the lifestyle of merchant seamen: a sociological analysis

Louisiana State UniversityLSU Digital Commons

LSU Historical Dissertations and Theses Graduate School

1983

The Lifestyle of Merchant Seamen: a SociologicalAnalysis of Occupationally Induced Marginality.Craig Joseph ForsythLouisiana State University and Agricultural & Mechanical College

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UniversityMicixxilms

International300 N. Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, Ml 48106

8318011

Forsyth, Craig Joseph

THE LIFESTYLE OF MERCHANT SEAMEN: A SOCIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF OCCUPATIONALLY INDUCED MARGINALITY

The Louisiana Stale University and Agricultural and Mechanical Col Ph.D. 1983

University Microfilms

International 300 N. Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, MI 48106

Copyright 1983

by Forsyth, Craig Joseph

All Rights Reserved

THE LIFESTYLE OF MERCHANT SEAMEN: ASOCIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF OCCUPATIONALLY INDUCED MARGINALITY

A D i s s e r t a t i o n

S u b m i t t e d t o t h e Gra d u a t e F a c u l t y o f t he L o u i s i a n a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y and

A g r i c u l t u r a l end Mechan i ca l C o l l e g e in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f t he

r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r t he de g re e o f D o c t o r o f P h i l o s o p h y

in

The Depar tmen t o f S o c i o l o g y

byC r a i g J . F o r s y t h

B . A . , U n i v e r s i t y o f New O r l e a n s , 1977 M . A . , U n i v e r s i t y o f New O r l e a n s , 1979

May, 1983

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Th e re a r e many p e o p l e who made t h i s r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t a

s u c c e s s . To a l l o f t h e members o f my comm i t t e e , I o f f e r

them my th a n k s f o r t h e i r h e l p w i t h t h i s r e s e a r c h . I w i sh t o

t h an k my w i f e , O u i da , f o r h e r a s s i s t a n c e w i t h t h i s o r d e a l .

The c o n t r i b u t i o n o f Dr . W i l l i a m B. Ba n k s t o n , my ma jo r

p r o f e s s o r , t o a l l o f my work i s d e e p l y a p p r e c i a t e d . I

c o n s i d e r ou r f r i e n d s h i p and h i s g u id an c e an i n v a l u a b l e p a r t

o f my f u t u r e p e r s o n a l and p r o f e s s i o n a l e n d e a v o r s .

The re a r e may p e o p l e i n t h e m a r i t i m e u n i o n s who

a s s i s t e d . I would l i k e t o t h an k a l l t h e un io n o f f i c i a l s and

members who a s s i s t e d me i n t h i s r e s e a r c h . S p e c i a l t h an k s t o

Tony Sa s s o o f t h e MEBA, John Sheehan and Michae l Dover of

t h e NMU, Michae l G i l l e n o f t h e SIU, C a p t a i n F. E. Kyser o f

t h e MWP, and i n p a r t i c u l a r A le xan de r C u l l i s o n o f t h e MEBA.

I would a l s o l i k e t o t h a n k F l o r e n c e L a r g u i e r f o r t y p i n g

t h e m a n u s c r i p t and b a l d - h e a d e d Eddie f o r t he u n l i m i t e d u se

o f h i s copy mach ine .

i i

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS............................................................................................ i i

LIST OF TABLES............................................................................................ v

LIST OF FIGURES........................................................................................ v i

ABSTRACT............................................................................................................. v i i

CHAPTER

I . INTRODUCTION............................................................................... 1

I I . HISTORY OF A MARGINAL OCCUPATION.............................. 4

I I I . THE SEAMAN AS A SOCIAL TYPE: THE DEVELOPMENTOF A THEORY OF OCCUPATIONALLY INDUCED MARGINALITY............................................................................. 17

I n t r o d u c t i o n ........................................................................ 17Becoming a S e a m a n .......................................................... 27

G e t t i n g I n ........................................................................ 27G e t t i n g On: The S o c i a l O r g a n i z a t i o n o ft h e Union H a l l ............................................................... 29

Going t o S e a ........................................................................ 33P r e - E n t r a n c e B i n g e ..................................................... 33Channel Fev e r ....................................... . . . . . 35

The C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e O c c u p a t i o n a lCommunity o f t h e S e a m a n ........................................... 36The Sh ip a s a T o t a l I n s t i t u t i o n ........................ 49The S o c i a l I d e n t i t y o f t h e Merchant Seaman. 53Fami ly and Community R e l a t i o n s h i p s ................... 62C o n c l u s i o n : The Focus o f The S tudy . . . . 80

IV. METHODOLOGY.............................................................................. 8 6

D i r e c t E x p e r i e n c e .......................................................... 86Knowing From th e I n s i d e and t h e Out 87I n t i m a t e and R e f l e c t i v e P a r t i c i p a t i o n . . . 91M u l t i p l e M e t hod o lo gy ..................................................... 93V a l i d i t y , R e l i a b i l i t y and T r u t h ........................ 95Q u e s t i o n n a i r e D e s i g n ..................................................... 101S t a t i s t i c a l A n a l y s i s ..................................................... 102O p e r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f V a r i a b l e s ........................ 102

i l l

CHAPTER Page

V. FINDINGS...................................................................................... 108

I n t r o d u c t i o n ........................................................................ 108I n t r o d u c t i o n t o Con t in ge n cy F i n d i n g s . . . . 108Co n t in g e n cy T a b l e A n a l y s i s ....................................... 109I n t r o d u c t i o n t o M u l t i p l e R e g r e s s i o nA n a l y s i s .................................................................................. 126P a t h A n a l y s i s : Toward a Model o fO c c u p a t i o n a l M a r g i n a l i t y i n Seamen...................... 131

VI . A DESCRIPTIVE ELABORATION OF THE EFFECTS OFBEING A SEAMAN........................................................................ 135

I n t r o d u c t i o n . ................................................................... 135E f f e c t s on Fami ly L i f e ................................................ 136A t t i t u d e s Toward ( H o s t i l i t y ) S e a l i f e andSeamen...................................................................................... 137G en e ra l S o c i a l I n t e g r a t i o n ....................................... 147Sea Daddy: An Ex cu r sus I n t o An EndangeredS o c i a l S p e c i e s . .......................................................... 153

V I I . CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS...................................... 159

I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r F u r t h e r R e s e a r c h ................... 161E p i l o g u e .................................................................................. 162

REFERENCES..................................................................................................... 166

APPENDIXES

A. QUESTIONNAIRE....................................................................... 179

B. INTERVIEW G U ID E ................................................................... 194

C. SCALE ANALYSIS....................................................................... 195

VITA................................................................................................................... 198

i V

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE Page

1 Q u e s t i o n n a i r e D i s t r i b u t i o n ................................................. 98

2 M a r g i n a l i t y by Year s a S e a m a n ................................... 110

3 M a r g i n a l i t y by Time Spent a t Sea Pe r Year . . . I l l

4 M a r g i n a l i t y by Length o f T r i p s a t S e a ................112

5 M a r g i n a l i t y by Job S t a t u s Aboard S h i p ................114

6 M a r g i n a l i t y by S a i l i n g on a S i n g l e Sh ip . . . . 115

7 M a r g i n a l i t y by Community S i z e .................................. 116

8 M a r g i n a l i t y by L i v i n g i n t h e SameCommunity i n Which You Were R a i s e d ................................... 118

9 M a r g i n a l i t y by E d u c a t i o n .................................................119

10 M a r g i n a l i t y by O r g a n i z a t i o n a l Membership. . . . 120

11 M a r g i n a l i t y by R e l i g i o u s P a r t i c i p a t i o n ................122

12 M a r g i n a l i t y by M a r r i a g e .................................................123

13 M a r g i n a l i t y by Having C h i l d r e n ...................................124

14 Means and S t a n d a r d D e v i a t i o n s ........................................ 127

15 Z e r o - O r d e r C o r r e l a t i o n s Among a l l V a r i a b l e s . . 128

16 Summary o f M u l t i p l e R e g r e s s i o n ,M a r g i n a l i t y Dependent .......................................................... 129

17 I n t e r - I t e m C o r r e l a t i o n s o f t h e M a r g i n a l i t yS c a l e ......................................................................................................1^6

18 M a r g i n a l i t y S c a l e I t em Means, S t a n d a r d D e v i a t i o n s , Range and C o r r e l a t i o n s WithT o t a l S c o r e s ........................................................................................197

v

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE Page

1 P a t h Diagram o f M a r g i n a l i t y i n Seamen. . . . 132

2 A H e u r i s t i c Model o f t h e Cause andE f f e c t s o f M a r g i n a l i t y i n S e a m e n ........................ 160

v i

ABSTRACT

M a r g i n a l i t y I s a theme which p e r v a d e s t h e Boc ia l

e x i s t e n c e o f me rchan t seamen. Work t a k e s p l a c e i n a s e t t i n g

w i t h o u t l ong t e rm p e r s o n a l commitments t o j o b , t o p l a c e , o r

t o c o - w o r k e r s . On t he b e a c h , s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s t e n d toward

t h e t r a n s i t o r y , and where l ong t erm r e l a t i o n s a r e

e s t a b l i s h e d , t h e seaman i s f o r c e d t o p a r t i a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n .

T h i s r e s e a r c h e x p l o r e s t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h i s o c c u p a t i o n on

s o c i a l m a r g i n a l i t y and s o c i a l i n t e g r a t i o n o f i t s members.

Da t a were c o l l e c t e d u s i n g a su r v e y i n s t r u m e n t f rom a sample

o f 251 seamen, b o t h o f f i c e r s and crew. F a c t o r s d e t e r m i n i n g

v a r i a n c e i n l e v e l s o f a l i e n a t i o n a r e examined , a s we l l as

t h e e f f e c t s o f l i f e a s a me rchan t seaman on f a m i ly

o r g a n i z a t i o n and communi ty p a r t i c i p a t i o n . Supp l emen ta ry

q u a l i t a t i v e d a t a f rom p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v a t i o n and d e p t h

i n t e r v i e w a r e a l s o u se d . A t y p o lo g y o f t h e l i f e s t y l e

a d a p t a t i o n s and s o c i a l i d e n t i t i e s o f merchan t seamen a r e

d e v e l o p e d . I m p l i c a t i o n s o f I n d u s t r y changes f o r t h e

o c c u p a t i o n a l l i f e s t y l e a r e d i s c u s s e d .

v i i

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

T h i s s t u d y d e v e l o p s a t y p o l o g y o f t h e l i f e - s t y l e adap

t i o n s and s o c i a l i d e n t i t i e s o f me rchan t seamen as r e l a t e d t o

t h e i r o r i e n t a t i o n s and i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h o c c u p a t i o n on t h e

one hand and t h e i r f a m i l i a l and communal t i e s on t h e o t h e r .

I t i s hoped t h a t t h i s r e s e a r c h w i l l l e a d to a b e t t e r u n d e r

s t a n d i n g o f t h e merchan t seaman and h i s l i f e s t y l e . Both

m a r i t i m e u n i o n s , s h i p p i n g companies and t h e f a m i l i e s o f s e a

men can b e n e f i t from an i n c r e a s e d l e v e l o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g .

I f u n i o n s and s h i p p i n g companies can improve t h e f a m i ly and

communal l i f e o f seamen t h e n t h e y a r e more l i k e l y t o r emain

i n t h e o c c u p a t i o n . A s t a b l e work f o r c e i s o f b e n e f i t t o

e v e r yo n e .

As a r e s u l t o f t h i s r e s e a r c h , i t i s hoped t h a t t h e s e a

m an ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o h i s f a m i ly and community w i l l be more

c l e a r l y d e f i n e d . As a consequence o f t h i s i n c r e a s e d u n d e r

s t a n d i n g t h e r e sh o u l d be an improvement i n t h e s e f a m i l i a l

and communal t i e s .

As t he son and c l o s e r e l a t i v e o f s e v e r a l l ong t ime

seamen and a s a seaman f o r s e ven y e a r s , I have p e r s o n a l

comni tment t o t h i s r e s e a r c h . I t i s my p u r p os e t o h e l p a l l

t o b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d t h e seaman a s a p e r s o n and f o r t h e

seaman t o b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d h i m s e l f and t h e r e a s o n s f o r h i s

a c t i o n s . Both u n i o n and n o n - u n i o n s h i p p i n g companies can

1

2

make u s e o f t h i s d a t a t o b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d t he merchan t

seaman.

The f i e l d o f m a r i t i m e s o c i o l o g y i s smal l and t h e p a r t

t h a t d e a l s w i t h d e e p - s e a merchan t seamen i s o n l y a smal l

p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e f i e l d . I t i s w i t h deep p e r s o n a l i n t e r e s t

and p r o f e s s i o n a l commitment t h a t I a t t e m p t t o e x p l o r e a new

focus on an o l d t r a d i t i o n i n Amer ican l i f e ; t h e me rchan t

seamen.

The r e s e a r c h d e s i g n f o r t h i s s t ud y makes u s e o f many

d i f f e r e n t me thods . S e v e r a l q u a l i t a t i v e s t r a t e g i e s and a

r ev i e w o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e a r e u s e d t o c o n s t r u c t a t h e o r e t i c a l

mode l . T h i s model i s u se d t o g e n e r a t e twe lve p r e d i c t i o n

s t a t e m e n t s . The d a t a g a t h e r e d from t h e r e s u l t s o f a q u e s

t i o n n a i r e , c o n s t r u c t e d by t h e r e s e a r c h e r , a r e u s e d t o t e s t

t h e a c c u r a c y o f t h e s e s t a t e m e n t s . The f i n a l o b j e c t i v e of

t h i s r e s e a r c h i s t o p r o du ce a "g rounded t h e o r y " o f oc cu

p a t i o n a l l y i nduced m a r g i n a l i t y .

T h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n i s C h a p t e r I . An h i s t o r i c a l s e c t i o n

t i t l e d " H i s t o r y o f a Marg ina l O c c u p a t i o n " i s C h a p t e r I I .

I t d e s c r i b e s t h e h i s t o r i c a l deve lopment o f s e a f a r i n g a s a

m a r g i n a l o c c u p a t i o n . C h a p t e r I I I , "The Seamen as a S o c i a l

Type: The Development o f a Theo ry o f O c c u p a t i o n a l l y I nduced

M a r g i n a l i t y , " i s t h e t h e o r e t i c a l s e c t i o n . I t c o n t a i n s a

r e v i e w o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e , i n t e r l a c e d w i t h t h e d a t a o b t a i n e d

i n t h e i n t e r v i e w s , a s w e l l sb t h e a u t h o r ' s p e r s o n a l e x p e r i

en ce . The c o n c l u s i o n o f t h i s c h a p t e r c o n t a i n s t he twe lve

3

p r e d i c t i o n s t a t e m e n t s . C h a p t e r IV i s t h e m e t h o d o l o g i c a l

s e c t i o n . The f i n d i n g s a r e i n C h a p t e r V. C h a p t e r VI i s a

d e s c r i p t i v e e l a b o r a t i o n o f t h e e f f e c t s o f s ea l i f e ; i t con

t a i n s d a t a f rom b o t h t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e and t h e i n t e r v i e w s ,

a s w e l l as t he p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e r e s e a r c h e r .

C h a p t e r V l l c o n t a i n s t h e c o n c l u s i o n s and i m p l i c a t i o n s o f

t h e r e s e a r c h .

CHAPTER II

HISTORY OF A MARGINAL OCCUPATION

Am en i n j a i l . . . w a s a t l e a s t s a f e from drown ing , and he had more room, b e t t e r f oo d , and b e t t e r company.

J e s s e Lemisch , J a c k Tar i n t he S t r e e t s

In t h e a n c i e n t w o r l d , s h i p p i n g was c e n t e r e d f o r t he

most p a r t w i t h i n t h e a r e a o f t he M e d i t e r r a n e a n . At t h i s

t ime t h e p o s i t i o n o f t he seaman was o f a c h a t t e l s l a v e . He

s u f f e r e d u n d e r t h e dou b l e bu rd en o f h a v i n g t he h a r d s h i p s o f

l i f e a t s e a , added t o h i s r o l e as s l a v e . The l o t o f t he

a n c i e n t seaman, wh e th e r i n Rome, Gre ec e , C a r t h a g e , P h o e n i c i a

o r e l s e w h e r e r anged from t h a t o f B a d i s t i c and murderous

c r u e l t y t o t he b a r e l y e n d u r a b l e (Hohman, 56: 3 ) .

A f t e r t h e c o l l a p s e o f t h e Roman Empire came t he s low

a s c e n t from s l a v e r y t o s e r fdom. Codes o f m a r i t i m e law

e v o lv e d t o gove rn t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s be tween s h i po w ne r s ,

s h i p p e r s , m a s t e r s and c r ews . From t h e s e , t he m a r i t i m e

r e g u l a t i o n s o f B a r c e l o n a , known a s t h e C o n s o l a t o d e l Mare,

emerged and were w i d e l y o b s e r v e d . But l i k e o t h e r medi eva l

s t a t u e s t h e y were m a in ly co nc e rn e d w i t h t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f

owne r s , v e s s e l s , c a r g o e s and t h e u p h o l d i n g o f t h e a u t h o r i t y

o f t h e m a s t e r . L i t t l e h e e d , i f any was g i v e n t o t h e crew

e x c e p t t o s a n c t i o n b a r b a r i c and p r i m i t i v e pun i shmen t f o r

m i s con du c t and d e r e l i c t i o n o f d u t y (Hohman, 1956: 4 -13 ;

D i l l o n , 1961: 9 - 1 3 ) .

4

5

B e fo re t h e Midd le Ages were t oo f a r advanced B a l t i c and

N o r t h Sea m a r i t i m e codes began t o e v o l v e ; t h e M a r i t i m e Laws

o f W i s l y . These Nor th European codes were b a s e d on a

m a s t e r - s e r v a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p , r a t h e r t h a n a s an o u t g r o w t h o f

s l a v e r y and s e r fd om. Puni shment was i n d e e d s avage on Nord i c

s h i p s , bu t t h e N o r d i c co ncep t o f i n d i v i d u a l i s m a l l o w e d t he

i n d i v i d u a l a d e g r e e o f f reedom and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . Seamen

were even a l l o w e d t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o s h a r e i n t h e p r o f i t

making o f t h e vo yage . The med iev a l seaman was s u b j e c t t o

laws which we re b r u t a l l y s e v e r e and which showed no i n t e r e s t

i n e i t h e r h i s w e l f a r e o r h i s e x i s t e n c e . F u l l t ime employ

ment was i m pr o ba b l e ; many seamen supp l emen ted t h i s w i t h

s h o r e s i d e work (Hohman, 1956: 4 -1 3 ; D i l l o n , 1961: 9 - 1 3 ) .

The 15 th and 16 th c e n t u r i e s were t h e e r a o f c o l o n i z a

t i o n which f o l l o w e d and b r o u g h t a demand f o r l a r g e r , f a s t e r

and more d e p e n d a b l e s h i p s which meant f u l l t ime b e t t e r

t r a i n e d seamen. S e a f a r i n g began t o t a k e on t he a t t r i b u t e s

o f a f u l l - f l e d g e d s e p a r a t e o c c u p a t i o n . From th e codes o f

W i s l y , t h e r o l l s o f O l i r o n and t h e H a n s e a t i c League co des ,

t h e r e d e v e l o p e d F r e n c h , B r i t i s h and Amer i can m a r i t i m e laws

o f t h e 18th c e n t u r y . Bes t known o f t h e s e were t h e B r i t i s h

N a v i g a t i o n A c t s o f 1729, which t r i g g e r e d ou r R e v o l u t i o n a r y

War. T h i s was t h e p r e c u r s o r o f t h e b a s i c Amer ican m a r i t i m e

l e g i s l a t i o n o f 1790. As t h e 19 th c e n t u r y began a s o c i a l

c o n s c i o u s n e s s was awaken ing , t h e r e a f t e r came a s t r e a m of

a c t s . The emphas i s on puni shment i n s h i p b o a r d d i s c i p l i n e

6

metamorphosed s l o w l y i n t o p a t e r n a l i s m d u r i n g t h e 19th

c e n t u r y . The 20 th c e n t u r y b ro u gh t p r o v i s i o n s f o r h e a l t h ,

s a f e t y and w e l f a r e . But t h i s s t r u g g l e o f t h e seamen was an

e x c r u c i a t i n g l y s low p r o c e s s (Hohman 1956: 4 -13 ; D i l l o n ,

1961: 9 - 1 3 ) . By t h e m id - 1 9 t h c e n t u r y he had been d e p r i v e d

o f a l l o f h i s c i v i l r i g h t s , b o t h a s h o r e and a f l o a t .

The men who s a i l e d American s h i p s a t t h e dawn o f our

c o u n t r y were p r o t e c t e d by no law. What laws t h ey had were

o n l y t o p r o t e c t t h e s h i p and i t s p r o f i t s ( R a sk i n , 1967: 1 ) .

I n deed , t h i s e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y h a r s h c o l l e c t i o n o f laws sup

p o r t t h e c l a i m o f a f o rmer merchan t seaman, F r e d e r i c k

O l m s t ea d , t h a t Amer ican seamen a r e f a c ed w i t h more d e p l o r

a b l e c o n d i t i o n s and m i s e r y and a r e r u l e d more by t h r e a t s

o f f o r c e t h a n any o t h e r c i v i l i z e d w or ke r s o f t h e wor ld

(O lm s t ea d , 1904; Ubbe lohde , 1960: 20, 15 9 -1 6 0 ) . T h i s s y s

tem spawned b r u t a l i t y , d e g r a d a t i o n and c o r r u p t i o n t h a t long

o u t l i v e d t h e sys t em o f s l a v e r y a s h o r e ( R a s k i n , 1967: 1 ) .

E i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y Amer i cans b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e s e men

who went t o sea and c o n t i n u e d on t o become " o l d s a l t s " were

men w i t h l i t t l e hope o f s u c c e s s a s h o r e . They were o u t c a s t s ,

who l e f t t h e l a n d i n f e a r and f l i g h t . They were c o n s i d e r e d

d i s s e n t e r s f rom t h e Amer i can mood. T h e i r g o a l s d i f f e r e d

f rom t h o s e a s h o r e . They were r e b e l s (Lemisch , 1968: 374 ) .

In 1792 A l e x an de r Hami l t on c a l l e d f o r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t

o f m a r in e h o s p i t a l s . T h i s i n t r o d u c e d t h e r e l a t i v e l y new hu

m a n i t a r i a n co ncep t o f p r o t e c t i n g a u s e f u l and needy c l a s s o f

7

c i t i z e n s , t h e seamen, f rom want and m i s e r y ( S t r a u s , 1950:

11 -21 , 1 1 0 - 1 14 ) . J u s t a s t h e y were t h e f i r s t t o r e c e i v e

f e d e r a l m ed i ca l c a r e b e n e f i t s , me rchan t seamen were among

t h e f i r s t b e n e f i c i a r i e s s i n g l e d ou t f o r t h e c h a r i t a b l e e f

f o r t s o f t h e more a f f l u e n t c i t i z e n s . The merchan t seaman

became a d e s e r v i n g u n f o r t u n a t e ( He a l e y , 1936 ) . But t he

s t u d y o f t h e s e seamens ' m i s s i o n s , ch u rch i n s t i t u t i o n s and so

c a l l e d f r i e n d s s o c i e t i e s which were e s t a b l i s h e d i n c o a s t a l

p o r t s t h ro u g h o u t t h e c o u n t r y d u r i n g t h e 19 th c e n t u r y ,

r e v e a l s d u a l m o t i v e s o f d e f e n d i n g a r o o t l e s s , u n s o c i a l i z e d

band o f men from r u t h l e s s e x p l o i t a t i o n , b u t a t t he same

t i m e ,

. . . p r o t e c t i n g t h e good s o c i e t y from the t h r e a t o f i n v a s i o n by a r ough , u n a t t a c h e d , and p o t e n t i a l l y d a n g e r o u s e l e m e n t , who were l ooked upon as a n e c e s s a r y e v i l ; n e c e s s a r y f o r commerce bu t a p o t e n t i a l t h r e a t t o t h e w e l l - b e i n g o f w ives and d a u g h t e r s ( S t r a u s , 1950: 11 ) .

The s a i l i n g e r a c u l m i n a t e d i n t he m a g n i f i c e n t

C a l i f o r n i a and China c l i p p e r s o f t he m id - 1 9 t h c e n t u r y .

However a t t h e same t ime t h i s s t e a d y improvement i n s h i p p i n g

was accompanied by an e q u a l l y s t e a d y d e t e r i o r a t i o n i n t h e

q u a l i t y o f c r e ws , e s p e c i a l l y i n t he U n i t e d S t a t e s . Speed

and space we re a t a premium; t h i s r e q u i r e d more manpower

b e i n g p u t i n s m a l l e r q u a r t e r s (Hohman, 1956: 7 ) .

The 1 8 0 0 ' s b r o u g h t a f a r t h e r d e c l i n e i n t h e c a l i b e r o f

t he Amer ican merchan t seaman. He i s d e s c r i b e d as d r unken ,

q u a r r e l s o m e , and m u t i n o u s . By t h e end o f t he c e n t u r y , hobo

8

crews were t h e norm. Poor crews added t o bad wor k i ng con

d i t i o n s , c r e a t e d by money hung ry sh i po wne r s and c a p t a i n s ,

b r e d even p o o r e r crews and worse c o n d i t i o n s . A d e s c r i p t i o n

i n 1874 by a su rg e on o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s Mar ine H o s p i t a l

S e r v i c e :

No p r i s o n , c e r t a i n l y none o f modern d a y s , b o w r e t c h e d bu t l i f e w i t h i n i t s w a l l i s p r e f e r a b l e , on t h e s c o r e o f p h y s i c a l c o m f o r t , t o t h e q u a r t e r s and t h e l i f e o f t he s a i l o r on t h e v a s t m a j o r i t y o f me rchan t s h i p s . No goa l d i e t a r y so meag re , no p e n a l s e r v i t u d e so e x a c t i n g , no e x e r t i o n o f a u t h o r i t y so u n r e s t r a i n e d and b r u t a l , no such u t t e r want o f c a r e and f o r e t h o u g h t f o rh e a l t h and l i f e o f c o n v i c t o r f e l o n ,a s a r e t he r u l e , and no t t h e e x c e p t i o n ,f o r t he man b e f o r e t h e mask , would be t o l e r a t e d , i f comprehended , by t he community ( T a y l o r , 1923: 2 4 ) .

More and more c rews were composed o f m i s f i t s . These

l a z y and i n com pe ten t seamen had t o be d r i v e n l i k e a n i m a l s

t o work . Mi sused on t h e s e a , t h e y became e a s y p r e y f o r t he

c r i m p s , p r o s t i t u t e s and s a l o o n k e e p e r s on t h e b e ac h ( D i l l o n ,

1961: 11 ) . He was s een a s w i l d and i r r e s p o n s i b l e ; s o c i e t y

c o u l d no t be b o t h e r e d w i t h h i s p l i g h t . The American mer

c h an t seamen gave r i s e t o a way o f l i f e t h a t b r e d l and

s h a r k s t h a t c a t e r e d t o t h e i r n e e d s . They were t h e m s e l v e s a

r e c k l e s s and r o o t l e s s l o t who were i nd eed a d i f f e r e n t c l a s s .

To t h e Amer ican c i t i z e n o f 1850, t h e seaman was e i t h e r a

d r i f t i n g no-good o r a w i t l e s s c h i l d ( D i l l o n , 1961: 10 ) .

. . . i f we t h i n k o f J a ck T a r a s j o l l y , c h i l d l i k e , i r r e s p o n s i b l e , and i n many ways l i k e t h e Negro s t e r e o t y p e , i t i s b e c a u s e he was t r e a t e d l i k e a c h i l d ,

9

a s e r v a n t , and a s l a v e . What t h e emp loyer saw a s t h e n e c e s s i t i e s o f an a u t h o r i t a r i a n p r o f e s s i o n were w r i t t e n i n t o law and c on f i r m ed by c u l t u r e ; t h e s o c i e t y t h a t want ed J ack dependen t made him t h a t way, and t hen co n c l u d ed t h a t t h a t was t h e way he r e a l l y was (Lemisch , 1968: 4 3 - 4 4 ) .

These seamen a s h o r e g r a d u a l l y emerged a s a r e c o g n i z a b l e

group o f wo rk e r s w i t h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and p rob l ems which

d i f f e r e n t i a t e d them s h a r p l y f rom p e o p l e on t h e b e a c h . On

th e be ach t h ey were e x p l o i t e d by t h e c r i m p s , b o a r d i n g house

m a s t e r , p r o s t i t u t e s and s a l o o n k e e p e r s .

Seamen i n p o r t were u s u a l l y o f f d u t y o r be tween j o b s , and t h us had a v a c a t i o n p s yc h o l o gy which was g r e a t l y i n t e n s i f i e d by t he r e a c t i o n from th e l i m i t a t i o n s and p r i v a t i o n s o f one voyage j u s t c o n c lu ded and t h e p r o s p e c t o f a n o t h e r i n t h e o f f i n g ; t h e y were i n a h o l i d a y mood which l ed e a s i l y t o i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , r e c k l e s s n e s s , d r u n k e n n e s s and e x c e s s e s o f a l l k i n d s ; t hey were s t r a n g e r s , i t i n e r a n t s , and t r a v e l e r s , w i t h a c o r r e s p o n d i n g s e ns e o f anonymi ty ; t h e y were n a i v e and i n e x p e r i e n c e d i n t h e ways o f conxnerce and o f landsmen i n g e n e r a l and t h e y had n e i t h e r t he o p p o r t u n i t y no r t he b a c k g round f o r b u i l d i n g up t he d e f e n s e s o f s e l f i n t e r e s t o r f o r p r a c t i c i n g t he v i r t u e s o f shrewd b a r g a i n i n g ; and t hey had i n s i s t e n t n e e d s , a l l o f which had t o be s u p p l i e d i n a h u r r y , f o r c l o t h i n g , s h e l t e r , f ood , d r i n k and s u p p l i e s on t he one hand and f o r g a y e t y and e n t e r t a i n m e n t on t h e o t h e r (Hohman, 1956: 8 ) .

Groups a r o s e t o " h e l p ” t he seamen w h i l e a s h o r e . A

v i c i o u s sy s t em o f c o m m er c i a l i z ed e x p l o i t a t i o n a r o s e a s we l l

a s a l r e a d y m en t i on ed c h a r i t a b l e and r e l i g i o u s o r g a n i z a t i o n s

t o c a t e r t o t h e s e i n s i s t e n t seamen " n e e d s . " U n f o r t u n a t e l y

t h e s e r e l i g i o u s men and women who founded m i s s i o n s , c h a p e l s

10

and L ad i e s Seamens' P r o t e c t i v e S o c i e t i e s n e v e r u nd e r s t o o d

t h e s e men nor d i d t he r e c k l e s s and r o o t l e s s young seamen o f f

s h i p s u n d e r s t a n d them. The seaman was i n t e r e s t e d i n women

and booze , not s a l v a t i o n ( D i l l o n , 1961: 12) .

Because i t was so d i f f i c u l t t o o b t a i n seamen d u r i n g

t h i s p e r i o d , s h a n g h a i i n g was r e s o r t e d t o . A p r a c t i c e o f

o b t a i n i n g b lood money became common. Blood money was a fee

cha rg ed by a s h i p p i n g cr imp f o r s u p p l y i n g drugged and i n

t o x i c a t e d seamen on bo a rd a s h i p ( S t a n d a r d , 1947: 21 ) .

Sha n gh a i i ng c o n t i n u e d t o be an impor t an t sou rc e of t he l ab o r

supp ly u n t i l i t was p r o h i b i t e d by Fe d e ra l s t a t u e i n 1906

(Go ldberg , 1958: 11; D i l l o n , 1961) .

Sh ipp i ng c r imps were a c t u a l l y b o a rd i n g h o u s e k e e p e r s ,

bu t t hey c o n t r o l l e d t he l a b o r m a rk e t . Seamen were g iven

advances i n t he form o f b o a r d , l o d g i n g and l i q u o r . The

cr imp cou ld t hen keep t he s a i l o r ' s b e l o n g i n g s f o r h i s d e b t .

The s h i p p i n g m as t e r would t hen advance t o t h e cr imp t he

amount o f t he seamens ' d e b t , t h e r e b y s e c u r i n g t he s e r v i c e s

o f t he seamen. G r a d u a l l y t h e s h i p p i n g cr imp ga ine d t oo much

power i n t he c o n t r o l o f l a b o r . The S h i pp in g Commiss ioner ' s

Act o f 1872 e l i m i n a t e d t h e s e p r a c t i c e s , bu t a l s o p r o v i d e d

t h a t he be Impr isoned f o r d e s e r t i o n . The r e a l e f f e c t o f

t h i s 1872 law was t o g u a r a n t e e t he s h i p ' s owner a crew

( S t a n d a r d , 1947: 2 1 - 1 1 ) .

From t h e s e e a r l y days u n t i l t h e mid 1 9 3 0 ' s when u n i o n

ism ga in e d s t r e n g t h , t h e r e was l i t t l e change i n t h e way

11

merchant seamen got t h e i r j ob s aboard s h i p (Ra sk in , 1967:

19) . A government r e p o r t i n 1887 d e s c r i b e s t h e l o t o f the

seaman a s one o f economic e x p l o i t a t i o n engende red by

i s o l a t i o n and d i s o r g a n i z a t i o n . As f o r r e m e d ie s , e f f o r t s

were made by t h e s e same w e l l - m e a n i n g i n d i v i d u a l s and church

i n s t i t u t i o n s t o a i d t he seamen i n improv ing t h e m se lv e s , but

no t e l i m i n a t e t he c a u se s f o r t h e i r u n f o r t u n a t e s t a t u s . Th i s

view was r a t i o n a l i z e d by t h e p o p u l a r t h e o r y , " t h a t t h e s e a

men were a n a t u r a l l y improviden t l o t g i v e n to l oose l i v i n g

and co u l d no t be e x pe c t e d t o c a r e f o r t h em se lve s (Goldberg,

1958: 12 ) . A s t a t e m e n t by Andrew F u r u s e t h , who was known

as t he e m a n c i p a t o r o f t he seamen, i n 1900 s u p p o r t s t h i s

h y p o t h e s e s .

The J a p a n e s e , t h e C h i n e s e , t h e Malay,t h e European , a l l may c o m e . . .T h e se mencame from anywhere , w i t h any o r no k i n d o f s k i l l o r e x p e r i e n c e . . .Our merchant mar ine i s t h e r e f o r e mannedby t h e r es iduum o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n ,not on ly o f ou r c o u n t r y and r a c e , bu t o f a l l c o u n t r i e s and r a c e (Goldberg ,1958: 10 - 11 ) .

As l a t e as 1897, t he Supreme Cour t i n t he Arago ca se

d e c l a r e d t h a t t he T h i r t e e n t h Amendment o u t l a w i n g i n v o l u n t a r y

s e r v i t u d e d i d not ap p ly t o seamen (R a sk in , 1967: 1 ) . The

m a j o r i t y o p i n i o n h e l d t h a t :

from t h e o l d e s t h i s t o r i c a l p e r i o d t he c o n t r a c t o f t h e s a i l o r ha s been t r e a t e d a s an e x c e p t i o n a l one , and i n v o l v i n g t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t , t h e s u r r e n d e r o f h i s l i b e r t y d u r i n g t he l i f e o f t h e c o n t r a c t . . . (Goldberg , 1958: 15) .

