the language of argument for teachers and students
TRANSCRIPT
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The Language of
Argumentin the language of the standards
For EGHS Teachers and Students
A compilation of information aligned to the Common Core to help spur a discussion
on the teaching of reading and writing arguments
Works Consulted
Coleman, David. "Common Core R.CCR.8 Explained." Teaching the Core. N.p., n.d. Web. 01 June 2013.
"English Language Arts Standards Reading: Informational Text Grade 11-12."Common Core State Standards Initiative. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 May 2013.
Harvey, Gordon. Counterargument. Harvard University, 1999. Web. 01 June 2013.
"Fallacies." The Writing Center. University of North Carolina, n.d. Web. 09 May 2 013.
Ramage, John D., John C. Bean, and June Johnson. Writing Arguments: A Rhetoric with Readings. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 2001. Print.
Sinott-Armstrong, Walter, and Robert Fogelin. Understanding Arguments: An Introduction to Informal Logic. 8th ed. Australia: Wadsworth, 2010. Print.
"A Workbook for Arguments: A Complete Course in Critical Thinking [Paperback]."A Workbook for Arguments: A Complete Course in Critical Thinking: David
Morrow, Anthony Weston: 9781603845496: Amazon.com: Books. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 May 2013.
"Writer's Web: Toulmin Model Exercise." Writer's Web: Toulmin Model Exercise. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 May 2013.
Written and compiled by Greg DeCubellis
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Unpacking the Language of the Standards
Trying to make sense of argumentative writing terminology can be a challenge. It turns out that there are
about 20 important terms, but, because argumentation is a part of so many disciplines, many (about
three-fourths) of these terms have different names. Fortunately, several are synonymous with those we
already use to teach persuasive writing. Others, however, will probably be new to you.
In the table below, you will find argument writing terms used in the Common Core standards and other terms
that are close in meaning. Knowing these terms is imperative to understanding this handout. Also, it is
highly likely that the terms in the left column will be used on upcoming Common Core assessments, so it is
important for students to know and understand them as well.
L.O.T.S IS OR RESEMBLES... MEANING..
argument a thesis with a projected organization The assertion of a claim based on logical reasons.
argumentative
writinglogos, position paper
As distinct from persuasive writing, argumentative
writing relies mostly on sharp, ethical reasoning over
pathos, dissembling, and trickery.
bias slant, spinA favorable or unfavorable preference for one thing
over another.
claim
thesis, conclusion, logical conclusion,
central claim, critical stance, main idea,
opinion, assertion, inference, judgment,
effect
A statement asserted as true by a speaker or writer.
counterclaim counter-argument, opposing viewpointAn opinion directly opposite the writers included to
set up a rebuttal of that opposing opinion.
delineate standard form
Listing the premises in logical order above the
conclusion with a horizontal line drawn between them.
evidenceone or more reasons which support a
claim
Reason(s) that prove the claim (but NOT the
examples used for illustrating the reasons).
example detailA fact which illustrates the arguments supporting
reason or evidence.
fallacylogical fallacy, illogical reasoning,
invalid reason
An error in an argument in which the claim does not
logically follow from the the reasons.
persuasionmanipulative speech, writing, or
imagery
In its most extreme form, its goal is to convince an
audience by any means necessary, including invalid
reasoning and untrue reasons.
premisereason, proposition, major premise,
minor premise, axiom, postulate, causeA reason used to assert a claim.
reason
premise, proof, proposition, major
premise, minor premise, cause, fact,
statistic
Seepremise
reasoning logicThe process of drawing or forming a conclusion from
stated or implied premises.
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rebuttalcomeback, refutation, objection to an
objection
An answer to a counterclaim which points out the
opposing viewpoints flaws. It is used to disarm a
skeptical audience.
rhetoricliterary language, engaging wording,
diction, syntax
This term has many meanings, but is used in the
standards to mean the ways in which the writer crafts
words and phrases artistically to help make the
argument interesting and engaging.
structure organization, organizational strategy,sequence of ideas
How the writer orders his reasons, claim, examples,sub-claims, counterclaims, etc.
sub-claims
grounds, stated assumption,
suppressed premise, warrant,
enthymeme, clincher
The ways in which the illustrative examples connect
to the argument.
syntax word order, sentence structure The word order within a sentence or clause.
validity logical reasoning
An argument is valid if it is logical. In other words, an
argument is valid if there is no possible way its claim
can be false when its reasons are true. Illogical
arguments are NOT valid.
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The Language of Argument PART
Reading an rgument
CONTENTS ALIGNMENT TO CCSS Gr.
1) Reading an Argument Delineate and evaluate the reasoning in ... texts, including ... thepremises, purposes, and arguments
9-10
2) Argument and Persuasion Determine an authors point of view or purpose in a text... analyzinghow style and content contribute to the power, persuasiveness ...of the text.
11-12
3) The Parts of an Argument Analyze in detail how an authors ideas or claimsare developedand refined by particular sentences....
9-10
4) Standard Form Delineation Delineate ...the argument.
5) Annotating the Parts of An Argument Analyze in detail how an authors ideas or claimsare developedand refined by particular sentences....
9-10
6) Evaluating a Claims Strength &
Effectiveness
Analyze in detail how an authors ideas or claimsare developed
and refined by particular sentences....
9-10
7) Evaluating Evidence in Examples Delineate and evaluate the argument... assessing whether the ...the evidence is relevantand sufficient.
9-10
8) Annotating an Arguments Strength &
Effectiveness
Delineate and evaluate the reasoning in ... texts, including ... thepremises, purposes, and arguments .
Determine an authors point of view or purpose in a text in which
the rhetoricis particularly effective, analyzing how style and
content contribute to the power, persuasiveness or beauty of the
text.
Determine an authors point of view or purpose in a text and
analyze how an author uses rhetoricto advance that point of viewor purpose.
11-12
9) Evaluating an Arguments Reasonableness Delineate and evaluate the argumentand specific claimsin a text,assessing whether the reasoning is validand the evidence isrelevantand sufficient
9-10
10) Fallacies in Reasoning [I]dentify false statements and fallacious reasoning... 9-10
11) Some Rhetorical Devices and their Effects [A]nalyze how an author uses rhetoric...[A]nalyze how style and content contribute to the power,persuasiveness... of the text.
12) Useful Questions for Close, Careful
Argument Evaluation
Analyze in detail how an authors ideas or claimsare developedand refined by particular sentences, paragraphs, or larger portions
of a text.
Analyze and evaluate the effectiveness of the structure an authoruses in his or her exposition or argument, including whether thestructure makes points clear, convincing, and engaging.
9-10
13) Putting it all Together [All standards related to argument reading are addressed] 9-12
14) Best Practices for Teaching Blue text indicates IN NEED OF COMPLETION 9-12
"English Language Arts Standards Reading: Informational Text Grade 11-12."Common Core State Standards Initiative. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 May 2013.
