 adlinks.che.com/23021-250
CU Services 56847-439-2303 adlinks.che.com/23021-202
Equipnet 59781-821-3482 adlinks.che.com/23021-249
e-simulators 59480-380-4738 adlinks.che.com/23021-243
Heat Transfer Reasearch, Inc. 59979-690-5050 adlinks.che.com/23021-242
HFP Acoustical Consultants 60713-789-9400 adlinks.che.com/23021-254
Indeck 60847-541-8300 adlinks.che.com/23021-252
Intelligen 57908-654-0088 adlinks.che.com/23021-240
Miller-Stevenson 56203-743-4447 adlinks.che.com/23021-201
NATUREX 60201-440-5000 adlinks.che.com/23021-253
Outotec 58358-20-529-211 adlinks,che.com/23021-241
Plast-O-Matic Valves, Inc. 56973-256-3000 adlinks.che.com/23021-203
Process Machinery 59770-271-9932 adlinks.che.com/23021-245
Robatel 60413-499-4818 adlinks.che.com/23021-251
Wabash Power Equipment Company 59800-704-2002 adlinks.che.com/23021-246
Xchanger Inc. 59952-933-2559 adlinks.che.com/23021-244
Advertisers’ Product Showcase . . 56
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20_CHE_120109_AD_IND_RS.indd 62 11/20/09 1:19:35 PM
Economic Indicators
December 2009; VOL. 116; NO. 13Chemical Engineering copyright @ 2009 (ISSN 0009-2460) is published monthly, with an additional issue in October, by Access Intelligence, LLC, 4 Choke Cherry Road, 2nd Floor, Rockville, MD, 20850. Chemical Engineering Executive, Editorial, Advertising and Publication Offices: 110 William Street, 11th Floor, New York, NY 10038; Phone: 212-621-4674, Fax: 212-621-4694. Subscription rates: $59.00 U.S. and U.S. possessions, Canada, Mexico; $179 International. $20.00 Back issue & Single copy sales. Periodicals postage paid at Rockville, MD and additional mailing offices. Postmaster: Send address changes to Chemical Engineering, Fulfillment Manager, P.O. Box 3588, Northbrook, IL 60065-3588. Phone: 847-564-9290, Fax: 847-564-9453, email: [email protected]. Change of address, two to eight week notice requested. For information regarding article reprints, please contact Angie Van Gorder at [email protected]. Contents may not be reproduced in any form without written permission. Publica-tions Mail Product Sales Agreement No. PM40063731. Return undeliverable Canadian Addresses to: P.O. Box 1632, Windsor, ON N9A7C9.
For additional news as it develops, please visit www.che.com
Plant WatchSiemens gasification technology selected for Taylorville Energy CenterNovember 10, 2009 — Siemens Energy, Inc. (Orlando, Fla.; www.siemens.com) has been chosen to provide the coal gasifica-tion technology for the Taylorville Energy Center (TEC), the 730-MW (gross) ad-vanced clean-coal generating plant being developed near Taylorville, Ill. TEC will be one of the nation’s first commercial-scale, coal gasification plants with carbon capture and storage (CCS) capability. TEC’s integrated gasification combined-cycle (IGCC) tech-nology will capture and provide storage for at least 50% of the carbon dioxide that would otherwise enter the atmosphere. TEC is projected to be operational in 2014.
Envergent biomass pyrolysis process will power new facility in EuropeNovember 4, 2009 — A new biomass-to-oil power plant in Europe will use a process developed by Envergent Technologies (Des Plaines, Ill.; www.envergenttech.com), a Honeywell (Morris Township, N.J.; www.honeywell.com) company. Plans for the fa-cility, which is projected to begin operation in 2012, followed an agreement between Envergent and Industria e Innovazione, an Italian power generation company. The new European facility will be designed to process about 150 metric tons (dry) per day of a mixture of pine forest residues and clean de-molition wood, and convert the biomass mix into pyrolysis oil. Envergent is a joint venture between UOP (Des Plaines, Ill.; www.uop.com) and Ensyn Corp. (Wilmington, Del.; www.ensyn.com).
Another Unipol polyethylene plant slated for ChinaNovember 4, 2009 — Univation Technologies LLC (Houston; www.univation.com) has an-nounced that Yulin Energy and Chemical Ltd. of Yanchang Petroleum Group Co. (Yulin) has selected Univation’s Unipol PE Process for a 300,000 metric ton per year (m.t./yr) poly-ethylene (PE) plant. The facility will be located in Shaanxi Province, People’s Republic of China. The Unipol PE Process facility will be fed by a unique combination of conventional feedstock and coal-to-olefins feedstock. Planned startup of the facility is 2013.