12

The merchant seaman was i ndeed a c l a s s a p a r t from the

r e s t o f s o c i e t y . He was an o u t c a s t a s ho re t o a l l but t ho se

ou t t o r ob him. At sea he was unde r t h e t y r a n t ’ s h e e l .

They were bound by t h e i r o n laws of t he sea which made t he

seaman, once he had s i g n e d on t he s h i p , v i r t u a l l y t he p r o

p e r t y o f t he m a s t e r (R ask in , 1967: 1 ) . D e s p i t e t h e s e i n

j u s t i c e s d e a l t t o seamen, t hey were s low to u n i o n i z e ; 1803

was t h e f i r s t p r o t e s t and no t u n t i l 1878 was t he f i r s t

seamens ' un i on formed. The r ea so n s f o r t h e i r l a c k o f o r g a

n i z i n g a b i l i t y a r e t ho se same o b s t a c l e s t h a t c o n t r i b u t e t o

t h e i r m a r g i n a l i t y t o da y . Seamen were c o n s t a n t l y on t he

move. They were i n c l o s e c o n t a c t w i t h on ly a ha nd f u l o f

t h e i r sh ipma te s and s e p a r a t e d from the r e s t o f t h e i r

f e l l o w s . Seamen were f u r t h e r d i v i d e d by r a c e , l anguage ,

n a t i o n a l and s e c t i o n a l background (Ra sk in , 1967: 2 ) . S t i l l

today i t r ema ins an e t h n i c a l l y d i v e r s e o c c u p a t i o n .

A l l s t a t u t e s r e l a t i n g t o compulsory l a b o r were s t r i c k e n

out i n 1867 w i t h t h e s o l e e x c e p t i o n o f t ho se laws r e l a t i n g

t o seamen. Seamen were t r e a t e d a s a s e p a r a t e c l a s s because

t hey were l ooked upon as r e c k l e s s i n d i v i d u a l s who cou ld not

look out f o r t h e i r own i n t e r e s t s . T h i s became an i n h e r e n t

p a r t o f t he law (Go ldberg , 1958: 15 ) . An a n a l y s i s o f p a s t

m a r i t i m e l a b o r l e g i s l a t i o n r e v e a l s t h a t t he seamens '

i n t e r e s t s have been more and more c l o s e l y s a f e g u a r d e d . The

t h e o r y o f m a r i t i m e law i s t h a t t he seaman i s t he n a t i o n ' s

ward , and i s no t c a p a b l e , w i th ou t t he a dv i c e and p r o t e c t i o n

13

o f t he government o f e n t e r i n g i n t o c o n t r a c t s . In 1893

J u s t i c e S t o r e y (Brown v s . L u t t ) d e s c r i b e d them a s W B r d s of

t h e c o u r t .

Seamen a r e p r o t e c t e d and need c o u n s e l ; b e cau se t hey a r e t h o u g h t l e s s and r e q u i r e i n d u lg e n c e ; beca use t hey a r e c r e d u l o u s and complying and a r e e a s i l y o v e r r e a c h e d . . . a l t h o u g h no t t e c h n i c a l l y i n c a p a b l e o f e n t e r i n g i n t o a v a l i d c o n t r a c t , t hey a r e t r e a t e d i n t he same manner a s c o u r t s o f e q u i t y a r e accus tomed t o t r e a t young h e i r s (Go ldbe rg , 1958: 15) .

The most r i g i d s c r u t i n y i s i n s t i t u t e di n t o t he t e rms o f eve ry c o n t r a c t i n whicht hey e n g a g e . . . any s a c r i f i c e o f r i g h t s on one s i d e which i s no t compensa ted by e x t r a o r d i n a r y b e n e f i t s on t h e o t h e r . . . t h e b a r g a i n i s u n j u s t . . . and advan t ageha s been t ak en o f t he s i t u a t i o n of t heweaker p a r t y (Wissman, 1942: 8 ) .

The lew has been a po l ic eman t o t he s eamen ' s own un

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and a r e f o r m e r t o t h e s e who would e x p l o i t

him, i t h a s sought t o b a l a n c e a s t e r n d i s c i p l i n e w i t h an

e q u a l l y s t e r n p a t e r n a l i s m , much l i k e a c h i l d . Both o f t h e s e

t e n d e n c i e s have e x i s t e d s i d e by s i d e s i n c e 1790 a l t h o u g h t he

d i s c i p l i n a r i a n a t t i t u d e dominat ed d u r i n g t he f i r s t h a l f o f

t h i s p e r i o d ; t h a t o f p r o t e c t o r ha s ga in e d s t e a d i l y and b e

come th e dominant f o r c e (Hohman, 1956: 2 0 - 2 1 ) .

At t h e t u r n o f t he c e n t u r y t h e c h i e f " b ee f " o f seamen

un io n s was t h e l e g a l B t a t u s o f seamen. Under t he t erms o f

h i s c o n t r a c t , t h e seaman was s u b j e c t e d t o a form o f i n v o l

u n t a r y s e r v i t u d e , b o t h h i s p e r s o n and h i s e a r n i n g s were

unde r t h e c o n t r o l o f h i s employers o r c r e d i t o r s . In 1915

the f i e r c e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t he f i r s t p r e s i d e n t o f t he

14

I n t e r n a t i o n a l Seamen’ s Union, Andrew F u r u s e t h , l ed t o t he

Seamen ' s Act o f 1915, c a l l e d t h e Magna C a r t a o f t h e Sea . No

l o n g e r was t h e r e a p e n a l t y f o r d e s e r t i o n . No l o n g e r co u ld

c r e d i t o r s c o l l e c t t he seamen1s wages .

Seamen cou ld l e ave t h e i r j o b s , i n any s a f e h a r b o r , j u s t

a s work e r s on l and cou ld do. They g a i n e d c o n t r o l ove r t h e i r

own b o d i e s and were g r a n t e d s o v e r e i g n t y o ve r t h e i r own p e r

so n s . T h i s f reedom o f movement and o f a c t i o n c a r r i e d w i t h

i t a s p i r i t u a l v a l u e which was v i t a l in t he b u i l d i n g o f

c h a r a c t e r and s e l f r e s p e c t (Hohman, 1956: 34 ) . U n t i l t h e

p a s s a g e o f t h i s Seamen Ac t , seamen were w i t h t h e s o l e e xc e p

t i o n o f some peonage l a b o r i n t he s o u t h , t he on ly Un i t ed

S t a t e s c i t i z e n s who cou ld s t i l l be compe l l ed t o f u l f i l l a

c i v i l employment c o n t r a c t unde r p e n a l t y o f impr isonment

(Wissmann, 1942: 6 ) .

The o r i g i n a l S o c i a l S e c u r i t y Act o f 1935 ex c l u de d mer

chan t seamen from i t s majo r p r o v i s i o n s f o r o l d age a n n u i t i e s

and unemployment compensa t ion (Hohman, 1956: 77; C u l l i s o n ,

1982: 2 0 ) . The Merchant Mar ine Act o f 1936 p roduced a p r o

gram o f l a b o r e r r e f o r m which was e x p e c t e d t o improve m a t e

r i a l l y t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f l i f e and work a t s e a . L i f e a t sea

ha s been improved one t housand f o l d s i n c e t h e 1 8 0 0 ' s . Th i s

i s r e f l e c t e d i n t h a t t h e p r i n c i p a l conce rn f o r s e a f a r i n g

l a b o r i n t he Merchant Mar ine Act o f 1970, was more j obs f o r

i t s members (He ine , 1976) . The r e s t had been fough t f o r and

won i n t he p a s t .

15

The s o c i a l p o s i t i o n o f t h e seaman ha s a lways been a

m a rg in a l one . One o f t h e g o a l s o f m a r i t im e unionB has a l

ways been t o r a i s e seamen t o f i r s t c l a s s c i t i z e n s h i p as

wor ke r s and as members o f t h e community (Ra sk in , 1967: 41 ) .

Seamen s e r v i c e o r g a n i z a t i o n s have done r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e .

Much l i k e Rooney’ s (1980) m i s s i o n s t i f f s , t h ey must f a i l to

remain i n b u s i n e s s . T h e r e f o r e , t hey have a lways t r e a t e d the

symptoms o f t he seaman’ s low s o c i a l p o s i t i o n , no t t he cause .

He was a s l a v e , s e r f and t hen s e r v a n t , b u t a l l had

d e g r e e s o f f reedom. When o t h e r men were f r e e he was n o t .

T h i s l e g a l s t a t u s o f t he seamen was a lways t h e i r c h i e f cause

o f conce rn and t h e main cause o f t h e i r lowly s o c i a l s t a n d

i ng . A da p t i ng a quo t e from Hohman (1956: 20) i n 1938, Alex

C u l l i s o n i n 1982 (1) an o f f i c i a l w i t h t h e Marine En g in e e r s

B e n e f i c i a l A s s o c i a t i o n , f u r t h e r e x p l a i n s t he marg ina l s t a t u s

o f merchant seamen.

The merchant seamen i s a c i v i l i a n , buti n s e v e r a l ways h i s l i f e r e s emb le s t h a to f a s o l d i e r . The s i g n i n g o f t he s h i p p i n g a r t i c l e s p l a c e s him i n a p o s i t i o n which i s s t r i k i n g l y s i m i l a r t o a s h o r t t erm of e n l i s t m e n t . He ha s n a r ro w ly p r e s c r i b e d d u t i e s , o b l i g a t i o n s and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , a s we l l as r i g h t s and p r i v i l e g e s ; he must f o r m a l l y s i g n away h i s f reedom o f a c t i o n f o r a g iven t im e . T h i s i r r e g u l a r s t a t u s , p a r t c i v i l i a n and p a r t m i l i t a r y , ha s n a t u r a l l y demanded c o n s t a n t r e s t a t e m e n t and r e d e f i n i t i o n .

The h a r s h o r a t b e s t p a t e r n a l i s t i c laws t h a t h i s t o r

i c a l l y have governed seamen were su p p o r t e d by a s t r u c t u r e

whose pu rpos e was t o a s s u r e a r e l a t i v e l y cheap and d o c i l e

16

supp ly o f l a b o r . The 1 9 3 0 ' s b rough t f o r t h an e r a o f s e a

f a r e r p r o t e s t t h a t made d o c i l e and cheap i n c o m p a t i b l e t e rms .

A l a b o r f o r c e cannot be m i s t r e a t e d and t hen e x p e c t e d to

r e spond i n ev e r y n a t i o n a l emergency. Al though seamen have,

t h ey have u sed t h e s e t ime s t o advance t h e i r p o s i t i o n .

The merchant Beamen no l o ng e r o f f e r s a cheap supp ly o f

l a b o r . His s k i l l s have become too t e c h n i c a l t o a t t r a c t

q u a l i f i e d men w i t h t he l u r e o f low wages . He has ag r eed to

be d o c i l e bu t o n l y f o r h i g h e r wages , b e t t e r l i v i n g c o n d i

t i o n s and more j o b s . When he r e f u s e d t o c o n t i n u e t o be a

cheap and abused supp ly o f l a b o r , t he i n d u s t r y went t o

f o r e i g n f l a g v e s s e l s t o make t h e i r e x a g g e r a t e d p r o f i t s .

The American merchant 6eamen i s a c i v i l i a n , whose

s e r v i c e s a r e b a d l y needed d u r i n g t ime s o f war . He seems t o

be "no t so needed" d u r i n g t imes o f pe ac e . He i s l i k e a

s o l d i e r who i s t r e a t e d we l l on ly when t h e r e i s war , f o r

g o t t e n d u r i n g p e a c e . The p robl em i s t h a t t h e i n d u s t r y must

be m a i n t a i n e d a t a war r e ady l e v e l a t a l l t im e s . T h i s cou ld

be done by f o r c i n g American goods t o be sh ip pe d on s h i p s

manned by Amer i cans , no t f o r e i g n e r s . But t h e i n d u s t r y w i t h

government su pp o r t ha s a g a i n i g no re d t he peac e t ime seamen,

m a i n t a i n i n g a t a l l c o s t a i t s h i s t o r i c a l l y two f aced p o l i c y .

CHAPTER I I I

THE SEAMAN AS A SOCIAL TYPE: THE DEVELOPMENT OF A THEORY

OF OCCUPATIONALLY INDUCED MARGINALITY

Then I came t o r e a l i z e t h a t men b u i l d t hem se lve s p e r s o n a l i t i e s a s t hey b u i l d house s — to p r o t e c t t h emse lve s from th e w o r l d . But once t hey have b u i l t a ho us e , t hey a r e f o r c e d t o l i v e in i t .They become i t s p r i s o n e r s .

C o l i n W i l son , The O u t s i d e r

I n t r o d u c t ion

T h i s s t u d y i s an a n a l y s i s o f l i f e as a merchant seaman.

The goa l i s t o show how t h i s l i f e s t y l e e f f e c t s t he d e v e l o p

ment o f i d e n t i t y and i t s e f f e c t on f ami ly and comnuni ty

a s s o c i a t i o n s . The seaman coming a sho re a f t e r a long t r i p

t o s ea ha s m i s s ed t h e p a t t e r n s o f l i f e which gu ide and mold

t ho se on t he b e ac h . C o ns e q u e n t l y , t he seaman’ s l i f e i s a

l o n e l y one . A l i e n a t i o n and anomie become commonplace f o r

t h e l ong t ime seaman ( S h e r a r , 1973: x i ) .

T h i s r e s e a r c h i n v e s t i g a t e s t h e l i f e s t y l e o f t he

American merchant seaman from t h r e e me t ho d o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c

t i v e s . The s o c i o l o g y o f d i r e c t e x p e r i e n c e and p a r t i c i p a n t

o b s e r v a t i o n ; t he a u t h o r i s a former merchant seaman, i n

a d d i t i o n h i s f a t h e r and s e v e r a l o t h e r members o f h i s f ami ly

were merchant seamen. I t i s t h i s e x p e r i e n c e w i t h which he

u s e s t o gu id e h i s ’’r e t u r n ” t o t h e o c c u p a t i o n . I nde p t h

i n t e r v i e w s have been conduct ed w i t h s e v e r a l c u r r e n t and

17

18

r e t i r e d merchant 6eamen, as we l l a s un ion o f f i c i a l s and

o t h e r s i n t he m a r i t i m e i n d u s t r y . L a s t l y , a s t r u c t u r e d q u e s

t i o n n a i r e ha s been d i s t r i b u t e d . (See Appendix A) . Th i s

i s u sed f o r d e s c r i p t i v e a s we l l a s s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s e s to

d e t e r m i n e t h e a f f e c t o f y e a r s a t sea and b e i n g away from

home has on t h e seaman.

T h i s s t u dy a l s o a n a l y z e s t he chang ing s t a t u s o f seamen

a s an o c c u p a t i o n a l g roup . The o l d t ime c a r e f r e e seaman i s

t he image h e l d by t he shore s i d e layman. T h i s r e s e a r c h s ee s

t h i s o l d t i m e r as a v a n i s h i n g b r e e d . Al though most p r e s e n t

day seamen p e r f o r m 6ome o f t h e s e no l d t im e” b e h a v i o r s , t hey

a r e i ndeed a d i f f e r e n t g r oup . Sea daddy, as t h e s e o ld t ime

seamen w i l l be c a l l e d i s not a m a rg in a l man; he i s

" s a t i s f i e d ” w i t h h i s s t a t u s . The new merchant 6eaman i s

t y p i c a l l y a member o f a m a r g in a l group because he i s , u n l i k e

sea daddy, i n t h e p r o c e s s o f a s s i m i l a t i o n i n t o t h e shore

s i d e c u l t u r e .

There i nd eed may be some s o r t o f s e l f s e l e c t i o n p r o c e s s

among seamen. Men who a r e l o n e r s , come from b roken or bad

home s e t t i n g s o r t h a t have no f ami ly o r f r i e n d s a t a l l , may

be more l i k e l y t o s e l e c t s e a f a r i n g a s a c a r e e r ( S h e r a r ,

1973: 1 5 - 1 6 ) . Who e l s e would v o l u n t a r i l y p l a c e t h emse lve s

in t h i s I s o l a t i o n ? Whether he i s m a rg in a l t o b e g i n w i t h or

n o t , t he y e a r s a t sea e i t h e r c r e a t e o r e x t e nd t h i s c o n d i

t i o n .

19

The s eaman ' s l i f e a t Bea i s d i f f e r e n t from h i s l i f e

a s h o r e . Hi s l i f e i s a c o n s t a n t t r a n s i t i o n . Fo r h i s su c ce s s

i n making money t h e seaman r e j e c t s , n e g l e c t s , o r i s ex c luded

from th e forms o f i n t e r a c t i o n n e c e s s a r y t o co n ve r t h i s r e

wards i n t o p o s i t i v e s t a t u s s p e c i f i c s e l f e v a l u a t i o n s . He

f i n d s i t d i f f i c u l t t o e s t a b l i s h a n d / o r m a i n t a i n r e l a t i o n

s h i p s and e n jo y t h e s e c u r i t y and permanence o f such f r i e n d

s h i p s . He ha s n e i t h e r t h e t ime no r t he o p p o r t u n i t y t o work

a t e s t a b l i s h i n g such c l o s e a s s o c i a t i o n s ( S h e r a r , 1973: 18 ) .

Hi s a s s o c i a t i o n s , as a r u l e , a r e c o n d i t i o n a l , l i m i t e d ,

t emporary and s u p e r f i c i a l ( c f . L em er t , 1967: 119 -132 ) .

T h i s s u p e r f i c i a l i t y , i n many c a s e s , p a s s e s f o r f r i e n d s h i p s .

The seaman g r a d u a l l y i s drawn f a r t h e r and f a r t h e r away

from l i f e on t he be ach . The r e s u l t s o f t h e i n h e r e n t p r o b

lems o f l o n e l i n e s s and a l i e n a t i o n , as t h e seaman a t t e m p t s t o

overcome h i s m a rg in a l s t a t u s , i s t he theme of t h i s r e s e a r c h .

I ndeed m a r g i n a l i t y i s a theme which p e r v a d e s t h e s o c i a l

e x i s t e n c e o f merchan t seamen ( S h e r a r , 1973) . Like P a r k ' s

(1950: 345-392) and S t o n e q u i s t ' s (1961) m a rg in a l man,

S immel ' s (1971: 143-149) and S c h u l z ' s (1976: 91-105)

s t r a n g e r , and S c h u t z ' s (1976: 106-119) homecomer, t he mer

chant seaman t y p i c a l l y i s no t a f u l l y i n t e r g r a t e d member i n

any s o c i a l wor ld i n which he p a r t i c i p a t e s .

The s t r a n g e r i s one who t r i e s t o be p e rm a n en t l y a c c e p t

ed o r a t l e a s t t o l e r a t e d by t h e group which he a p p ro a ch e s .

To him th e c u l t u r a l p a t t e r n o f t h e app roached group does not

20

r e p r e s e n t a t e s t e d sys tem o f r e c i p e s ( t o d e f i n e s i t u a t i o n s )

because he does no t p a r t a k e i n t h e h i s t o r i c a l b a se by which

i t h a s been formed. The c u l t u r a l p a t t e r n o f a group i s a

d e s i g n a t i o n f o r a l l t h e f o lkways , more s , l aws, h a b i t s ,

cu s toms , e t i q u e t t e , f a s h i o n , e t c . , which c h a r a c t e r i z e any

s o c i a l group a_t a g iv en momen t i n h i s t o r y . The f a c t t h a t

t h e s e p a t t e r n s a r e e v e r - c h a n g i n g i s o f impor tance in u n d e r

s t a n d i n g t he s o c i a l p o s i t i o n o f t he seaman.

The s t r a n g e r t h e r e f o r e , app ro ach es t he group a s a new

comer. He may be w i l l i n g and a b l e t o sh a r e t he p r e s e n t and

f u t u r e w i t h them but he r ema ins ex c luded from such e x p e r i

ence s t h a t make up i t s p a s t . The s t r a n g e r i n t e r p r e t s t h i s

new s o c i a l env iornment u s i n g h i s o ld r e c i p e s b r ough t from

h i s o l d g roup; t he group from which he w i she s t o l e ave f o r

e n t r a n c e i n t o t h i s o t h e r g roup. He c o n s e q u e n t l y l o s e s h i s

b e a r i n g s i n t h i s new group .

The a d a p t i o n o f t he s t r a n g e r t o t h i s o t h e r group i s a

c o n t i n u o u s p r o c e s s o f i n q u i r y i n t o t h e c u l t u r a l p a t t e r n of

t he new group . I f t h i s p r o c e s s o f i n q u i r y s u c c e e d s , t hen

t h e s e p a t t e r n s become a m a t t e r o f c o u r s e , an u n q u e s t i o n a b l e

way of l i f e . He i s no l o n ge r a s t r a n g e r .

The seaman, b e cau se o f h i s j o b , i s u n a b l e t o m a i n t a i n

t h i s c o n t i n u o u s p r o c e s s o f i n q u i r y . His t ime spen t on t he

beac h i s c o n t i n u a l l y b e i n g i n t e r r u p t e d by t r i p s t o s e a . For

t he m a j o r i t y o f seamen t h e s e t r i p s a r e made w i t h new peop l e

a n d / o r on a new s h i p . He may a g a i n be a s t r a n g e r . He

21

w is h e s t o become a p a r t o f t he shore s i d e community but does

n o t . In e f f e c t he i s a s t r a n g e r t o b o t h w o r l d s . Like the

s t r a n g e r he w i s h e s t o l e ave one group f o r t he o t h e r , bu t he

i s una b l e t o c a s t o f f t h e r o l e o f seaman beca use o f t he

n a t u r e o f h i s o c c u p a t i o n . The s t r a n g e r as p o r t r a y e d by

Schut z (1976) and Simmel (1971) i s an i n d i v i d u a l a t t e m p t i n g

t o j o i n a group which i s not and ne v e r ha s been h i s own.

Con se q ue n t l y , a l l seamen may no t f i t t h e t y p i c a l d e f i n i t i o n .

The homecomer o f Schut z (1976) however e x p e c t s t o r e t u r n t o

an envi ronment o f which he " a lways had" and so he t h i n k s

s t i l l h a s an i n t i m a t e knowledge o f .

The home i s t he p l a c e t o which a man i n t e n d s t o r e t u r n

when he i s away from i t . To f e e l a t home, e x p r e s s e s a h igh

deg re e ( i f no t t h e h i g h e s t ) o f f a m i l i a r i t y and i n t im ac y .

L i f e a t home means t o have i n common w i t h o t h e r s a s e c t i o n

o f t ime and s p a c e , and i n t e r e s t s ba sed upon u n d e r l y i n g

homogeneous sys tems o f r e l e v a n c e . These a r e a p a r t o f o n e ' s

own a u to b i o g r a p h y ; an e lement o f h i s p e r s o n a l h i s t o r y . What

he i s , what he grew to be and what he w i l l become a r e c o

de t e rm in e d by h i s t a k i n g p a r t i n t he r e l a t i o n s h i p s which

p r e v a i l w i t h i n t h e home group.

Th i s i s t he c o n t e x t o f t he home s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e f o r

t h e man who l i v e s i n i t . I t changes e n t i r e l y f o r t he man

who l e a v e s home. He ha s s t e p p e d I n t o a n o t h e r s o c i a l s t r u c

t u r e no t cove r ed by t he schemes o f r e f e r e n c e f o r l i f e at

home. He no l o n g e r p a r t i c i p a t e s i n i tB e x p e r i e n c e s ,

22

c o n s e q u e n t l y h i s development w i t h i n t h e s e Bchemes of r e f

e r e n c e ha s come to a s t a n d s t i l l .

There a r e s t i l l means o f communica t ion; t he l e t t e r , and

phone c a l l s . But t h e s e p r e s u p p o se t h a t e ach p a r t y i s t he

same as t h e one each l e f t b e h in d . T h i s assumes t h a t l i f e

w i l l c o n t i n u e t o be what i t h a s been 60 f a r . But o t h e r

t h i n g s w i l l have become i m por t an t f o r b o t h , o l d e x p e r i e n c e s

a r e r e e v a l u a t e d ; new ones a r e i n a c c e s s i b l e t o t he o t h e r ,

which have become p a r t o f each o t h e r ' s l i f e .

The r e a s o n s f o r t h e s e changes i n e ach p a r t n e r ' s sys tem

of r e l e v a n c e i s t h e change i n d e g r e e o f i n t im ac y .

The t erm in t im ac y d e s i g n a t e s . . . the d e g re e o f r e l i a b l e knowledge we have of a n o t h e r p e r s o n o r a s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p , a g roup o r a c u l t u r a l p a t t e r n . I n t i m a t e knowledge e n a b l e s u s t o i n t e r p r e t what he mean6 and t o f o r e c a s t h i s a c t i o n s and r e a c t i o n s . . . But s e p a r a t i o n c o n c e a l s t he o t h e r b e h in d a s t r a n g e d i s g u i s e , h a rd t o remove ( S c h u t z , 1976: 113) .

The d e g re e o f i n t im ac y i s e x p e r i e n c e d d i f f e r e n t l y by

t h e one ab sen t and by t h e home g roup . The home group con

t i n u e s i t s d a i l y l i f e , w i t h i n i t s cus tomary p a t t e r n , e x p e r i

e n c i n g change and a d a p t i n g i t s e l f t o t h e s e changes . The

home group may have o t h e r g o a l s and o t h e r means f o r a c h i e v

ing them. The man who l e a v e s , e x p e r i e n c e s t h i s same

p r o c e s s . The homecoming a t i t s wor s t r e p r e s e n t s a me e t i n g

o f s t r a n g e r s . At b e s t , t h e s o l u t i o n o f t r a n s f o r m i n g t h e s e

d i f f e r e n t p e r s o n a l h i s t o r i e s i n t o a r e c u r r e n t one r emains

an u n a t t a i n a b l e g r a s p toward t h e i d e a l .

23

The . . . f a c t t h a t we grow o l d e r , t h a t nove l e x p e r i e n c e s emerge c o n t i n u o u s l y

t h a t p r e v i o u s e x p e r i e n c e s a r e pe rm an en t l y r e c e i v i n g a d d i t i o n a l i n t e r p r e t a t i v e meanings i n t h e l i g h t o f t h e s e . . . e x p e r i e n c e s , which have , more o r l e s s , changed our s t a t e o f mind — a l l o f t h e s e b a s i c f e a t u r e s o f our menta l l i f e b a r a r e c u r r e n c e o f t he same ( S c h u t z , 1976: 115) ,

One can ne v e r b a t h e tw ice i n t he same r i v e r no r walk

t he same r o a d , a r e p h i l o s o p h i c a l n o t i o n s which convey t he

same message . The homecomer r e t u r n s w i t h memory o f p a s t

e x p e r i e n c e s , bu t t h e s e e x p e r i e n c e s now have o t h e r meanings

t o t h o s e a t home. In s h o r t , t he home he l e f t i s no t t he

home t o which he r e t u r n s ; no r i s he t h e same man who l e f t .

T h i s h o l d s t r u e no m a t t e r whet t he l e n g t h o f absence ; t he

d i f f e r e n c e w i l l be i n d e g r e e , no t k i n d .

The m arg in a l man i s one whom f a t e has condemned t o l i v e

i n two s o c i e t i e s . He iB a c u l t u r a l h y b r i d on t he ve rge of

two d i f f e r e n t p a t t e r n s o f group l i f e , no t knowing t o which

o f them he b e lo n gs ( P a r k , 1928) . He s t a n d s on t he marg in s

o f two c u l t u r a l w o r l d s , bu t i s f u l l y a member o f n e i t h e r .

The seaman i s m a rg in a l because he has v e n t u r e d away from

h i s o r i g i n a l c u l t u r a l group and e n t e r e d i n t o a n o t h e r s o c i a l

w o r l d . There a r e t h r e e p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r t h i s pe r s o n

(Gordon, 1954: 1964) . He can r e t u r n t o t h e o r i g i n a l g roup-

homecomer; he can a t t e m p t t o become a s s i m i l a t e d i n t o t h e new

g r o u p - s t r a n g e r ; o r a t h i r d p o s s i b i l i t y i s t h a t t h e r e i s the

g r ad u a l f o rm a t io n o f a s u b s o c i e t y composed o f ma rg ina l men

24

(Go ldbe rg , 1941; Hughes , 1949) . The seamen, a s a g roup ,

r e t a i n a l l t h r e e p e r s p e c t i v e s .

Marg ina l i n d i v i d u a l s can e s t a b l i s h and l i v e t h e i r l i v e s

i n a ma rg i na l g roup , h a r d l y knowing t h a t t hey a r e do i ng so .

They a r e no t aware o f t h e i r m a r g i n a l i t y , by v i r t u e o f l i v i n g

t o g e t h e r i n a somewhat i n s u l a t e d l i f e and a r e made up o f

peop l e o f t he most d i v e r s e background who have in common,

n o t h i n g bu t t h e i r m a r g i n a l i t y (Hughes, 1949) .

For t he i n d i v i d u a l i n t h e m arg in a l group a l l i s normal .

He knows n o t h i n g e l s e . Wi th in t he c o n f i n e s o f h i s own group

he i s c o m p l e t e ly a t home and a t e a s e ; i t i s he r e t h a t he

c a r r i e s on t he ma jo r p a r t o f h i s a c t i o n s (Go ldbe rg , 1941) .

The seaman e x p e r i e n c e s p e r i o d s o f t r a n s i t i o n and c o n f l i c t

when he t r i e s t o r e e n t e r t he shore s i d e community. While

a l l o f us e x p e r i e n c e p e r i o d s o f t r a n s i t i o n and c o n f l i c t ,

t h i s p e r i o d f o r t h e m ar g in a l seaman t e n d s t o become

permanent ( P a r k , 1928) .

The seaman l i v e s i n two w o r l d s . But he i s on ly mar

g i n a l t o one; t h e r o l e he p l a y s t o f a m i ly and community.

The r o l e o f t he seaman i s i t s e l f a m a r g i n a l r o l e - a member

o f a m a rg in a l group .

A marg i na l r o l e i s an i m p e r f e c t l y i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d one , which means t h a t t h e r e i s some am b i gu i t y i n t h e p a t t e r n s o f b e h a v i o r l e g i t i m a t e l y e x p e c t e d o f a p e r s o n f i l l i n g t he r o l e , and t h a t t he s o c i a l s a n c t i o n s a t t e n d i n g t h e r o l e t e n d t o be i n c o n s i s t e n t l y a p p l i e d (Wardwel l , 1952: 340) .

25

Because o f t he m a r g i n a l n a t u r e o f h i s o c c u p a t i o n , i n s t i

t u t i o n a l i z e d s o c i a l bonds have s i g n i f i c a n t l y l e s s r e g u l a t o r y

power ov e r t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s .

Membership i n a m a r g in a l group i s no t a p o s i t i o n i n

l imbo as Pa rk and S t o n e q u i s t p o r t r a y i t (Antonovsky, 1956) .

The seaman i s i n t e g r a t e d i n t o a g roup o f ma rg ina l men and he

i s m a r g i na l t o t h e sho re s i d e c u l t u r e . For t he seaman, work

t a k e s p l a c e i n a s e t t i n g w i t h o u t l ong t erm p e r s o n a l commit

ment s t o j o b s , t o p l a c e , o r t o c o -w o r k e r s . On t h e beach ,

s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s t e n d t oward t he t r a n s i t o r y , and where long

t e rm r e l a t i o n s a r e e s t a b l i s h e d t he seaman i s f o r c e d t o p a r

t i a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n .

The seaman i s no t a m a rg in a l i n d i v i d u a l i n t h e s ense

Pa rk d e f i n e s i t , b ecau se he i s a p a r t i c i p a n t member o f a

m a r g i n a l c u l t u r e . The norms and b e h a v i o r p a t t e r n s which he

ha s a b so r b ed and made a p a r t o f h i m s e l f , ove r a l ong p e r i o d

o f y e a r s , a r e i n a d e q u a t e t o meet new s i t u a t i o n s . These

new d e f i n i t i o n s a r e imposed on a m a t u r e p e r s o n a l i t y , con

s e q u e n t l y he r e t a i n s h i s o ld m a r g in a l c u l t u r e p e r s p e c t i v e

i n t h i s new s i t u a t i o n and u s u a l l y r emains f o r t h e r e s t of

h i s l i f e a m a r g i n a l man. The m ar g i n a l c u l t u r e may g i ve the

i n d i v i d u a l d e f i n i t i o n s o f h i s s i t u a t i o n t h a t a r e i n a d e q u a t e .

I nad e qu a t e i n t h e s e n se t h a t t hey c o n f l i c t o r a r e in con

t r a s t w i t h d e f i n i t i o n s p r o v i d e d him by t h e o t h e r c u l t u r e s

o r c u l t u r e s i n which he i s a t t e m p t i n g t o p a r t i c i p a t e . The

seaman i s p o i s e d be tween two c u l t u r e s . But f o r him t h i s i s

26

n o rm a l , no t m a r g i n a l . He knows n o t h i n g e l s e (Goldberg ,

1941) . I t d e f i n e s h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e sho re s i d e

s o c i e t y and t h e t r a d i t i o n a l seaman c u l t u r e .

The k i n d o f s o c i a l wor ld c r e a t e d by t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f

m a rg in a l men, t h e i r a t t e m p t s t o overcome the s t r a n g e r r o l e

t o f ami ly and community, and t h e i r a t t e m p t s a t b e i n g a

s u c c e s s f u l homecomer a r e t he p rob l ems looked a t i n t h i s

r e s e a r c h . The seaman i s be tween two wo r l d s ; t he s h ip and

t he s h o r e . Hi s r em a in in g a t s ea f o r such l ong p e r i o d s

makes him i n c a p a b l e o f f u l l p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t he shore s i d e

c u l t u r e . The a d a p t a t i o n s o f t h e s e men as a group forms a

m a rg in a l c u l t u r e . (There a r e even s u b c u l t u r e s w i t h i n t he

m arg in a l c u l t u r e aboard s h i p . ) He i s u n l i k e t he marg ina l

man as d e f i n e d by Pa rk and S t o n e q u i s t , bu t s i m i l a r to

G o l d b e r g ' s q u a l i f i c a t i o n o f t h e i r concept ( 1941 ) .

Goldberg (1941) s e e s pe o p l e be tween two c u l t u r e s form

in g a ma rg i na l c u l t u r e t o dea l w i t h t h e i r m a r g i n a l i t y . The

seaman i s be tween two wor l d s s i n c e he spends t ime i n b o t h ;

one c o n t a i n s h i s l i v e l i h o o d , t h e o t h e r h i s f a m i ly , f r i e n d s

and community. A marg i na l c u l t u r e d e ve lo ps from the i n t e r

a c t i o n o f t h i s group o f men a t t e m p t i n g t o s e t t l e t h i s i n t r a

wor ld c o n f l i c t . T h i s , o f c o u r s e , p r e s u p p o s e s t h a t t h e r e i s

a "pu re seamen" c u l t u r e composed o f men w i t h no t i e s t o t he

sh o re and no wi sh t o have any ( s e a dad dy ) . He ha s undergone

" c u m u l a t i v e s o c i a l i z a t i o n " i n t o t he o l d seamen c u l t u r e

(Banks ton , e t a l . , 1981) . I n d i v i d u a l s who f i t t h i s

27

d e s c r i p t i o n a r e few; anach ron i sms from th e rough , c a r e f r e e ,

d runken and p e r h a p s ro m an t i c p a s t o f t h e merchant ma r i ne .

These men a r e a t y p i c a l , t h e m a rg in a l g roup b e i n g t h e more

numerous .