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The Language of Argument PART II
Writing an rgument
CONTENTS ALIGNMENT TO CCSS Gr.*
1) Writing Short Arguments Use words, phrases, and clauses as well as varied syntax to link themajor sections of the text, create cohesion, and clarify therelationships between claims and reasons....
2) Useful Tips for Finding Fallacies in your
own Writing
Use words, phrases, and clauses as well as varied syntax to link themajor sections of the text, create cohesion, and clarify therelationships between claims and reasons, between reasons andevidence, and between claims and counterclaims.
3) Structuring an Extended Argument Develop claims and counterclaims fairly and thoroughly, supplying themost relevant evidence for each while pointing out the strengths andlimitationsof both in a manner that anticipates the audiencesknowledge level, concerns, values, and possible biases.
4) Two Argument Strategies Compared[ Same as above ]
5) Exploring Both Sides Introduce precise, knowledgeable claims, establish the significanceof the claim, distinguish the claim from alternate or counterclaims...
6) Illustrating your Reasons & Stating your
Assumptions
Develop claims and counterclaims fairly and thoroughly, supplying the
most relevant evidence for each while pointing out the strengths and
limitationsof both in a manner that anticipates the audiences
knowledge level, concerns, values, and possible biases.
7) Classical Graphic Organizer [C]reate an organization that logically sequences claims,counterclaims, reasons, and evidence.
8) Rogerian Graphic Organizer [C]reate an organization that logically sequences claims,counterclaims, reasons, and evidence.
9) Best Practices for Teaching Argument
Writing
Use words, phrases, and clauses as well as varied syntax to link themajor sections of the text, create cohesion, and clarify therelationships between claims and reasons, between reasons andevidence, and between claims and counterclaims.
* Underlined text indicates 11-12 standard.
"English Language Arts Standards Reading: Informational Text Grade 11-12."Common Core State Standards Initiative. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 May 2013.
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The Language of Argument
Reading an rgument
An ARGUMENT is a claim accompanied by supporting reasons.
When you make a claim, you are saying, I claim this to be true. In argument writing, you want your reader
to accept your claim as true too. Your opinion usually will not be accepted without good reason though. So,
a good argument writer claimssomething to be true and then supports it with reasons(a reason is also
called a premise). In a good argument, the writer makes a case to convince an audience based on the
merit and reasonablenessof the claims, reasons, and evidence.In this way, an argument can change the
readers point of view, bring about an action, or ask the reader to accept the writers explanation or
evaluation of a problem. (CCSS-ELA Appendix A).
An extended argumentative essay is also known as a position paper because the writer takes a position on
a topic and uses clear reasoning to attempt to get the reader to understand and agree with his or her
position. Notice the word attempt in the previous sentence. When you write an argumentative essay, you
might not entirely convince the reader of your position. You may only strengthen the opinion of those who
already agree with you or weaken the resolve of those who oppose your opinion. The important thing is that
you present your argument clearly, honestly, and logically.
Note: When the word argument is used in this context, it does not mean a disagreement. An argument
simply is a statement that attempts to connects facts or statistics (evidence) in support of a claim. So...
an argumentis NOT a mere disagreement.
1. This is NOT an argument:
Bob: Willie is a whale.
Steve: No, hes a goat.
Bob: NO! Hes a whale!
2. This IS an argument:
Willie is a whale. All whales are mammals. Therefore, Willie is a mammal.
DISCUSS: Here, the writerdraws aconclusion for us that Willie is a mammal. He gives two
related factual reasons to support his conclusion. What are they? Assuming you agree with
the facts, do you agree with his opinion that Willie is a mammal? Why or why not?
DISCUSS: Why is example one above NOT an argument? Is simply contradicting someone
the same as making an argument? Why is example two above a good argument? Hint: See
the definition of argument above before responding.
Free Willymotion picture produced by Warner Brothers Family Entertainmen
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Persuasion
Advertisers often appear to claim things to be true about their product.
What is claimed to be true here?
Using our shampoo twice a day will help keep you from losing your hair.
a. Our shampoo reduces baldness
b. Without using our shampoo, you will probably go bald.
c. Our shampoo has a special ingredient that will help keep you
from losing your hair.
d. All of the abovee. None of the above
What do we assume is true about this product? Perhaps it contains some special anit-balding ingredients?
In your own words, what is the company claiming to be true?
If you said that the company is claiming that their product
Using our shampoo correctly requires massaging it into the scalp.
Massaging the scalp increases blood flow to the area.
Increased bloodflow to the scalp slows hair loss over time.
Therefore, massaging the scalp slows hair loss over time.
Therefore, our using shampoo correctly slows hair loss over time.
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Argument and Persuasion
Arguments purpose in its purest form is to use reasoning to seek the truth. The purpose of persuasion in its
most extreme form is to use whatever strategies necessary, including deception, to get an audience to
believe what you want it to believe (even if you dont believe in what you are saying yourself). An argument
essay falls somewhere on the line in the shaded area below:
Argument ---------------------------------------------------------------------------> Persuasion
Exploratory
writing
examining all
sides of an
issue
Argument as
inquiry,
asking the
audience to
think out the
issue with the
writer
Dialectic
argument,
seeking
common
ground with a
resistant
audience
Classical
argument,
aimed at a
neutral or
skeptical
audience
One-sided
argument,
aimed at a
friendly
audience
Aggressive
one-sided
arguments
Outright
propaganda
Literary texts Sermons
Ceremonial
speeches
Parliamentary
debate
Rogerian
argument
Legal reasoning
Classroom
lectures
Letter to editor
Fund raising
Calls to action
Talk radio
Cable news
commentary
Advertising
The Parts of An Argument
To understand an argument, it is helpful to identify its parts. Any simple argument has two parts: a claim
and reasons. You must know how to distinguish between a claim (also known as an opinion or a
conclusion) and reasons (also known as proof or premises). The following should help you see these in
action.
DISCUSS: Which sentence makes more sense?
1. You are shivering because it is cold.
a. b.
2. It is cold because you are shivering.
a. a.
Argument number one uses cause and effect logically. Now look closer at the argument. Is the a.
section the cause or the effect? The b. section? Which one is the claim? Which is the reason?
How do you know? Why is argument number two invalid?
DISCUSS: Compare and contrast the statements below with those above. Is the a. section the claimor
the reason in the example below? What is the difference in meaning between the connecting words
therefore and because? How are they both used differently to connect the same claim and reason?
Compare the meaning of the two sentences below with the two above.
1. You are shivering therefore, it is cold.
a. b.
2. It is cold therefore, you are shivering.
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b. a.