Aquatech to work on water treatment and reuse projects in EgyptOctober 30, 2009— Aquatech Corp. (Can-
onsburg, Pa.; www.aquatech.com) has been awarded a contract to supply a multiple-effect-distillation (MED) seawater-desalination system for the Abu Qir Thermal Power Plant in Egypt. The facility will supply 10,000 m3/d of fresh water to the power sta-tion’s boilers and other users. Earlier this year Aquatech was also awarded a wastewater reuse project for a chemical facility by TCI Sanmar Chemicals LLC, located at Port Said, Egypt. The reuse system will have a capacity of 8,500 m3/d to recover over 90% of the wa-ter suitable for use within the complex.
Linde to invest in largest air- separation unit in IndiaOctober 27, 2009 — The Linde Group (Mu-nich, Germany; www.linde.com) has an-nounced that it will build and commission a state-of-the-art, 2,550 m.t./d air separa-tion unit (ASU) at Tata Steel Ltd’s plant in Jamshedpur, India. Once commissioned in early 2012, this will be the largest air separation plant in India and one of Linde’s largest in Asia. The investment for the new ASU amounts to nearly €85 million, bringing Linde’s total investment in India over the last three years to approximately €285 million.
Celanese to expand emulsions manufacturing in ChinaOctober 26, 2009 — Celanese Corp. (Dallas, Tex.; www.celanese.com) has announced it is expanding its vinyl acetate/ethylene (VAE) manufacturing facility at its Nanjing, China, integrated chemical complex. The investment will support continued growth plans for the Celanese Emulsion Polymers business throughout Asia, including China, India and Southeast Asia and Australia. The expanded facility will double the company’s VAE capacity in the region and is expected to be operational the first half of 2011.
mergers and acquisitionsDow Corning acquires U.S. and Brazilian silicon-metal-manufacturing assetsNovember 6, 2009 — Dow Corning Corp. (Midland, Mich.; www.dowcorning.com) has acquired two chemical-grade-silicon manufacturing assets from Globe Specialty Metals, in an acquisition valued at ap-proximately $175 million. Dow Corning pur-chased 100% of Globe Metais Indústria e Comércio S.A., a silicon metal manufacturer in Pará, Brazil, which will immediately begin operating as Dow Corning Metais do Pará Ltda. Dow Corning has also acquired a 49%
interest in Globe Metallurgical Inc.’s silicon manufacturing operation in Alloy, West Vir-ginia. The operation will continue to operate as WVA Manufacturing LLC.
Arkema proposes to close a PVC production unitNovember 6, 2009 — Arkema (Colombes, France; www.arkema.com) has proposed a plan to shut down a polyvinyl chloride (PVC) production unit in Balan, France. The Balan facility currently has three PVC units with a 325,000-ton overall capacity. The smallest of these three units, with a 30,000 ton/yr capacity, will be closed, while the two remaining plants will be modernized. This plan is expected to be implemented 2nd Q 2010.
BASF to realign its fuel cell businessNovember 5, 2009 — BASF SE (Ludwigshafen, Germany; www.basf.com) is realigning its business for the fuel cell market. In the future, competencies for the production of high-temperature, membrane-electrode assem-blies (MEAs) will be concentrated in Som-erset, N.J. Operational activities at the BASF Fuel Cell GmbH site in Frankfurt, Germany, will be discontinued effective December 31, 2009. BASF plans to close the Frankfurt site in the course of 2010.
Alstom establishes carbon capture unit with Lummus acquisitionOctober 30, 2009 — Alstom (Levallois-Perret, France; www.alstom.com) has established a new unit, Alstom Carbon Capture GmbH, with the acquisition of the former Lummus Global. The new unit has the capabilities re-quired for the design and turnkey delivery of CO2-capture plants and will be integrated into Alstom’s existing carbon-capture-sys-tems activities. Alstom is currently involved at various stages in ten demonstration projects of CO2 capture systems.