Becoming A Seaman

G e t t i n g In

As i s t r u e o f v i r t u a l l y any o c c u p a t i o n , t h e r e a r e a

v a r i e t y o f pa thways t o becoming a merchant seaman, but t h e r e

a p pe a r s t o be s i x t h a t a r e p r ed om in an t . F i r s t , many e n t e r

b e cau se t hey have r e l a t i v e s which a r e seamen. T h i s seems to

be t h e mode. Second, " f o r e i g n e r s , " who may o r may not be

U n i t ed S t a t e s c i t i z e n s o f t e n become seamen beca use i t o f f e r s

a s i t u a t i o n i n which t h ey may a s s o c i a t e w i t h many o f t h e i r

own and can be p a i d we l l f o r minimal job s k i l l s . T h i r d ,

many a r e r e t i r e d o r ex-Navy o r Coas t Guard p e r s o n n e l . They

t y p i c a l l y have 6 k i l l s and e x p e r i e n c e t h a t a l l o w them h i g h e r

s t a r t i n g p o s i t i o n s . A f o u r t h group i s b e s t d e s c r i b e d as

" d r i f t e r s . " They d r i f t i n and s h i p out on ly when t h e i r c i r

cums tances f o r c e them to i t . O f t e n t h ey a r e s e m i - t r a n s i e n t s

and sometimes a r e p a i r s o f men who "hang t o g e t h e r " s h i p p i n g

o u t , and l i v i n g and t r a v e l i n g t o g e t h e r when on t he beach .

T y p i c a l l y , t h e s e men on l y t ake r e l i e f j ob s becau se t h i s

q u a l i f i e s them f o r unemployment compensa t i on a f t e r com

p l e t i n g t he r e l i e f .

A f i f t h g roup i s made o f t h o s e younge r men i n o f f i c e r s

u n i o n s , who have g r a d u a t e d from m a r i t i m e academies . They

28

t y p i c a l l y have no t r ema ined i n t h e o c c u p a t i o n v e ry long.

But as t he t e ch no l og y o f merchant v e s s e l s becomes more com

p l e x , t h i s may i ndeed become the dominant g roup . A t r e n d

which ha s s t a r t e d a l r e a d y , p a r t i c u l a r l y among e n g i n e e r s i s

t o o p e r a t e i t s own t r a i n i n g s choo l f o r c a d e t s . Th i s p r o

duces t r a i n e d e n g i n e e r s w i t h a s e n se o f l o y a l t y and a t t a c h

ment t o b o t h t he o c c u p a t i o n and t he un ion ( c f . B a s s i s and

Roseng ren , 1975) .

A smal l group o f o l d e r men make up a s i x t h g roup .

These men a r e t y p i c a l l y e n t e r i n g i n t o a second c a r e e r

becau se o f d e a t h o f a sp ou se , s e l l i n g t h e i r b u s i n e s s o r

r e t i r e m e n t from a n o t h e r p r o f e s s i o n . They a r e r e l a t i v e l y

we l l o f f f i n a n c i a l l y and w i l l on ly s h i p as l ong as t hey

e n jo y i t . A r e s p on se from one such man about why he was

go ing t o sea was,

Have on ly been s h i p p i n g one y e a r . . .Wi l l c o n t i n u e s a i l i n g as long as I l i k e i t . My two c h i l d r e n a r e grown and s e l f s u p p o r t i n g . I e n jo y t he work , on s h i p 1 have met many n i c e and w o r t hw h i l e men, same as t h e men I worked a s h o r e w i t h . S a i l o r s seem to be l o n e r s more t han t h e aver age p e r s o n a s h o r e . S t a r t e d on s h i p s f o r a change i n c a r e e r . So f a r so good.B i g advan t age f o r me on s h i p i s no commuting l i k e 9 t o 5 sho re j ob .B e in g s i n g l e , I have no d i s h e s t o wash o r food t o p r e p a r e .

R e g a r d l e s s o f o r i g i n s , t he f i r s t s t e p i n t h e e n t r a n c e

p r o c e s s i s o b t a i n i n g a s eaman ' s p a s s p o r t ("Z c a r d " ) from the

Coas t Guard (a f o r m a l i t y ) , and t h en j o i n i n g a un i on i n o r d e r

t o s e c u r e employment . O b s t i n a t e l y , seamens ' un io n s have

29

an open a d m i t t a n c e p o l i c y , but t h i s I s m i s l e a d i n g . The new

seaman i s pu t i n one o f s e v e r a l s t r a t a , w i t h j obs p a s s i n g

down from one t o a n o t h e r 1 f no one a c c e p t s them. Through

t h i s s t r u c t u r e , "book members" ( t h e h i g h e s t g roup , which

have been f u l l - t i m e seamen f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s ) a r e p r o t e c t e d

from job l o s s t o lower members. Whi le h a v i n g t he appea rance

o f a b r o t h e r h o o d o f e q u a l s w i t h an "open -doo r" p o l i c y , t h e r e

i s l i t t l e "b ro th e r h o od " a t a l l . In f a c t , t he s t r u c t u r e of

t he u n i o n s , as w e l l a s t he o c c u p a t i o n , g e n e r a l l y f u n c t i o n s

t o p roduce c o m p e t i t i o n , s u s p i c i o n , and i s o l a t i o n i n i t s

members. A un ion o f f i c i a l commented t o me t h a t t h e r e i s

such a l a c k o f b r o t h e r h o o d , i f a s t r i k e were c a l l e d , he

d o u b t s i f he co u l d ge t enough men t o man a p i c k e t l i n e .

Ge t t i ng On: The Soc i a l Organi z a t i o n of t he Union Hal 1

Al l j obs b e g i n w i t h a c o m p e t i t i v e b i d d i n g p r o c e s s in

t h e u n i o n h a l l . Upon e n t e r i n g a un i on crew h a l l i n a l a r g e

c i t y , t h e seaman i s c o n f r o n t e d by p r o b ab l y t he most e t h n i

c a l l y d i v e r s e o c c u p a t i o n i n t h e c o u n t r y . Al though dominated

by w h i t e and b l a c k Amer i cans , t he seaman must be co gn i zan t

o f t he d i f f e r e n c e s be tween h i m s e l f and many of t he o t h e r s .

There ha s been a t remendous i n f l u x o f S p a n i s h - s p e a k i n g and

O r i e n t a l p e o p l e ( p a r t i c u l a r l y F i l i p i n o s ) , a l t h o u g h o f f i c e r

u n i o n s a r e s t i l l domina t ed by n a t i v e w h i t e s . N e v e r t h e l e s s ,

i t i s t h e n a t u r e o f t h e o c c u p a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e which a l i e n

a t e s t he seaman from h i s companion w o r k e r s , no t t h e c u l t u r a l

d i v e r s i t y .

5

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The merchant Beaman does no t B t a r t h i s t r i p on boa rd

s h i p , bu t w i t h i n t h e c o n f i n e s o f t he un i o n h a l l . "Ca t ch ing"

a s h i p , work ing on one , g e t t i n g o f f , and spe nd i ng t ime on

t h e beach a r e a l l p a r t o f a c y c l e he w i l l comp le t e many

t ime s i n h i s c a r e e r . I t i s a p r o c e s s which b r i n g s him and

h i s c o - w or ke r s t o g e t h e r s p a t i a l l y , and s i m u l t a n e o u s l y s e p a

r a t e s them s o c i a l l y .

F o r m a l l y , j obs a r e o b t a i n e d by " b i d d in g " on them a t the

un i on h a l l . The b i d i s made w i t h a r e g i s t r a t i o n c a r d t h a t

b e a r s a d a t e , job t i t l e , and group s t a t u s . Members o f lower

s t a t u s g r oups s u c c e s s f u l l y b i d on ly on j obs p a s s e d by t h ose

i n h i g h e r g r o up s . Seamen a r e , t h e n , i n h e r e n t l y c o m p e t i t o r s

f o r work. But t h i s i s no t t he on ly method u sed t o c a t c h a

s h i p . There a r e a l s o " l e s s t h an f u l l y l e g i t i m a t e " schemes

t h e o c c u p a t i o n a l i n s i d e r may u t i l i z e . For example , when

s h i p s w i t h u n i o n i z e d crews r e a c h p o r t , a un i on "pa t ro lma n"

comes ab oa rd t o d e t e r m i n e what j obs w i l l be open. A v a i l a b l e

j obs a r e t h en t o be r e t u r n e d t o t he un io n h a l l f o r f u l l -

members t o b i d upon. Jobs on a p a r t i c u l a r s h i p , however ,

can be pu t on t h e boa rd i n t h e h a l l a t d i f f e r e n t t im es .

Thus , t h e number a p p e a r i n g may be d e c e i v i n g . A job o r j ob s

may be h e l d back t o t h e l a s t job c a l l when most p e op l e have

l e f t , o r a t l e a s t t hos e w a n t i n g t h a t p a r t i c u l a r s h i p have .

In t h i s way, t he p a t r o l m a n i s a b l e t o a i d i n o b t a i n i n g j obs

f o r some, w h i l e " p l a y i n g i t s a f e . " A no t so s a f e a l t e r n a

t i v e i s s imply no t t o a l l o w th e job t o r e t u r n t o t h e h a l l a t

31

a l l . N e v e r t h e l e s s , even i f a member were t o d i s c o v e r a job

was ga in e d w i t h o u t b i d , t o p r o t e s t he must r e p o r t i t to

a n o t h e r un ion o f f i c i a l who i s a l s o a member o f t h e o f f i c i a l

p o l i t i c a l un io n " f a m i l y . ” N e e d l e s s t o s a y , t h e p r a c t i c e

goes u n c h a l l e n g e d s i n c e most seamen u n d e r s t a n d t h e sys tem

and r e a l i z e t h a t t hey may m a n i p u l a t e i t a t some t ime as

w e l l . The a c c e p t i n g o f t h i s sys tem ha s an h i s t o r i c a l base

In t h e o l d h i r i n g sys tem t h a t p r e - d a t e d u n i o n s . The o c c a

s i o n a l h o ne s t man i n t h e o l d h i r i n g sys tem was u s u a l l y

dumped by h i s c o l l e a g u e s as a t h r e a t t o t h e r a c k e t . Every

seaman who worked had made u se o f t h e c o r r u p t s t r u c t u r e

(R a sk in , 1967: 19) .

Ano the r m a n i p u l a t i v e s t r a t e g y o f g e t t i n g on i s " t h ro w

ing a job back i n . " I f a seaman want s a job bu t doe s no t

have a r e g i s t r a t i o n c a r d t h a t i s " o l d enough" to ge t one , he

may work a d e a l w i t h someone w i t h an o l d c a r d . When and i f

t he seamen w i t h t he o l d e r c a r d g e t s t he j o b , he h o l d s i t

u n t i l a few m in u t e s b e f o r e t he l a s t j ob c a l l s a r e made, t h en

r e t u r n s t h e j ob t i c k e t t o t h e d i s p a t c h e r . The f e l l o w w i t h

t he newer c a r d t hen ha s a b e t t e r chance s i n c e t he job i s

un e xp ec t e d and some who might have t a k e n i t have l e f t f o r

t he day.

Between j o b s , de pend ing on t he a v a i l a b i l i t y o f j obs

and h i s a b i l i t y t o m a n i p u l a t e t he sys tem, the seaman may

spend from h o u r s t o months i n a un ion h a l l . When he i s

t h e r e , he w i l l f o r t he most p a r t be among s t r a n g e r s and

32

mere a c q u a i n t a n c e s . Seamen have few, i f any, long term

f r i e n d s h i p s w i t h o t h e r seamen. He e x p e r i e n c e s s o c i a l

i s o l a t i o n and s e c l u s i o n f o r much t he same r e a so n t h a t

Lemert (1967: 123) n o t e s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t he s y s t e m a t i c

check f o r g e r . His s e c l u s i v e n e s s ,

. . . i s r e i n f o r c e d by h i g h m o b i l i t y , which n e c e s s a r i l y makes h i s c o n t a c t s and i n t e r a c t i o n s o f a s h o r t - l i v e d v a r i e t y , he s imply does no t have t h e t ime t o b u i l d up c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t he p e op l e he m ee t s .

The seaman w a i t i n g be tween h o u r l y j ob c a l l s g e n e r a l l y

s i t s a round t h e h a l l engag ing i n what seems t o be meaning

l e s s c o n v e r s a t i o n . However, he may p i c k up v a l u a b l e i n f o r

m a t io n r e g a r d i n g s h i p s , a v a i l a b l e j o b s , and o v e r t i m e . In

f a c t , t h e r e a l pu rpose o f t hose ex t en ded c o n v e r s a t i o n s a r e

n o t h i n g more t h a n means o f e x t r a c t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n . In the

un ion h a l l t he seaman e x p e r i e n c e s t he l o s s o f s o c i a l i d e n

t i t y . He cannot depend on t h e s e p e r s o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n s fo r

s o c i a l and p s y c h o l o g i c a l s u p p o r t . Moreover , h i s a b i l i t y

t o ge t good j o b s depends on knowing more and ha v ing more

" c o n n e c t i o n s ” t han t he nex t f e l l o w , and m a n i p u l a t i n g the

sys tem. Hi s un ion h a l l c o n v e r s a t i o n s a r e b e s t d e s c r i b e d as

i n t e r p e r s o n a l " e x t r a c t i o n s . " Each " s t r a n g e r " p robes t he

o t h e r f o r I n f o r m a t i o n , hop i ng he w i l l r e v e a l some v i t a l i n

f o r m a t io n such a s who may be p l a n n i n g t o g e t o f f a 6h ip a t

t he l a s t m in u t e , o r which s h i p s w i l l pay a l o t o f ov e r t i m e .

N e i t h e r p a r t i c i p a n t i s commit ted t o t h e o t h e r , bu t a r e on ly

conce rned w i t h knowledge t o be o b t a i n e d from such i n t e r

a c t i o n . Each g i v e s a c y n i c a l pe r fo rmance (Goffman, 1973:

18) i n t h a t he i s d e l u d i n g h i s aud i e nce f o r p u r p o s e s o f

s e l f - i n t e r e s t . As ide from ex t en ded i n f o r m a t i o n p r ob es and

m e a n in g l e s s Bmall t a l k , t h e seaman i s wi thd rawn . He has

become a l o n e r i n a group o f l o n e r s who w i l l soon be c a s t

t o g e t h e r f o r an ex tended p e r i o d o f t ime . I f t he seaman does

no t r e s i d e i n a p o r t c i t y o r i f s h i p p i n g i s no t good i n t he

p o r t i n which he does r e s i d e , he w i l l need t o r e n t a room

u n t i l such t ime as he does c a t c h a s h i p . T h i s assumes , o f

c o u r s e , t h a t he does no t have a permanent s h i p . T y p i c a l l y

he w i l l spend a l l h i s days i n t he u n i o n h a l l and h i s e v e

n i n g s a l o n e , e i t h e r s i g h t - s e e i n g , r e a d i n g o r go i ng t o a

movie . One seaman s a i d he went t o two or t h r e e movies a

day . U n t i l he e i t h e r g e t s a job o r r u ns ou t o f money he

w i l l r emain i n t h i s s i t u a t i o n . I f he l i v e s c l o s e enough

he may go home on t h e weekends. When he does ge t a j ob ,

t h e r e w i l l a lways be a guy i n t he h a l l who makes h i s l i v i n g

d r i v i n g seamen t o t h e d o c t o r and t o t h e i r s h i p ; r e g a r d l e s s

o f where i t i s .

Going t o Sea

P r e - E n t r a n c e Binge

Once t h e seaman knows he has a s h i p , he t y p i c a l l y en

gages i n a " c e l e b r a t i o n " o f s e l f - i n d u l g e n c e . Such a p r e

e n t r a n c e b i n g e i s l i k e l y common o f p e r s o n s who f o r e s e e

p ro l o n g e d d e p r i v a t i o n ( c f . Hulme, 1957: 7 ) , bu t f o r t he

34

seaman i t i s a l i f e - l o n g , though c y c l i c a l e x p e r i e n c e . I t

i s a r e c u r r i n g p e r s o n a l r i t e o f p a s s a g e t h rough which t he

seaman a c c e p t s h i s o c c u p a t i o n a l l y imposed e x i l e from the

r o u t i n e l i f e s t y l e s o f t h o s e p e rm a ne n t l y on t he b e ac h .

There i s t h e r e s en t m en t o f t he voyage ahead and t he r e a l i z a

t i o n t h a t he i s w i t h d r aw in g h i m s e l f from the major s o c i a l

wor ld t h a t e x i s t s a s h o r e .

V i r t u a l l y a l l seamen r e p o r t to v a r y i n g d e g r e e s some

s o r t o f s e l f - i n d u l g e n t r i t u a l b e f o r e r e t u r n i n g t o s e a .

Pe rhaps t he most h e d o n i s t i c a r e t h e young and s i n g l e w i th

a l c o h o l , s e x , and pe rhap s d rug s o f do m in a t i n g i n t e r e s t in

t he days b e f o r e s h i p p i n g o u t . I f t he seaman has no depend

e n t s , he can w i t h l i t t l e r e s e r v a t i o n spend a l l o f h i s money

because t he s h i p , as a t o t a l i n s t i t u t i o n , w i l l soon t ak e

c a r e o f a l l h i s ne e d s . Th i s c y c l i c a l p a t t e r n o f i n t e n s i f i e d

and d e s t r u c t i v e consumpt ion f o r many seems to be a major

o b s t a c l e t o l ong t erm a cc u m u l a t i o n o f w e a l t h . Whatever

s u r p l u s r ema ins a f t e r a p r o l o n g e d s t a y on t he beach i s

r a p i d l y u sed w i t h l i t t l e t hought o f i t s c o n s e r v a t i o n f o r

f u t u r e n e e d s . The p r e - e n t r a n c e b i n g e o f t h e m a r r i e d seaman

may be more c o n s e r v a t i v e , bu t b o t h he and h i s f ami ly come

to exp ec t i t . As t ime p r o g r e s s e s , t h e s e seem to become a

r o u t i n e f a m i ly c r i s i s p e r i o d , w i t h b o t h t h e seaman and h i s

f am i l y e x p e r i e n c i n g a s e n se o f r e l i e f when he i s f i n a l l y

e x t r a c a t e d from th e home sc e n e .

The d e f i n i t i o n o f t he s i t u a t i o n which seems u n i v e r s a l l y

t o m o t i v a t e t h e p r e - e n t r a n c e b i n g e i s t h e r e g a r d i n g o f t ime

35

a t s ea a s a p r i s o n s e n t e n c e soon t o be s e r v e d . Many of

t h o s e we i n t e r v i e w e d u sed t h i s v e r y ana logy w i t h o u t t he i n

t e r v i e w e r s u g g e s t i n g i t — p r a c t i c a l l y a l l a g r e e d t h i s was

a v a l i d compar i son . As one remarked: " I t ' s j u s t l i k e go ing

to j a i l * a t l e a s t t h a t ' s t he way you see i t . I even c r o s s

o f f t h e days a t sea on t h e c a l e n d a r j u s t l i k e a c o n v i c t

d o e s ."

A s h i p b o a r d o b s e r v e r would q u i c k l y a g r e e t o t he

g e n e r a l n a t u r e o f t h e b i n g e . I t i s no t unusua l t o f i n d a

number o f d runks aboard s h i p a t s a i l i n g and s e v e r a l men

m i s s i n g t h e i r f i r s t s ea w a t c h e s . Moreover , t h e r e i s an

ap p a r en t c o r r e l a t i o n be tween t he l e n g t h o f t he e x p e c t e d t r i p

and t h e number o f d runken crew and t he s e v e r i t y o f t h e i r

I n t o x i c a t i o n . But a l o n g w i t h t he r e s en tm en t and r e a l i z a t i o n

o f t h i s s e n t e n c e , t h e s e d e p a r t u r e s a r e a l s o l ooked t o w i th

g r e a t a n t i c i p a t i o n . The sea o f f e r s t o t h e seaman a form o f

r e l i e f , t o be c l e a r o f t he l and and i t s h u r r i e d e x i s t e n c e

( S h e r a r . 1973: 13) .

Channel Fever

E x p e c t a t i o n s b u i l d up w i t h t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f go ing

a s h o r e . The seaman e x p e r i e n c e s what he c a l l s " channe l

f e v e r . " The l o n g e r t h e s t a y a t s ea t he g r e a t e r t h e " f e v e r , "

b u t channe l f e v e r i s a t i t s peak when t he seaman comes i n t o

home p o r t . T h i s a n t i c i p a t i o n may l a s t f o r days o r on ly f o r

t he f i n a l h o u r s . But i t i s a lways t he same good f e e l i n g .

Everyone i s i n good s p i r i t s f o r t h i s s e n t e n c e ha s ended.

36

The p e r i o d a t aea i s one o f t e n s i o n s . These t e n s i o n s . . . mount as t h e s h i p s t a r t s . . . i t s homeward j o u r n ey .There i s a t remendous a n t i c i p a t i o n . The dream s t a r t s ; g o i n g home, s e e i n g a w i f e and c h i l d r e n , a new romance, t h e a n t i c i p a t i o n o f some th ing unknown and e x c i t i n g t h a t may happen; t h i s t ime l i f e sho re o r a t home w i l l be d i f f e r e n t . . . The a c t u a l a n t i c i p a t i o n i s o f t e n more I n t e n s e t han t h e r e a l s i t u a t i o n ( S h e r a r , 1973: 21 ) .

The Ch a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t he O c cu p a t i o n a l Communi t y oT t h e ~5eaman ” “ “

. . . t he d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r . . . p a s s e s f a r beyond p u r e l y economic i n t e r e s t , f o r i t c o n s i s t s i n t he e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a s o c i a l and moral o r d e r sui^ g e n e r i s .Through i t , i n d i v i d u a l s a r e TTnkeH to *” one a n o t h e r . Wi thout i t , t h ey would be i n d e p e n d e n t . I n s t e a d o f d e v e l o p i n g s e p a r a t e l y t hey pool t h e i r e f f o r t s .They a r e s o l i d a r y , bu t i t i s a s o l i d a r i t y which i s no t me re ly a q u e s t i o no f t he s h o r t t ime i n which s e r v i c e sa r e exchanged , bu t one which e x t e n d s much f u r t h e r . . . s o c i e t i e s c r e a t e d by t h e d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r cannot f a i l t o b e a r i t s mark (Durk l e im, 1946: 61 ) .

The merchant seaman spends t h e g r e a t e r p a r t o f h i s

work ing l i f e a t s e a . Here he l i v e s w i t h i n t he p h y s i c a l

s t r u c t u r e o f t he s h i p ; o f t e n w i t h i n t he c o n f i n e s o f h i s d e

p a r t m e n t , h i s wa tch and h i s r an k . These men come t o g e t h e r

by chan ce . They a r e o f d i f f e r e n t a g e s , i n t e r e s t s , o u t l o o k s

and backg ro un ds . Here each i s cu t o f f from th e c i r c um

s t a n c e s and ways o f l i f e on t h e be ech .

The r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t a r e d e r i v e d from work ing and

l i v i n g w i t h o t h e r s a r e s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s and form the

b a s i s f o r t he development o f an o c c u p a t i o n a l conxnunity

37

(Mac lve r , 1942: 6 ) . I t i s t he p a t t e r n o f p a s t p r a c t i c e s

which p r o v i d e a f ocus f o r p r e s e n t methods o f o r g a n i z a t i o n

and a p a t t e r n o f l i f e f o r a member o f an o c c u p a t i o n . Th is

p a t t e r n p l a c e s t h e worke r w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f h i s work

g roup; i t d e t e r m i n e s h i s s o c i a l s t a t u s , s t y l e s and forms

o f s o c i a l a c t i v i t y and h i s a t t i t u d e s t owa rds , and e x p e c t a

t i o n s o f , s o c i e t y in g e n e r a l and h i s community in p a r t i c

u l a r . Where o c c u p a t i o n s and community a r e no t i n s t e p ,

t h e r e w i l l be p r e s s u r e s on t he i n d i v i d u a l t o r enounce one

o r t h e o t h e r . In a l a r g e r s o c i e t y , "community v a l u e s "

( s o c i a l v a l u e s ) and s e a f a r i n g v a l u e s d i v e r g e c o n s i d e r a b l y

( F r i c k e , 1973a: 3 - 4 ) .

In complex s o c i e t i e s t h e r e a r e op p os in g s o c i a l f o r c e s ;

d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n and i n t e g r a t i o n (Behrend , 1957; Baldamus,

1951; Lawrence and L o r sc h , 1967: 8 - 2 0 ) . D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n i s

a f u n c t i o n o f t he d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r ; s k i l l s o r o c c u p a t i o n s

become h i g h l y s p e c i a l i z e d and c o n s e q u e n t l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d

from o t h e r s k i l l s o r o c c u p a t i o n s . I n t e g r a t i o n i s i m p l i ed by

t he word sys tem; s i n c e any s o c i a l sys tem must o p e r a t e as a

who1e .

These two f o r c e s must e x i s t i n e q u i l i b r i u m i f a s o c i a l

sys tem (community or o c c u p a t i o n ) i s t o o p e r a t e .

For t he s e a f a r e r t he i n i t i a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n i s t h a t posed by t h e envi ronment o f h i s work; p h y s i c a l s e p a r a t i o n from s o c i e t y a sh o r e and work ing i n a mobi le community s e t t he s e a f a r e r a p a r t f rom t h e landsmen o f t h e same age and soc ioeconomic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ( F r i c k e , 1973b: 145) .

38

The l e v e l o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l change ha s e f f e c t e d the

d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r o f t he crew so t h a t t h e d e n s i t y o f commu

na l l i n k s ha s been e f f e c t e d (Moreby, 1975) . Homogeneous

g roups w i t h i n t he s h i p crews a r e few; c o n s e q u e n t l y t hey a re

not l a r g e enough t o r e t a i n an i d e n t i t y w i t h i n t he l a r g e r

sh o re s o c i e t y ; t h e r e i s no t an o c c u p a t i o n a l conmuni ty a sho re

( F r i c k e , 1973a: 5 ) .

The d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n on boa rd t h e s h i p t h a t i s due t o . . . s oc ioeconomic i n e q u a l i t i e s i s l a r g e l y overcome by i n t e g r a t i o n t h rough t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e o f each r ank and s t a t u s . However, t h i s i n t e g r a t i o n r a r e l y e x t e n d s t o t he community a s h o r e , s i n c e t h e d i f f e r i n g backg rounds o f t he s e a f a r e r m i l i t a t e a g a i n s t i t ( F r i c k e , 1973 b : 146) .

T h i s d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n i s f u r t h e r ex t ended on t he s h i p

be tween s k i l l s , d e pa r t m e n t s and among t h o s e who work

d i f f e r e n t t ime s (Moreby, 1975) . I n t e g r a t i o n i n t o each of

t h e s e s u b c u l t u r e s o f t he s h i p b o a r d community r e q u i r e s t he

a cc ep t a n c e o f t he r e s p e c t i v e s u b c u l t u r e and a s s o c i a t e d

b e h a v i o r s . T h i s i n v o l v e s t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f s e l f w i t h

o t h e r s e a f a r e r s and t he acknowledgement o f common s o c i a l

norms and g o a l s . T h i s emphas i s upon t he o c c u p a t i o n a l group

f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e s t he d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n be tween t he s e a f a r e r

and l i f e a s h o r e . Conse que n t l y t h e r e a r e few i n t e g r a t i n g

mechanisms fo r l i n k i n g t h e seaman w i t h t he shore s i d e

s o c i e t y ( F r i c k e , 1973b: 146) .

Thus , cho os i ng t he s ea a s a c a r e e r can be s een as a

cho i ce be tween communi t i es . The shore community becomes

39

t h r e a t e n i n g t o t h e s e l f i d e n t i t y o f t he seaman, w h i l e t he

B h i p b o a r d community I s no t ( F r i c k e , 1974) .

Each r e t u r n from a t r i p reminds t he seaman he i s a man

l i v i n g be tween sys tems (Orbach , 1977: 263 ) . Shore peop l e

go t o work each day w i t h t he same s e t o f c o l l e a g u e s . A

f e a t u r e o f work a sh o r e i s s e e i n g t he same o l d f a c e s . The

seaman, who changes s h i p s , goes home on v a c a t i o n and r e t u r n s

t o a new s h i p w i t h new men. Consequen t l y t he membership of

h i s work ing group i6 c o n t i n u a l l y chang ing . He i s uncommit

t e d t o work p l a c e o r c o l l e a g u e s . N e i t h e r does he see

management a s f r i e n d l y , h a v in g l i t t l e c o n t a c t w i t h them

(Moreby, 1975: 161-162 ) .

Sh ip a s s i g nm en t s and group memberships a r e seen as

t emporary a f f a i r s , c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e r e i s a r e d u c t i o n i n t he

de g re e o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g a seaman has about h i s job and in

th e amount o f e f f o r t he putB i n t o d e v e l o p i n g harmonious

r e l a t i o n s and s h i p b o a r d f r i e n d s h i p s (Moreby, 1975: 158) .

T h i s wor ld a f l o a t i s an a r t i f i c i a l w o r l d , seamen r e f e r t o i t a s a n f l o a t i n g p r i s o n " where f o r t he d u r a t i o n o f t he r e t u r n voyage , l i f e must be l i v e d w i t h f e l l o w sh i p m a t e s , r e g a r d l e s s o f whe th e r t hey a r e p e r s o n a l f r i e n d s o r n o t . . .Al t hough f r i e n d s h i p s do grow and d e ve lo p a bo a r d , t hey a r e r a r e l y more t han s u p e r f i c i a l o r t r a n s i t o r y .

Seamen l i v e i n a wor ld o f chan ge s , and one i n which t h e r e i s a lways t u r n o v e r . A f t e r e ach voyage t h e r e i s a t u r n o v e r o f crew from s h i p t o s h i p , and voyage t o voyage . Except f o r o c c a s i o n a l c a s e s men remain w i t h

40

a s h i p f o r no more t h a n a y e a r , so t h a t t h e r o o t s , so n e c e s s a r y f o r a s ense o f permanency and s e c u r i t y a r e r a r e l y pu t down o r have a chance t ogrow and d e ve l op ( S h e r a r , 1973: x l ) .

Because o f t he p h y s i c a l c l o s e n e s s o f such a smal l

community and t he c o n s t a n t t u r n o v e r o f membership , many

seamen e x p r e s s a d e s i r e "no t t o ge t t oo c l o s e " t o o t h e r

crewmen; m a i n t a i n i n g t h a t t h e r e i s a need t o de f en d o n e ' s

p r i v a t e l i f e ( H e r b s t , 1968) . They cannot p h y s i c a l l y

w i thd raw from the s h i p , so t h e y t e n d t o wi thdraw inward ly

and may r e l i e v e t h e i r t e n s i o n s i n f a n t a s y , d rug s or in

a l c o h o l .

These f a c t o r s o f l i m i t e d i n t e r a c t i o n , e n f o r c e d

i n t i m a c y , t he f e e l i n g o f b e i n g be tween sy s t ems , group

p r e s s u r e t o m a i n t a i n s o c i a l norms and t he d e s i r e o f each

crewmen t o p r e s e r v e some p a r t o f h i s p e r s o n a l spa ce , work in

comb ina t i on w i t h one a n o t h e r t o p roduce c o n s i s t e n t b e h a v i o r

p a t t e r n s and s u b c u l t u r e s . These can be seen as a d a p t i o n s to

t he s e a f a r i n g p r o c e s s (Orbach, 1977: 265) .

The development o f power fu l s u b c u l t u r e s , e s p e c i a l l y

among r a t i n g s and o f f i c e r s and be tween d e p a r t m e n t s , can be

seen a s a c o l l e c t i v e p r o t e c t i v e s t r a t e g y o r i n d i v i d u a l modes

o f a d a p t i o n . T h i s e x i s t s t o l i m i t o r curb t he e f f e c t s o f

power o r formal a u t h o r i t y i m p l i c i t i n t he d i v i s i o n of l a b o r .

(The formal p a r a - m i l i t a r y a u t h o r i t y o f t he o f f i c e r s which

backed by power fu l l e g a l s a n c t i o n s i s a l s o ba sed on t h i s

d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r . ) These s o l u t i o n s can be v iewed as a form

41

o f r i t u a l i s m , i n which s o c i a l d i s t a n c e e s p e c i a l l y a c r o s s

o f f i c e r / r a t i n g and de ck , eng ine and s t ew a rd d e p a r t m e n t s , i s

u sed a s a p r o t e c t i v e d e v i c e by a l l s i d e s i n t h i s c a s t e - l i k e

s o c i a l d i v i s i o n (Nolan , 1973: 89 ) .

The seaman, a boa rd 6 h i p , i s a c a p t i v e t o h i s occupa

t i o n a l s t a t u s t o an i n o r d i n a t e d e g r e e . His p a t t e r n o f l i f e

bo t h on du ty and d u r i n g f r e e h o u r s i s a consequence o f occu

p a t i o n a l s t a n d i n g , t o an e x t e n t no t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f most

j ob s . He does no t go home to s i t a t t he "head o f t he

t a b l e , " bu t r a t h e r i n h i s o c c u p a t i o n a l d e s i g n a t e d mess h a l l ;

where he e a t s , s l e e p s and spends h i s f r e e t ime depends on

h i s j ob . The sho re s i d e work e r , can l o se h i s o c c u p a t i o n a l

i d e n t i t y i n t h e i m p e r s o n a l i t y o f an i n d u s t r i a l i z e d - u r b a n

s o c i e t y . The c o n c e n t r a t e d and compact n a t u r e o f t he s h i p ' s

community makes each m an ' s o c c u p a t i o n a l i d e n t i t y known to

h i s sh ip m a t e s ; an i d e n t i t y from which he does no t e scape

( C a s s e l , 1957) .

Hi s s o c i a l envi ronment c o n s i s t s o f t h e s e same p e o p l e to

whom he has a c l e a r l y d e f i n e d work r e l a t i o n s h i p . T h i s and

t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e i s a h igh deg ree o f t u r n o v e r makes i t

ex p ed i en t t o s t i c k t o t i t l e s i n s t e a d o f l e a r n i n g new names.

T h i s i s g r a p h i c a l l y e x p r e s s e d i n t h e h a b i t o f a d d r e s s i n g

b o t h o f f i c e r s and crew a c c o r d i n g t h e p o s i t i o n t hey ho ld

( i . e . C h i e f , Bosun, T h i r d , S t eward , Mess , BR, e t c . ) .

Those who have t he same t i t l e s ( i . e . AB’ s ) may a v o id

t h e s e d e s i g n a t i o n s and a r e a d d r e s s e d by name o r hometown.

42

The p r a c t i c a l i t y o f u s i n g job t i t l e i n d e s i g n a t i n g a p e r s o n ,

i s dependent upon t h e f a c t t h a t most p e o p l e on b o a rd s h i p

have t i t l e s which a r e no t s h a r e d by anybody e l s e , a t l e a s t

no one on t h e same wat ch (Auber t and A r n e r , 1958) .