Standard Form Delineation
Whats the bottom line? How will you know if an argument adds up? The best way is to delineate the
argument using standard form. The word delineate contains the word line. In this way, it is helpful to list
the reasons and draw horizontal line to separate them from the claim. Doing so will also help you determine
the best order to present your reasons and whether your reasons are good ones. It will also help you toevaluate whether a writer has good reasons for supporting her claim and ordered them logically
To write an argument in standard form, you first must identify the claim and then find the supporting reasons
Consider this argument: Im shivering because its wet and cold out here and the same argument stated in
a different order: Its wet and cold out here therefore, Im shivering.
REASONS STATED
AFTER THE CLAIM:
CLAIM CONNECTOR REASON
1
REASON
2
REASON
3
Argument--> I am
shivering
BECAUSE it is
wet,
it is
cold,
and
Im outside.
REASONS STATED
BEFORE THE CLAIM:
REASON
1
REASON
2
REASON
3
CONNECTOR CLAIM
Same Argument butDifferent Order-->
It iscold,
it iswet,
andIm
outside
THEREFOREI am
shivering
.
A good thinker knows how to write any argument in standard form regardless of the order in which the writer
presents his reasons and claims.
How to write any argument in standard form:
1. Always state the claim first.
2. Draw a line above the claim.
2. List each reason above the line.
An argument in standard form:
Reason
Reason
Reason
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_______
Claim
EXAMPLE:
Step one: State the claim. In the example, the speaker makes a claim that he is shivering. Note
how the reader writes the claim at the bottom, underneath a horizontal line leaving space above.
_______________ _______________
Claim --------> I am shivering
Step two: Identify the reasons. Note how the reader writes each reason above the horizontal line.
Reason --------> It is wet outside
Reason --------> It is cold outside
Reason --------> I am outside
_______________ _______________
Together, the entire argument, claim and reasons, will look like this in standard form:
Reason --------> It is wet outside
Reason --------> It is cold outside
Reason --------> I am outside
_______________ _______________
Claim --------> I am shivering
Although in argument writing, the argument may be stated with the reasons before the claim or vice versa,
when you delineate an argument, you must always list the reasons above the claim. Boiling down and
ordering an argument in this way helps you evaluate the arguments logic and allows you to compare the
argument with other arguments written in standard form.
Standard form looks similar to an addition problem in math. Written in this way, its easy to see if the
argument adds up or not.
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Annotating the Parts of an Argument
The typical words and phrases used to make arguments are called argument markers. In a text, they may
appear before or after a claim or reason. Recognizing and labeling these markers is the first step in being
able to conduct a close and careful analysis of arguments and to reconstruct the argument in standard form.
Once you are able to recognize argument markers, you will be able to use them yourself connect your own
claims and reasons to make valid arguments. When annotating argumentative writing, you can use the
abbreviation C to mark words that signal an arguments claim and P to mark its reasons (i.e., proof,premises).
TERM &
ABBREVIATION
MEANING EXAMPLES COMMON ARGUMENT
CONNECTORS
(markers)
CLAIM
C
A claim is an opinion. It
is a logical conclusion
drawn from the reasons
or evidence.
We can now conclude that Mr.
Flump is an idiot.
It is cold therefore, you areshivering.
therefore hence thus
furthermore so
consequently
then (without if)
this shows that...
REASON
(proof)
P
A reason is a fact that
attempts to provea
claim. It answers the
question, Why? It is
also known as a
premise.
Because it is cold, you are
shivering.
Since Brian speaks up, he
gets what he needs.
because since for as
given that...
due to..
on the grounds that...
this follows from...
Note: A conditional can
be phrased as an
if-thenstatement. A
conditional is not an
argument by itself
because no reasons are
given and no claims are
made. It only expresses
what mightor couldbetrue. It does not claim
what is true.
If you work hard, then you will
get far in life.
I will go shopping if you loan
me the car.
"A Workbook for Arguments: A Complete Course in Critical Thinking [Paperback]." A Workbook for Arguments: A Complete Course in Critical Thinking: David Morrow, Anthony Weston:
9781603845496: Amazon.com: Books. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 May 2013.
Sinott-Armstrong, Walter, and Robert Fogelin. Understanding Arguments: An Introduction to Informal Logic. 8th ed. Australia: Wadsworth, 2010. Print.
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Evaluating a Claims Strength and Effectiveness
Once you learn to recognize an arguments claim, you should be able to determine how much or little the
writer is claiming. A claim can be broad or narrow, or somewhere in between. Please note, a broad claim is
not necessarily a good claim, nor is a narrow claim necessarily a bad one . Broad claims are more bold but
are also general and therefore typically difficult to prove. For example, Teachers alwaysassign homework
is a sweeping generalization and sounds like a strong claim. However, it is difficult to defend. Why? Oneneed only find a singleexample of a teacher who assigns nohomework to disprove the claim that teachers
alwaysassign homework.
On the other hand, Teachers often assign homework is easier to defend because it claims less. The words
always and usually make all the difference here. Always makes the claim appear stronger. Usually
makes the claim appear less strong and therefore easier to defend. Good writers guard their claims by
being careful not to generalize or make overstatements that can be easily disproven. Good writers are also
careful not to make their claims too narrow for fear of not saying anything significant. Strong claims are
usually so broad that they cannot be defended. Weak claims are usually not debatable and therefore do not
invite a defense.
In any case, the best claim is an accurate claim.
A strong and weak claim compared
CLAIM TOO STRONG:
All dogs are mean
CLAIM TOO WEAK:
Some dogs are mean sometimes.
Is too Broad Is too Narrow
Claims too Much Claims too Little
Impossible to Defend
Not Worth Debating
Easy to Defend
Not Worth Debating
PRACTICE: Know Your Strength! Fill in the blanks to make an accurate and meaningful claim. Be
sure to use words that guard against claiming too much:
__Few__ teachers at EGHS assign __difficult__ homework.
___________ teachers at EGHS assign __easy__ homework.
____________ dogs are ____________ mean.
____________ politicians ___________ lie.
___________ babies do not sleep through the night.
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Evaluating Evidence in Examples
Without examples such as facts and figures to illustrate your reasons, an argument has little credibility. Often it is important
to explain outright how the examples help illustrate your reasons and thus support your claim. It is best not to assume your
reader will make this connection on his or her own. You may already be familiar with this concept of stating assumptions as
a clincher. It is also known as grounds, warrant, or suppressed premise, or sub-claim.
PRACTICE: Provide examples for each of the claims you made above. If you cannot think of any examples, adjust theclaims strength until it is accurate and you can. Review the table below.
CLAIM REASON EXAMPLE STATED ASSUMPTIONS
Some teachers assign
too much homework...
...becausethey forget
that students have a life
outside of school.
For example, Mr.
Hammerhead requires
students to keep a written
log of every moment we
recycle in and out of
school.