Milliken expands colorants portfolio for global thermoset plastics industryOctober 14, 2009 — Milliken & Co. (Spar-tanburg, S.C.; www.millikenchemical.com), through a subsidiary, has acquired the assets of Rebus, Inc., a North American provider of pigment and additive disper-sions for the thermoset-plastics industrial-coatings markets. Milliken will continue to operate Rebus’s existing manufacturing facility in Aston, Pa. ■
Dorothy Lozowski
Business neWs
FOR MORE ECONOMIC INDICATORS, SEE NExT PAGE ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com DeCember 2009 63
21_CHE_120109_EI.indd 63 11/20/09 1:22:42 PM
Economic Indicators
CURRENT BUSINESS INDICATORS LATEST PREVIOUS YEAR AGO
CPI output index (2000 = 100) Oct. '09 = 94.2 Sep. '09 = 94.0 Aug. '09 = 93.2 Oct. '08 = 101.0
CPI value of output, $ billions Sep. '09 = 1,491.0 Aug. '09 = 1,481.5 Jul. '09 = 1,454.9 Sep. '08 = 1,835.2
CPI operating rate, % Oct. '09 = 69.6 Sep. '09 = 69.3 Aug. '09 = 68.6 Oct. '08 = 73.7
Producer prices, industrial chemicals (1982 = 100) Oct. '09 = 243.3 Sep. '09 = 248.4 Aug. '09 = 236.9 Oct. '08 = 275.7
Industrial Production in Manufacturing (2002=100)* Oct. '09 = 97.6 Sep. '09 = 97.7 Aug. '09 = 97.0 Oct. '08 = 106.0
Hourly earnings index, chemical & allied products (1992 = 100) Oct. '09 = 149.3 Sep. '09 = 150.1 Aug. '09 = 148.7 Oct. '08 = 143.6
Productivity index, chemicals & allied products (1992 = 100) Oct. '09 = 137.1 Sep. '09 = 136.0 Aug. '09 = 134.3 Oct. '08 = 128.9
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J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D
CPI OUTPUT INDEX (2000 = 100) CPI OUTPUT VALUE ($ BILLIONS) CPI OPERATING RATE (%)
2009 2008
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J F M A M J J A S O N D
dOwnLOAd ThE cepci TwO wEEkS SOOnER AT www.che.com/pci
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1st 2nd 3rdQuarter
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Annual Index: 2001 = 1,093.9 2003 = 1,123.6 2005 = 1,244.5 2007 = 1,373.3 2002 = 1,104.2 2004 = 1,178.5 2006 = 1,302.3 2008 = 1,449.3
CURRENT TRENDS
September capital equipment pries (as re-
flected in the Chemical En-gineering Plant Cost Index) increased by 0.7% over the previous month — less than half the increase from July to August, which amounted to the largest jump since equipment prices bottomed out in May.
Meanwhile, the CPI output index and operating rate continue to climb, but each is still below its level of the same period one year ago.
Visit www.che.com/pci for more on capital cost trends and methodology. ■
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT COST INDEX (CEPCI)
(1957-59 = 100) Sep. '09Prelim.
Aug. '09Final
Sep. '08Final
CE Index 525.6 521.9 608.9Equipment 621.5 615.8 744.4 Heat exchangers & tanks 563.3 560.9 758.4 Process machinery 604.0 599.1 674.3 Pipe, valves & fittings 768.3 752.0 865.6 Process instruments 409.6 400.7 446.8 Pumps & compressors 895.9 895.9 886.3 Electrical equipment 464.7 462.1 468.5 Structural supports & misc 632.5 630.8 817.8Construction labor 327.1 327.5 328.2Buildings 493.0 491.1 529.9Engineering & supervision 345.4 346.0 351.7
Starting with the April 2007 Final numbers, several of the data series for labor and compressors have been converted to accommodate series IDs that were discontinued by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics
Annual Index:
2001 = 394.3
2002 = 395.6
2003 = 402.0
2004 = 444.2
2005 = 468.2
2006 = 499.6
2007 = 525.4
2008 = 575.4
*Due to discontinuance, the Index of Industrial Activity has been replaced by the Industrial Production in Manufacturing index from the U.S. Federal Reserve Board. Current business indicators provided by Global insight, Inc., Lexington, Mass.
MARSHALL & SWIFT EQUIPMENT COST INDEX
(1926 = 100) 3rd Q 2009
2nd Q 2009
1st Q 2009
4th Q 2008
3rd Q 2008
M & S IndEx 1,446.4 1,462.9 1,477.7 1,487.2 1,469.5
Process industries, average 1,515.1 1,534.2 1,553.2 1,561.2 1,538.2 Cement 1,509.7 1,532.5 1,551.1 1,553.4 1,522.2 Chemicals 1,485.8 1,504.8 1,523.8 1,533.7 1,511.5 Clay products 1,495.8 1,512.9 1,526.4 1,524.4 1,495.6 Glass 1,400.4 1,420.1 1,439.8 1,448.1 1,432.4 Paint 1,515.1 1,535.9 1,554.1 1,564.2 1,543.9 Paper 1,416.3 1,435.6 1,453.3 1,462.9 1,443.1 Petroleum products 1,625.2 1,643.5 1,663.6 1,668.9 1,644.4 Rubber 1,560.7 1,581.1 1,600.3 1,604.6 1,575.6 Related industries Electrical power 1,370.8 1,394.7 1,425.0 1,454.2 1,454.4 Mining, milling 1,547.6 1,562.9 1,573.0 1,567.5 1,546.2 Refrigeration 1,767.3 1,789.0 1,807.3 1,818.1 1,793.1 Steam power 1,471.4 1,490.8 1,509.3 1,521.9 1,499.3
64 ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com DeCember 2009
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Circle 02 on p. 62 or go to adlinks.che.com/23021-02
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