The consequences o f t h i s " f o r c i n g o f m i l i t a r y l i f e "

upon c i v i l i a n s f o r e x t e nd ed p e r i o d s h a s , o f c o u r s e , p r o

duced a c l a s s c o n s c i o u s n e s s . T h i s i s e v id e n t in new crew

u n i o n c o n t r a c t s w i t h s h i p p i n g companies which p r o v i d e f o r

" s i m i l a r " accommodat ions f o r o f f i c e r s and crew. (That i s

now p o s s i b l e becau se o f t h e r educed number o f men on newer

s h i p s n e e d i n g l e s s space and a l s o beca use crewmen s k i l l s

have a l s o had t o be u p g r a d e d . ) T h i s c l a s s c o n s c i o u s n e s s was

p a r t i c u l a r l y e v i d e n t d u r i n g t h e 1 9 3 0 ' s (and up to t he t ime

t hey were a c c e p t e d i n t o t he e n g i n e e r s and t he mates u n i o n s )

among t h e radiomens q u e s t f o r o f f i c e r ' s s t a t u s ( C a s s e l s ,

1957 ) . The u n i o n ' s p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h a c h i e v i n g o f f i c e r

s t a t u s f o r i t s members exceded a l l o t h e r demands t h ey made

on s h i p p i n g companies . T h i s can on ly be u n d e r s t o o d , f u l l y ,

w i t h knowledge o f t h e s t r i n g e n c y o f t he h i e r a r c h i a l s t r u c

t u r e aboard s h i p . The f a r - r e a c h i n g i m p l i c a t i o n o f t h i s

o c c u p a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e i s b r ough t on by t he s h i p ' s 24 -hour

a day s o c i e t y .

There i s no g r e a t e r c l a s s - c o n s c i o u s group t h an seamen and, a l t h o u g h r a d i o o p e r a t o r s have been t he most de m o c ra t i c and f r i e n d l y o f a l l , t h ey have been f o r c e d t o f a l l i n l i n e w i t h t he f e t i s h o f r ank i n o r d e r t o avo id h u m i l i a t i o n .( S t a t emen t o f Radioman ' s Union o f f i c i a l d u r i n g 19 3 0 ' s q u e s t f o r o f f i c e r s t a t u s ; see C a s s e l , 1957 . )

43

The consequence o f t h i s s t r u c t u r e aboard s h i p i s t h a t

each man ha s h i s i d e n t i t y , h i s f e e l i n g o f who he i s , v e r

b a l l y and s y m b o l i c a l l y l i n k e d t o h i s o c c u p a t i o n , no t on ly

d u r i n g h i s work ing t i m e , bu t a l s o o u t s i d e o f i t (Auber t and

A rn e r , 1958) . C o n v e r s e l y , t h i s s t a t u s aboard s h i p i s no t

c a r r i e d a s h o r e .

The seaman e a t s , s l e e p s and spends h i s l e i s u r e t ime

in p l a c e s d e f i n e d by h i s work p o s i t i o n onboard s h i p . The

o f f i c e r s do no t e a t no r a s s o c i a t e w i t h t h e crew. T h i s i s

p a r t i c u l a r l y s e v e r e f o r them f o r t h ey a r e i s o l a t e d even

f u r t h e r , s i n c e t h e r e a r e so few o f them and s o c i a l and job

s e p a r a t i o n e x i s t s be tween d e p a r t m e n t s (Moreby, 1975; Auber t

and A r n e r , 1958) .

T h i s i s o l a t i o n w i l l i n c r e a s e as r e d u c t i o n s i n t he s i z e

o f crews on modern s h i p s w i l l make i t h a r d e r t o deve lop

i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s (Moreby, 1958) . He rbs t (1968) s ee s

a l a r g e r p r o p o r t i o n o f t he crew becoming i s o l a t e d and t he

p o s s i b i l i t y o f c o l l e g i a l a c t i v i t i e s d u r i n g work and l e i s u r e

p e r i o d s becoming min imized . These modern s h i p s spend l i t t l e

t ime i n p o r t which f u r t h e r adds t o t h e i s o l a t i o n o f t he

seaman as we l l a s den y in g him th e o p p o r t u n i t y t o ge t a sho re

fo r s i g h t - s e e i n g o r r e l a x a t i o n (Moreby, 1975) .

S l e e p i n g q u a r t e r s a r e s e p a r a t e d among o f f i c e r s and

be tween o f f i c e r s and crew by de cks . Crew members o f

d i f f e r e n t d e p a r t m e n t s a r e c l u s t e r e d t o g e t h e r a s much as

p o s s i b l e ( F r i c k e , 1973a; R i c h a r d s o n , 1956) . Q u a r t e r s a r e

44

f u r n i s h e d and s i z e d a c c o r d i n g t o r a n k , o f f i c e r s have a lways

had p r i v a t e rooms and a l c o h o l a v a i l a b l e ( C l e r k , 1968) . Crew

members, u n t i l r e c e n t l y on some p a s s e n g e r s h i p s , had up to

s i x i n a room.

There a r e s e p a r a t e mess h a l l s f o r t he o f f i c e r s and

c rew. On l a r g e s h i p s , e s p e c i a l l y p a s s e n g e r s h i p s , t h e r e may

be s e v e r a l mess- rooms i n which o f f i c e r s and crew a r e a ga i n

s u b d i v i d e d , i n m i l i t a r y s t y l e . In t he "normal" crew mess

h a l l , t h e r e i s u s u a l l y one s i d e f o r t he deck and t he o t h e r

f o r t he eng ine d e p a r t m e n t . W i th in t h e deck depar tmen t day

w o r k e r s , bosun , c a r p e n t e r , who have a h i g h e r " r ank" t han

w a t c h s t a n d e r s u s u a l l y e a t t o g e t h e r and s e p a r a t e from the

o t h e r s . W i t h i n t he en g in e c rew, e l e c t r i c i a n s and o t h e r day

worke r s a l s o e a t a p a r t from w a t c h s t a n d e r s ( c f . Auber t and

A r n e r , 1958) .

P a s s e n g e r s h i p s , p a r t i c u l a r l y , make e x p l i c i t t h i s

d i v i s i o n . O f f i c e r s who w i sh t o p u r c h a se " d r e s s w h i t e s " can

e a t w i t h t he p a s s e n g e r s . Even i f t hey e a t i n t h e i r own mess

h a l l t h ey can o r d e r from t h e p a s s e n g e r menu. (R a t i n gs

c a n n o t ) . The o f f i c e r s can ming le w i t h t he p a s s e n g e r s ( i n

f u l l s i g h t o f t he crew i f t h ey w i s h ) . The crew members view

a s i g n , which i s u s u a l l y a t t a c h e d t o a f ence l i k e r a i l i n g

b l o c k i n g e n t r a n c e , t h a t r e a d s "No Crew Members Beyond Th i s

P o i n t . "

The merchant mar ine ha s a lways had a h i e r a r c h i c a l

t r a d i t i o n . S ince t he days o f s a i l i n g s h i p s , seamen have

45

found t hem se lv e s d i v i d e d and su b d i v i d e d i n t o o c c u p a t i o n a l

g r o u p i n g s . The re was, o f c o u r s e , a lways t h e ma j o r d i v i s i o n

be tween o f f i c e r s and crewmen. On b oa rd s h i p t h i s l i n e o f

c l e av a g e be tween o f f i c e r s and crew i s so d i s t i n c t t h a t

common i n t e r e s t s a r e l i k e l y t o be i g n o r e d . F r i c t i o n between

t he two groups i s a m a t t e r o f common o c c u r r e n c e (Wissman,

1942: 4 ) . T h i s f r i c t i o n was v e r y e v i d e n t i n t he i n t e r v i e w s

and a t un ion m e e t i n g s . But t h e r e were a l s o s u b s t r a t a ; below

the c a p t a i n were v a r i o u s r a n ks o f deck o f f i c e r s - f i r s t ,

second and t h i r d ma te . Below t h e s e l i c e n s e d o f f i c e r s t he

crew were d i f f e r e n t i a t e d a s p e t t y o f f i c e r s , a b l e - b o d i e d

seamen, and o r d i n a r y seamen. The s o c i a l s t a t u s i m p l i c a t i o n s

of t h e s e o c c u p a t i o n a l l e v e l s were r e i n f o r c e d by government

l i c e n s i n g . C o nse que n t l y a m an ' s c r a f t on boa rd s h i p

de t e rm in e d no t o n l y t he s o c i a l s t r a t u m to which he was

a s s i g n e d but a l s o h i s r ank w i t h i n t h i s p o l i t i c a l h i e r a r c h y .

The s team s h i p added t he en g in e room s t a f f which

f u r t h e r d i f f e r e n t i a t e d t h e s t r u c t u r e . The a d d i t i o n o f t he

radioman added a n o t h e r r ung t o t h e l a d d e r . (At f i r s t t he

radioman was a crewman, t h en i n -b e t w e en and now an o f f i c e r )

( C a s s e l s , 1957 ) . Trade u n i o n s have p e r p e t u a t e d t h i s

s e p a r a t ion .

When t r a d e un ion i sm came t o t he m ar i t i m e I n d u s t r y t he ma jo r g roups chose t o o r g a n i z e s e p a r a t e l y . On t h e West Coas t where t h e f i r s t s t a b l e u n i o n s o c c u r r e d , t he deck s a i l o r s , t he f i r e m e n , and t h e Btewards had formed t h r e e c r a f t u n i o n s by 1901. F o r e r u n n e r s o f t he p r e s e n t day o f f i c e r s ' un i o n s

46

a l s o r e a c h back i n t o t he n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . An a n t e c e d e n t o f t he N a t i o n a l O r g a n i z a t i o n o f M a s t e r s , Mates and P i l o t s ( u s u a l l y r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e MMP.. . ) was e s t a b l i s h e d f o r deck o f f i c e r s i n 1887; t he Mar ine En g in e e r s B e n e f i c i a l A s s o c i a t i o n (. . .MEBA) d a t e s from 1875. The p a t t e r n o f l a b o r o r g a n i z a t i o n which emerged i n t he m ar i t i m e i n d u s t r y mere ly f o rm a l i z e d a work f o r c e s e g m en t a t i on which r e s t e d on c r a f t and s t a t u s and t h e r e f o r e a n t i d a t e d un io ns ( C a s s e l s , 1957: 353-354 ) .

Over t he y e a r s , t he u n i o n s have i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d t he s e

o l d b a r r i e r s . Added t o t h i s were t h e r a d i o m a n ' s u n i o n s ,

which have r e c e n t l y merged w i t h t he NMP and MEBA. The MEBA

had r e f u s e d t o c o n s i d e r t h e radioman as an o f f i c e r and he

was de n i e d merge r p r e v i o u s t o t h i s . Crews a r e o r g a n i z e d

by t h e N a t i o n a l Mar i t ime Union and S e a f a r e r s I n t e r n a t i o n a l

Union, depend ing on t he company i n v o lv e d .

Th i s d i v i s i o n be tween o f f i c e r s / c r e w a c r o s s d e p a r t m e n t s

can be d e s c r i b e d u s i n g M i l l e r and R i c e ' s t a s k and s e n t i e n t

g roups (1967 ) . Task g roups a r e j ob r e l a t e d and s e n t i e n t

g roups a r e t h o s e t o which pe op l e f e e l t hey b e lo n g and f o r

which t hey f e e l l o y a l t y and i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . Aboard s h i p ,

each wat ch (composed o f t h e deck o f f i c e r and deck r a t i n g s ;

and t he e n g i n e e r and eng ine r a t i n g s ) forms a t a s k group .

But t h e s e n t i e n t g roups a r e t h e deck o f f i c e r s , e n g i n e e r s ,

eng ine r a t i n g s , and deck r a t i n g s . The sea watch s i t u a t i o n

d o e s n ' t a l l ow much c o n t a c t among s e n t i e n t g roup members

b e cau se o f t h e fou r h o u r s on , e i g h t o f f s t r u c t u r e .

C on seq ue n t l y t emporary f r i e n d s h i p s deve l op among t a s k group

members. T h i s t a s k group can ex t end a c r o s s d e pa r tm e n t s

47

s i n c e wa t ches w i l l meet b e f o r e and a f t e r workt ime fo r c o f f e e

and n i g h t lunch and p o s s i b l y d u r i n g t he wa t ch . In p o r t ,

though when s ea wa t ches a r e b r o k e n , t h e s e t emporary

f r i e n d s h i p s o f t h e t a s k group " d i s a p p e a r 11 and members seek

the company o f o t h e r members o f t h e i r " n a t u r a l " s e n t i e n t

g r oup . (Moreby, 1975: 86 ) .

A f u r t h e r consequence o f d i l u t i o n o f o c c u p a t i o n a l community and t he d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r on boa rd s h i p i s a l a c k o f sha r ed e x p e r i e n c e and hence t h e r e i n f o r c e m e n t o f communal i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . . . t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n e x p e r i e n c e o f l i f e a t sea i s f r e q u e n t l y so g r e a t t h a t no c o he s i o n o f t he crew as an o c c u p a t i o n a l group o c c u r s . . . The l a ck o f a f f e c t i v e t i e s i s a f u n c t i o n o f t he d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r , l a c k o f coimmnal suppor t and t h e f r equency w i t h which crews change t h e i r membership ( F r i c k e , 73a: 5 - 6 ) .

The s e n t i e n t group d i v i d e s o f f i c e r s even f u r t h e r .

S i m i l a r t o t h e d i f f e r e n c e s J anowi t z (1962) saw between

o f f i c e r s who came t h rough t he r anks w i t h b a t t l e f i e l d

e x p e r i e n c e and t h o s e who came t h rough a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r o u t e s ,

seamen a l s o d i v i d e . Mates can e i t h e r be p r o d u c t s o f t he

f o ^ s l e (worked t h e i r way t h rough t he r a n k s ) o r g r a d u a t e s o f

a m a r i t i m e academy. The d i f f e r e n c e s i n l i f e e x p e r i e n c e s o f

t h e s e men a r e a p p a r e n t . These d i f f e r e n c e s p roduce a

d i f f e r e n t i a t e d s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e aboard Bhip, i n t he un ion

h a l l s and on t he b e a c h . These d i v i s i o n s a r e ex t ended f o r

t he e n g i n e e r s who may come from any o f t h r e e backg rounds .

Like t he m a te s t h ey can have worked t h e i r way up o r

g r a d u a t e d from an academy. But added t o t h i s i s t he un io n

t r a i n i n g s c h o o l , which t r a i n s e n g i n e e r i n g c a d e t s who have

48

n e i t h e r t he work e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e former crew member no r

t h e academic c r e d e n t i a l s o f t he academy g r a d u a t e . ( c f .

Bass i s and Roseng ren , 1975) . Some academy g r a d u a t e s

i n t e r v i e w e d s a i d t h a t t hey f e l t t o t a l s o c i a l i s o l a t i o n ,

h a v in g no o t h e r members on bo a rd t h a t would f i t i n t o t h e i r

s e n t i e n t g roup .

The d i v i s i o n s t h a t e x i s t were a p p a r e n t from b o t h t he

o b s e r v a t i o n s and t h e i n t e r v i e w s . O f f i c e r s who had not come

up t h ro u g h t he r a n ks saw the crew a s some lower s t r a d a who

d i d no t p o s s e s s t h e men t a l c a p a c i t y t o advance . Conv e r se l y

t h ose who had worked t h e i r way up saw t h e s e c rew members as

no t w a n t i n g t o move up . They d i d no t see any " d i f f e r e n c e s

i n a b i l i t y , " t h e i r comment was , "He d i d no t want t o ge t h i s

l i c e n s e , " o r "He does no t want t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . "

E n g in e e r s who g r a d u a t e d from the u n i o n t r a i n i n g s chool

saw the m a r i t i m e academy g r a d u a t e a s an i n t r u d e r i n t o t h e i r

r e a l m . T h i s m e re ly e x t e n d s t h e s o c i a l d i v i s i o n t h a t e x i s t s

s i n c e un io n s choo l g r a d u a t e s a r e more l i k e l y t o come from

work ing c l a s s ba ck g ro un d s . Mar i t ime academy g r a d u a t e s

r e c e i v e b o t h a B .S . de g re e and t h e i r e n g i n e e r ' 6 l i c e n s e ,

w h i l e t h e un i on s choo l g r a d u a t e s on ly r e c e i v e t he l i c e n s e .

These d i f f e r e n c e s t h a t e x i s t be tween t h e two g roups have

r e s u l t e d i n c o n s i d e r a b l e f r i c t i o n be tween b o t h t h e seaman

and t he i n s t i t u t i o n s t hey r e p r e s e n t .

As t h e i n d u s t r y p r o c e e d s w i t h more t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y

advanced s h i p s , t he o f f i c e r who made i t t h ro ug h t h e r anks

49

w i l l become r a r e . T h i s w i l l l i k e l y i n c r e a s e t he

o f f i c e r / c r e w d i f f e r e n c e s t h a t a l r e a d y e x i s t , s i n c e t h e r e

w i l l be no sh a r e d work e x p e r i e n c e , bu t i n c r e a s e t h e

s o l i d a r i t y be tween o f f i c e r s be cau se o f s i m i l a r backg rounds .

A l l t h e s h i p s o f t he no t too d i s t a n t f u t u r e , w i l l l i k e l y

have no crew members i n t he e n g i n e e r rooms and becau se o f

t he modern t ype o f l o a d i n g and u n l o a d i n g c a r g o , deck

d e p a r t m e n t s w i l l be r educed a l s o . The f a c t t h a t crews a r e

b e i n g r edu ced t o s m a l l e r and s m a l l e r numbers f u r t h e r e n s u r e s

t h e s e o f f i c e r / c r e w d i f f e r e n c e s , s i n c e t h e r e a r e fewer j obs

a v a i l a b l e i n which t he crew member can s e r v e t he a l l o t t e d

t ime t o s i t f o r a mate o r e n g i n e e r l i c e n s e .

Th i s f r eq ue ncy o f crew change o r " r e p l a c e a b l e p a r t

manning" ( H e b e r t , 1968; 1974) f u r t h e r r e d u c e s t h e seaman ' s

a t t a c h m en t t o h i s work p l a c e and adds t o t he l a c k o f oc cu

p a t i o n a l community (Moreby, 1975: 162; Wissmann, 1942: 4 ) .

The Sh ip a s a T o t a l InBt i t u t i on

Going t o sea i s l i k e go in g t o j a i l w i t h t he added p e r i l o f drowning .

Mark Twain, Famous Q u o t a t i o n s

L i f e on a s h i p ha s been d e s c r i b e d as a t o t a l

i n s t i t u t i o n (Goffman, 1968; Nolan , 1973; Z u r c h e r , 1965;

Auber t and A rn e r , 1958) . S h e r a r (1973: 12) u s e s t h e t erm

t o t a l en v i r on m en t . The s h i p c l a im s a monopoly o f t h e l i f e

space o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l and i s o l a t e s him t o a h i g h deg ree

from I n t e r c o u r s e w i t h t he o u t s i d e w o r l d , i n t h a t t h e r e i s

50

b o t h g e o g r a p h i c a l and s o c i a l i s o l a t i o n from o t h e r u n i v e r s e s

o f meaning and a c t i o n (Nolan , 1973: 8 8 ) .

I t i s a 24 -hou r a day Boc i e ty w i t h a l l a s p e c t s o f l i f e

b e i n g l i v e d out w i t h i n t h e na r row p h y s i c a l c o n f i n e s o f t he

s h i p . A l l a c t i v i t y i s u n d e r t a k e n i n t he e v e r p r e s e n t

company o f o t h e r s and f o r t h e d e v o t i o n o f t he voyage t h e r e

w i l l be l i t t l e chance t o e s cape c o n s t r a i n i n g p r e s s u r e s and

s a n c t i o n s (Nolan , 1973: 89; Orbach , 1977: 261-263;

Goffman, 1957) .

Goffman (1961; 13) d e f i n e s a t o t a l i n s t i t u t i o n as a

p l a c e o f r e s i d e n c e and work where a l a r g e number o f l i k e -

s i t u a t e d i n d i v i d u a l s , cut o f f from th e w i de r s o c i e t y f o r

an a p p r e c i a b l e p e r i o d o f t i m e , t o g e t h e r l e a d an e n c l o s e d ,

f o r m a l l y a d m i n i s t r a t e d round o f l i f e .

Merchant s h i p s f i t t h i s d e f i n i t i o n , bu t t h e r e i s one

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t h a t ap p ea r s t o q u a l i f y t h i s d e f i n i t i o n ;

merchant s h i p s u n l i k e p r i s o n s and most ment al h o s p i t a l s a r e

v o l u n t a r y . But a s h i p i s on l y v o l u n t a r y t o t he p o i n t of

s a i l i n g , once you p u l l o f f from the dock , you a r e t h e r e

u n t i l you a r e " a l l o we d t o l e a v e . " T h i s p o i n t i s b r ough t out

i n a t r a g e d y t h a t o c c u r r e d on a s h i p I was on.

We were n e a r i n g t he end o f t he M i s s i s s i p p i R i v e r and a messman want ed t o ge t o f f . He s a i d he " c o u l d not s t a n d a t r i p . " He knew t h e c a p t a i n w a s n ' t go ing t o l e t him o f f .A s h o r t w h i l e l a t e r , he jumped from one o f t h e l a r g e window p o r t h o l e s i n t o t h e r i v e r .Hi s body was nev e r found. The s h i p wouldhave been back i n New O r l e a n s i n e i g h t day s .

51

The p o i n t h e r e i s t h a t t he seaman does no t v i ew i t as

v o l u n t a r y . They, l i k e p r i s o n e r s , c o n t i n u a l l y count t he days

u n t i l t h e i r r e t u r n home. T h e i r s e n t e n c e , l i k e t h o s e of

men ta l p a t i e n t s and p r i s o n e r s , commands t he absence o f

c e r t a i n t h i n g s t h a t t hey a r e accus tomed t o , i . e . women.

Sh ip s o f f e r a breakdown o f t h e b a r r i e r s o r d i n a r i l y

s e p a r a t i n g s l e e p , p l a y and work. Al l members o f t he crew

a r e unde r t he same a u t h o r i t y ; a l l a c t i v i t y i s c a r r i e d on in

t h e immediate company o f a l a r g e b a t c h o f o t h e r s , a l l

a c t i v i t i e s oc cu r a t c e r t a i n t im e s , mea l s a r e on a s c h ed u l e .

T h i s " b a t c h - l i v i n g " i s s een i n d i r e c t c o n t r a s t t o f ami ly

l i f e , f o r t h o s e who e a t and s l e e p a t work w i t h a group of

f e l l o w w o r k e r s , can h a r d l y s u s t a i n a mean ing fu l dom es t i c

e x i s t e n c e (Goffman, 1961: 6 - 1 1 ) .

P e c u l i a r t o t o t a l i n s t i t u t i o n s , and p a r t i c u l a r l y u n l i k e

t h e b e a c h , t h e seaman i s s u b j e c t t o a 24 -hou r a day job

e v a l u a t i o n . On t h e s h i p t h e seaman may be t e r m i n a t e d f o r

b e i n g drunk o r c a u s i n g t r o u b l e d u r i n g h i s o f f h o u r s .

F i g h t i n g and homosexual a c t i v i t y a r e a u to m a t i c t e r m i n a t i o n

c a s e s . I r o n i c a l l y more s e v e r e t h i n g s done on t he beach a r e

no t known, c o n s e q u e n t l y judgement i s p a s s e d w i t h o u t

knowledge o f t h e s e .

T h i s makes f o r an abnormal e v a l u a t i o n p r o c e s s , p a r t i

c u l a r l y s i n c e i t i s b e i n g done by a group o f pe o p l e who

"know" o n l y unde r t h e s e unusua l c i r c u m s t a n c e s . Once

" ac cused" t h e word sp r e ad s q u i c k l y ; he r ema ins s t i g m a t i z e d

52

f o r t h e r ema inde r o f t h e t r i p by p e o p l e he cannot ge t away

from.

The seaman e x p e r i e n c e s c e r t a i n t y p e s o f d i f f i c u l t

s i t u a t i o n s ; i n h i b i t i o n and d e p r i v a t i o n b e i n g t he wor s t o f

t h e s e . I n h i b i t i o n i s a p h y s i c a l o r p s y c h o - s o c i a l s t a t e

which p r e v e n t s t h e i n d i v i d u a l from do i n g what he want s to

do. On a s h i p t h i s t a k e s t he form of l i m i t e d p e r s o n a l

s p a c e , l i m i t e d c h o i c e o f s o c i a l and l e i s u r e a c t i v i t y and

most o f a l l s e p a r a t i o n from f ami ly and f r i e n d s . The r u l e s ,

o r d e r s and p r o h i b i t i o n s which c o n t r o l l i f e on boa rd s h i p in

an a lmos t m i l i t a r y manner r e p r e s e n t s a n o t h e r i n h i b i t i o n

( H o r b u l e w ic z , 1973: 6 8 ) .

There i s a s e v e r e l i m i t a t i o n o f ch o i c e and a c t i o n by

b o t h work s c h e d u l e s and work h i e r a r c h y . The seaman i s

c o n t i n u a l l y su r ro und ed by o t h e r Beamen and even l e i s u r e t ime

o f f e r s no p l a c e o f " s e c u r e p r i v a c y . " There a r e too few ways

o f e s cap e from the demands o f work and sh i pma te s (Nolan,

1973: 9 2 ) .

Going t o sea d e p r i v e s t h e s a t i s f y i n g o f needs f o r

r e l a x a t i o n , s exua l g r a t i f i c a t i o n , em o t iona l c o n t a c t ,

s e c u r i t y and p e r s o n a l i n t e r e s t s and i n c l i n a t i o n s

(Horb u l ew icz , 1973: 69 ) . The " t o t a l i t y " o f t h e s h i p cause s

th e seaman t o e x p e r i e n c e what Sommer (1959) c a l l s d i s -

c u l t u r a t i o n ; an u n t r a i n i n g which r e n d e r s him t e m p o r a r i l y

i n c a p a b l e o f managing c e r t a i n f e a t u r e s o f d a i l y l i f e on t he

b e ac h . The s h i p c r e a t e s and s u b s t a i n s a p a r t i c u l a r k i n d of

s t r a i n be tween t h e seaman and t he beach .

53

The seaman i s n o t a b l e t o a c q u i r e some o f t he h a b i t s

c u r r e n t l y r e q u i r e d t o be s o c i a l l y s u c c e s s f u l i n t h e w ide r

s o c i e t y . The l o n ge r t he d i s c u l t u r a t i o n p r o c e s e c o n t i n u e s

t h e more i n a d e q u a t e he i s i n r e g u l a t i n g c e r t a i n a s p e c t s o f

d a i l y l i f e on t he beach when he g e t s back t o i t (Goffman,

1961: 13 ) .

The S o c i a l I d e n t i t y o f t he Merchant Seaman

To be r o o t e d i s p e r h a p s t h e more and l e a s t r e c o g n i z e d need o f t h e human s o u l . . . A human b e i n g ha s r o o t s by v i r t u e o f h i s r e a l , a c t i v e , and n a t u r a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t he l i f e o f a community, which p r e s e r v e s i n l i v i n g shape c e r t a i n p a r t i c u l a r t r e a s u r e s o f t he p a s t and c e r t a i n p a r t i c u l a r e x p e c t a t i o n s f o r t he f u t u r e .

Simone Wei l , The Need f o r Root s

Seamen seem t o f a l l i n t o one o f t h r e e t y p e s . F i r s t ,

t h e r e a r e t h os e who s i t u a t i o n a l l y wi thd raw (B anks ton , e t a l ,

1981: 282 ) . These men r e t a i n an o r i e n t a t i o n t o t he

no u t s i d e w o r l d , " i . e . t o l i f e on t h e be ach . T h i s i s a smal l

m i n o r i t y o f s h i p ' s c r ews . T h i s t ype m o s t l y keeps t o

h i m s e l f , t a l k s l i t t l e , r e a d s a l o t , k eeps ou t o f t r o u b l e ,

v o l u n t e e r s f o r n o t h i n g , se ldom g e t s d r un k , d r e s s e s b e t t e r

and ha s more l u x u r i e s t han o t h e r seamen (he manages h i s

money somewhat b e t t e r ) . He might be s a i d t o be " p l a y i n g i t

coo l " (Goffman, 1961: 6 1 - 6 5 ) . He b e a r s a r emarkab l e

s i m i l a r i t y t o p r i s o n e r s who a r e " d o i n g t i m e , " i . e . who make

t he b e s t o f t h e i r s i t u a t i o n w h i l e i n p r i s o n , adap t t o i t s

54

d e p r i v a t i o n s , b u t r e t a i n a more d e s i r a b l e commitment t o a

l i f e o u t s i d e ( I r w i n , 1970: 6 7 - 7 5 ) .

At f i r s t , i t would seem t h a t t h i s t ype sh o u l d be t he

m a j o r i t y g i v e n t he "anonymous” n a t u r e o f s h i p l i f e . But t he

s h i p does have an o r g a n i z i n g i n f l u e n c e t h ro u g h which

s o c i a l l y d i s t a n t p e r s o n s f i n d t h em se lv e s d e v e l o p i n g mutual

s u p p o r t i n o p p o s i t i o n t o t he d e p e r s o n a l i z i n g sys tem t h a t ha s

f o r c e d them t o g e t h e r ; a community o f common f a t e s i s

p roduced (Goffman, 1961: 56 ) . A second t y p e , t h e n ,

emerges . T h i s t ype may be t e rmed a " c o l o n i z e r ” (Goffman,

1961: 6 3 ) . A c o l o n i z e r i s a p e r s o n who must r e l o c a t e in a

d i s t a n t p l a c e , bu t r e t a i n s Borne c o n n e c t i o n to h i s p arent

s o c i e t y . The c o l o n i z e r mus t , i n a s e n s e , make a new wor ld

i n a new c o n t e x t , and most seamen f i t t h i s t y p e . The

seam an ' s i d e n t i t y becomes p r o g r e s s i v e l y i n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h

sh o r e l i f e and h i s commitments t o t h a t l i f e s t y l e a r e e roded

( c f . W a l l a c e , 1965: 163-172 ) . Aga in , an ana l og y may be

made t o t h e e f f e c t s o f p r i s o n l i f e . A c o n v i c t may,

. . . l o s e h i s o r i e n t a t i o n t o t he o u t s i d e community, t ake on t h e c o n v i c t c a t e g o r i e s , and t h e r e b y f a l l i n t o j a i l i n g .Th i s o c c u r s when t h e i n d i v i d u a l has spen t a g r e a t dea l o f t ime i n p r i s o n a n d / o r r e t u r n e d t o t h e o u t s i d e community and d i s c o v e r e d t h a t he no l o n g e r f i t s i n t h e o u t s i d e w o r l d . I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o m a i n t a i n a r e a l commitment t o a s o c i a l wor ld w i t h o u t f i r s t h a n d e x p e r i e n c e w i t h i t f o r l ong p e r i o d s o f t ime ( I r w i n ,1970: 76 ) .

The seaman e x p e r i e n c e s much t h e same as he c o l o n i z e s

t h e s h i p , and i n t e r e s t i n g l y he canno t c e a s e t o r e j e c t the

55

s t r u c t u r a l s o u r c e o f h i s i d e n t i t y . Not t o do so i s t o admit

he I s no l o n g e r i n t e g r a t e d w i t h a c o n v e n t i o n a l wor ld . Thus ,

t h e i d e o l o g i c a l g a t h e r i n g p o s t i s i n t he form o f t h e

c o m p l a i n t . There a r e t h r e e s t e p s t o t h i s c o l o n i z a t i o n

p r o c e s B :

1. Commitment t o seaman l i f e s t y l e . L i f e on a s h i p i s

v e r y e a s y ; pay i s good, so i s t h e food and no one works

h a r d . Your room i s c l e a n e d and bed i s made eve ry day . Most

seamen n e v e r had t h e s e t h i n g s b e f o r e , so t h ey become

commit ted t o t h i s l i f e s t y l e .

2. The seaman soon l e a r n s t h a t you cannot admit t o

l i k i n g t h e s e c o n v e n i e n c e s . Peo p l e who s t a y on t he same

s h i p s y e a r a f t e r y e a r a r e c a l l e d ho m es t e ad e r s (Auber t and

A r n e r , 1968) . Homest eader i s a n e g a t i v e t erm becau se i t

means t h a t a p e r s o n "must l i k e 11 s h i p b o a r d l i f e . Home

s t e a d i n g a p p e a r s t o c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e t r a d i t i o n a l i d e n t i t y

o f t h e seaman, t o which t h ey a l l a s p i r e ; t o be c a r e f r e e and

i r r e s p o n s i b l e . S t ead y employment does no t f i t t h i s r o l e .

C o n s e q u e n t l y , seamen "make-up" e x c u se s a s t o why t hey a r e

making a n o t h e r t r i p ; such as t hey have 6pent a l l t h e i r money

on women and booze ; t h i s f u l f i l l s t h e r o l e . C o n v e r s e l y ,

t h os e who dwel l on t h e i r f a m i ly o r f r i e n d s a sh o r e a r e

g e n e r a l l y t e a s e d f o r b e i n g homes ick (Orback , 1977: 274 ) .

So t h e seaman, i n a s e n s e , must deny commitment t o a l l bu t

t h e r o l e o f t h e seaman.

3 . The seaman l e a r n s t o co mp la i n . You complain about

t he t h i n g s you a r e a c t u a l l y s a t i s f i e d a b o u t . (They d o n ^

56

l i k e t h e b r and o f soap; t he f r e e l a un d r y room i s too h o t ;

t he bed i s n ' t made r i g h t ; my s econd s t e a k t o n i g h t w a s n ' t

good; o r t he b r e a d i s n ' t ho t enough . )

Seamen must deny t h e i r conmitment t o t h e s e

c o n v e n i e n c e s . The seaman ha s become a c o l o n i z e r who f e e l s

o b l i g e d t o deny h i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h t h e i n s t i t u t i o n

be cau se i f not he would have t o admit h i s commitment . The

d e n i a l o f s a t i s f a c t i o n becomes f u n c t i o n a l b e cau se i t

s u b s t a i n s an e l e m e n t a r y s o l i d a r i t y among a group o f

s t r a n g e r s who a r e o t h e r w i s e bound on ly by t h e i r t e c h n i c a l

i n t e r d e p e n d e n c i e s (Hanna, 1981) .

The i r o n i e s o f t h i s c o l o n i z a t i o n p r o c e s s a r e t h a t t he

absence o f women i s not u sed a s an o r g a n i z i n g c o m p l a i n t .

Thus , a r e a l penance i s a vo ide d . And even more i r o n i c i s

t h a t t h e s e c o m p l a i ne r s made second t r i p s and even become

h o m e s t e a d e r s . They c o n f e s s t h a t t hey a r e on ly do in g i t f o r

t h e money.

The co lony t h r i v e s on f a i l u r e . None o f t h e men a r e

i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e s o l v i n g o f any o f t h e s e p rob l ems . The

compla in t i s t he a v a i l a b l e sou rc e o f u n i t y . The co lony i s

an o r g a n i z a t i o n whose s u c c e s s depends on f a i l u r e . Members

v i ew the compla in t as t h e o n l y means o f combat i ng t he

s i t u a t i o n . Only t h ro u gh f a i l u r e does t he o r g a n i z a t i o n

c o n t i n u e . The co mp la i n in g seaman i s much l i k e Rooney ' s

(1980) m i s s i o n s t i f f s . A c o n t i n u a l sup p l y o f bo t h a r e

n e c e s s a r y f o r t he " s u c c e s s t h rough f a i l u r e " o f t h e i r

r e s p e c t i v e o r g a n i z a t i o n .