Most people would agree that teens
have a right to social life outside of
school. Most teens would also find it
embarrassing to carry around a
notebook to social events. Since
teens will normally opt for social
acceptance over embarrassment, it
is not realistic or right for a teacher toexpect students to do this kind of
around-the-clock homework.
PRACTICE: Read the claim, reason, and example below. In the blank box, explain how the example indeed illustrates the
reason and proves the claim. See above for an example.
CLAIM REASON EXAMPLE STATED ASSUMPTIONS
All women should be
prevented from joining
combat units
...because women
typically do not have the
strength or endurance
for combat.
For example, women
generally have weaker
upper-body strength, a
crucial requirement for
carrying a wounded soldier
off of the battlefield.
PRACTICE: Make a claim of your own, and provide a good reason supporting it with an example which illustrates your
reason. Explain the assumption that connects your example to your reason and claim.
CLAIM
State something youbelieve in strongly.
REASON
Provide a goodreason supporting
your claim.
EXAMPLE
State an example whichillustrates the reason.
STATED ASSUMPTIONS
Explain the assumption thatconnects your example to your
reason and claim.
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Annotating an Arguments Strength and Effectiveness
You can use the abbreviations below to indicate signal words for determining an arguments strength and effectiveness. You
might use the acronym GRADES X to help you remember the associated terms. Note: Words meanings depend on their
context. The common indicator words listed in the right column above are not guaranteed signals, so when in doubt use the
context to decide on how the word works in the writing.
TERM &
ABBREVIATION
MEANING EXAMPLES COMMON INDICATOR
WORDS
GUARDING
G
To guard is to protecta
claim from being
rejected.
Most freshmen grades improve by
mid-year.
She probably quit her job.
Note: Guarded claims usually require less
evidence than unguarded claims.
some many few
might may possibly
likely unlikely almost
nearly may
could be there is a
good chance..., etc.
RHETORICAL
DEVICE
R +/-
irony, sarcasm,
hyperbole, and other
literary language
Note: These may serve
any purpose and may
have positive or
negative connotations.
Going to the dentist is the worst thing in
the world! (hyperbole and E-)
Her face usually looks pretty as Snow
Whites. (simile, allusion, and E+)
[ varies ]
ASSURING
A
To assure is to
guaranteea claim is
true without providing a
reason.
Everyone knows that seniors slack off.
Trust me when I tell you that you are
wrong.
doctors agree... recent
studies have shown
I know for a fact that...
its common sense...
they say that...
take it from me...
DISCOUNTING
D
To discount is to reject
or refute a fact or
opinion.
His class ring looks nice,
but it is expensive.
His class ring is expensive
though it looks nice.
although even if but
nevertheless
though while
however nonetheless
even though... whereas
yet still etc.
EVALUATING
E +/-
To evaluate is tojudge
a fact or opinion
positively or negatively.
+ or -
Celia is too silly. E-
Your equation is idiotic. E-
Cool idea! E+
beautiful dangerous
wasteful sneaky sinful
sloppy cute smart, etc.
STATINGASSUMPTIONS
S
To explain how the theexamples indeed illustratethe reasons and supportthe claim.
EXEMPLIFYING
X
To exemplify is to
provide an example to
illustrate the reasons.
Celia is too silly. For example, she laughs
at funerals.
Your explanation is idiotic: Clearly, two
plus two equals donut is not sound math!
for example...
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Evaluating an Arguments Reasonableness
A claim is supported well if the relationship between the reasons makes sense. In other words, the reasons
supporting your claim must be logically related to each other-- the reasons must add up. The more the
reader accepts the writers argument as factually accurate and valid, the greater chance the reader will be
convinced.
A valid argument contains NO illogical reasoning. In other words, if you connect your reasons to your claimin a way that truly makes sense, you have made a logical argument. An argument is valid ONLY if there is
no way that the claim can be false when the supporting reasons are true. Nonetheless, a reader might find
some arguments to be more reasonable than others based on the number, type, specificity, and accuracy
of evidence used to support the opinion.
Consider Willie again for a moment:
Willie is a whale. All whales are mammals. Therefore, Willie is a mammal.
DISCUSS: Explain how these facts are related to each other:Willie is a whaleandAll whales are
mammals. How are these facts related to the claim that Willie is a mammal? Is there any way that
Willie could NOT be a mammal if its true that he is indeed a whale and that all whales are
mammals? Does the Willie argument contain any illogical reasoning? Is it a valid argument?
DISCUSS: Explain how these facts are related to each other: Penguins are black and white and
Some old TV shows are black and white. Is there any way that some penguins can NOT be old TV
shows even if its true that penguins are black and white and that some old TV shows are black and
white? What is the difference in reasoning between the Willie argument and the penguin argument?
Does the penguin argument contain any illogical reasoning? Is it a valid argument?
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Breaking an Argument: Fallacies in Reasoning
Remember, in a valid argument, the reasons and the claim add up. A fallacy in reasoning occurs when the
writer has connected the claim and reasons in a way that appears to make sense but really does not add up
An argument that relies on a fallacy is NOT valid. Keep in mind, however, if the reader does not recognize
the invalid argument, he or she may still be persuaded by the argument. Being able to recognize these
fallacies can help you to protect yourself against being convinced of something for the wrong reasons.
Basic Fallacies false cause? overlooking alternatives? Appeal to motive where a premise is dismissed by
calling into question the motives of its proposer
Some errors in logic a easy to spot with a little training.
FALLACY ALSO
KNOWN AS
WHAT IT MEANS
or DOES
EXAMPLE HOW TO FIX IT
ridiculing theclaim
appeal to ridicule Making fun of the claimitself rather than offering areason for disagreeing with
it.
That is the stupidest idea Ive everheard!
(That may be, but the speaker stillneeds to say why.)
The speaker should give a goodreason why the idea is bad.
attacking theperson
ad hominem Criticizing the personmaking the argumentinstead of the argumentitself.
That kid skateboards, andskateboarders are troublemakers,which is why I dont believeanything he just said.
The speaker should restate theboys claim and reasons and thenexplain why the boys reasonsmake no sense.
bandwagon ad populem Offering the reason thateveryone is doingsomething in place of alogical reason for doing it.
Everyone is jumping off the bridge.Thats a good enough reason forme to jump off too!
(Just because others are doingsomething isnt a good reason fordoing it.)
The speaker might have said,because the bridge is on fire, I will
jump off to save my life. This isclearly a good reason.
composition Assuming that what is trueof the part of somethingmust be true for it as awhole.
loadedlanguage
Playing on wordsconnotations and emotionsinstead of actually makingan argument.
the bullshorns
false dilemma
bifurcation
black-or-white
Reducing all possibleoptions to just twoopposing ones.