57

Compla in ing i s a form o f a s s o c i a t i o n f o r seamen, i t

i n c r e a s e s s o l i d a r i t y among t h e crew and p r o v i d e s a mechanism

f o r t he s o c i a l i z a t i o n o f members (Hanna, 1981 ) . Compla ining

p r o v i d e s t he seaman w i t h a mechanism f o r r e l a t i n g t o one

a n o t h e r . The s t r e s s f u l s i t u a t i o n ab oa rd s h i p , i n which

" s t r a n g e r s 11 a r e f o r c e d t o l i v e t o g e t h e r , i s p a r t i a l l y

r e l i e v e d t h r ou gh t he com pl a in in g p r o c e s s . M o r r i s (1974:

112-115) continents on t he use o f t he compla in t as a s t r a t e g y

t o cope w i t h t he s t r e s s f u l p rob l ems o f impr i sonment and i t s

f u n c t i o n a s a t r a n s m i t t i n g d e v i c e f o r p r i s o n c u l t u r e .

I t c r e a t e s a common bond. Seamen who do not complain

a r e l ooked upon a s s t r a n g e ; bu t most q u i c k l y l e a r n t o j o i n

t h e a s s o c i a t i o n . Those w i t h t h e s e "cornnon e x p e r i e n c e s ' 1

form t empora ry s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p . Not t o j o i n t he

" c o m p l a i n i n g a s s o c i a t i o n " e x c l u d e s one because i t h i g h l i g h t s

what seems t o be common i n t e r e s t s i n t he form o f " a l r e a d y

s h a r e d s o c i a l e x p e r i e n c e . "

S i m i l a r p a t t e r n s a r e s een i n t h e m i l i t a r y (Merton and

K i t t , 1950) . I n e x p e r i e n c e d t r o o p s d e s i r e t o a f f i l i a t e

t he m se lv e s w i t h t h o s e who had e x p e r i e n c e i n b a t t l e , con

s e q u e n t l y t h e y a r e i n f l u e n c e d by a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h s o l d i e r s

w i t h combat e x p e r i e n c e . The seaman who does no t complain

i s t ho ugh t t o l a c k i n t h e s e a l r e a d y sh a r e d e x p e r i e n c e s , and

hence i s no t one o f u s .

E r i c k s o n (1976: 136) e l a b o r a t e s on t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p

be tween a s t r e s s f u l s i t u a t i o n and t he emergence o f t he

58

c o m p l a i n t . In h i s a n a l y s i s , he r emarks about t he unusua l

u n i f o r m i t y o f t h e c o m p l a i n t s and t h e i r sound ing a lmos t

r e h e a r s e d . The s e aman ' s c o m p l a i n t s can a l s o be c a l l e d

r e h e a r s e d , s i n c e he i s t o l d what t o complain about by more

e x p e r i e n c e d a c t o r s . Compla in ing becomes a p a t t e r n o f

i n t e r a c t i o n f o r t h e seaman t h a t ha s l i t t l e to do w i t h t he

c o n t e n t o f t he c o m p l a i n t .

Forms o f a s s o c i a t i o n s a r e c l o s e l y t i e d t o t he p r a c t i c a l

i n t e r e s t s o f t h e i n t e r a c t a n t s a t t he i n i t i a l and r e l a t i v e l y

un o r g a n i z e d s t a g e of deve lopmen t . (Lev i ne , 1971) . For t he

un io n seaman, t he co mp la i n i ng ha s emerged from the

h i s t o r i c a l p a t t e r n s o f employer abuse t h a t o c c u r r e d i n t he

i n d u s t r y . (Fo r h i s t o r y , see S t a n d a r d , 1947; Hohman, 1956;

Go ldbe rg , 1958; S c h n e i d e r , 1958; Lar rowe , 1959; C o l l i n s ,

1964; R a sk i n , 1967; K i l g o u r , 1975; MEBA, 1975; C u l l i s o n ,

1982; T a y l o r , 1923; W e i n t r a u b , 1959) . Once g a i n i n g t h e s e

h a r d - f o u g h t f o r and d e s e r v i n g r i g h t s , 6eatnen saw the

compla in t a s a v e h i c l e f o r l e t t i n g a l l know t h a t t hey were

no t s a t i s f i e d w i t h what was . So you complained a l o t and

hoped t o ge t a l i t t l e more. I t a l s o s e r v e d a s o l i d a r i t y

f u n c t i o n as i t s e t a p a r t u s , t h e u n i o n , from them, t he

s h i p p i n g company ( c f . Mechan ic , 1962; Kornblum, 1974: 101) .

At t h i s p o i n t t he t h i n g s compla ined about a r e c l o s e l y t i e d

t o t he p r a c t i c a l i n t e r e s t s o f t hose d o i n g t he compl a in in g

(Hanna, 1981) .

But f o r a form o f a s s o c i a t i o n t o evo lve beyond t h i s

i n i t i a l s t a g e , t h e p r o c e s s must p e r s i s t beyond t he co n t en t

59

t h a t p r e c i p i t a t e d i t and t h e p a r t i c u l a r i n d i v i d u a l b engaged

i n I t ; o t h e r w i s e t h e form ( co m p la in in g ) w i l l v a n i s h w i t h t he

p a s s a g e o f t ime (Simrnel, 1964; Von Wiese and B eck e r , 1932;

L ev i ne , 1971) .

O r i g i n a l l y t h e compla in t s e r v e d as a g e n e r a t i n g

s o l i d a r i t y among seamen. Now th e c o m p l a i n t , a s a form of

a s s o c i a t i o n , has g a in e d an e x i s t e n c e Independen t o f t he

c o n t e n t i t i n i t i a l l y evo lved from. P a r t i c i p a t i o n in t he

form becomes an end i n i t s e l f (Hanna, 1981) . Compla in ing

f o r t h e seaman ha s t ake n on a l i f e o f i t s own, i ndependen t

o f changes i n c o n t e n t .

The comp la i n t i s t he badge o f commitment t o seamen

s h i p b o a r d c u l t u r e . I t i d e n t i f i e s and t e m p o r a r i l y b r i n g s

t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s i n t o a s o c i a l u n i t . Compla in ing may a l s o

i n c r e a s e t h e s o l i d a r i t y , even i f on l y m o m e n ta r i l y , among

t h e s e a c t o r s who do not h o l d common e x p e r i e n c e s o r t h o s e who

may ne v e r r e a l i z e whe the r t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e s a r e s i m i l a r

(Hanna, 1981: 305 ) .

The seaman n e v e r s t o p s c om pl a in in g b eca u se o f t he c o s t s

o f w i t h d r a w i n g from the a s s o c i a t i o n , which c o n t i n u e s t o be

m u t u a l l y b e n e f i c i a l t o t he p a r t i c i p a n t s , even t hough t hey

a r e no l o n ge r r e a l l y comp la in ing . Thus t he co mpla in t has

become i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d f o r t he s h i p b o a r d seaman, because

i t h e l p s him deal w i t h t he p r o b l e m a t i c n a t u r e o f s h i p b o a r d

l i f e . Cas t t o g e t h e r f o r a p e r i o d o f t ime t h e s e s t r a n g e r s

f i n d , i n t h e com pl a in in g p r o c e s s , a s t a t e m e n t o f coirmon

60

e x p e r i e n c e , s o l i d a r i t y and a mechanism f o r t he s o c i a l i z a t i o n

o f new members.

Sea daddy r e p r e s e n t s a t o t a l commitment t o t h e s e aman ' s

l i f e s t y l e . Whi le o t h e r seamen s t i l l hope t o be I n t e g r a t e d

i n t o t he sho re s i d e s o c i e t y upon each r e t u r n t o t he be ach ,

s e a daddy does n o t . Whi le o t h e r seamen t r y t o remain

o r i e n t e d t o two w o r l d s , sea daddy does n o t . The seaman

p l a y i n g i t cool does no t become i n v o lv e d i n t he marg i na l

c u l t u r e o f t he s h i p . For him the s h i p i s m e re ly an e x

t e n s i o n o f t h e b eac h . For s ea daddy, t he beach and t he s h i p

a r e a l l an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f h i s l i f e s t y l e . The o l d t ime

seaman who s t i l l l i v e s t h e l i f e o f a s a i l o r and does no t

w ish t o become a s s i m i l a t e d i n t o t h e sh o re s i d e s o c i e t y i s a

v a n i s h i n g b r e e d . The g r e a t e r m a j o r i t y o f seamen a r e members

o f a m a r g in a l g roup . Sea daddy f o r t h e marg ina l seaman i s a

n e g a t i v e r e f e r e n c e g roup . For t h e seamen " p l a y i n g i t c o o l , "

bo t h a r e n e g a t i v e r e f e r e n c e s . For sea daddy t h e s e o t h e r s

a r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f what ha s c aused t he demise o f t he

s e a f a r e r .

These t h r e e g roups a r e i n v o lv e d i n a co m p le x i t y o f

i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s i n v o l v i n g p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e r e l a t i o n

s h i p s t o t h e l a r g e r g rou p , merchant seamen. Because t hey

a r e i n t h e same s i t u a t i o n , t he s h i p , s h i f t i n g l o y a l t i e s and

r e l a t i o n s h i p s have de ve lo pe d r e s u l t i n g i n t h e fo r m a t io n o f

t h e s e t h r e e su b - g r o u p s . Sea daddy i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t he

p u b l i c image o f t he seaman. Each o f t h e t h r e e g roups o f

seamen a r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f a cont i nuum o f i n t e g r a t i o n i n t o

61

t h e t r a d i t i o n a l s eaman ' s l i f e s t y l e . Each i s a member o f a

d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l w o r l d . Each i s not c o m f o r t a b l e i n t he

wor ld o f t h e o t h e r . N e i t h e r can a cc ep t t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of

t h e o t h e r , i ndeed i t does no t even make much s e n se t o them.

(L in d e s m i t h , 1977: 437*460) .

Sea daddy w i l l one day d i s a p p e a r , bu t h i s i n f l u e n c e

w i l l n o t .

Old sys tems r a r e l y d i e , o r even fade away. T o t a l d i s i n t e g r a t i o n and a movement o f components out i n t o en t r o p y and randomness happens se ldom. R a th e r do t hey r eg rou p - w i t h someth ing o ld and some th ing new, much t h a t i s bor rowed, and many t h i n g s b l u e , b l a c k w h i t e and t a n .H i s t o r i c a l d a t a i n d i c a t e t h a t no s o c i e t y - r e g a r d l e s s how d i r e t h e c a t a s t r o p h e t h a t b e f a l l s i t - e v e r s imply abandons i t s t r a d i t i o n a l c u l t u r e . The o l d l e a v es s i g n i f i c a n t marks upon t he new (Monane,1967: 1 6 1 . ) .

The i n f l u e n c e o f sea daddy as a n e g a t i v e r e f e r e n c e

group was a p p a r e n t i n a lmos t ev e r y i n t e r v i e w . Each seaman

would e x p r e s s h i s r e j e c t i o n o f t he t r a d i t i o n a l seamen ' s

c u l t u r e by , i n some way, t e l l i n g me t h a t seamen have

changed. Some t y p i c a l r e s p o n s e s were :

Seamen d o n ' t keep a room in t he back o f t he b a r anymore. Seamen a r e n ' t t he same a s t hey u sed t o be . A d i f f e r e n t c l a s so f man i s s h i p p i n g out now. There a r eno t many o f t h o se o l d - t i m e r s a round anymore .

Sea daddy may be a v a n i s h i n g b r e e d , bu t f o r t he modern day

seaman, he w i l l d i s a p p e a r none too soon. Al though s ea daddy

w i l l soon d i s a p p e a r , he w i l l long a f t e r w a r d s r emain t he

p u b l i c i d e a l o f t h e seaman.

and Communlty R e l a t i o n s h l p s

Timothy Glynn - P l e a s e c o n t a c t you r s i s t e r , Kay. Mother ha s p a s s e d away and o t h e r s i s t e r i s v e ry i l l . U rge n t .

C h a r l e s W i l l i a m Johnson , J r . , whose f a m i ly ha s no t h e a r d from you s i n c e 1946, o r anyone knowing h i s whe re a b o u t s . Urge n t .

NMU P i l o t , Fe b r ua ry 1982

L in d be rg F l o w e r s , FWTE-5637 - P l e a s e c o n t a c t you r w i f e R u t h i e F low er s .She h a s n ' t s e en you i n 14 y e a r s , and i t ' s v e ry i m p o r t a n t .

NMU P i l o t , J u l y 1982

John D. Vazquez , R e t . , who f o r m er ly s a i l e d aboard t h e SS B r a z i l , husband o f H i l d a Vazquez and f a t h e r o f John J o s eph Vazquez - P l e a s e c o n t a c t you r d a u g h t e r - i n - l a w Evelyn Vazquez. She ha s been t r y i n g t o c o n t a c t you f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s .

NMU P i l o t , March 1982

Gost a A. P e t t e r s s o n , Bk. No. 68314, o r Gus P e t t e r s s o n , whose l a s t known s h i p was t he M/S Aq ua r iu s o f t he U.S. L ine s i n Feb. 1980, o r anyone knowing h i s wh e reabou t s - P l e a s e c o n t a c t you r n i e c e C h r i s t i n a P e t t e r s o n , So d e r ake r su ag en 37 S-14138 Huddings , Sweden, o r a f t e r June 15, 1982: E ksh a ra d , Sweden. Yourf a m i ly i s w o r r i e d about you.

Jo s e Anton io Rodr iguez - P l e a s e c o n t a c t you r d a u g h t e r , D o r i s J e a n Rodr iguez Su a r e z . She h a s n ' t h e a r d from you i n 18 y e a r s and i s v e r y a nx io u s t o c o n t a c t you.

NMU P i l o t , May 1982

63

Anyone knowing o r who h a s s a i l e d w i t h AB C l i f f o r d W. Brande , on t h e SS U n i t e d S t a t e s , 1964; SS San t a B a r b a r a , 1967;SS Mormacdraco, 1969-70; SS Expor t Freedom,1973 and 1975; SS Che r ry V a l l e y , 1976 and SS Texaco Mi n ne so t a , 1977 - P l e a s e c a l l David L i c h t e r c o l l e c t as soon as p o s s i b l e .

NMU P i l o t , June 1982

A m a jo r a s p e c t o f t he s eaman ' s f a m i ly i s a l i f e s t y l e

p u n c t u a t e d by comings and g o i n g s , d e p a r t u r e s and r e t u r n s ,

s e p a r a t i o n s and r e u n i o n s . The s i n g l e , i n e s c a p a b l e f a c t f o r

t he s eam an ' s f ami ly i s t h a t seamen go t o s e a . I t i s

t h e r e f o r e a x i o m a t i c t h a t a c a r e e r s eam an ' s f ami ly must

f u n c t i o n w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f s e p a r a t i o n , a c t u a l o r

p o t e n t i a l , f o r 20 y e a r s o r more ( c f . Decke r , 1978: 113) .

In P a t h s o f L o n e l i n e s s , Wood (1953: 27) l i s t s as

i s o l a t e d t y p e s t h e seaman, pe ac e t im e s o l d i e r , m in e r , l o g g e r ,

hobo, and t h e m ig r a n t work e r . These o c c u p a t i o n s a r e

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h ho m e l e s s n e s s . The l a r g e s t group o f

o c c u p a t i o n a l l y homeles s p e r s o n s a r e t h e m i g r a t o r y w or ke r s .

For t h e s e p e o p l e , home i s where t he work i s (Sho twe l l 1961) .

They a r e s e v e r e l y i s o l a t e d from t h e communi t i es i n which

t h ey work (Bah r , 1973: 2 6 ) . His m ig rancy a l s o s e p a r a t e s

him f o r h i s community o f o r g i n . Migrancy r educe s t o a lmos t

n o t h i n g t h e chance t o d e ve l op t he f e e l i n g o f b e l o n g i n g to a

s t a b l e community ( S h o t w e l l , 1961: 3 5 - 3 7 ) .

For t h e work ing seaman, home i s where t h e work i s , on a

s h i p . B e in g on s h i p e f f e c t i v e l y c u t s o f f many s o c i a l

c o n t a c t s and t he p o s s i b i l i t y o f t a k i n g p a r t i n many shore

64

a c t i v i t i e s . I t l e s s e n s t h e o p p o r t u n i t y o f e s t a b l i s h i n g and

m a i n t a i n i n g meaningfu l s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s (No lan , 1973:

91; S h e r a r , 1973) . Nolan (1973: 92) s e e s t he i n a b i l i t y t o

c o n t r o l o u t s i d e e v e n t s , namely t h o s e i n v o l v i n g h i s f a m i ly ,

a s b e i n g a s e v e r e d e p r i v a t i o n .

Domest ic and f ami ly s i t u a t i o n s cannot be immed ia te ly i n f l u e n c e d due t o l ack o f i n f o r m a t i o n and communicat ion f a c i l i t i e s . W i t h in t he f a m i l y . . . b o t h eve ryday r u n n i n g and most impor t an t d e c i s i o n s must be t ak en by i n d i v i d u a l s o t h e r t h a n t he seaman.

The i d ea o f t he d e p r i v a t i o n o f normal f ami ly r e l a t i o n s

p e r v a d e s t he s e a f a r i n g l i t e r a t u r e . Healy i n 1936 d i s c u s s e s

th e p robl em o f t h e home o f t h e seaman b e i n g c o n s t a n t l y

i n t e r r u p t e d by l ong voyages .

The r e s u l t i s a ho u se h o ld de pend ing upon t he w i f e and t he mo the r t o m a i n t a i n o r d i n a r y d i s c i p l i n e . One can o n l y c o n j e c t u r e r e g a r d i n g t he sex l i f e o f t he husband . In f o r e i g n p o r t s he i s sh rouded w i t h t he Gyges r i n g o f anonymi ty . T h i s i n c o n ju n c t i o n w i t h t h e p e n t - u p demands f o r s e xu a l r e l a t i o n s must p l a y havoc w i t h t h e s eam an ' s p h y s i c a l and p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e a c t i o n t oward h i s home. The home i s t h e r e f o r e d e n o r m a l i z ed by t he f r e q u e n t ab sence o f t he w a g e - e a r n e r s e e k i n g s exua l s a t i s f a c t i o n o u t s i d e o f co n ju g a l r e l a t i o n s (Hea l ey ,1936: 6 7 - 6 8 ) .

F r i c k e s u p p o r t s H e a l e y ' s p o s i t i o n by s t a t i n g :

S e a f a r i n g i s a h e l l o f a l i f e f o r a m a r r i e d man w i t h a f a m i ly and more so f o r t h o s e a t home. I t ' s t h e wives t h a t d e s e r v e a l l t h e p r a i s e b e i n g f a t h e r and mothe r w h i l e t h e i r husbands a r e away a t l e a s t n i n e months o f t he y e a r ( F r i c k e ,1973b: 135) .

65

The c a r e e r seaman must i f he i s t o r e t a i n l i n k s w i t h

community and a s t a b l e f a m i ly l i f e s eek a compromise. He

must s eek a s u i t a b l e accommodat ion o f b o t h f ami ly and oc cu

p a t i o n a l n e e d s . The r e s e a r c h i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e ch o i c e o f

w i f e and t h e l o c a l e o f h i s home i n f l u e n c e s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y

o f making t he sea a c a r e e r ( H i l l , 1972; Horob in , 1957;

Pea r lm an , 1970; S t i l e s , 1972; S h e r a r , 1973: 2 4 - 2 9 ) .

A w i f e who can e n jo y t he n e a r n e s s and supp o r t o f k i n

f o l k a n d ' i s u sed t o a measure o f i ndependence i n managing

f a m i ly a f f a i r s w i l l a l l o w the seaman t o r ema in i n h i s

o c c u p a t i o n b e ca us e he i s a b l e t o i n t e g r a t e f ami ly and

o c c u p a t i o n ( c f . De cke r , 1978) . But as F r i c k e (1973)

p o i n t s o u t :

t h i s accommodat ion o f needs i s on ly s u i t a b l e i n a r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e s o c i a l en v i r o n m en t , s i n c e i t p r e s u p p o s e s a p a t t e r n o f v o y a g e s . . . which a l l o w s a f a m i ly t o f u n c t i o n s u c c e s s f u l l y ( F r i c k e 1973b: 48 ) .

L i f e a t s ea i s c e r t a i n l y no t conduc ive t o m a i n t a i n i n g

s t a b l e f a m i ly t i e s . I t t a k e s an e x t r a o r d i n a r y k i n d o f man

and f a m i ly t o s t a b i l i z e such r e l a t i o n s h i p s under t he

s t r a i n e d c o n d i t i o n s o f s e a f a r i n g l i f e . R esea r ch i n d i c a t e s

t h a t h i s chances f o r a s u c c e s s f u l m a r r i a g e a r e poor ( S h e r a r ,

1973: 2 4 - 2 9 ) . T h i s r e s e a r c h s u p p o r t s t h a t c o n c l u s i o n .

T h i s p rob l em o f b e i n g away from f a m i ly i s p e r h a p s what

f o r c e d seamen t o demand i n c r e a s e d v a c a t i o n p e r i o d s (up t o

s i x months a y e a r i n some compan ie s ) . T h i s i n c r e a s e d t ime

w i t h f a m i ly comes a t t h e expense o f l e s s sh o re t ime i n p o r t

66

and l e s s men abo a rd s h i p . These l a t e r two s i t u a t i o n s b e i n g

t h e r e s u l t s o f modern t e c h no lo gy w i t h i n t h e s h i p p i n g

i n d u s t r y (Moreby, 1975) .

Men go t o s ea and e x p e r i e n c e some s o c i a l change;

c o n s e q u e n t l y t hey come back s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t men. Even

t h e s e sma l l d i f f e r e n c e s a r e a c c e n t u a t e d when t hey a r e

c o n f r o n t e d w i t h t h e change h i s f ami ly and community have

e x p e r i e n c e d s i n c e h i s d e p a r t u r e . He r e t u r n s from h i s

i s o l a t i o n on t h e s h i p t o h i s i s o l a t i o n on t h e be ach . While

he was away f ami ly and f r i e n d s were making new a c q u a i n t a n c e s

and f r i e n d s h i p s , c h i l d r e n were growing; s t y l e s and f a s h i o n s

were ch ang ing .

The one who was t h e r e i n t h e sys tem w h i l e i t was e v o l v i n g may be l e s s aware o f t he changes which have t ak en p l a c e bu t a t t he same t ime may be b e t t e r a b l e t o u n d e r s t a n d o r make s ense o f t he r e s u l t s o f t h o s e changes when c o n f r o n t e dw i t h them. The man r e t u r n i n g o r t heo u t s i d e r on t he o t h e r hand even i f he can make s e nse o f t h e ch anges , has no t h i m s e l f been changed by them i n t he same way as someone who ha s evo lved w i t h and in many c a s e s ha s been t he cause o f t ho se changes (Orbach , 1977:277) .

V e t e r a n s , r e t u r n i n g t o t h e i r f a m i l i e s a f t e r b e i n g away

f o r a s l i t t l e as s i x months , come w i t h a d i s t o r t e d vi ew of

how t h i n g s had been when t h ey l e f t . Whi le he may r e c o g n i z e

changes i n h i m s e l f , he i s ap t t o f o r g e t t h a t t h os e who were

a t home have a l s o changed (McCubl in, e t a l , 1975a: 303;

Cube r , 1945; B ak e r , e t a l , 1968 ) . A d d i t i o n a l l y new

e x p e r i e n c e s have i n f l u e n c e d h i s p e r c e p t i o n o f home, wh i l e

67

t h ose a t home remember him a s he was i n t he p a s t ( Sc hu e t z ,

1945) . The e f f e c t o f t h e s e a b sen c es a r e cu mu la t i v e f o r

t h o s e who r ema in seamen. I t a l s o makes him un su r e o f

o t h e r ' s f e e l i n g s toward him be cau se o f what 1b t o him a

c o n s t a n t l y chang ing b e h a v i o r ( c f . Cube r , 1945) .

I f t he seaman r e t u r n s home t o a smoothly ru n n i n g

h o u s e h o l d , i t was t he mother who m a i n t a i n e d i t . The

w a i t i n g w i f e f u n c t i o n i n g as head o f t he ho u se h o l d m a t u r e s ,

d e v e l o p s g r e a t e r independence and s e l f c o n f i d e n c e wh i l e

p r o v i d i n g a l i f e f o r h e r f ami ly i n t he absence o f a husband

( c f . McCubl in, e t a l , 1975b) . A f t e r t h e i n i t i a l week o r

so i n p o r t t he husband s t a r t s g e t t i n g i n t he way. Wives

f r e q u e n t l y remark " I t ' s n i c e t o have him home, bu t i t ' s good

t o have him go n e . " Husbands f r e q u e n t l y remark " I t ' s n i c e to

be home, bu t i t ' s good t o be g on e . " ( T u n s t a l l , 1962;

Ande rson , 1972 ) . Re se a r ch done w i t h r e t u r n i n g s e rv i cemen

i n d i c a t e s t h a t r e i n t e g r a t i o n i n t o t h e f a m i ly sy s t em i s a

ma jor s t r e s s f a c t o r r e q u i r i n g an e x t e n s i v e e f f o r t on t he

p a r t o f t h e f a m i ly a s we l l a s o f t h e r e t u r n i n g se rv iceman

(Brown, 1944; Cuber , 1945; G r i f f i t h , 1944; H i l l , R . , 1945) .

The p r o c e s s o f r e u n i o n i s an e x t r e m e l y complex p r o c e s s

t h a t i n v o l v e s t h e r e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f bonds o f cohe rence and

f a m i ly u n i t y . Of t h e s e t h e hus ba nd -w i f e r e l a t i o n s h i p , t he

d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r w i t h i n t h e home, t h e r e l o c a t i o n o f r o l e s

and t he r e v i t a l i z a t i o n o f f a t h e r - c h i l d r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e

pa ramoun t . C o n v e r se l y t he a d ju s tm e n t t o t h e h u s b a n d ' s

68

l e a v i n g i n v o l v e s t h e p r o c e s s o f c l o s i n g ou t t h e h u s b a n d ' s

r o l e i n o r d e r f o r t h e f a m i ly t o de v e l o p a more f u n c t i o n a l

and e f f i c i e n t p a t t e r n o f o p e r a t i o n ( H i l l , R. 1949) .

R e s e a r c h t e n d s t o emphas i ze t h a t t he n u c l e a r f am i ly in

t o d a y ' s s o c i e t y i s i n r e l a t i v e i s o l a t i o n from s u p p o r t i n g

s o c i a l ne tw ork s w h i l e i t a t t e m p t s t o cope w i t h s o c i e t a l

demands (Burges s and Locke, 1953; P a r s o n s and B a l e s , 1955) .

Co n se q u e n t l y c a r r y i n g out t h e normal f u n c t i o n s i n t o d a y ' s

f a m i ly becomes e x t r e m e l y dependen t on t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a

w e l l f u n c t i o n i n g f am i ly u n i t , t h a t i n c l u d e s a normal

complement o f p a r e n t s ( H e r b s t , 1960 ) . But f o r t he s eaman ' s

f a m i l y , b o t h husband and w i f e have become used t o a

l i f e s t y l e which o p e r a t e s smoothly (ou t o f n e c e s s i t y ) w i t h o u t

t h e o t h e r ' s p r e s e n c e . Men must ge t t o know t h e i r f a m i l i e s

a f t e r e ach t r i p . I t becomes h a r d t o m a i n t a i n a s t a b l e ,

i n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p on t h e b a s i s o f 4-6 months c o n t a c t p e r

y e a r . I n s t e a d o f p e r f o r m i n g i n a no r m a t iv e r o l e o r r o l e s o f

t h e f a t h e r / h u s b a n d , t he seaman becomes p e r i p h e r a l t o t he day

t o day f u n c t i o n i n g o f t he f a m i ly (Orbach , 1977; 279 ) .

Orbach (1977: 279) s i t e s t h e example o f t he 6eaman -

f a t h e r a s d i s c i p l i n a r i a n . The mo the r c o n t i n u o u s l y t h r e a t e n s

t h e c h i l d r e n w i t h h a r s h d i s c i p l i n e from t h e f a t h e r when he

r e t u r n s . But t h e f a t h e r , upon h i s r e t u r n , does no t w i sh to

a p pe a r as a heavy t o h i s c h i l d r e n d u r i n g h i s Btay a t home.

C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e m o t h e r ' s c o n t r o l f a l l s a p a r t d u r i n g h i s

s t a y . C h i l d r e n may c a t c h on t o t h e s e t h r e a t s and n e v e r obey

69

t h e mo the r ; t h i s i s t he c o n c l u s i o n o f t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s of

t h i s a u t h o r and pe rh a p s t h e r e a s o n f o r t h e h i g h r a t e o f

de v i a n ce among t h e c h i l d r e n o f t h o s e seamen o bs e r ve d . The

w i f e c o n s i d e r s t h i s as an i n t e r f e r i n g a s p e c t o f t he

h u s b a n d ' s s t a y . The love and a f f e c t i o n she needs from he r

husband i s soon b a l a n c e d by t he i nco n v e n i e nc e o f h i s

p r e s e n c e ( c f . I s a y 1968; c f . MetreB, e t a l , 1974) .

S i n g l e seamen have even l e s s o f a chance t o m a i n t a i n

i n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s . He must " r e l e a r n " about a p e r s o n

each t r i p , i f i ndeed he ha s t he s k i l l s and c o n n e c t i o n s to

g a i n i n t r o d u c t i o n s w i t h p r o s p e c t i v e p a r t n e r s . The s i n g l e

seaman i s e s p e c i a l l y v u l n e r a b l e becau se he i s out o f i t in

t e rms o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g how to d e a l w i t h women. These

u n d e r s t a n d i n g s depend on h i s knowing f a d s , s t y l e s i n d r e s s ,

p r e f e r r e d s o c i a l s p o t s , e t c . . Orbach (1977: 282) compares

him to t h e man, who a f t e r b e i n g m a r r i e d fo r s e v e r a l y e a r s ,

g e t s d i v o r c e d and must r e l e a r n t h e game. In s h o r t , he does

no t know how t o a c t . Taken t o g e t h e r o ve r a l ong p e r i o d of

t i m e , t h i s l a c k o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g becomes a c o n s i d e r a b l e l a ck

o f e x p e r i e n c e . He g r a d u a l l y l o s e s t he a b i l i t y t o n a v i g a t e

i n t he speed and co n fu s i o n o f t he Bhore env i ron men t , as

opposed t o t h e s low pace o f t he s h i p .

Nolan s e e s t he l a ck o f s o c i a l s t i m u l i i n t h e r e s t r i c t e d

a c c e s s t o newspape r , t e l e v i s i o n and r a d i o as a dd i ng t o t h i s

l a ck o f i n f o r m a t i o n ( s t i m u l i ) ga in e d (1973: 93 ) . The lack

o f s e n s o r y s t i m u l i can be added t o t h i s , which can p o s s i b l y

70

l e a d t o an emo t iona l d e c l i n e ( S p i t z , 1945) . Nolan makes t he

ana log y be tween s o l i t a r y conf inement i n p r i s o n and s h i p b o a r d

l i f e , t h e i r common c o n n e c t i o n w i t h s e n s o r y d e p r i v a t i o n .

Gresham Sykes i n S o c i e t y o f C a p t i v e s (1964) s p e c i f i e s

many o f t he p a i n s o f impr i sonmen t : one o f which i s t he

d e p r i v a t i o n o f h e t e r o s e x u a l r e l a t i o n s . On s h i p s , t he l o s s

i s no t as g r e a t a s i n p r i s o n , bu t can be u n d e r s t o o d as

r e l a t i v e d e p r i v a t i o n ; t h a t i s , r e l a t i v e t o sho re s i d e

o c c u p a t i o n s . However, t h i s d e p r i v a t i o n r e f e r s no t on l y to

i n t e r c o u r s e b u t a l s o t o t h e l a c k o f meaningfu l m a l e / f e m a le

s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n ( c f . Deck e r , 1978) .

Sykes s e e s women a s s i g n i f i c a n t o t h e r s t h a t p r o v i d e

much o f what Cooley (1902: 182-187) ha s c a l l e d t he " l o o k i n g

g l a s s s e l f . ” To be cut o f f from th e company o f women and be

d e p r i v e d o f h e t e r o s e x u a l r e l a t i o n s may g iv e r i s e t o a n x i e t y

about a p e r s o n ' s m a s c u l i n i t y . V i s i t s t o p o r t s can p r o v i d e

t he seaman w i t h r e l i e f from such f e e l i n g s . T h i s can be seen

a s one o f t h e r e a s o n s (overcoming d o u b t s about h i s sexua l

i d e n t i t y ) f o r t h e seaman f r e q u e n t i n g s e v e r a l whore ho use s o r

h a v in g a " s t e a d y woman i n p o r t " and a lways l e t t i n g t he crew

know t h i s (Nolan , 1973: 91 ) .

Most m a r r i e d seamen make huge p s y c h o l o g i c a l payments

f o r go in g t o s e a . These payments a r e e x p e r i e n c e d i n t he

form o f r o l e c o n f l i c t be tween b e i n g a f a m i ly man and a

seaman (wage e a r n e r ) . They e a r n r e a s o n a b l y h i g h wages by

b e i n g away from home. The c o n f l i c t i s a c t u a l l y be tween what

71

t h e y a r e d o i n g ( e a r n i n g h i g h wages) and what t h ey would l i k e

t o do (have a Job making t h e same h i g h income, b u t which

a l l o w s them to come home each e ve n i ng ) (Moreby, 1975: 193;

c f . Deck e r , 1978) .

Pe r hap s one o f t h e r e a s o n s why most seamen t r y t o q u i t

s e v e r a l t ime s and would i f no t f o r t he money, i s t h i s

i n a b i l i t y t o m a i n t a i n an i n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p and m a i n t a i n

h i s e x p e c t e d r o l e s . Con se qu e n t l y he d e v e l op s g u i l t about

b e i n g i n an o c c u p a t i o n which c r e a t e s t h i s . Seamen always

b r i n g g i f t s home f o r ev e ryone ; p e r h a p s t o r e l i e v e t h i s g u i l t

( S h e r a r , 1973: 2 7 ) . These g i f t s t u r n e d my f a t h e r ' s

homecoming i n t o an e v e n t . On e xp e c t e d a r r i v a l day home

p a t t e r n s change a b r u p t l y , , t he house i s c l e a n e d , t h e w i f e

d r e s s e s up ( S t o d d a r d , 1978) . One o f t he f i r s t e v e n t s upon

e n t e r i n g t he house i s t h e open ing o f g i f t s . These g i f t s

were a lways v e r y d i f f e r e n t from a n y t h i n g anyone e l s e had .

No o t h e r k i d I knew had huge hand c a r v e d model s h i p s , t i g e r

s k i n ru gs o r an e l e p h a n t t u s k . My mothe r was p r o b a b l y one

o f t h e few pe o p l e who had a 150 pound s t a t u e o f budda t h a t

was c a r ve d ou t o f a t r e e . We were a d i f f e r e n t k i n d o f

f a m i ly . We were a s eam an ' s f a m i ly . The moment you walked

i n t o ou r house and saw a l l t he g i f t s he had b r ough t home f o r

a l l t h o s e y e a r s you knew i t . Du r i n g t he c o u r s e o f t h i s

r e s e a r c h I was i n v i t e d i n t o t h e home o f an o l d seaman who

had been s h i p p i n g Bince 1939. The de c o r was a p e r s o n a l

h i s t o r y o f h i s 43 y e a r s as a seaman.