Either you are with the us, or youare with the terrorists. George W.Bush, 2001
Dont allow the speaker tooversimplify your options. Justbecause someone says there areonly two options doesnt
necessarily make it so. Forexample, Switzerland, a neutralcountry, could be neither forterrorism nor for the U.S.
slippery slope the camels nose Suggesting that one stepin a direction will inevitablylead to a chain of eventsresulting in an undesirableoutcome.
appeal to pity ad misericordiam Using pity reason forspecial treatment
The teacher should give me apassing grade because my dogdied last night.
http://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FAppeal_to_motive&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNFGPeML8kCmZjYHGFqhwl6P7iVlPA -
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Intermediate Fallacies
loadedquestion
complex question Phrasing a question to trapthe person into agreeing toa claim.
Broseph, are you still beingmean to puppies?
(Answering no will still implythat Broseph has been mean topuppies, even if he hasnt.)
Broseph should not answer thequestion directly. Instead, he shouldcall out the speaker and dismiss herquestion by saying, You know verywell that I am neither mean, nor have Ihurt puppies. Stop trying to make me
look bad. Focus your disagreement onmy ideas instead.
appeal toignorance
ad ignorantiam Arguing a claim is true justbecause it has not beenshown to be false
appeal tohistory
ad antiquitam Offering the fact thatsomething has been donein the past as a reason forcontinuing to do it.
We drive on the right side ofthe road because its alwaysbeen done that way.
Just because something has beendone for a long time is not a goodreason for doing it. There may verywell be logical reasons for driving onthe right side of the road, so thespeaker should state them. ShirleyJacksons short story The Lotteryexposes this fallacy.
talking incircles
begging thequestion
circular argument
Using a claim as a reason. How do I know my mom isusually right? Because she tellsme so!
How does the speaker really know ifhis mom is usually right if he reliesonly on her opinion as proof? What ifher opinion is wrong? Then herreason must also be wrong too. Heshould provide many examples ofwhen his mom was right as proofinstead.
slippery word equivocation
hedging
Changing meanings of animportant word in themiddle of the argument.
Women and men are physicallyand emotionally different. SIncewe are not really equal, the lawshould not treat them equally.
Contrast the slippery word with theword of similar but different meaningwhich was left out of the originalargument. Here the slippery word isequally which the speaker wants usto believe means exactly the same
as opposed to its legal meaning,fairly. Rephrased properly, Sincewe are not really equal, the law shouldnot treat us fairly sounds suitablyridiculous. Vonneguts satirical shortstory Harrison Bergeron exposesthis fallacy.
More Difficult Fallacies
FALLACY ALSO KNOWN AS WHAT IT MEANS EXAMPLE HOW TO FIX IT
q therefore p affirming the consequent I If my phone is dropped,its screen cracks. Itsscreen is cracked, sosomeone must havedropped it!
The speaker should haverealized there were manyother ways his screencould have cracked.Maybe someone sat on it.
not p therefore not q denying the antecedent
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red herring Introducing a seeminglyrelated issue to take focusaway from the real issue.
false cause post hoc ergo propter hoc(after this therefore that),or simply, post hoc,correlation vs. causation
To quickly assumingsomething causedsomething else.
false cause
Straw Man Arguments: When you put a false argument into the mouth of your opponent and then proceed to
knock it down, you have only created a "straw man" argument,
overlooking alternatives
FALLACIES TBD...
ALSO TBD...
Relevant, short, kid-friendly arguments for practice annotation. See workbook examples. Also for
below see orange book shaded sheet for guide sheet for peer revision
SEE THE FALLACY DETECTIVE COMICS
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Some Common Rhetorical Devices and their Effects
Most good writers can learn to make logical arguments. The best writers, though, enhance their argument by being
thoughtful about the words and syntax (word order) they use.
What it is What it does
Allusion A reference outside the text to a specific event, person, place,
or object commonly known to the reader.
Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on
this continent a new nation... dedicated to the proposition
that all men are created equal. Here, Lincoln alludes to the
Declaration of Independence.
Draws on the readers prior knowledge
to illustrate an idea.
Creates a sense of connectedness and
understanding with the reader.
Analogy A four-way comparison: e.g. teachers this school are likeguards in prisons.
Helps make abstract ideas more vivid
and understandable by connecting a
new concept to something the reader
already knows.
Euphemism Using a less-than-direct word or phrase.
We have come to dedicate a portion of that field as a final
resting placefor those who here gave their lives....
Clearly, the more direct word, graveyard, would add a sense
of morbidity inconsistent with Lincolns solemn tone.
Softens a notion or image a reader
might find distracting or too disturbing.
Hyperbole Exaggeration or overstatement
The world... can never forget what they did here.
Emphasizes a point. Be careful:
hyperbole can easily backfire as a
sweeping generalization.
Irony When a writer means the opposite of what she says. Establishes tone. May engage thereader through humor.
Parallelism Using the same grammatical structure in close proximity.
...that government ofthe people, bythe people, for the
people, shall not perish from the earth. Here there are three
prepositional phrases used to show the relationship among
the peoples relationship to the government:
Draws the readers attention to the
relationship between the items in
parallel.
Sensory
Imagery
Description which appeals to the writers sense of of taste,
touch, sound, sight, smell, balance, heat/cold.
Vivifies the meaning by stimulating the
brains sensory cortex.
Simile &
Metaphor
A simile is an indirect comparison using like or as. A
metaphor is a direct comparison using a linking verb (such as
is) or of (as in chains of oppression). Example:...this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of
freedom.
Helps make abstract ideas more vivid
and understandable by connecting the
writers new concept to something thereader already knows.
Tone The writers attitude or moral outlook toward the subject orreaders, e.g., cynical, empathetic, critical, idealistic, ironic,
optimistic, realistic, suspicious, comic, sarcastic, supportive
Contributes to the writers meaning by
complementing his meaning.
Repetition Can occur with letters (alliteration, assonance), words (epistrophe,chiasmus, epizeuxis), and phrases (anaphora).
...that government ofthe people, bythe people, forthe people,shall not perish from the earth.
Emphasizes an important point or
detail. Creates a hypnotic effect
opening the readers unconscious mind
to suggestion.
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Putting it All Together
DIRECTIONS: The passage below is a short piece arguing in support of a US "junk food tax." Read through the piece and
look for the different parts of the writers argument. ANNOTATE the article carefully in the margins. Afterwards, answer the
following questions on your own. Next, share your responses with a small group and compare what you hear with your
responses.
1. Which sentence(s) contain the authors claim?2. Her reasons?
3. Does the author use any guarding words to limit the claim?
4. What evidence does she provide to support her reasons? Is the evidence true? Is it strong?
5. What assumptions connect the claim to the reasons?
6. Does the author present any counterclaims?
7. How would you judge the quality of the argument overall? Is the reasoning valid? Are the reasons ordered
effectively? What is the most beautifully written sentence in your opinion?