72

Re se a rch i n d i c a t e s t h a t s e p a r a t i o n from f ami ly caus e s

the greatest BtreSB (Moreby, 1975: 158; L a n t i s , 1968: 578;

Ben jamin , 1970; Ho rbu l ewicz , 1973; Decke r , 1978 ) . Seamen

r e g a r d t h e i r o c c u p a t i o n as i n f e r i o r be cau se o f t h e

d e p r i v a t i o n o f normal f a m i ly l i f e . (They a l s o do not

c o n s i d e r t h i s t o be compensa ted f o r by i ncome. ) Pe rhaps

i n d i c a t i n g why men r a r e l y s t a y a t sea when o t h e r sho re ba sed

employment i s a v a i l a b l e (Moreby, 1975; Hagg, 1971; F r a s e r ,

1960) . In s h o r t , men go t o sea b e cau se o f t he r ewards t hey

r e c e i v e f o r do in g so (Orbach , 1977: 188; Moreby, 1969:

1975) . These r ewa rds have d e c r e a s e d r e l a t i v e l y i n r e c e n t

y e a r s (Horb u l ew icz , 1973: 71) .

For a l l s e a m e n . . . m a r r i e d and un mar r i ed a l i k e . . . t h e i n c r e a s i n g m e c h a n i z a t i o n and s p e c i a l i z a t i o n o f s h i p s a r e u n i l a t e r a l l y ch ang ing t h e paymen t / r ewa rd p a t t e r n . A number o f seamen, e s p e c i a l l y t he younger members, e x p e r i e n c e t h i s a s a b r e a c h i n t he p s y c h o l o g i c a l c o n t r a c t t hey e n t e r e d i n t o when t hey a p p l i e d t o go t o s ea ; t h a t i s , t h e i m p l i c i t u n d e r s t a n d i n g t hey had t h a t , by go ing t o s e a , t hey would have t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o g e t a sh o r e i n f o r e i g n p o r t s , see t he s i g h t s and have t h e o c c a s i o n a l t a s t e o f ad v en t u r e (Moreby, 1975: 193) .

The seaman t oday spends v e ry l i t t l e t ime a sh o r e i n

f o r e i g n p o r t s ; t h e g r e a t e s t p a r t o f h i s work ing l i f e i s

sp en t a t s e a . He w i l l soon r e a l i z e t h a t t h e s h i p i s h i s

w o r l d , no t f o r e i g n l a n d s , no r s t r a n g e p e o p l e and t h e i r

c u l t u r e s . He w i l l spend t h e g r e a t e r p a r t o f h i s t ime a sh o r e

i n b a r s , t h a t become mere e x t e n s i o n s o f t h e s h i p and i t s

i s o l a t e d community. In s h o r t he soon f i n d s ou t t h a t t he

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romance and t h r i l l o f s e a f a r i n g i s g r e a t l y e x a g g e r a t e d . He

becomes exposed t o t h e s t r e s s and boredom o f t h e o c c u p a t i o n

( B a s s i s and Ro seng ren , 1975) .

Horbul ewicz summarized h i s r e s e a r c h i n r e g a r d t o such

c o n d i t i o n s (1973: 7 2 - 7 3 ) .

1. Work i n s ea t r a n s p o r t s t a k e s p l a c e i n c o n d i t i o n s of s t r e s s .

2. The p r i n c i p l e s t r e s s o r i s t h e s o c i a l - e m o t i o n a l s e p a r a t i o n from o n e ' s c l o s e s t p e r s o n s .

3. T h i s s e p a r a t i o n c a u s e s :

a . d e p r i v a t i o n o f emo t iona l c o n t a c t ne e d s ,

b . d e p r i v a t i o n o f i n f o r m a t i o n ,

c . d e p r i v a t i o n o f 60c i o - e m o t i o n a l su p p o r t from f ami ly i n t h e i s o l a t e d p s y c h o s o c i a l s h ip communi t y .

The e f f e c t s o f such a d e p r i v e d s i t u a t i o n v a r y and can become

pe rmanent .

The r e s u l t o f t h e s e d e p r i v a t i o n s i s t h a t i n t he l e s s

r i g i d , bu t r e l a t i v e l y more complex s o c i a l m i l i e u a s h o r e , t he

seaman may app ea r t o o t h e r s a s immature . He may f e e l uneasy

and have d i f f i c u l t y i n communica t i on , c o n s e q u e n t l y he f e e l s

out o f p l a c e and no t u n d e r s t o o d (No lan , 1973: 194) .

R e se a r ch s u p p o r t s t h e f a c t t h a t a g r e a t many seamen f i n d

d i f f i c u l t y i n g e t t i n g a lo n g a s ho re ( S h e r a r , 1973) .

T h i s d i f f i c u l t y i n g e t t i n g a l o n g a sh o r e w i l l become

a p p a r e n t when t h e seaman r e t i r e s . Shore s i d e wo rk e r s have

an e a s i e r t ime w i t h r e t i r e m e n t be c a u se o f r o o t s i n t he

community and he r e t a i n s t h e same f r i e n d s and s o c i a l t i e s ,

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c o n s e q u e n t l y he does no t e x p e r i e n c e such a d i s r u p t i v e change

( c f . Bel l i n o , 1970) . Some o f t he s p e c i f i c p rob l ems in

r e t i r e e a d ju s tm e n t a r e ( c f . B e l l i n o , 1969) :

1. a d ju s tm e n t t o t h e l o s s o f o c c u p a t i o n a l r o l e and s o c i a l p o s i t i o n . (T h i s p rob lem i s p a r t i c u l a r l y s e v e r e among t he h i g h e r o f f i c e r s on t h e s h i p . )

2. a d a p t i n g t o a sh o re s i d e way o f l i f e .

3. i n t e g r a t i o n i n t o a permanent community a f t e r a l i f e o f t r a n s i e n c y .

4. a d ju s tm e n t t o a new and p e r h a p s more i n t e n s e p a t t e r n o f f a m i ly i n t e r a c t i o n .

These p rob lems were seen t o be a r e s u l t o f p o o r l y deve loped

s o c i a l s k i l l s c aused by t h e r e s t r i c t i o n s o f t he s h i p . T h i s

i s p r o b a b l y t h e r e a s o n f o r a l o t o f r e t i r e d seamen hang ing

a round t h e u n i o n h a l l . Many o f t he r e t i r e d seamen

i n t e r v i e w e d s a i d t h ey found t h e h a l l more s o c i a l l y

c o m f o r t a b l e . The un i on h a l l , a s an e x t e n s i o n o f t h e s h i p ,

l e s s e n s t h e a d ju s tm e n t t h e seaman needs t o make t o a

sh o r e s i d e e x i s t e n c e . I t a l s o means t h a t he r emains

i n t e g r a t e d i n t h e s e a f a r i n g community. But t h i s a l s o

r e d u c e s t h e chances t h a t he w i l l become i n t e g r a t e d i n t o a

permanent community a s h o r e , s i n c e he ha s no need t o a d a p t .

The seaman s e e s h i m s e l f as b e i n g a b l e t o compete ,

b e c a u se o f h i s h i g h s a l a r y , i n t h e a c q u i s i t i o n and d i s p l a y

o f v a r i o u s s t a t u s o b j e c t s . They a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y v u l n e r a b l e

t o c o n s p i c u o u s consumpt ion . Re se a r ch shows seamen see

t h e m se lv e s a s c o m p e t i t i v e i n s o c i a l s t a n d i n g be ca u se o f t h i s

h i g h s a l a r y (Orbach , 1977: 286 -287 ) .

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While c o ns p i cuo us e x p e n d i t u r e s a r e impo r t an t means o f

l o c a t i n g a p e r s o n w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o o t h e r s , c l o s e

o b s e r v a t i o n o f i n t e r a c t i o n r evea lB t h a t t h e s e a r e n e c e s s a r y

r a t h e r t han s u f f i c i e n t f a c t o r s f o r t he p u r p o s e . They

e s t a b l i s h p o s i t i o n i n a p a r t i c u l a r group w i t h i n a s t r a t u m o r

s o c i a l c a t e g o r y . The seaman e n a c t s t h e form but no t t he

s u b s t a n c e o f s o c i a l r o l e s . He l a c ks c o n t a c t w i t h r e f e r e n c e

g roups which c o u ld v a l i d a t e t h e s e r o l e s . In e f f e c t he

assumes an i d e n t i t y b a s e d on s u p e r f i c i a l a p p r e c i a t i o n s . One

may say t h a t h i s whole l i f e ' s e x p e r i e n c e s a c t c o u n t e r t o h i s

w i s h e s , h i s d reams, and t h e r e f o r e t o h i s i d e a l s ( S h e r a r ,

1973: 32 ) .

His h i g h e a r n i n g s a r e a so u r c e o f p e r s o n a l v a l i d i t y

w i t h which he canno t p a r t - - i t i s h i s major measure o f s e l f

wor th . In s o c i o l o g i c a l t e rm s , t h e r e i s an i n h e r e n t

d i f f i c u l t y i n e s t a b l i s h i n g and m a i n t a i n i n g I d e n t i t y by

r e f e r e n c e t o p u r e l y e x t r i n s i c r ewa r ds . When he admi t s t h i s ,

he i s i n e f f e c t a d m i t t i n g t h a t h i s way o f l i f e makes

i m p o s s i b l e a s t a b l e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h f a m i ly o r f r i e n d s . A

p a r a l l e l i d e n t i t y p rob l em was n o t e d by Lemert (1967:

119-132) w i t h r e s p e c t t o t he s y s t e m a t i c check f o r g e r , whose

l i f e s t y l e , i n s i m i l a r form, a l s o c r e a t e s a m a rg in a l man, a

permanent s t r a n g e r .

The seaman ha s a need ( a s do most o f u s ) f o r t h e sense

o f s e c u r i t y which s o c i a l r e c o g n i t i o n and c o n t a c t w i t h o n e ' s

f am i ly and f r i e n d s and t h e i r app rova l f u r n i s h e s . Whether he

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r e c o g n i z e s t h i s n e e d , and i s a b l e t o remedy i t , i s indeed

a n o t h e r q u e s t i o n .

T h i s i s s i g n i f i c a n t i n t h a t i t shows t h e de g re e o f

s o c i a l d e p r i v a t i o n a p e r s o n w i l l a cc ep t when he b l i n d l y

r e c o g n i z e s w e a l t h t o be t h e s o l e symbol o f s o c i a l

a ch i eve men t . The seaman r e p r e s e n t s a un ique form o f d e v i a n t

b e h a v i o r t h a t i s d i f f i c u l t t o r e c o g n i z e as such . Merton

(1968: 189) a d d r e s s e s t h i s p rob lem when he spoke o f o v e r

c o n fo r m i ty as a form o f d e v i a n c e . His conce rn was w i t h t he

s o c i a l consequences o f a heavy emphas i s upon mone t ary

s u c c e s s a s a goal i n a s o c i e t y which ha s no t adop t ed i t s

s t r u c t u r e t o t he i m p l i c a t i o n o f t h i s emphas i s .

P a r s o n s (1951: 476-477) i n c l u d e s t y p e s o f compul s ive

c o n fo r m i ty a s b e h a v i o r no t s o c i a l l y d e f i n e d as d e v i a n t bu t

t h a t i s d e v i a n t . I t i s d e v i a n t i n t h e s e nse t h a t i t

r e p r e s e n t s d e p a r t u r e s from e x p e c t a t i o n s and l a c k s t he

i n n o v a t i o n n e c e s s a r y fo r s u c c e s s i n a ch ang ing env i ronmen t .

The t y p i c a l merchant seaman d i s p l a y s such c o n fo rm i ty and

l a ck o f i n n o v a t i o n .

On t h e s h i p t h e seaman i s seen as matu re and

r e s p o n s i b l e ; a s h o re he i s s een as immature and l a c k i n g i n

s o c i a l s k i l l s . (T h i s i s someth ing o f t e n n o t e d about

e x - c o n v i c t s . ) He l a c k s any e x t e n s i v e r e p e r t o i r e o f

a l t e r n a t i v e r e s p o n s e s , s o c i a l a c t i o n s and c a t e g o r i z a t i o n s

which a r e a d eq u a t e f o r t h e more complex p a t t e r n s o f s o c i a l

r e l a t i o n s and i n t e r a c t i o n s on t he b e ac h . Conse que n t l y he

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may p l a y t h e s imp le r o l e o f t he s t e r e o t y p i c seaman. He i s

more a b l e t o n a v i g a t e s o c i a l l y i n t h e more s t a b l e and

p r e d i c t a b l y s t r a t i f i e d envi ronment o f t he s h i p (Auber t and

A r n e r , 1969) .

On t he s h i p t h e seaman i s a t home and su r e o f h i s p o s i t i o n , work , s k i l l s , d u t i e s and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , i t i s on ly a s h o r e t h a t a s ense o f d i f f e r e n c e and s e p a r a t e n e s s become n o t i c e a b l e (Nolan , 1973: 95 ) .

The s h i p p r e s u p p o s e s t h a t , w i t h i n h i s o c c u p a t i o n a l

domain, t h e seaman i s a matu re and r e s p o n s i b l e man. But in

o t h e r r e s p e c t s , t he s h i p ' s community p e r m i t s and encourages

t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t , a c e r t a i n c h i l d l i k e dependence and

l a c k o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . Hi s food i s b rough t t o t he t a b l e ,

he i s c a l l e d f o r work, h i s bed i s made and room i s c l e an e d

by someone e l s e , he d o e s n ' t have t o d r i v e t o work , he does

no t have t o worry about d r e s s i n g p r o p e r l y a s most shore

wor ke r s do . In s h o r t , he i s de vo id o f a l l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y

exce p t work i t s e l f , and i n t h i s r e g a r d , he i s p r o t e c t e d by

power fu l m a r i t i m e u n i o n s . He goes t o f o r e i g n p o r t s i n which

he ha s no s e r i o u s s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r h i s a c t i o n s .

The seaman d e v e l o p s an amb iva l en t r e l a t i o n s h i p to

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , p o s s i b l y i n d i c a t i n g why d i s s a t i s f i e d seamen

n e v e r t h e l e s s d e c i d e t o remain i n t h e i r o c c u p a t i o n , i n s t e a d

o f making an a t t e m p t t o s e t t l e a s ho re (Auber t and Ar ne r ,

1958) .

T h i s l a c k o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ha s g e n e r a t e d t he n o t i o n of

t h e c a r e f r e e seaman. Seamen e n jo y t he myth of b e i n g

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c a r e f r e e , so t hey p e r i o d i c a l l y e x h i b i t some o f t h e s e

b e h a v i o r s .

Many o f t h e s e b e h a v i o r s and t h e i r accompanying myths a r e r e a c t i o n s to t h e i r d e p r i v a t i o n s and i s o l a t i o n s a t sea and t he i n a d e q u a c i e s t hey f e e l a s h o r e . R e a c t i o n s t o t h i s a r e b rough t f o r t h i n t h e form o f con sp i cuo us consumpt ion , t h e i r myth a s seamen, and i t s a t t e n d a n t b e h a v i o r s (Orbach,1977: 287 ) .

T h i s may a i d h i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n a s a seaman, bu t i t

a l s o c a u se s f e e l i n g s o f d e p r i v a t i o n . Indeed h i s p r o l o n g e d

e x p e r i e n c e i n t h e t o t a l i n s t i t u t i o n a l s e t t i n g o f t h e s h ip

ha s l ed t o a r e l a t i v e d e p r i v a t i o n o f a l t e r n a t i v e r o l e s ,

o p p o r t u n i t i e s and i n t e r a c t i o n s (No lan , 1973: 93 ) .

A seaman a s ho re i s out o f h i s e l e m e n t , i l l a d ap t e d t o

h i s env i ronment and un c o m f o r t a b l y aware o f a sense o f

s t r a n g e n e s s and a l a c k o f o r i e n t a t i o n . There i s a f e e l i n g

o f r e s t r a i n t , o f a t t e m p t e d a d ju s tm en t t o u n f a m i l i a r r o u t i n e s

and u n c e r t a i n e x p e c t a t i o n s (Hohman, 1952: 201) .

Augmented by h i s l a c k o f community t i e s t h e s e

u n f a m i l i a r r o u t i n e s q u i c k l y d r i v e t h e seaman back t o t he

un io n h a l l . The un ion h a l l becomes a c o m f o r t i n g p l a c e . For

t h e seaman i t i s t h e l e a s t a l i e n p l a c e i n t he t o p s y - t u r v y

wor ld a s h o r e . The un i o n h a l l ha s r e p l a c e d t h e s e aman ' s b a r

a s t h e p l a c e f o r s o c i a l comf o r t . Many seamen ne v e r ge t

beyond t h e u n i o n h a l l . The l on g e r he i s a seaman t h e

f u r t h e r he i s drawn from l i f e on t h e be a c h . The un i on h a l l

becomes an e x t e n s i o n o f t he s h i p . He i s a pa r a do x . He

79

d o e s n ' t l i k e b e i n g on a s h i p and he d o e s n ' t l i k e b e i n g o f f

o f i t . An o l d Beaman w a i t in g i n a union h a l l summed i t up,

I come back and I am g l a d t o be back; t h en I s ee a l l t h e s e same p e o p l e who work on t he beach d o i n g t h e same t h i n g s . They d o n ' t have any t ime o f f and no money t o spend . Always t h e same B to ry . You t h i n k a f t e r you went away and s een t h e wor ld and come back somet h i n g would have changed. 1 ge t b o r e d w i t h t he be ac h , and I d o n ' t know how t hey can s t a n d t h e i r l i v e s . I f e e l s u p e r i o r t o them.

He t hen p a u se s and ad d s .

But I know as soon a s I ge t a t s e a ,I ' l l want t o come back .

Bored w i t h t h i s s t r a n g e mundane envi ronment he r e t u r n s t o

th e s h i p f o r t h e s e c u r i t y o f h i s f a m i l i a r co lony .

A f t e r a p e r i o d a t s e a , t h ey r e t u r n t o f a m i ly a n d / o r

f r i e n d s . When t h ey ge t t i r e d o f t h a t ; when t h e s t r a n g e n e s s

o f a l l t h e r u l e s and r e g u l a t i o n s o f l i f e on t h e beach and

t h e humdrum d o i n gs o f e v e r yd ay , c l o s e i n on them, t h e r e i s

t h e nex t t r i p , t h a t w i l l once a g a i n t ak e them away from i t

a l l (Orbach , 1977: 288; Moreby, 1975: 32; S h e r a r , 1973:

14 -1 8 ) .

The ephemera l q u a l i t y o f i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s

g e n e r a t e s a p r o b l e m a t i c i d e n t i t y f o r t h e seaman. The seaman

c o n t i n u a l l y e x p r e s s e s a d i s l i k e f o r s h i p s f o r t h e r e a r e

l i m i t s t o which a s o c i e t y o f s t r a n g e r s may be s i g n i f i c a n t to

t h e s e l f . Even so , l i f e on t h e s h i p becomes more d e s i r a b l e

t h a n l i f e on t h e o u t s i d e . On t h e s h i p he i s a t l e a s t

c o m f o r t a b l e , su r e o f h i s p o s i t i o n and s k i l l s and t h e

80

e x p e c t a t i o n s o f o t h e r s . L i f e a t sea i s d i f f e r e n t from l i f e

a s h o r e . The l o n g e r he l i v e s on t h e sea t h e more d i f f e r e n t

he becomes .

Geog raph i c m o b i l i t y c au se s l o n e l i n e s s and i s o l a t i o n ,

which a r e p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y h a r m f u l . We need t o be bound by

c l o s e s o c i a l t i e s w i t h o t h e r men. T h i s n e c e s s i t a t e s a c l o s e

i n t im ac y w i t h o t h e r men, a community o f f e e l i n g and an

i n t i m a t e l i v i n g t o g e t h e r . Wi thout t h i s we remain a

s t r a n g e r . An i n c r e a s e i n m o b i l i t y d e c r e a s e s t he chances

o f such i n t i m a c y . He becomes l e s s and l e s s a t t a c h e d t o

a n y t h i n g and t o anybody. He b e g i n s t o remind us o f a pe r s o n

d r i v e n by t he wind. He becomes f r e e and a s a consequence ,

l o n e l y a s a s o c i a l l y u n a t t a c h e d atom (S o ro k i n 1959:

522 -523 ) .

C o n c l u s i o n : The Focus o f The Study

When men go t o sea t h ey make c o n c e s s i o n s ( i . e . absence

from home). These a r e i n a d d i t i o n t o t he p h y s i c a l and

menta l e f f o r t s and e f f e c t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s e a f a r i n g . In

o r d e r t o compensa te f o r t h e s e c o n c e s s i o n s , t hey seek

e x t r a o r d i n a r y k i n d s o f compensa t ion ( i . e . money, s ee t he

w o r l d ) .

Most seamen make immense p s y c h o l o g i c a l c o n c e s s i o n s when

t hey go t o s e a ; t hey make t h e s e c o n c e s s i o n s i n t h e form of

c o n f l i c t be tween t h e i r j ob - which compensa te s them w i t h

h ig h wages becau se t h ey a r e away from home and what most o f

them would l i k e t o be do i ng - f i n d a job which o f f e r s them

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t he same h i g h wages bu t a l l o w s them to r e t u r n home each day

(Moreby, 1975) .

The e v e r I n c r e a s i n g t e c hn o lo g y o f s h i p s i s chang ing t he

c o n c e s s i o n s compensa t i on p a t t e r n e x p e r i e n c e d by i n d i v i d u a l

s e a f a r e r s . Merchant s h i p s d u r i n g t h e s a i l i n g e r a had l a r g e

c r ews , made l ong t r i p s and spen t l ong p e r i o d s i n f o r e i g n

p o r t s . For t h i s t hey r e c e i v e d low wages , no f r i n g e b e n e f i t s

and were abused by s h i p p i n g companies and t h e i r a g e n t s . The

u n i o n i z a t i o n and c o n t i n u a l i n c r e a s e d l e v e l o f m e c h a n i z a t i o n

o f s h i p s ha s changed t he wor ld o f t he seaman. T r i p s a r e

s h o r t e r ; b o t h b e n e f i t s and wages a r e i n c r e a s i n g ; p a i d

v a c a t i o n s a r e becoming l o n g e r ; bu t p o r t t ime i s much s h o r t e r

( f o r Borne s h i p s n o n - e x i s t e n t ) ; and crews a r e g e t t i n g

s m a l l e r . Seamen, e s p e c i a l l y new members, e x p e r i e n c e t h i s

d e c r e a s e i n p o r t t ime as an i n f r i n g e m e n t on t he i m p l i c i t

p s y c h o l o g i c a l c o n t r a c t t hey e n t e r e d i n t o when t hey e n t e r e d

t h e o c c u p a t i o n ; which i s t he i n f e r r e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g t hey had

t h a t by go i ng t o s ea t hey would have t h e chance t o ge t

a sh o r e i n f o r e i g n p o r t s , s e e t he d i f f e r e n t and unusua l and

have a t a s t e o f a d v e n t u r e .

The d e c r e a s e i n t he number o f crew members c a u se s t he

seaman t o e x p e r i e n c e an i n c r e a s e i n s o c i a l i s o l a t i o n aboard

s h i p . The consequences o f t h i s i s o l a t i o n a r e m a g n i f i e d by

t h e p a r a - m i l i t a r y s t r u c t u r e o f t he s h i p . Both p h y s i c a l and

s o c i a l s e p a r a t i o n e x i s t s be tween o f f i c e r s and crew members

and a c r o s s d e p a r t m e n t s ( deck , e n g i n e , s t e w a r d ) among t h e s e

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d i v i s i o n s . Where seamen were once bunched t o g e t h e r in

s l e e p i n g q u a r t e r s — now each p e r s o n ha s t h e i r own room.

The d e c r e a s e i n number o f j ob s and number o f s h i p s a re

making j o b s more c o m p e t i t i v e . The c o m p e t i t i o n f u r t h e r

i s o l a t e s t h e seaman. The i n c r e a s e d c o m p e t i t i o n f o r j o b s ,

t h e r ed u ced number i n t h e c rew, t h e d e c r e a s e i n p o r t t ime

and t h e c o n t i n u i n g s e p a r a t i o n from f a m i ly and f r i e n d s a r e

t he c o n c e s s i o n s made by t h e seaman. H ighe r wages and l onger

p a i d v a c a t i o n s a r e t h e compensa t i ons f o r t h e seaman. Con

s e q u e n t l y , t he seaman ha s more money and spends more t ime

w i t h h i s f am i ly ; bu t be ca u se o f t h e l ong p e r i o d s o f s t i l l

b e i n g away from f ami ly and t he t o t a l i t y o f t h e s e a b s e n c e s ,

t h e s e c o n c e s s i o n s a r e s t i l l v e r y h i g h .

There i s , and c o n t i n u e s t o b e , an obv ious t r a d e o f f

h e r e . In t h e p a s t seaman s p e n t l e s s t ime w i t h f a m i ly but

had more t ime i n f o r e i g n p o r t and i n t e r a c t e d w i t h more

seamen. Now th e seaman i s f a ced w i t h s m a l l e r crews and l e s s

f o r e i g n sh o r e t im e , bu t ha s more t ime w i t h f a m i ly . Whether

o r no t t h i s ha s made a d i f f e r e n c e i n t he l i f e s t y l e o f t he

seaman r ema ins t o be s e e n . D i f f e r e n c e s i n y e a r s i n t he

o c c u p a t i o n and t ime spen t on s h i p s shou ld r e f l e c t t he

r e s u l t s o f t h i s t r a d e o f f , i f any .

The a d a p t a t i o n s o f t h e s e men aboard s h i p t o s h i p b o a r d

l i f e ha s h i s t o r i c a l l y l ed t o t h e f o r m a t io n o f a s h i p ' s

c u l t u r e t o d e a l w i t h t h e s t r e s s e s o f l i v i n g a r e l a t i v e l y

i s o l a t e d l i f e . Hence — th e fo r m a t io n o f a m a rg in a l c u l t u r e

by a g roup o f m a r g i n a l men.

83

Seamen w i sh t o b e l o n g t o t h e sho re s i d e s o c i e t y of

t h e i r f a m i ly a n d / o r f r i e n d s , bu t b e cau se o f t h e ex t ended

a b se n c e s and s o c i a l d e p r i v a t i o n s t hey e x p e r i e n c e , t hey

c a n n o t . The a l t e r n a t i v e i s t o adopt t he c a r e f r e e , d runken ,

s p e n d - i t - a l l c u l t u r e o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l merchant seaman

( s e a da dd y ) . Most do n o t .

The p r o d u c t o f t h e s e c o n c e s s i o n s , f o r t he seaman, i s

m a r g i n a l i t y . T h i s m a r g i n a l i t y i s measu red u s i n g an

a l i e n a t i o n s c a l e . The u se o f a l i e n a t i o n a s a measure o f

m a r g i n a l i t y i s c o n v e n t i o n a l ( M a r t i n , e t a l , 1974; S t r o l e ,

1965; Ha jd a , 1961; J a c o , 1954; H e n r i c k s , 1982) . The

a l i e n a t i o n s c a l e measu re s a form o f d i 6 a s s o c i a t i o n ; a s ense

o f s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l from an e s t a b l i s h e d c o n t e x t

o f i nvo lvement ( H e n r i c k s , 1982: 202) .

H e n r i c k s (1982) deve l ope d a t ypo log y of human

d i s a s s o c i a t i o n . Two o f t h e s e , m a r g i n a l i t y and

s u b o r d i n a t i o n , a r e p e r t i n e n t t o our a n a l y s i s . H i s t o r i c a l l y

seamen have s u f f e r e d from s u b o r d i n a t i o n . T h e i r m a r g i n a l i t y

i s p a r t i a l l y a r e s u l t o f t h i s s t a t u s , bu t t he r e l a t i v e

s e p a r a t i o n from s o c i a l and p s y c h o l o g i c a l s o u r c e s o f suppo r t

remains , t he key theme. H i s t o r i c a l l y t h e seaman ha s been

a b l e t o make few c l a im s on s o c i a l a c c e p t a n c e ; he ha s

t r a d i t i o n a l l y been h e l d i n a low s o c i a l p l a c e . His

o c c u p a t i o n f o r c e s him to l i v e a l a r g e p a r t o f h i s l i f e a t a

d i s t a n c e * T h i s l a c k o f t ime spen t a sh o re has i s o l a t e d him

from s o c i a l l y spo ns o r ed meanings which would o r i e n t h i s

84

a c t i o n s (Seeman, 1959 ) . He becomes a s e l f - f u l f i l l i n g

p rophecy be c a u se h i B a c t i o n s s u p p o r t h i s h i s t o r i c a l l y

a s c r i b e d s u b o r d i n a t e s t a t u s . C on se qu e n t l y d l s a s s o c i a t i o n i s

a p r o d u c t o f t h e s eam an ' s v o c a t i o n .

The f o r e g o i n g t h e o r e t i c a l s e c t i o n ha s s u g g e s t e d a

number o f d i me ns i ons o f t h e o c c u p a t i o n a l l i f e s t y l e o f

merchant seamen, which may be p r e d i c t e d t o be d e t e r m i n a n t s

o f v a r y i n g d e g r e e s o f m a r g i n a l i t y ( a l i e n a t i o n ) i n t h i s

p o p u l a t i o n . The f o l l o w i n g p r e d i c t i o n s w i l l be t he o b j e c t o f

t h e a n a l y s i s t o come. O t h e r t h i n g s b e i n g e q u a l :

1. The g r e a t e r t h e number o f y e a r s o f g o i n g t o s e a ,t h e g r e a t e r t h e de g re e o f m a r g i n a l i t y ;

2. The g r e a t e r t h e t ime spen t a t s ea p e r y e a r t heg r e a t e r w i l l be t he de g re e o f m a r g i n a l i t y ;

3. The g r e a t e r t he l e n g t h o f t r i p s a t s e a , t h e g r e a t e r w i l l be t h e d e g r e e o f m a r g i n a l i t y ;

4. The g r e a t e r t h e s t a t u s o f t he job on s h i p , t h e l e s s w i l l be t he deg ree o f m a r g i n a l i t y ;

5. The g r e a t e r t h e de g re e o f s a i l i n g on a s i n g l e s h i p , t h e l e s s w i l l be t h e d e g re e o f m a r g i n a l i t y ;

6 . The l a r g e r t h e convnunity i n which t h e seaman l i v e s , t h e g r e a t e r w i l l be t h e de g re e o f m a r g i n a l i t y ;

7. L i v i n g i n t h e community i n which t he seaman was r a i s e d w i l l r educe t h e l e v e l o f m a r g i n a l i t y e x p e r i e n c e d ;

8 . The h i g h e r t he de g re e o f e d u c a t i o n t h e lower w i l l be t h e de g re e o f m a r g i n a l i t y ;

9. O r g a n i z a t i o n a l membership w i l l r educe t h e l e v e l o f m a r g i n a l i t y ;

10. R e l i g i o u s p a r t i c i p a t i o n w i l l r educe t h e l e v e l o f m a r g i n a l i t y ;

11. M a r r i a g e w i l l r educe t he l e v e l o f m a r g i n a l i t y ;

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12. Having c h i l d r e n w i l l r educe t he l e v e l o f m a r g i n a l i t y .

A number o f t h e s e v a r i a b l e s a r e e s s e n t i a l l y c o n t r o l

v a r i a b l e s : s i z e o f community; l i v i n g i n t h e same community

in which t h ey were r a i s e d , e d u c a t i o n , m a r r i a g e , and whe th e r

o r no t t h e seaman ha s c h i l d r e n . O t h e r v a r i a b l e s such as

o r g a n i z a t i o n a l membership and r e l i g i o u s p a r t i c i p a t i o n a r e

seen as i n t e r v e n i n g v a r i a b l e s because t hey a r e i n f a c t

o c c u p a t i o n a l l y i nduced . The r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e s e seven

v a r i a b l e s t o m a r g i n a l i t y ( a l i e n a t i o n ) i s we l l su p p o r t e d by

t he s o c i o l o g i c a l l i t e r a t u r e (Durheim, 1945; 1951; Ton n i e s ,

1957) .

The o t h e r v a r i a b l e s : number o f y e a r s go ing t o s ea ;

t ime spe n t p e r y e a r a t s e a ; l e n g t h of t r i p s ; s h i p b o a rd

s t a t u s ; and Job s t a b i l i t y a r e o c c u p a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ,

c o n s e q u e n t l y t hey w i l l be t r e a t e d as i ndependen t v a r i a b l e s .

The o p e r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f a l l twe lve v a r i a b l e s ap p ea r s a t

t h e end o f t h e m e t ho d o l o g i c a l s e c t i o n . In a d d i t i o n , s e v e r a l

o t h e r v a r i a b l e s w i l l be u sed i n a b r i e f d e s c r i p t i v e a n a l y s i s

o f t he e f f e c t s o f b e i n g a merchant seaman.

CHAPTER IV

METHODOLOGY

D i r e c t E x p e r i en c e

In P l a t o ' s met apho r o f t he shadows i n t h e ca v e , he

p r e s e n t e d t h e i d e a o f pe o p l e i n eve ryday l i f e a s b e i n g l i k e

shadows c a s t on t h e w a l l s o f a c ave . We a r e a b l e t o see t he

shadows, bu t c annot d i r e c t l y o bse rve t he r e a l i t i e s which

c a s t t he shadows. But t h e s e r e a l i t i e s a r e what we wi sh to

know.

He saw th e " i n t e l l e c t u a l " a s t h e e x e r c i s e r o f r e a so n

and a b l e t o r e v e a l t h e t r u t h o f t h e s e r e a l i t i e s . The

cave man who e x p e r i e n c e s d i r e c t l y can see n o t h i n g a c c o r d i n g

t o t h e me t ap ho r . S o c i o l o g i c a l methods a r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of

a con t i nuum w i t h t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l w i t h h i s arm c h a i r

s o c i o l o g y a t one ext reme and t he cave man a t t h e o t h e r . As

such t h i 6 r e s e a r c h r e p r e s e n t s t h e cont inuum. The

s o c i o l o g i s t sh ou ld no t be removed from the s u b j e c t m a t t e r of

h i s d i s c i p l i n e (Horo wi t z , 1965; C l i n a r d , 1965; Blumer ,

1969) . I f t h e u l t i m a t e goa l o f s o c i o l o g y i s t he

u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f b e h a v i o r , t hen t h e more na r row th e gap

be tween t h e e m p i r i c a l s o c i a l wor ld and t he s o c i o l o g i s t ,

t h en t he g r e a t e r h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f i t .

In o r d e r t o i n c r e a s e t h e i r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f human

b e h a v i o r , s o c i o l o g i s t s must become more i n v o lv e d w i t h t he

phenomena o f t h e e m p i r i c a l s o c i a l wor ld ( F i l s t e a d , 1970: 2;

86

87

Dou g l a s , 1976: 29 ) . The u l t i m a t e goa l b e i n g an i n d u c t i v e l y

grounded t h e o r y ( G l a s e r and S t r a u s s , 1967) .

Knowing From the I n s i d e and t he Out

T h i s t r a d i t i o n o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g o r what i s r e f e r r e d t o

a s q u a l i t a t i v e methodology t a k e s a p e r s p e c t i v e t h a t

r e c o g n i z e s t h e impor t ance o f b o t h an i n n e r and o u t e r

p e r s p e c t i v e o f human b e h a v i o r ( F i l s t e a d , 1970: 4 ) . The

o u t e r p e r s p e c t i v e assumes t h a t t h e s t u d y o f man ' s b e h a v i o r

i s a de qu a t e t o p roduce s o c i o l o g i c a l knowledge. I n t e r v i e w i n g

and l i f e h i s t o r i e s a r e q u a l i t a t i v e methods which assume t h i s

o u t e r p e r s p e c t i v e . The i n n e r p e r s p e c t i v e assumes t h a t

u n d e r s t a n d i n g can o n l y be o b t a i n e d by a c t i v e l y p a r t i c i p a t i n g

i n t he l i f e o f t he o bs e r ve d and g a i n i n g i n s i g h t by means of

t h i s knowing from the i n s i d e (Bruyn, 1963) .

Schu t z (1976) d e s c r i b e s t h i s p r o c e s s o f knowing from

t h e i n s i d e .

The o b s e r v e r may apprehend i n a u n i t a r y and i n t e g r a t e d manner b o t h t he m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f t h e O t h e r ' s c o n sc i o u s p r o c e s s e s t h u s m a n i f e s t e d . T h i s i s p o s s i b l e because he w i t n e s s e s t h e O t h e r ' s ongo ing e x p e r i ence s i n synchrony w i t h h i s own i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f t he O t h e r ' s o v e r t conduct i n an o b j e c t i v e c o n t e x t o f meaning . The b o d i l y p r e s e n c e o f t he O t h e r o f f e r s . . . t o t he o b s e r v e r a maximum o f v i v i d symptoms. The wor l d which i s w i t h i n r e a c h o f t he obs e rved p e r s o n . There i s t hu s a c e r t a i n chance t h a t t h e e x p e r i e n c e s o f t he wor ld w i t h i n r e a c h on t he p a r t o f t h e o bs e r ve d p e r s o n r ou gh ly c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g e x p e r i e n c e s o f t he o b s e r v e r ( S c h u t z , 1976: 34 ) .

Of c o u r s e t he o b s e r v e r canno t be c e r t a i n t h i s i s a

t o t a l p i c t u r e o f t he s i t u a t i o n . I f he r ema ins o n l y an

88

o b s e r v e r he cannot v e r i f y h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e ob se rved

e x p e r i e n c e s . He needs t o compare h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t he

o b se r v e d s i t u a t i o n w i t h t h e o b s e r v e d ' s own s u b j e c t i v e

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . In s h o r t , he needs t o a c t i v e l y p a r t i c i p a t e

w i t h t h e o t h e r ( S c h u t z , 1976: 34 ) .

The i n n e r p e r s p e c t i v e p l a c e s emphas i s on m an ' s a b i l i t y t o know h i m s e l f and hence t o know and u n d e r s t a n d o t h e r s . . . t h e r e b y e mp ha s i z in g one o f t he b a s i c u n d e r l y i n g a s s um pt ion s o f human b e h a v i o r : t h a t man,b e i n g a symbol m a n i p u l a t o r i s on ly u n d e r s t a n d a b l e t h ro ug h t he p e r c e p t i o n and u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h o se symbols t h a t a r e b e i n g m a n i p u l a t e d ( F i l s t e a d , 1970: 4 ) .

T h i s "knowing from t h e i n s i d e " i s no t a un ique s t y l e o f

o b s e r v i n g t h e i n d i v i d u a l bu t i s s i m i l a r t o v a r i o u s o t h e r

methods such as M a c l v e r ' s "Dynamic Asse ssment" (1973:

291 -300 ) ; W.I Thomas ' s " D e f i n i t i o n o f t he S i t u a t i o n " (1951:

7 ) ; and Webe r ' s " V e r s t eh e n " (1947: 87 - 9 1 ) .

A dynamlc a s s essment weighs a l t e r n a t i v e s no t ye t

a c t u a l i z e d , s e t s what would be t he consequences i f t h i s

c o u r s e were t ak en o ve r a g a i n s t what would be t he

consequences i f t h a t c o u r s e were t a k e n . T h i s we igh t i s

d e t e r m in e d by t he v a l u e sys tem o f t he i n d i v i d u a l , h i s a c t i v e

c u l t u r a l complex, and h i s p e r s o n a l i t y . On t h e o t h e r hand,

t h e r e a r e c e r t a i n means, o b s t a c l e s o r c o n d i t i o n s which a re

r e l e v a n t t o t h i s v a l u e q u e s t . The s i t u a t i o n he a s s e s s e s i s

one t h a t he ha s s e l e c t i v e l y d e f i n e d i n termB o f h i s

e x p e r i e n c e , h i s h a b i t o f r e s p o n s e , h i s i n t e l l e c t u a l g r a s p ,

and h i s emo t iona l n e ed s .

89

The d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e s i t u a t i o n i s t he c r u c i a l l i n k

t h a t c o n n e c t s e x p e r i e n c e and a d j u s t i v e b e h a v i o r t o t he

s i t u a t i o n .

An a d j u s t i v e e f f o r t o f any k i n d i s p r e c e d e d by a d e c i s i o n t o a c t o r no t a c t a l o n g a g i v e n l i n e , and t he d e c i s i o n o f t he s i t u a t i o n , t h a t i s t o s a y , an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , o r p o i n t o f v iew, and e v e n t u a l l y a p o l i c y and a b e h a v i o r p a t t e r n . In t h i s way q u i c k j udgement s and d e c i s i o n s a r e made a t e v e r y p o i n t i n e ve r yda y l i f e (Thomas, 1937: 8 ) .

Weber ’ s V e r s t e h e n o r h i s " s y m p a t h e t i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g "

c o n s i s t s o f p l a c i n g o n e s e l f i n t h e shoes o f a n o t h e r i n o r d e r

t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e i r f e e l i n g s and m o t i v e s .

A l l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f meaning , l i k e a l l s c i e n t i f i c o b s e r v a t i o n , s t r i v e s f o r c l a r i t y and v e r i f i a b l e a c c u r a c y o f i n s i g h t and comprehens ion . The b a s i s f o r c e r t a i n t y i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g can be e i t h e r r a t i o n a l . . . o r i t can be o f an e m o t i o n a l l y e m p a t h e t i c o r a r t i s t i c a l l y a p p r e c i a t i v e q u a l i t y .In t he sp h e r e o f a c t i o n , t h i n g s a r e r a t i o n a l l y e v i d e n t c h i e f l y when we a t t a i n a c o m p l e t e ly c l e a r i n t e l l e c t u a l g r a s p o f t h e a c t i o n e l e m e n t s i n t h e i r i n t e n d e d c o n t e x t o f meaning . E mp a th e t i c o r a p p r e c i a t i v e a c c u ra c y i s a t t a i n e d when, t h r oug h s y m p a th e t i c p a r t i c i p a t i o n , we can a d e q u a t e l y g r a s p t he emo t iona l c o n t e x t i n which t he a c t i o n t ook p l a c e (Weber, 1947: 9 0 - 9 7 ) .

The o b s e r v e r becomes " t h e O th e r " a s he engages t he

s i t u a t i o n . He u n d e r s t a n d s b e ca u se he i s p a r t i c i p a t i n g in

t h e p e r f o r m an c e . A c o r r e c t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s a r r i v e d a t by

compa r ing a number o f h i s t o r i c a l o r con t empora ry caBes to

t he m o t ive b e i n g i n v e s t i g a t e d . The g r e a t e r t h e u n d e r s t a n d

ing o f t he o b s e r v e r t h e g r e a t e r h i s f l e x i b i l i t y i n wea r in g

90

t h e s e sy m p a t h e t i c shoes ( F o r s y t h , 1979: 114 ) . T h i s method

o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g e n a b l e s t h e s o c i o l o g i s t t o p e r c e i v e and

i n t e r p r e t human b e h a v i o r a t a g r e a t e r de p th t h a n t he

o u t e r p e r s p e c t i v e a l l o w s ( F i l s t e a d , 1970: 4 ) . But even

Schut z (1976: 34-35) does no t s t o p h e r e . The o t h e r i s a

f e l l o w man who may be q u e s t i o n e d . The o b s e r v e r t h rough h i s

o v e r t q u e s t i o n i n g o f t h e o t h e r ' s s i t u a t i o n , g a t h e r s adequa t e

c l u e s t o t h e q u e s t i o n whe th e r and how h i s co u r se o f a c t i o n

i s f u l f i l l i n g h i s s u b j e c t i v e p r o j e c t .

The i n n e r p e r s p e c t i v e t hen i s c r u c i a l f o r v a l i d i t y ; an

o u t e r p e r s p e c t i v e checks t h e r e l i a b i l i t y o f t h i s d a t a .

G e n e r a l i z a t i o n s can o n l y be made w i t h d a t a t h a t i s bo t h

v a l i d and r e l i a b l e . T h i s i s what q u a l i t a t i v e methodology

do es ; e n a b l i n g t he r e s e a r c h e r t o t a k e i n t o account t he i n n e r

as we l l a s t h e o u t e r p e r s p e c t i v e o f t h e s u b j e c t ( s ) under

i n v e s t i g a t i o n (Beck e r , 1963; G l a s e r and S t r a u s s , 1967;

B1ume r , 1969) .

R e t a i n i n g bo t h an i n n e r and o u t e r p e r s p e c t i v e i s

e s s e n t i a l l y what M.S. and C.G. Schwar tz (1955) d e s c r i b e when

th ey speak o f r e t r o s p e c t i o n i n p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v a t i o n .

What happens 1b t h e t ime i n t e r v a l be tween t h e even t and i t s f i n a l r e c o r d i n g i s o f t h e u tmos t i mp or t an ce . In r e t r o s p e c t i v e o b s e r v a t i o n t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r r e c r e a t e s , o r a t t e m p t s t o r e c r e a t e , t he s o c i a l f i e l d i n h i s i m a g i n a t i o n , i n a l l i t s d i m e n s i o n s , on a p e r c e p t u a l and f e e l i n g l e v e l . He t a k e s t h e r o l e o f a l l t h e o t h e r p e o p l e i n t h e s i t u a t i o n and t r i e s t o evoke i n h i m s e l f , t h e f e e l i n g s and t h o u g h t s and a c t i o n s t h ey e x p e r i e n c e d a t t h e t ime t he ev en t o c c u r r e d . . .What o c c u r s i s a t ype o f r ew ork ing o f t he p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t he phenomenon as i n i t i a l l y r e g i s t e r e d .

91

In t h i s r ework ing t h e p r e v i o u s d a t a may be m a i n t a i n e d u n a l t e r e d ; t hey may be added t o o r changed; s i g n i f i c a n t a s p e c t s o f t he ev en t may ap pea r which were p r e v i o u s l y o m i t t e d ; and c o n n e c t i o n s be tween t he s e g ment s o f t h e even t and be tween t h i s event and o t h e r s may app ea r which were p r e v i o u s l y r e c o g n i z e d (Schwar tz and Sc hw ar t z , 1955: 345) .

Q u a l i t a t i v e methodology r e f e r s t o t h o s e r e s e a r c h

s t r a t e g i e s such as p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v a t i o n , i n t e r v i e w i n g ,

case s t u d i e s , u n o b t r u s i v e m ea su re s , t o t a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n in

the a c t i v i t y , e t c , which a l l o w the r e s e a r c h e r t o ga in

knowledge about t he wor ld b e i n g i n v e s t i g a t e d . These

methods do no t p roduce e q u i v a l e n t k i n d s o f d a t a , bu t r a t h e r ,

p ro duc es d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f d a t a d e s i g n e d t o answer q u i t e

d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f q u e s t i o n s about t he same g e n e r a l

phenomenon (Trow, 1957) .

I n t imate and R e f l e c t i ve P a r t i c i p a t i o n

T h i s s t u d y o f merchan t seamen i s o r g a n i z e d a round the

method o f r e f l e c t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n . The a u t h o r was a

merchan t seaman f o r s even y e a r s ; h i s f a t h e r was a merchant

seaman f o r t h i r t y - t h r e e y e a r s . As an i n t i m a t e p a r t i c i p a t e

o b s e r v e r o f t h e l i f e o f a merchant seaman, b o t h as a member

o f a s eam an ' s f ami ly and bb a member o f t h e o c c u p a t i o n , I

was a b l e t o i d e n t i f y m y se l f w i t h t h e l i f e o f a seaman fo r an

ex t e nd ed p e r i o d . I was a b l e t o g a i n i n s i g h t i n t o t h e i n n e r

l i f e which would have been a lmos t i m p o s s i b l e had I n o t been

a b l e t o e l i m i n a t e s o c i a l and mental d i s t a n c e s t h rough

i n t i m a t e p a r t i c i p a t i o n (Young, 1966: 16 4 - 166 ) . These

92

methods o f i n t i m a t e p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v a t i o n and r e f l e c t i v e

p a r t i c i p a t i o n a r e no t uncommon ( L a s l e t t and War ren , 1975;

Ande r son , 1923; Moreby, 1975; F r i c k e , 1974) .

Ne l s Ande rson , t h rough h i s s t u d y o f The Hobo (1923 ) ,

r emains t h e most d e d i c a t e d f o l l o w e r o f t he p r i n c i p l e s o f

i n t i m a t e p a r t i c i p a t i o n . Both he and h i s f a t h e r were

p a r t i c i p a n t s i n t he hobo l i f e .

I n t i m a t e p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v a t i o n i s what Blumer c a l l s

g e t t i n g i n t o t h e r e a l i t y r e c o n s t r u c t i o n b u s i n e s s ( 1969 ) .

U n d e r s t a n d i n g t he p r o c e s s o f s o c i a l a c t i o n c o n s i s t s o f

e x p l o r i n g t h e p r o c e s s by which a c t o r s a d j u s t t h e i r a c t i o n on

the b a s i s o f t h e i r ongo ing i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f t he wo r l d .

The s t u d y o f s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n f o r Blumer i s made from the

p o s i t i o n o f t h e a c t o r .

S in ce a c t i o n i s f o rg ed by t h e a c t o r out o f what he p e r c e i v e s , i n t e r p r e t s , and j u d g e s , one would have t o s ee t h e o p e r a t i n g s i t u a t i o n as t h e a c t o r s e e s i t , p e r c e i v e o b j e c t s a s t he a c t o r p e r c e i v e s them, a s c e r t a i n i n g t h e i r meanings i n t e rms o f t h e meaning t h ey have f o r t h e a c t o r , and f o l l o w th e a c t o r ' s l i n e o f conduct as t h e a c t o r o r g a n i z e s i t - - i n s h o r t one would have t o t ake t h e r o l e s o f t he a c t o r andsee h i s wo r l d from h i s s t a n d p o i n t (Blumer , 1969: 73 - 7 4 ) .

I n t i m a t e p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v a t i o n i n v o l v e s t he

p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e r e s e a r c h e r i n a g r oup . He i s a member

o f t h i s g r ou p , no t be c a u se he i s a r e s e a r c h e r b u t be cau se he

i s a t r u e member. I f t h e r e s e a r c h e r l a t e r r e p o r t s on t h i s

membership he i s do in g bo a s an i n t i m a t e p a r t i c i p a n t

o b s e r v e r . I f t he r e s e a r c h e r r e t u r n s t o t h e g roup t o do

93

r e s e a r c h , equ ipped w i t h h i s f i r s t hand knowledge , he e x t e n d s

t h i s i n t i m a t e p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t o r e f l e c t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n .

T h i s i s t h e same m e t h o d o l o g i c a l s t r a t e g y u s e d i n

S c h u t z ' s r e t r o s p e c t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n (1976 ) . The o b s e r v e r ,

may remember from h i s p a s t e x p e r i e n c e a c o u r s e o f a c t i o n s i m i l a r t o t he one ob se rv ed and r e c a l l i t s m o t iv e . By m a t ch i n g a g i v e n co u r se o f a c t i o n w i t h a gi ven p a t t e r n o f m o t i v e s which he , t h e o b s e r v e r , might have i f on ly he were p e r f o r m i n g t he a c t i o n h i m s e l f ( S c h u t z , 1976: 35 ) .

T h i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t he o b s e r v e r s p a s t e x p e r i e n c e d

mo t ive w i t h t h e o t h e r ' s a c t u a l m o t i v e s t a k e s p l a c e i n a

r e t r o s p e c t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t he obse rv ed a c t i o n . I t

i n v o l v e s t he same r e f l e c t and r e t u r n methodology u sed in

t h i s s t u d y . The a u t h o r , a s r e s e a r c h e r , r e f l e c t s on h i s p a s t

e x p e r i e n c e and r e t u r n s f o r " o b s e r v a t i o n " i n o r d e r t o

r e i n t e r p r e t .

M u l t i p l e Methodology

The a u t h o r o f t h i s s t u d y r e t u r n e d t o t he o c c u p a t i o n as

a r e s e a r c h e r u s i n g i n d e p t h i n t e r v i e w s , t o p i c a l l i f e

h i s t o r i e s , s t r u c t u r e d q u e s t i o n n a i r e s , and as an o b s e r v e r i n

seamen un i o n h a l l s i n o r d e r t o r e f r e s h , p o s s i b l y c o r r e c t and

add t o h i s e x p e r i e n c e s a s a merchan t seaman and as a

merchan t s eam an ' s son .

Al though t h e s t r u c t u r e d q u e s t i o n n a i r e may seem a

s t r a n g e b e d f e l l o w i n such a q u a l i t a t i v e me thodo logy , i t i s

t h e o p i n i o n o f many s o c i o l o g i s t s t h a t a p rob lem sho u l d be

94

examined from as many m e t h o d o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s as

p o s s i b l e (Denz in , 1978: 291; Salomone, 1961) . A l l r e s e a r c h

methods have c o s t s and b e n e f i t s . S inc e t h e y d i f f e r g r e a t l y

I n t h e s e c o s t s and b e n e f i t s * a r e s e a r c h e r g e n e r a l l y f i n d s i t

b e s t t o use some com bi na t i o n o r m i x t u r e o f methods (Douglas ,

1976: 30; Mer ton and K e n d a l l , 1946) .

Each method i m p l i e s a d i f f e r e n t l i n e o f a c t i o n toward

r e a l i t y and w i l l r e v e a l d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s o f i t . Surveys

d i c t a t e a s t a n c e t oward t h e i n v a r i a n t and s t a b l e f e a t u r e s o f

r e a l i t y , w h i l e p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v a t i o n assumes a r e a l i t y

c o n t i n u a l l y i n change and f l u x (Denz in , 1978: 292 ) .

The t o p i c a l l i f e h i s t o r y c o n t a i n s a s p e c t s o f bo th

o f f e r i n g a t o t a l p i c t u r e o f a p a r t i c u l a r a s p e c t o f one

s u b j e c t ' s l i f e , bu t u n l e s s done i n b a t c h e s ha s l i t t l e u se as

a method to be u sed a l o n e . R e a l i t y i s an o b j e c t t h a t moves

and w i l l not p e rm i t one i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t o be s tamped on i t

(Denz in , 1978: 293) .

D i f f e r e n t u s e r s o f t h e same method v i e w in g t h e same

phenomenon s ee d i f f e r e n t t h i n g s . One r e s e a r c h e r u s i n g many

m e t h o d o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s i s more a b l e t o g a i n many

d i f f e r e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f t h e same phenomenon o r a more

v a l i d p i c t u r e . By combining methods , t h e r e s e a r c h e r i s a b l e

t o p a r t i a l l y overcome the d e f i c i e n c i e s t h a t f low from one

method (Salomone, 1961; Becke r and G r e e r , 1957; Edwards ,

1957; Klockhohn 1940) . ThiB com bi na t i o n o f d i s s i m i l a r

methods t o measu re t h e same u n i t i s c a l l e d " ac r o s s - m e t h o d

t r i a n g u l a t i o n " (De nz in , 1978) .

95

When a h y p o t h e s i s can s u r v i v e t h e c o n f r o n t a t i o n o f a s e r i e s o f complementa ry methods o f t e s t i n g , i t c o n t a i n s a de g re e o f v a l i d i t y u n a t t a i n a b l e by one t e s t e d w i t h i n t h e more c o n s t r i c t e d framework o f a s i n g l e method (Webb e t a l , 1966:174 ) .

The b a s i s o f t h i s r e s e a r c h r e p r e s e n t s t h e most ex t reme

form o f i n d e p t h i n vo lvem en t ; n a t u r a l eve ryday e x p e r i e n c e

w i t h no t hough t o f u s i n g t h e e x p e r i e n c e f o r s c i e n t i f i c

p u r p o s e s (Young, 1966: 164 ) . T h i s a l l o w s t h e r e s e a r c h e r to

f e e l as members do and g r a s p t h e s e ns e o f t h e s e t t i n g ;

p r o v i d i n g d i r e c t a c c e s s t o c u l t u r a l i n f o r m a t i o n .

A l l o t h e r methods r e l y u l t i m a t e l y t hough i n d i f f e r e n t ways and i n v a r y i n g d e g r e e s , upon h i s own d i r e c t e x p e r i e n c e o r a t l e a s t t h a t o f f e l l o w r e s e a r c h e r s whom he knows i n t i m a t e l y , t r u s t s , and w i t h whom he can communicate w e l l . In g e n e r a l t h e l e s s d i r e c t h i s own e x p e r i e n c e ( o r t h a t o f h i s f e l l o w r e s e a r c h e r s ) o f t h e t h i n g s he i s r e p o r t i n g a b o u t , t h e l e s s r e l i a b l e h i s r e p o r t must be c o n s i d e r e d t o be (Doug la s , 1976: 108 -1 09 ) .

V a l i d i t y , R e l i a b i l i t y and T r u t h

The v a l i d i t y and r e l i a b i l i t y o f r e s e a r c h d a t a a r e

r e f l e c t i v e o f t he s o l v i n g o f s e v e r a l p ro b l e m s . F i r s t , t he

r e s e a r c h e r must be a b l e t o g a t h e r and r e c o r d i n f o r m a t i o n

t h a t h a s d i r e c t r e l e v a n c e f o r t h e i r t o p i c . The r e s e a r c h e r

must m a i n t a i n a v e r y f l e x i b l e s e t o f m e t h o d o l o g i c a l

g u i d e l i n e s which w i l l e n a b l e him t o t ak e ad v an t a g e o f a l l

s i t u a t i o n s where he i s most l i k e l y t o f i n d t h e t y p e s o f

i n f o r m a n t s he i s most i n t e r e s t e d i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g . T h i s

96

s t u d y ' s u se o f many m e t h o d o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s a l l o w s such

f l e x i b i 1i t y .

At t ime s t he s t r u c t u r e d q u e s t i o n n a i r e seemed

a p p r o p r i a t e . T h i s was e s p e c i a l l y h e l p f u l when a l a r g e

number o f seamen became a v a i l a b l e f o r on ly a s h o r t p e r i o d ;

f o r example , a t a un io n m e e t i n g . Anothe r example o f i t s use

was t o r e a ch seamen who were i n o t h e r l o c a t i o n s . T h i s

e n a b l e d t he r e s e a r c h e r t o ge t t h e o p i n i o n s o f a l a r g e number

o f men t h a t he cou ld no t have w i t h t h e s e o t h e r r e s e a r c h

methods . Al though p r o d u c i n g l a r g e r numbers i n l e s s t i m e , i t

does so a t t he s a c r i f i c e o f i n d e p t h knowledge. Al though t he

q u e s t i o n n a i r e i s c o n s t r u c t e d from b o t h r e s e a r c h and

e x p e r i e n c e , i t i s s t i l l an i n f l e x i b l e i n s t r u m e n t t h a t l a c k s

t h e d e p th o f t he i n t e r v i e w . An i n t e r v i e w gu ide was used fo r

i n d e p t h i n t e r v i e w s ( L o f l a n d , 1971; 7 5 - 9 2 ) . The q u e s t i o n

n a i r e was a l s o u se d i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h i s g u i d e . Not a l l

seamen were w i l l i n g t o s i t t h r oug h an i n t e r v i e w , bu t a l o t

were w i l l i n g t o t a l k f o r a few m in u t e s and t h e n t ak e a

q u e s t i o n n a i r e home.

The r e s e a r c h i n c l u d e d a c t i v e and r e t i r e d seamen, as

w e l l as r e l a t i v e s o f b o t h c u r r e n t and r e t i r e d seamen. Union

o f f i c i a l s were a l s o q u e s t i o n e d . I took wh a t e ve r I cou ld

g e t , when I c o u ld g e t i t , f o r a s l ong a s I c o u ld . How many

seamen one can ge t t o s i t down and t a l k f o r a coupl e o f

h o u r s o r more i s i m p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e . Seamen do no t

come home a t n i g h t from work; t hey may be unemployed and

97

a v a i l a b l e one hour and on t h e i r way t o a s h i p t h e n e x t .

C o n se q u e n t l y , I m a i n t a i n e d my o p t i o n s i n a l l s i t u a t i o n s .

The Becond p rob l em a f f e c t i n g t h e v a l i d i t y and r e l i a b i l i t y

o f r e s e a r c h i s s am p l ing . R e s e a r c h e r s must have c o n f i d e n ce

t h a t t h e i r f i n d i n g s , wh e th e r g a in e d t h ro ug h i n t e r v i e w i n g , a

q u e s t i o n n a i r e o r p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v a t i o n , a r e not t y p i c a l

on ly o f t h o s e t hey have s t u d i e d bu t c o u ld be g e n e r a l i z e d t o

o t h e r s o f t h e same group (Denzin , 1978: 7 7 ) .

In t h i s s t u d y , an a v a i l a b i l i t y sample was u sed i n each

un io n h a l l . Union o f f i c i a l s were a g r e a t d e a l o f h e l p in

b o t h t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f q u e s t i o n n a i r e s and i n h e l p i n g

a r r a n g e i n t e r v i e w s . In a l l , a p p r o x i m a t e l y 70 seamen were

i n t e r v i e w e d and 460 q u e s t i o n n a i r e s were d i s t r i b u t e d among

members o f t h e Mar ine E n g i n e e r s B e n e f i c i a l A s s o c i a t i o n

(MEBA); t h e M a s t e r , Mates and P i l o t s (MMP); t he N a t i o n a l

Mar i t ime Union (NMU); and t h e S e a f a r e r s I n t e r n a t i o n a l Union

(SIU) . These a r e t h e f ou r ma j o r seamens u n i o n s .

The q u e s t i o n n a i r e s were d i s t r i b u t e d i n a number o f

c i t i e s . Union o f f i c i a l s i n New O r l e a n s go t i n t ouch w i t h

un io n o f f i c i a l s i n o t h e r c i t i e s ; i f t h ey were w i l l i n g t o

d i s t r i b u t e t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s , an a g r e ed upon number was

s en t t o them. Each q u e s t i o n n a i r e was i n a s tamped envelope

a d d r e s s e d t o t h e r e s e a r c h e r . The q u e s t i o n n a i r e s were

d i s t r i b u t e d In un i on h a l l s i n t he c i t i e s l i s t e d i n Tab l e 1.

98

Tab le 1. Q u e s t i o n n a i r e D i s t r i b u t i o n

C i t yNumber

D i s t r i b u t e dNumber

R e tu r n e dRe tu rn

Ra te

Mob i 1e 10 2 .20

B a l t imore 99 62 .63

New York 50 19 .38

Houston 54 26 .48

Tampa 10 8 .80

S e a t t l e 15 12 .80

San F r a n c i s c o 20 8 .40

New O r l e a n s 202 114 .56

T o t a l 460 251 .55

The NMU, MEBA, and MWP d i s t r i b u t e d q u e s t i o n n a i r e s a t

t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e u n i o n s c h o o l s , l o c a t e d i n New York f o r t he

NMU and i n B a l t i m o r e f o r t h e two o f f i c e r ' s u n i o n s . Each o f

t h e s e u n i o n s ha s o n l y one s c h o o l , c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e r e a r e

seamen t h e r e from a l l ov e r t h e U n i t ed S t a t e s . T h i s b ro ugh t

t h i s r e s e a r c h much c l o s e r t o h a v i n g a r e p r e s e n t a t ive sample .

Of t he 202 q u e s t i o n n a i r e s d i s t r i b u t e d in New O r l e a n s , 74

were f i l l e d ou t and g i v e n back t o t h e r e s e a r c h e r i n the

un io n h a l l . Of t he 460 q u e s t i o n n a i r e s d i s t r i b u t e d . 251 were

r e t u r n e d b e f o r e t he c u t o f f d a t e o f Oc t ob e r 1 , 1982.

A l l i n t e r v i e w s were cond uc t e d i n New O r l e a n s i n e i t h e r

t he NMU, MEBA o r 5MP un ion h a l l s . I n t e r v i e w s l a s t e d from

t h i r t y m in u t e s t o e i g h t h o u r s . No t h ing was r e c o r d e d d u r i n g

t he i n t e r v i e w s . A r e c a p was made a f t e r e ach i n t e r v i e w .

99

The 251 r e s p o n d e n t s t o t he q u e s t i o n n a i r e s r e p r e s e n t

ev e r y m a jo r p o r t i n t he U n i t e d S t a t e s . Those p o r t s not

r e p r e s e n t e d i n t he mai l ou t were r e p r e s e n t e d be cau se o f t he

u n i o n s c h o o l 1s h a v in g seamen from a l l ove r t he U n i t e d

S t a t e s . The r e t u r n r a t e f o r a l l t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s was . 55 .

T h i s good r a t e o f r e t u r n was due t o t h e e x t r a o r d i n a r y

s u p po r t t h a t I r e c e i v e d from th e u n i o n s . In most c a s e s t he

q u e s t i o n n a i r e s were g i v e n out a t monthly un ion m e e t i n g s .

Members were encou raged t o f i l l them out by t h e un i on

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . One un io n o f f i c i a l i n t r o d u c e d me a t a

m e e t i n g , encou raged t he members t o f i l l t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s

out and t hen had a b r e a k i n t he m e e t i n g f o r members to

comp le t e t he q u e s t i o n n a i r e s . I r e c e i v e d 52 complet ed

q u e s t i o n n a i r e s a f t e r t h e m e e t i n g . My i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t he

members by un io n o f f i c i a l s i n t he un i on h a l l s was t h e c h i e f

r e a s o n I was a b l e t o g a i n t he c o n f i d e n c e o f t he seamen.

T h i s e na b l ed me t o conduct i n t e r v i e w s and d i s t r i b u t e

q u e s t i o n n a i r e s on f u t u r e o c c a s i o n s .

Due t o t h e e x t e n s i v e g e o g r a p h i c a l a r e a t h a t t h i s

r e s e a r c h was a b l e t o co ve r and b e cau se i t i n c l u d e d t he fou r

major m a r i t im e u n i o n s , which r e p r e s e n t b o t h crew (NMU and

SIU) and o f f i c e r s (MEBA and RMP), i t i s f e l t t h a t t he sample

g o t t e n e n s u r e s a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e sample from which t o draw

g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s .

T h i r d , r e s e a r c h e r s muBt have c o n f i d e n c e i n t h e i r

f i n d i n g s . They shou ld a c c u r a t e l y , r e l i a b l y and v a l i d l y

100

r e f l e c t t h e b e h a v i o r s and r e s p o n s e s t h a t a r e o b se r v e d and

g a t h e r e d . T h i s t h i r d p robl em r e f l e c t s t h e s o c i o l o g i s t ' s

con ce rn f o r measurement (Denz in , 1978: 7 7 ) . T h i s conce rn

f o r measurement i s t h e v e r y s t i m u l u s t h a t b r ough t on t h e use

o f a m u l t i m e t h o d o l o g i c a l r e s p o n s e t o t h i s r e s e a r c h .

The m u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l d e s i g n u sed i n t h i s r e s e a r c h

c l o s e l y f o l l o w s t h a t s u g g e s t e d by Douglas (1976: 32 ) .

In most s e t t i n g s we would l i k e t o b e g i n a s members and t hen move toward o v e r t d e f i n i t i o n s o f o u r s e l v e s as r e s e a r c h e r s , t h e n p o s s i b l y do i n d e p t h i n t e r v i e w s , . . . t h en any q u e s t i o n n a i r e s t o ge t a t s p e c i f i c d e t a i l s and p o s s i b l y more r e p r e s e n t a t i v e f i n d i n g s ( t h a t i s , i n f o r m a t i o n on a w i d e r g roup t han we a r e a b l e t o do w i t h i n d e p t h f i e l d r e s e a r c h ) .

There i s an obv i ou s b a s i s i n a l l ou r e x p e r i e n c e f o r

t r u s t i n g d i r e c t e x p e r i e n c e ove r a l l o t h e r forms o f

knowledge. I f t h e con ce rn i s t he e x p e r i e n c e o f p e o p l e , the

way t hey f e e l , t h i n k and a c t , t h e most t r u t h f u l r e l i a b l e and

comple t e way o f g e t t i n g t h a t i n f o r m a t i o n i s t o s h a r e t h e i r

e x p e r i e n c e . Al l o t h e r methods a r e i n d i r e c t and a r e t h e r e

f o r e compromises t o be u se d o n l y i n s u p p o r t i v e r o l e s o r

b e ca us e o f p r a c t i c a l c o n s t r a i n t s (D oug la s , 1976: 111-112) .

As su c h , t he r e s e a r c h methodology t h a t g u i d e s t h i s s t u dy

r e p r e s e n t s t h e i d e a l and i n e f f e c t , t h e r e i s no compromise.

A co nc e rn i n s o c i o l o g y i s t h e d e g re e t o which t he

c o n t r o l s i n s o c i a l r e s e a r c h a f f e c t o r d e t e r m i n e t h e s o c i a l

phenomenon we o b s e r v e ; t h i s i s t h e u n c e r t a i n t y p r i n c i p l e .

Because human a c t i o n i s d e t e r m i n e d by t h e meanings o f t he

101

immedia te s i t u a t i o n t o t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s and be cau se each i s

conce rne d w i t h t he c o n t r o l l i n g ( p r e s e n t a t i o n ) o f t h e s e

meanings t o o t h e r s ; i t i s i n e v i t a b l e t h a t any a t t e m p t by

o u t s i d e r s t o o b se rv e them w i l l so change t he meaning o f t he

s i t u a t i o n — t h a t a n y t h i n g t h ey do becomes p r e s e n t a t i o n a l

(Goffman, 1973: 15, 1963: 2 8 , 1971: 302; Dou g la s , 1976:

19) .

T h i s , o f c o u r s e , e f f e c t s t h e o u t s i d e r ' s image. But not

a l l a g r ee w i t h i t a s Blumer (1969) c o n s i d e r s human b e in g s as

s t r a i g h t f o rw a r d , h o n e s t and c o o p e r a t i v e p a r t i c i p a n t s .

Blumer s t a n d s i n s t a r k c o n t r a s t t o Goffman1s i m p re s s io n

management . Blumer s e e s a s o c i e t y o f s e l f a s s u r e d

i n d i v i d u a l s . Pe rhaps t h i s i s why he want s no method.

D e s p i t e Blumer , most r e s e a r c h e r s seem conce rned about t he

e f f e c t o f c o n t r o l s on i n t e r a c t i o n . These c o n t r o l s ,

pose a g r ave dan ge r f o r s o c i o l o g y b e cau se i f we do no t know what t h e i r e f f e c t s a r e and t h u s do no t know how to c o n t r o l f o r t h e e f f e c t s o f c o n t r o l s t h e m s e l v e s , t hen we run t h e g r ave da nge r t h a t a s c o n t r o l s i n c r e a s e t hey unknowingly become more im p o r t an t i n d e t e r m i n i n g what we o bse rve (D oug la s , 1976: 19) .

The use o f m u l t i p l e methods i n t h i s r e s e a r c h c o n t r o l s f o r

such s u p e r f i c i a l a n a l y s i s .

Q u e s t i o n n a i r e Des ign

The q u e s t i o n n a i r e was c o n s t r u c t e d from t h e r e s e a r c h e r ' s

e x p e r i e n c e a s a seaman and a s a s e aman ' s Bon. I n a d d i t i o n ,

t he i np u t o f s e v e r a l members o f h i s f ami ly who were seamen

102

o r t h e i r immedia te f ami ly was so u gh t . The on ly measurements

no t d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o e x p e r i e n c e a r e t he a l i e n a t i o n s c a l e

(Robinson and S h a v e r , 1970; S t r e u n i n g and R i c h a r d s o n , 1965)

and t he s e l f e s t e em s c a l e (Rosenbe rg , 1965) .