Why We Should Tax Junk Food
With the alarming rise in obesity rates among Americans in the past few decades, numerous debates have
arisen over how (or if) public policy should be changed to help improve this trend. One promising strategy, already
adopted by seven states, has been to try and deter consumers from purchasing unhealthy foods through a tax on
soda or sugary drinks and junk food (Lohman). These taxes address the issue that Americans today are consuming
almost 20 percent more calories than they did in the early 1980s, and those calories are coming from increasingly
less-healthy sources, mainly high-fat and high-sugar processed foods (USDA). Furthermore, processed foods and
drinks are increasingly more affordable than the fruits, vegetables, and whole grains needed to sustain a healthy diet
(Marsh). Assuming that cost is a more relevant factor of food choice than personal taste, increasing the price of soda
and junk food through taxes, while using that revenue to subsidize unprocessed fruits and vegetables would
encourage consumers to choose healthier products as they become more affordable than their unhealthy
counterparts.
In fact, there is evidence to suggest that cost, more so than preference, influences purchasing choices. A year
after New York increased cigarette taxes from $1.25 to $2.75, smoking rates dropped by 12 percent to a historic low
(Harutyunyan). Although some might argue that smoking is more of a lifestyle choice than eating, it is rather the
choice of what foods to eat which will hopefully be affected in the long run. Additionally, this tax might hurt those in
areas with little access to fresh produce and whole grains, such as in low-income urban areas; therefore the junk
food tax would only work if healthy food choices are made not only affordable but easily available to low-income
consumers through the use of subsidies (Marsh). However, if precautions are taken to ensure equal access to healthy
food among all citizens, then using the carrot of subsidized healthy food and nutrition education along with the
stick of a food tax, the typical American diet can-- and should-- be changed for the better.
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ANSWERS
1. What is the authors claim?
The claim is stated in two places-- at the beginning of the piece, when the author states that the tax is a promisingstrategy against obesity. The claim is restated at the end, when the author writes using the carrot of subsidized
healthy food and nutrition education along with the stick of a food tax, the typical American diet can, and should, be
changed for the better.These two statements condense the main point which the author is trying to impart-- that a
junk food tax has a good chance of being successful and should be implemented.
2. Does the author limit the claim by using any guarding words?
The author guards her claim by addressing the issues brought up by lack of access to healthy options in her
restatement of the claim. Specifically, the qualifier appears as the statement however, if precautions are taken to
ensure equal access to healthy food among all citizens, then.... The claim is again stated as she continues with
using the carrot of subsidized healthy food and nutrition education along with the stick of a food tax, the typical
American diet can-- and should-- be changed for the better.
3. Where evidence does the author present in this essay?
The main evidence to support her claim is given in the form of statistics about food consumption in the US to
highlight the need for a program encouraging healthy food consumption. Specifically, she states Americans today
are consuming almost 20 percent more calories than they did in the early 1980s, and those calories are coming from
increasingly less-healthy sources, mainly high-fat and high-sugar processed foods. Furthermore, processed foods
and drinks are increasingly more affordable than the fruits, vegetables, and whole grains needed to fora healthy diet.
4. What assumptions (also known as suppressed premises, enthymemes, or warrants) connect the evidence to the claim?
Because the author is arguing that a tax on unhealthy food would encourage healthy food consumption, the
assumption linking evidence of unhealthy eating to the use of a food tax is that customers make purchasing
decisions largely on the basis of cost. This idea is explicitly stated when the author writes mentions that we might
assume cost is a more pertinent factor of food choice than personal taste .
5. Does the author present any counterclaims?
Yes, the author addresses two possible counterarguments by bringing them up, and then refuting them. She notes
that with regard to the legitimacy of comparing smoking to eating habits, some might argue that smoking is more of a
lifestyle choice than eating, it is rather the choice of what foods to eat which will hopefully be affected in the long run .
She also notes the issue of food deserts by writing additionally, this tax might hurt those in areas with little access to
fresh produce and whole grains, such as in low-income urban areas therefore the junk food tax would only work if
healthy food choices are made not only affordable but easily available to low-income consumers through the use of
subsidies (Marsh).
6. How would you judge to overall quality of this argument? Is the reasoning valid?
This answer dependents on your own analysis of the argument. However, there are many issues worth noting. The
evidence provided does explain that there is a trend in unhealthy eating, but does not give evidence for why this
trend is harmful, nor does it provide evidence for why this trend exists. The overall claim that a junk food tax should
be implemented would be stronger if evidence were given explaining the consequences of allowing this unhealthy
trend to continue also, the assumption that cost is a primary factor of food purchasing choices would be more valid if
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evidence was provided outlining other factors in this type of decision-making. Additionally, the rebuttal and qualifier
addressing the lack of accessibility to healthy food in low-income areas would be stronger if the author had
suggested specific measures by which the accessibility issue would be resolved.
"Writer's Web: Toulmin Model Exercise." Writer's Web: Toulmin Model Exercise. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 May 2013.
The Language of Argument
Writing an rgument
Short Arguments
Before writing an extended argument essay, it is best to begin practicing by writing a few short
arguments. Short arguments are only about two paragraphs long. Use the following rules to help
insure your short argument is logical and clear. Be sure to revise your work to insure you have used
elaboration strategies forfull effect.
Some General Guidelines
1. Identify your reasons and claims.
Ask yourself, What am I trying to prove? This is
your claim. Think of a claim as a mini-thesis.
(The reasons why you are claiming what you are
claiming are also known as proof or premises--
they will become your projected organization.)
2. Develop your ideas in a natural order. Put your claim first, followed by your reasons OR
put your reasons first and your claim last.
3. Start from good, reliable reasons. No matter how well you use logic and word
choice, your claim will appear silly if your reasons
are questionable.
4. Be concrete and concise when you use
examples for to illustrate your reasons.
Avoid generalities. Use clear examples to
illustrate and clarify your reasons. Dontover-elaborate or you will lose your audience.
5. Build on substance, not overtone. Offer actual reasons dont just rely on powerful
word choice or generalizations.
WRITE: Try it. Following the guidelines above write a two-paragraph letter to the editor a topic in the
news about which you have an opinion. Next, rewrite your argument and change the order you
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presented your reasons and claim. Which version is more natural and effective? Why?
"A Workbook for Arguments: A Complete Course in Critical Thinking [Paperback]."A Workbook for Arguments: A Complete Course in Critical Thinking: David
Morrow, Anthony Weston: 9781603845496: Amazon.com: Books. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 May 2013.
Useful Tips for Finding Fallacies in Your Own Writing
Good argument writing depends on clear, logical thinking. Fallacies are illogical. Here are some general
tips to improve your argument by finding and eliminating fallacies in your own arguments:
1) Pretend you disagree with the claim you are defending. What parts of the argument would
now seem fishy to you? What parts would seem easiest to attack? Give special attention to
strengthening those parts.
2) List your main points under each one, list the evidenceyou have for it. Seeing your claims
and evidence laid out this way may make you realize that you have no good evidence for a
particular claim, or it may help you look more critically at the evidence youre using.
3) Learn which types of fallacies you are especially prone to, and be careful to check for them
in your work. Some writers make many of appeals to authority others are more likely to rely on
weak analogies or set up straw men. Read over some of your old papers to see if theres a
particular kind of fallacy you need to watch out for.
4)Be aware that broad claims need more proof than narrow ones. Claims that use sweeping
words like all, no, none, every, always, never, no one, and everyone are sometimes
appropriatebut they require much more proof than less-sweeping claims that use words like
some, many, few, sometimes, usually, and so forth.
5) Double check your characterizations of others, especially your opponents, to be sure they are
accurate and fair.
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"Fallacies." The Writing Center. University of North Carolina, n.d. Web. 09 May 2013.
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Exploring Both Sides
Whether you use the classical or Rogerian approach, you MUST examine both sides of the argument when
pre-writing and drafting. Considering both sides of an argument in this way may help you determine where
your argument is strongest and where the opposing view is weakest, OR it may lead you to some common
ground between your position and the opposing viewpoint. In any case, exploring the counterclaim in this
way helps you appear more reasonable to your reader. Note the example below in which the writer has
done some pre-writing to consider both sides of the question of whether girls should be encouraged to playfirst-person-shooter video games.
Prompt: Should girls be encouraged to play first-person shooter video games?
One View... Opposing View...
CLAIM: First-person shooter video
games are GOOD for girls.
vs COUNTER-
CLAIM:
First-person shooter video
games are BAD for girls.
REASON
1
because beating guys at their own
game is empowering for girls.
vs. REASON
1
because they promote antisocial
values such as indiscriminatekilling.
REASON
2
because being skilled at these
games frees girls from feminine
stereotypes.
vs. REASON
2
because they amplify the bad
side of male stereotypes.
REASON
3
because they give girls a different
way of connecting with males.
vs. REASON
3
because they waste valuable
time that could have been spent
on something constructive.
REASON4
because they give girls newinsights into a male subculture.
vs. REASON4
because FPS games couldencourage women to see
themselves as objects.
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PRACTICE: For each blank, fill in a good reason for the opposing view to the claim that women should be
prevented from joining military combat units.
Prompt: Should women be allowed to join military combat units?
One View... Opposing View...
CLAIM: Women should be PREVENTED
from joining military combat units .
COUNTER
-CLAIM:
Women should be ALLOWED to
join combat units in the military.
REASON
1
Women typically do not have the
strength or endurance for combat.
REASON
1
???
REASON
2
Women in close-knit combat units
would hurt morale by introducing
sexual jealousies.
REASON
2
The image of women as combat
soldiers would help society overcome
harmful gender stereotyping.
REASON
3
Women have not been socialized into
fighters and wouldnt have the
kill-em-with-a-bayonet spirit that men
can get.
REASON
3
???
REASON
4
Women would be less reliable to a
combat unit if they became pregnant
or had to care for infants or small
children.
REASON
4
Women would have more
opportunities for promotions if they
could serve in combat units.
REASON
5 ???
REASON
5
Allowing women to serve in combat
units promotes equal rights.
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Counter-Argument Excerpted from The Academic Essay: A Brief Anatomy by Gordon Harvey
When you counter-argue, you consider a possible argument againstyour thesiss claim or some aspect of
your reasoning. This strategy is a good way to test your ideas when drafting. In the finished essay, it can be
a persuasive and disarming tactic. It allows you to anticipate doubts and head off objections that a skeptical
reader might have. It also enhances your credibility because it presents you as the kind of person who
weighs alternatives before arguing for one, who confronts difficulties instead of sweeping them under the
rug, and who is more interested in discovering the truth than winning a point.
The Turn Against
Counter-argument in an essay has two stages: you turn against your argument to challenge it and then you
turn back to reaffirm it. You first imagine a skeptical reader who might resist your argument by pointing out
a problem with your demonstration, e.g. that a different conclusion could be drawn from the same
facts, a key assumption is unwarranted, a key term is used unfairly, certain evidence is ignored or
played down
one or more disadvantages or practical drawbacks to what you propose
an alternative explanation or proposal that makes more sense.
You introduce this turn against with a phrase like One might object here that... or It might seem that...or It's
true that... or Admittedly,... or Of course,...or with an anticipated challenging question: But how...? orBut
why...?or But isn't this just...? orBut if this is so, what about...?Then you state the case against yourself as
briefly but as clearly and forcefully as you can, pointing to evidence where possible.
The Turn Back
Your return to your own argumentwhich you announce with a transitional word such asbut, yet, however,
nevertheless or stillmust likewise involve careful reasoning, not a simple dismissal. In reasoning about the
proposed counter-argument, you may
refute it, showing why it is mistakenan apparent but not real problem acknowledge its validity or plausibility, but suggest why on balance it's relatively less important or
less likely than what you propose, and thus doesn't overturn it
concede its force and complicate your idea accordinglyrestate your thesis in a more exact,
qualified, or nuanced way that takes account of the objection, or start a new section in which you
consider your topic in light of it.
Where to Put a Counter-Argument
Counter-arguments most commonly appear
as part of your introductionbefore you propose your claim or thesiswhere the existence of a
different view is the motive for your essay, the reason it needs writing as a section or paragraph just after your introduction, in which you lay out the expected reaction or
standard position before turning away to develop your own
as a quick move within a paragraph, where you imagine a counter-argument not to your main idea
but to the sub-idea that the paragraph is arguing or is about to argue
as a section or paragraph just before the conclusion of your essay, in which you imagine what
someone might object to what you have argued.
WRITE: Using the turn against and turn toward steps above, write a counter-argument refuting
why women should NOT be allowed in combat units (see previous example).
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Illustrating your Reasons with Examples and Stating your Assumptions
While counter-arguments are especially helpful in establishing your credibility, without examples such as
facts and figures to illustrate your own argument for your reader, your argument will fall flat. It is also
important to state outright how these examples help illustrate your reasons and support your claim. Never
assume your reader will make this connection on his or her own. It is also a good idea to determine which
assumptions are not shared by you and your audience. By stating these assumptions outright, you answer
the question, So what? for the reader. In this way, the reader will see you have solid grounds for yourclaim whether or not he agrees with your claim. (The assumption that ties your claim and evidence together
is also known as grounds, a suppressed premise, enthymeme, or warrant. In your essay, it will often appear
in your clincher.)
The tables below illustrate how stating an assumption makes the examples purpose clear in supporting the
argument. Notice how the stated assumption clearly calls back to the claim and reason using their exact
phrasing (these call back words are italicized).
CLAIM REASON EXAMPLE STATED ASSUMPTION
So what? How does the example tie the
reason and claim together?
Some teachers assign
too much homework...
...because they
forget that
students have a
life outside of
school.
For example, Mr.
Hammerhead
requires students
to carry a notebook
and keep a written
log in a notebook of
every time we
recycle.
Most people would agree that teens
have a right to social life outside of
schooland teens would find it
embarrassing to carry around a
notebook to social events. Since
teens will normally opt for social
acceptance over embarrassment, it
is not realistic or right for a teacherto expect students to do this kind of
around-the-clock homework.
CLAIM REASON EXAMPLE STATED ASSUMPTIONS
Women should be
prevented from joining
combat units
...because
women typically
are not strong
enough for
combat.
For example,
women generally
have weaker
upper-body
strength, a crucial
requirement for
carrying a wounded
soldier off of the
battlefield.
Clearly men weigh significantly more
than women. It would be wrong to
jeopardize wounded mens lives by
reducing the number of those strong
enough to lift and carry these heavy,
wounded men to safety. Being fair to
women by letting them join the
infantry means being unfair to men
who would die on the battlefield as a
result, which is why women should
be preventedfrom joiningcombat
units.
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PRACTICE: Make a claim about something you believe and provide a good reason supporting your
claim. State an example which illustrates your reason. Explain the assumption that connects your
example to your reason and claim. Use the table below to help you develop your ideas.
CLAIM
State something you
believe in strongly.
REASON
Provide a good
reason supportingyour claim.
EXAMPLE
State an example
which illustrates thereason.
STATE YOUR
ASSUMPTIONS
So what? Explain how the exampleties the reason and claim together.
Circle the words that call back to
your claim and reason.
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GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS FOR EXTENDED ARGUMENTS
Getting Started with Claims, Reasons, and Counterclaims
1. Decide on an issue for an extended argument essay you would like to write (e.g., first-person-shooter
video games). Make sure its a debatable issue that reasonable people could disagree on.
2. Write a one-sentence question that summarizes the controversial issue your claim addresses (e.g.,
Should girls be allowed to play first-person-shooter video games?). This will be your prompt forwriting.
3. Draft a working thesis statement (claim) for your proposed argument.
4. List several bulleted because statements for your reasons (two to four is sufficient). NOTE: A claim
CANNOT be supported by other opinions unless accepted by the reader as fact (e.g., a doctors
opinion, an experts opinion, etc.).
5. Draft a working opposing thesis statement (counter-claim).
6. List several bulleted because statements as counter-reasons.
7. Freewrite for several minutes exploring your own feelings and thoughts about the reasons on both
sides. Try not to finalize your position until you finish writing. Keep an open mind.
8. Decide on a side to argue and finalize your position. Write your claim.
9. Finalize your reasons and list them. Make sure they are good ones. Order your reasons in a way
that make the most sense.
10. Finalize your counter-claim and counter-reasons. List them using the chart below:
PROMPT : __________________________________________________________________________ ?
One View... Opposing View...
CLAIM: vs. COUNTER
-CLAIM:
REASON
1
> because... vs. REASON
1
> because...
REASON
2
> because... vs. REASON
2
> because...
REASON3
> because.. vs. REASON3
*> because...
REASON
4
> because... vs. REASON
4
> because...
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DRAFT East Greenwich High School English Department 2013
Developing your Argument Further: Examples and Assumptions
1. For each reason you provided above, list at least one example which illustrates the reason.
2. Next, state how the example indeed helps prove your point.
3. Use the table below as many times as needed to elaborate on your reasons convincingly.
Restate your Claim:
_______________________________________________________________________
REASON 1
Provide a good reason
supporting your claim.
EXAMPLE
State an example which illustrates
the reason.
STATE YOUR ASSUMPTION
So what? Explain how the example ties the
reason and claim together. Circlethe words
that call back to your claim and reason.
REASON 2
Provide a good reason
supporting your claim.
EXAMPLE
State an example which illustrates
the reason.
STATE YOUR ASSUMPTION
So what? Explain how the example ties thereason and claim together. Circlethe words
that call back to your claim and reason.
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DRAFT East Greenwich High School English Department 2013
REASON 3
Provide a good reason
supporting your claim.
EXAMPLE
State an example which illustrates
the reason.
STATE YOUR ASSUMPTION
So what? Explain how the example ties the
reason and claim together. Circlethe words
that call back to your claim and reason.
REASON 4
Provide a good reason
supporting your claim.
EXAMPLE
State an example which illustrates
the reason.
STATE YOUR ASSUMPTION
So what? Explain how the example ties the
reason and claim together. Circlethe words
that call back to your claim and reason.
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DRAFT East Greenwich High School English Department 2013
Strategizing and Organizing: Classical or Rogerian Structure?
Decide whether the classical or Rogerian strategy is best suited for your essays purpose, occasion, and
audience. Next, fill out the appropriate brainstorming sections for EITHER the Classical or Rogerian plans
below. To help you brainstorm, use the claims, reasons, counterclaims, examples, and stated assumptions
you have already developed.
Classical Organizer
SECTION(each of the five sections may consist of more
than one paragraph)
BRAINSTORM HERE...
Introduce your topic
(one to several paragraphs)
> Begin with an attention grabbing hook (e.g.,
a memorable scene)
> Explain the issue and needed background> State claim (thesis) and projected
organization (arguments)
Present your position
> This is the main body of the essay.
> Present and support each reason in order.
> Tie each reason to a value or belief held by
the audience.
Summarize opposing views
> Summary of views differing from writers
(opposing views should be fair and
complete).
Respond to opposing views
> Dismiss or concede to opposing views.
> Show weaknesses in opposing views.> May concede to some strengths.
Conclude
> Summarize the argument briefly.
> Leave a strong lasting impression.
> Calls for an action or relate topic to the
broader world of ideas.
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DRAFT East Greenwich High School English Department 2013
Rogerian Organizer
BRAINSTORM HERE...
Introduce your topic
State the problem you hope to resolve. By
presenting your issue as a problem, raise the
possibility of positive change. Try to state why
opponents will want to solve the same problem.
Summarize Opposing Views
As accurately and neutrally as possible, state
the views of the people with whom you
disagree. By doing this you show that you are
capable of listening without judging and have
given a fair hearing to people who thinkdifferently from you.
Show You Understand the Opposition
Also called the statement of validity. Show that
you understand that there are situations in
which the opposing views are valid. Which
parts of the opposing arguments do you
concede? Under which conditions might you
share these views?
Make your Claim
Now that readers have seen that youve given
full consideration to views other than your own,
they should be prepared to listen fairly to your
views. State your position.
Guard your Claim
Describe situations in which you hope your
views will be honored. By showing that your
position is reasonable in specific contexts, yourecognize that people wont agree with you all
of the time. However, opponents are allowed to
agree in part and share common ground.
State the Benefits
Appeal to the self-interest of your opponents by