Whereas t he a l i e n a t i o n ( v i a r e j e c t i o n ) s c a l e was used

t o measu re m a r g i n a l i t y , t he s e l f e s t eem s c a l e was used to

measure t h e s eam an ' s s e l f c o n c e p t . The i n s t r u m e n t was p r e

t e s t e d on s i x t e e n seamen; r e v i s e d and p r e - t e s t e d a g a i n on

Beven seamen t o r e a c h i t s f i n a l form. The NMU and MEBA

asked f o r c e r t a i n q u e s t i o n s t o be added and t hey were .

S t a t i s t i c a l A n a l y s i s

The twe lve p r e d i c t i o n s t a t e m e n t s i n C h a p t e r I I I w i l l be

a n a l y z e d i n t h r e e ways. F i r s t c o n t i n g e n c y t a b l e a n a l y s i s

w i l l be done showing each v a r i a b l e ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p to

m a r g i n a l i t y u s i n g two-way c r o s s t a b l e s . Second, m u l t i p l e

r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s w i l l be u sed t o show the combined and

c o n t r o l l e d e f f e c t o f a l l t h e v a r i a b l e s on m a r g i n a l i t y .

L a s t l y , b e ca u se t h e r e i s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f i n t e r v e n i n g

i n f l u e n c e s , a p a t h model w i l l be c o n s t r u c t e d .

O p e r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f V a r i a b l e s

The v a r i a b l e s u sed i n t h e a n a l y s i s a r e t a k e n from the

q u e s t i o n n a i r e (Appendix A) . The o p e r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f t he

v a r i a b l e s a r e a s f o l l o w s :

1. M a r g i n a l i t y : q u e s t i o n s 105 t h r o u g h 120.

The s c o r e s o f each r e s p o nd en t on each q u e s t i o n were

added t o c r e a t e a m a r g i n a l i t y index (See Appendix C f o r i t em

103

a n a l y s i s ) . These t o t a l s c o r e s r ange from 16 t o 96. For t he

p u r p o se o f c o n t i n g e n c y a n a l y s i s , a f o u r p o i n t s c a l e was t hen

c r e a t e d from th e s i x p o i n t s c a l e t h a t a p p e a r s on t h e q u e s

t i o n n a i r e . The b a s i s o f t h e c a t e g o r i e s on t he f o u r p o i n t

s c a l e was t h a t an a ve r age s c o r e o f f ou r o r above on t h e

s i x t e e n q u e s t i o n s was c o n s i d e r e d m a r g i n a l . T h e r e f o r e ,

t o t a l s c o r e s o f 64 t h rough 96 d e s i g n a t e t h e r e s p on d en t as

m a r g i n a l . C o n v e r s e l y an a v e r a g e s c o r e o f t h r e e o r l e s s on

t h e 16 q u e s t i o n s was c o n s i d e r e d no t m a r g i n a l . Conse que n t l y

t o t a l s c o r e s r a n g i n g from 16 t h r o u g h 48 d e s i g n a t e t he

r e s p o n d e n t a s no t m a r g i n a l . Two o t h e r c a t e g o r i e s were

c r e a t e d f o r t ho se r e s p o n d e n t s whose a ve rag e s c o r e was below

f o u r , b u t above t h r e e . Those r e s p o n d e n t s whose t o t a l s c o r e

r ang ed from 57 t o 63 were l a b e l e d somewhat m a r g i n a l . Those

r e s p o n d e n t s whose t o t a l s c o r e r anged from 49 t o 56 were

l a b e l e d as somewhat n o t m a r g i n a l . For t he p u r p o s e s o f

r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s , t h e t o t a l s c o r e o f each r e s p o n d e n t w i l l

be u s e d .

(1) Not m a r g i n a l : s c o r e s from 16 t o 47.

(2) Somewhat no t m a r g i n a l : s c o r e s form 48 t o 56.

(3) Somewhat m a r g i n a l : s c o r e s from 57 t o 63.

(4) M a r g i n a l : s c o r e s from 64 t o 96.

2 . Number o f y e a r s g o i n g t o s e a : q u e s t i o n 2.

The v a r i a b l e was c o l l a p s e d i n t o f i v e c a t e g o r i e s f o r t he

p u r p o s e s o f c o n t i n g e n c y a n a l y s i s . Fo r r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s ,

104

t h e number o f y e a r s a t s ea f o r e ach r e s po nde n t was u sed .

(1) Zero t o f i v e yearB go i ng t o s e a .

(2 ) S i x t o t e n y e a r s go in g t o s e a .

(3) E leven t o twenty y e a r s go ing t o s e a .

(4) Twenty-one t o t h i r t y y e a r s go ing t o s e a .

(5 ) T h i r t y - o n e o r more y e a r s go ing t o s ea .

3 . Time spen t a t s ea p e r y e a r : q u e s t i o n 4.

T h i s v a r i a b l e was c o l l a p s e d i n t o t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s f o r

t he p u r p o s e s o f c o n t i n g e n c y a n a l y s i s . For r e g r e s s i o n

a n a l y s i s t h e number o f months p e r y e a r spen t a t sea f o r each

r e s po nd en t was u s e d .

(1) Low: f i v e months o r l e s s o f sea t ime p e ry e a r .

( 2) Medium: s i x o r s even months o f sea t ime p e ry e a r .

( 3) High: e i g h t months o r more o f sea t ime p e ry e a r .

4. Length o f t r i p s a t s e a : q u e s t i o n 42.

T h i s v a r i a b l e was coded i n weeks . I t was c o l l a p s e d

i n t o t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s f o r t h e p u r p o s e s o f c on t i n gen cy

a n a l y s i s . For r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s t h e number o f weeks o f

t r i p s t o s ea o f e ach r e s p o nd en t was u sed .

(1 ) Low: z e ro t o f o u r weeks p e r t r i p .

( 2 ) Medium: f i v e t o n i n e weeks p e r t r i p .

( 3 ) High: t e n t o t h i r t y weeks p e r t r i p .

5 . S t a t u s o f t h e j ob on s h i p : q u e s t i o n 15.

105

T h i s v a r i a b l e was c o l l a p s e d i n t o two c a t e g o r i e s f o r the

p u r p o s e s o f b o t h c o n t i n g e n c y and r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s .

( 0 ) Crew

(1) O f f i c e r s : m a t e s , e n g i n e e r s and r a d i oo p e r a t o r s .

6 . S a i l i n g on a s i n g l e s h i p : q u e s t i o n 43.

T h i s v a r i a b l e was c o l l a p s e d i n t o two c a t e g o r i e s f o r

b o t h c o n t i n ge n c y and r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s .

( 0 ) Not pe rmanen t : t h o s e ch eck ing r e l i e f .

( 1 ) Permanent : t h os e c h ec k i n g e i t h e r permanento r s t a n d - b y .

7. Community s i z e : q u e s t i o n 121.

Town 6 i z e was c o l l a p s e d i n t o fou r c a t e g o r i e s f o r bo th

c o n t i n g e n c y and r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s .

(1) Smal l : t ho se c h ec k in g e i t h e r r u r a l o r 2 ,500 .

(2) Medium: t h o s e c h ec k in g e i t h e r 2 ,500 - 10,000o r 10,000 - 25 ,000 .

(3) Large : t ho se ch ec k in g e i t h e r 25,000 - 50,000o r 100 ,000 .

(4) Met ro : t ho se ch eck in g o ve r 100 ,000 .

8 . L i v i n g i n t h e community i n which you were r a i s e d : q u e s t i o n 81.


b o t h c o n t i n g e n c y and r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s .

( 0 ) Not same as now: t ho se who a r e no t l i v i n gi n t he same p l a c e t hey spen t most o f t h e i r c h i l d h o o d .

(1) Same as now: t hose who a r e l i v i n g int h e same p l a c e t hey spen t most o f t h e i r ch i l d h o o d .

106

9. E d u c a t i o n : q u e s t i o n 79.

T h i s v a r i a b l e was c o l l a p s e d i n t o f ou r c a t e g o r i e s f o r

t h e p u r po se o f c o n t i n g e n c y a n a l y s i s . For r e g r e s s i o n

a n a l y s i s t he y e a r s o f e d u c a t i o n f o r e ach r e s p o nd en t was

u s e d .

(1) Grade: 11 o r l e s s y e a r s o f e d u c a t i o n .

(2) High s c h o o l : 12 y e a r s o f e d u c a t i o n .

(3) Some c o l l e g e : 13 t o 15 y e a r s o f e d u c a t i o n .

iC4> C o l l e g e : 16 o r more y e a r s o f e d u c a t i o n .

10. O r g a n i z a t i o n a l membership: q u e s t i o n 33.

There a r e two c a t e g o r i e s f o r t he v a r i a b l e . I t w i l l

r e t a i n t h i s form f o r t h e p u r p o s e s o f b o t h c o n t i n g e n c y and

r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s .

( 0 ) No: i f t h e r e s p o nd en t d i d no t b e l o n g t o anyo r g a n i z a t i o n s .

(1 ) Yes: i f t h e r e s po n de n t b e lo n g e d t o a t l e a s tone o r g a n i z a t i o n .

11. R e l i g i o u s p a r t i c i p a t i o n : q u e s t i o n 47 ( a t home).



(0) Never - seldom: t h o s e t h a t checked t heya t t e n d e d r e l i g i o u s s e r v i c e sa t home e i t h e r n e v e r o r se ldom.

(1) O f t e n : t h o s e t h a t checked t h e y a t t e n d e dr e l i g i o u s s e r v i c e s a t home o f t e n .

12. M a r r i a g e : q u e s t i o n 10.

107



( 0) Not m a r r i e d : t h ose i n d i c a t i n g t hey werep r e s e n t l y no t m a r r i e d ( s i n g l e , l i v i n g w i t h someone, o r o t h e r ) .

( 1 ) M a r r i e d : t h o s e r e s p o n d e n t s i n d i c a t i n g t heywere p r e s e n t l y m a r r i e d .

13. Having c h i l d r e n : q u e s t i o n 9.

T h i s v a r i a b l e was c o l l a p s e d i n t o two c a t e g o r i e s f o r t he

p u r p o s e s o f b o t h c o n t i n g e n c y and r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s .

(0) None: t ho se i n d i c a t i n g t hey had no c h i l d r e n ,

(1) C h i l d r e n : t h ose i n d i c a t i n g t hey had a t l e a s tone c h i l d .

Al though q u a n t i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s assumes a l a r g e p a r t of

t h i s r e s e a r c h , t h e d i r e c t i n d e p t h e x p e r i e n c e o f t he

r e s e a r c h e r i s t h e c r u c i a l b e g i n n i n g and f o u n d a t i o n o f t h i s

r e s e a r c h . For some r e s e a r c h e r s and a t some t im e s i t i s

i m p o s s i b l e . They w i l l u se o t h e r methods . At t ime s i t does

n o t seem n e c e s s a r y b e ca us e t h e g e n e r a l c u l t u r a l e x p e r i e n c e

and u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e r e s e a r c h e r s makes i t s u p e r f l u o u s .

But a t a l l t ime s i t r ema ins an e s s e n t i a l f o u n d a t i o n and

w i t h o u t i t t h i s r e s e a r c h d a t a would be d i s c o u n t e d

a c c o r d i n g l y (Doug las , 1976: 129) .

CHAPTER V

FINDINGS

I n t r o d u c t i o n

There were 12 p r e d i c t i o n s t a t e m e n t s g e n e r a t e d in

C h a p t e r I I I . These were c o n s t r u c t e d from a r ev i e w o f t he

l i t e r a t u r e , d e p t h i n t e r v i e w s , and t he p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e

o f t h e r e s e a r c h e r . As s t a t e d i n C ha p t e r IV. t h e s e 12

p r e d i c t i o n s t a t e m e n t s w i l l be a n a l y z e d i n t h r e e ways:

c o n t i n g e n c y t a b l e s , m u l t i p l e r e g r e s s i o n and a p a t h model .

In a l l t h r e e l e v e l s o f a n a l y s i s m a r g i n a l i t y i s measured by

an a l i e n a t i o n s c a l e , and as such t he t e rms m a r g i n a l i t y and

a l i e n a t i o n a r e u sed i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y .

I n t r o d u c t i o n t o Con t ingency F i n d i n g s

The r e l a t i o n s h i p be tween t h e v a r i a b l e s i n e ach o f the

twe lve p r e d i c t i o n s t a t e m e n t s u s i n g two-way c o n t i n g e n c y t a b l e

a n a l y s i s a r e d i s p l a y e d i n T a b l e s 2 t h r ou gh 13. I t i s r e

a l i z e d t h a t t h e r e i s some "power" l o s t i n c o l l a p s i n g much of

t he d a t a t o make i t a v a i l a b l e f o r c o n t i n g e n c y a n a l y s i s , bu t

t h e r e a r e a l s o a number o f a d va n t ag e s o f t h e s e t a b l e s .

T a b l e s a l l o w p e r c e n t a g e s and d i s t r i b u t i o n s t o be s een .

T a b l e s a l s o do no t v i o l a t e any l e v e l a s s u m p t io n s . L a s t l y ,

t h e s e two-way c r o s s t a b l e s e n a b l e s one t o v iew th e r e l a t i o n

s h i p s i n t he p r e d i c t i o n s t a t e m e n t s , t o see i f i n d ee d , t hey

a r e c o r r e c t , a t l e a s t , w i t h o u t c o n t r o l l i n g f o r t h e

d i s t u r b a n c e o f t he o t h e r s .

109

C o n t i n gency T a b l e A n a l y s l s

A p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p be tween m a r g i n a l i t y and y e a r s

a seaman 1b shown in Tab l e 2 (Gamma=.29). There a r e

g e n e r a l l y h i g h e r m a r g i n a l i t y s c o r e s f o r t h o s e w i t h more

yearB a seaman. Those w i t h 1-5 y e a r s had 17.4% m a r g i n a l ;

6-10 had 30.% m a r g i n a l ; 11-20 had 42.2% m a r g i n a l ; 21-30 had

22.9% m a r g i n a l ; and t h os e w i t h 31-50 y e a r s a seaman had

60.5% m a r g i n a l . An e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e d rop i n m a r g i n a l i t y

s c o r e s f o r t ho se i n t h e 21-30 c a t e g o r y may be due t o t he

f a c t t h a t seamen can r e t i r e a f t e r 20 y e a r s , w i t h i n c r e a s e s

f o r e ach y e a r a f t e r t h i s . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t he seaman w i t h 20

t o 30 y e a r s knows he can q u i t and i s s t i l l young enough to

s t a r t a new c a r e e r . I t i s no t un usua l t o f i n d r e t i r e d

seamen i n t h e i r l a t e 3 0 ' s . Once t h e seaman goes beyond 30

y e a r s , he i s a p p r o a c h i n g an age a t which he cannot s t a r t a

mea n in g f u l second c a r e e r a s h o r e .

A r e l a t i v e l y h i g h p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p be tween

m a r g i n a l i t y and months spe n t p e r y e a r a t s ea i s shown in

Tab l e 3 (Gamma=.54>. Of t ho se who s pe n t a low number o f

months a y e a r a t s e a , 17.4% were m a r g i n a l ; t he medium

c a t e g o r y had 36.6% m a r g i n a l and o f t h o s e seamen who spent

a h i g h number o f months p e r y e a r a t s e a , 70.5% e x p r e s s

m a r g i n a l i t y .

A p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p be tween m a r g i n a l i t y and l e n g t h

o f t r i p s a t s ea i s e x h i b i t e d i n T a b l e 4 (Gammas.2 1 ) . There

i s an i n c r e a s e i n p e r c e n t a g e m a r g i n a l a s t h e l e n g t h o f t r i p

110

T a b l e 2 . M a r g i n a l i t y by Year s a Seaman (N=251)

Year s a Seaman

M a r g i n a l i t y 1-5 6-10 11-20 21-30 31-50 T o ta l

Notm arg in a l

21( 45 . 7 ) *

5( 1 6 . 7 )

20( 3 1 . 3 )

14( 4 0 .0 )

12( 1 5 .8 )

72(2 8 . 7 )

Somewhatno tmarg in a l

13( 2 8 . 3 )

8( 2 6 . 7 )

9( 1 4 .1 )

10( 2 8 . 6 )

10( 1 3 . 2 )

50( 1 9 .9 )

Somewhatm ar g in a l

4( 8 . 7 )

8( 2 6 . 7 )

8( 1 2 .5 )

3( 8 . 6 )

8( 1 0 .5 )

31( 1 2 . 4 )

Marg ina l 8( 1 7 .4 )

9( 3 0 .0 )

27(4 2 . 2 )

8( 2 2 .9 )

46( 6 0 . 5 )

Q ft( 39 . 0 )

Tot a 1s 46( 10 0 .0 )

30(1 00 .0 )

64( 100 .0 )

35( 10 0 .0 )

76(1 00 .0 )

251( 100 .0 )

P e r c e n t a g e o f - column t o t a l i n ~ p a r e n t h e s e s Gamma=.29Chi Square = 42.43 S i g n i f i c a n t a t .001 l e v e l

I l l

Ta b l e 3 . M a r g i n a l i t y by Time Spent a t Sea Pe r Year (N=251)

M a r g i n a l i t y

Months

Low

Per Year a t

Medium

See

High T o ta l

Not m a rg in a l 26 42 4 72( 5 6 . 5 ) * ( 2 6 . 1 ) ( 9 . 1 ) ( 2 8 .7 )

Somewhat 8 37 5 50no t m a rg in a l ( 1 7 .4 ) ( 2 3 . 0 ) ( 1 1 . 4 ) ( 1 9 . 9 )

Somewhat 4 23 4 32m ar g i n a l ( 8 . 7 ) ( 1 4 . 3 ) ( 9 . 1 ) ( 1 2 .4 )

Marg ina l 8 59 31 98( 1 7 . 4 ) ( 3 6 . 6 ) ( 7 0 . 5 ) ( 3 9 .0 )

T o t a l s 46 161 44 251(1 0 0 .0 ) (1 00 .0 ) ( 100 .0 ) (1 0 0 .0 )

Gamma=.54Chi Square = 39.46 S i g n i f i c a n t a t .001 l e v e l

1 12

T a b l e 4 . M a r g i n a l i t y b y L e n g t h o f T r i p s a t S e a

Length o f T r i p s a t Sea

Marg ina l Low Medium High T o t a l

Not m a r g i n a l 11( 5 2 . 4 ) *

23( 2 9 . 9 )

38( 2 4 . 8 )

72(28

Somewhat 6 16 28 50no t m a rg in a l ( 2 8 . 6 ) ( 2 0 . 8 ) ( 1 8 . 3 ) (19

Somewhat 2 6 23 31mar g i n a l ( 9 . 5 ) ( 7 . 8 ) ( 1 5 . 0 ) (12

Marg ina l 2( 9 . 5 )

32( 4 1 . 6 )

64( 4 1 . 8 )

98(39

T o t a l s 21( 1 0 0 . 0 )

77(1 0 0 .0 )

153(1 0 0 .0 )

251(100

^ P e r c e n t a g e o f column totaT~Tn- p"e'r 'entheses Gamma=.21Chi Square = 13.40 S i g n i f i c a n t a t .05 l ev e l

113

i n c r e a s e s . Those i n t h e low range had 9.5% m a r g i n a l . In

t h e medium r ang e 41.6% were m ar g in a l and o f t ho se i n t he

h i g h e s t r a n g e , 41.8% were a l i e n a t e d .

A r e l a t i v e l y h i g h n e g a t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n be tween job

s t a t u s aboard 6h ip and m a r g i n a l i t y i s d i s p l a y e d i n Tab l e 5

(Gamma=-.59) . The h i g h e r t he s t a t u s , t h e lower t h e

m a r g i n a l i t y s c o r e . Of t h o s e i n t h e crew 62.8% were

m a r g i n a l , w h i l e on ly 26.7% o f t he o f f i c e r s were m a r g i n a l .

An e x t r e m e l y low n e g a t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p be tween

m a r g i n a l i t y and s a i l i n g on a s i n g l e s h i p i s d i s p l a y e d in

Tab l e 6 (Gamma= - . 0 3 ) . T h i s low r e l a t i o n s h i p may be due t o

t h e f a c t t h a t a l t h o u g h a seaman may have had permanent j obs

most o f h i s c a r e e r , t he m a j o r i t y o f t h o se on t h e s e s h i p s may

no t have been p e rman en t . In e f f e c t , he i s t hen i n t he same

p o s i t i o n as t he Beaman making r e l i e f t r i p s , who d e v e l o p s

fewer work t i e s . S inc e t h e r e i s , i n e f f e c t , no r e l a t i o n

s h i p , t h e p r e d i c t i o n t h a t t h e g r e a t e r t h e de g re e o f s a i l i n g

on a s i n g l e s h i p t he l e s s w i l l be t he deg ree o f m a r g i n a l i t y ,

ha s n o t been s u p p o r t e d .

A mode ra te p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p be tween community s i z e

and m a r g i n a l i t y i s shown in Tab l e 7 (Gamma=. 2 5 ) . As

coniminity s i z e i n c r e a s e s , so does t he p e r c e n t a g e o f t hose

m a r g i n a l . Of t h o s e from smal l commun i t i e s , 23.9% were

m a r g i n a l ; medium, 31.4%; l a r g e , 38.2%; and met ro a r e a s had

46.3% t h a t were m a r g i n a l . T h i s , o f c o u r s e , i s no t a

114

T a b l e 5 . M a r g i n a l i t y b y J o b S t a t u s A b o ar d S h i p

Job S t a t u s

M a r g i n a l i t y Crew O f f i c e r T o t a l

Not ma rg i na l 10 62 72( 1 1 .6 ) * ( 3 7 . 6 ) (28. .7)

Somewhat 9 41 50no t ma rg i na l ( 1 0 . 5 ) ( 2 4 . 8 ) (19. .9)

Somewhat 13 18 31m arg in a l ( 1 5 . 1 ) ( 1 0 . 9 ) (12, .4)

Marg ina l 54 44 98( 6 2 . 8 ) ( 2 6 . 7 ) (39.J>)

To t a 1s 86 165 251( 1 0 0 .0 ) (1 0 0 .0 ) (100, .0)

♦ P e r c en t a g e o f column t o t a l Gamma= - . 5 9 Chi Square = 3 8 . 8 5 S i g n i f i c a n t a t .001 l e v e l

i n p a r e n t h e s e s

115

T a b l e 6 . M a r g i n a l i t y b y S a i l i n g on a S i n g l e S h i p

Job Type

M a r g i n a l i t y Not Permanent Permanent T o t a l

Not m a rg in a l 42( 2 7 . 1 )

30( 3 1 . 3 )

72( 2 8 .7 )

Somewhat no t m a r g i n a l

31( 2 0 . 0 )

19( 1 9 . 8 )

50(1 9 . 9 )

Somewhatm ar g in a l

23( 1 4 . 8 )

8( 8 . 3 )

31(1 2 . 4 )

Marg ina l 59( 3 8 . 1 )

OQ( 4 0 . 6 )

Qft( 3 9 .0 )

T o t a l s 155( 1 0 0 . 0 )

96(10 0 .0 )

251(1 00 .0 )

♦P e r c e n t a g e Gamma=- . 0 3 Chi Square Not s i g n i f i

o f column

= 2 .49 can t

i t o t a l in p a r e n t h e s e s

116

T a b l e 7 . M a r g i n a l i t y b y Communi ty S i z e

____________ Community S i ze_________

M a r g i n a l i t y Small Medium Large Metro T o t a l

Not ma rg i na l 17(3 7 . 0 ) *

14( 4 0 . 0 )

8(2 3 . 5 )

33( 2 4 . 3 )

72(28 .7 )

Somewhat 16 7 4 23 50no t ma rg ina l ( 3 4 .8 ) ( 2 0 . 0 ) (1 1 . 8 ) ( 1 6 . 9 ) (19 .9 )

Somewhat 2 3 9 17 31mar g i n a l ( 4 . 3 ) ( 8 . 6 ) ( 2 6 . 5 ) ( 1 2 . 5 ) ( 1 2 .4 )

Margins 1 11( 2 3 . 9 )

11( 3 1 . 4 )

13( 3 8 .2 )

63( 4 6 . 3 )

0 ft( 3 9 .0 )

T o t a l s 46(1 0 0 .0 )

35( 10 0 .0 )

34(1 0 0 .0 )

136( 10 0 .0 )

251(1 00 .0 )

^ P e r c e n t a g e o f column t o t a l I r T p a f e n t h e s e s Gamma=.2 5Chi Square = 24.10 S i g n i f i c a n t a t .01 l e v e l

117

consequence o f t h e o c c u p a t i o n I t s e l f , bu t Bhows t h e p o s

s i b i l i t y o f an i m p or t a n t m i t i g a t i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i n

t h e l i f e s t y l e o f some seamen, s p e c i f i c a l l y t he h i g h e r

i n t e g r a t i o n o f s m a l l e r commun i t i e s .

A r e l a t i v e l y low n e g a t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p be tween

m a r g i n a l i t y and no t l i v i n g i n t h e same community in which

you were r a i s e d i s e x h i b i t e d i n Tab l e 8 (Gamma=-. 1 6 ) . Of

t h o s e l i v i n g i n t h e same community i n which t hey were

r a i s e d , 35.4% were m a r g i n a l , w h i l e t h o s e l i v i n g somewhere

e l s e had 41.7% m a r g i n a l .

A r e l a t i v e l y h i g h n e g a t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p be tween

m a r g i n a l i t y and y e a r s o f e d u c a t i o n i s shown in Tab l e 9

(Ganvna=-. 4 7 ) . There i s a d e c r e a s e i n t he p e r c e n t a g e

m arg in a l as e d u c a t i o n i n c r e a s e s . Of t ho se w i t h a g r ad e

s chool e d u c a t i o n , 62.7% were m a r g i n a l ; h i gh s c h o o l , 50.0%;

some c o l l e g e , 24.6%; and o f t h o s e w i t h a c o l l e g e e d u c a t i o n ,

on ly 7.8% were m a r g i n a l . The s t a t i s t i c s a r e s u p p o r t i v e o f

one o f t h e main f u n c t i o n s o f formal e d u c a t i o n t h a t i s

p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l i n t e g r a t i o n i n t o m a i n s t r eam c u l t u r e .

A r e l a t i v e l y h i g h n e g a t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p be tween

m a r g i n a l i t y and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l membership i s d i s p l a y e d in

T ab l e 10 (Gamma=-.40) . Of t h o s e who b e l o n g t o o r g a n i z a

t i o n s , 18.5% were m a r g i n a l ; w h i l e o f t h o se who do n o t , 46.2%

were m a r g i n a l . Aga in , a s w i t h t ype o f community o f

r e s i d e n c e , we see t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a f a c t o r which may

s u p p r e s s t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e o c c u p a t i o n on m a r g i n a l i t y .

118

Tab l e 8. M a r g i n a l i t y by L i v i n g i n t h e Same Community i n Which You Were R a i s ed


Community L iv i n g

Not Same

i n Now

Same T o ta l

Not m a rg in a l 37 35 72( 2 4 .5 ) * ( 3 5 . 4 ) (2 8 . 8 )

Somewhat 32 18 50not m a r g in a l (2 1 .2 ) ( 1 8 .2 ) (2 0 . 0 )

Somewhat 19 11 30m ar g i n a l ( 1 2 . 6 ) ( 1 1 .1 ) (1 2 .0 )

Marg ina l 63 35 98( 4 1 . 7 ) ( 3 5 . 4 )

T o t a l s 151 99 250( 1 0 0 .0 ) ( 1 0 0 .0 ) (1 00 . 0 )

^ P e r c e n t a g e o?" column t o t a l Tn p a r e n t h e s e s Gamma=-.16 Chi Square = 3 .44 Not s i g n i f i c a n t

119

T a b l e 9 . M a r g i n a l I t y b y E d u c a t i o n

Ed uc a t i o n

M a r g i n a l 1ty GradeHigh

SchoolSome

Col l ege Col l ege To ta l

Not ma rg i na l 7( 1 0 . 4 ) *

19( 2 5 . 0 )

23( 4 0 .4 )

23( 4 5 . 1 )

72( 2 8 .7 )

Somewhat no t m a rg in a l

8( 1 1 . 9 )

12( 1 5 . 8 )

14( 2 4 . 6 )

16( 3 1 . 4 )

50( 1 9 .9 )

Somewhatmarg in a l

10( 1 4 . 9 )

7( 9 . 2 )

6( 1 0 . 5 )

8(1 5 . 7 )

31( 1 2 .4 )

Marg inal 42( 6 2 . 7 ) ( 5 0 . 0 )

14( 2 4 . 6 )

4( 7 . 8 )

Of)

( 3 9 . 0 )

To t a 1s 67(1 0 0 .0 )

76( 1 0 0 . 0 )

♦ r% ♦ a \ \ n

57( 10 0 .0 )

no r a n t fio

51( 10 0 .0 )

C O O

251(10 0 .0 )

Gamma= - . 4 7Chi S q u a r e = 5 1 . 6 7S i g n i f i c a n t a t . 0 0 1 l e v e l

1 2 0

T a b l e 1 0 . M a r g i n a l i t y b y O r g a n i z a t i o n a l Me m b e r s h i p


O r g a n i z a t i o n a l Membership

No Yes T o ta l

Not m a r g i n a l 45 27 72( 24 .2 )* ( 4 1 . 5 ) ( 2 8 . 7 )

Somewhat 34 16 50not m a rg in a l ( 1 8 . 3 ) ( 2 4 . 6 ) ( 1 9 .9 )

Somewhat 21 10 31m arg i n a l ( 1 1 . 3 ) ( 1 5 . 4 ) ( 1 2 . 4 )

Marg ina l 86 12 98( 4 6 . 2 ) ( 1 8 . 5 ) ( 3 9 . 0 )

T o t a l s 186 65 251( 100 .0 ) (1 0 0 . 0 ) ( 1 0 0 .0 )

Gamma= - . 4 0Chi S q u a r e = 1 6 . 2 0S i g n i f i c a n t a t . 0 0 1 l e v e l

121

A r e l a t i v e l y modera te n e g a t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p between

m a r g i n a l i t y and r e l i g i o u s p a r t i c i p a t i o n i s e x h i b i t e d i n

T a b l e 11 (Gairnia=-. 2 4 ) . Of t h o se who n e v e r o r seldom a t t e n d

r e l i g i o u s s e r v i c e s a t home, 43.7% were m a r g i n a l ; w h i l e of

t h o s e who a t t e n d o f t e n , 26.5% were m a r g i n a l .

A low n e g a t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p be tween m a r g i n a l i t y and

m a r r i a g e i s shown in Tab l e 12 (Gamna=-. 1 4 ) . Of t h os e no t

m a r r i e d , 40.7% were m a r g i n a l ; w h i l e o f t hose m a r r i e d , 37.6%

were m a r g i n a l . Wi thout c o n t r o l s , t h i s i s i n t h e ex p ec t ed

d i r e c t i o n , t hough m a r r i a g e seems no t t o be an impo r t an t

f a c t o r i n t he n e g a t i o n o f m a r g i n a l i t y .

L a s t l y , a low p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p be tween ha v in g

c h i l d r e n and m a r g i n a l i t y i s shown in Tab l e 13 (Gamma=. 1 2 ) .

The p r e d i c t i o n t h a t ha v in g c h i l d r e n w i l l r educe t he l e v e l of

m a r g i n a l i t y ha s no t been s u p p o r t e d . P e r h a p s , t he s e p a r a t i o n

from o n e ' s c h i l d r e n imposed by t he o c c u p a t i o n s e r v e s t o

i n c r e a s e t h e s eaman ' s s ense o f i s o l a t i o n and he nce ,

m a r g i n a l i t y .

Summary o f T a b l e s

Ten o f t h e 12 p r e d i c t i o n s t a t e m e n t s have been su p p o r t e d

u s i n g c o n t i n g e n c y a n a l y s i s . P r e d i c t i o n s t a t e m e n t number

f i v e , " t h e g r e a t e r t he de g re e o f s a i l i n g on a s i n g l e s h i p ,

t he l e s s w i l l be t he de g re e o f m a r g i n a l i t y , " ha s t hu s f a r

no t been s u p p o r t e d . There i s a lmos t no r e l a t i o n s h i p .

P r e d i c t i o n s t a t e m e n t number 12, " hav in g c h i l d r e n w i l l r educe

122

T a b l e 1 1 . M a r g i n a l i t y b y R e l i g i o u s P a r t i c i p a t i o n


R e l i g i o u s P a r t i c i p a t i o n

Never -Seldom Of t en T o ta l

Not m a r g in a l 48 24 72( 2 6 . 2 ) * ( 3 5 .3 ) ( 2 8 . 7 )

Somewhat 34 16 50not ma rg i na l ( 1 8 . 6 ) (2 3 . 5 ) ( 19 .9 )

Somewhat 21 10 31marg i na l ( 1 1 . 5 ) (1 4 .7 ) ( 12 .4 )

Margins 1 80 18 98(4 3 . 7 ) ( 2 6 .5 ) ( 39 .0 )

To t a 1s 183 68 251( 1 0 0 . 0 ) (10 0 .0 ) (1 00 .0 )

"^Pe rcen tage of column t o t a l i n p a r e n t h e s e s " Gamma= - .2 4 Chi Square = 6 .23 Not s i g n i f i c a n t

123

T a b l e 1 2 . M a r g i n a l i t y b y M a r r i a g e

________M a r r i a g e _________

M a r g i n a l i t y Not M a r r i e d Ma r r i e d To t a l

Not m a rg in a l 28 44 72( 2 3 .7 ) * (33. 1) (28

Somewhat 22 28 50no t m a rg in a l ( 1 8 . 6 ) (21. 1) (19

Somewhat 20 11 31m arg in a l ( 1 6 . 9 ) (8 . 3) (12

Marg inal 48 50 98( 4 0 . 7 ) (37. 6) (39

T o t a l s 118 133 251( 1 0 0 . 0 ) (100. 0) (100

^ F e r c i i i t a g e o f col Gamma=- .14 Chi Square = 6 .05 Not s i g n i f i c a n t

umn t o t a l in p a r e n t E e s e s

T a b l e 1 3 . M a r g i n a l i t y b y H a v i n g C h i l d r e n

124


__Have

No

C h i l d r e n ___

Yes T o ta l

Not m a rg in a l 35 37 72( 3 1 .0 ) * ( 2 6 .8 ) ( 2 8 .7 )

Somewhat 23 27 50no t ma rg i na l ( 2 0 . 4 ) ( 1 9 . 6 ) ( 1 9 .9 )

Somewhat 17 14 31m arg in a l ( 1 5 . 0 ) ( 1 0 . 1 ) ( 12 .4 )

Marg inal 38 60 98( 3 3 . 6 ) (4 3 .5 ) ( 3 9 . 0 )

T o t a l s 113 138 251(1 0 0 . 0 ) (1 0 0 .0 ) (1 00 .0 )

Gemma=. 1 2Chi S q u a r e = 3 . 1 5Not s i g n i f i c a n t

125

t h e l e v e l o f m a r g i n a l i t y h a s no t been s u p p o r t e d . There

were h i g h e r l e v e l s o f m a r g i n a l i t y f o r t h o se w i t h c h i l d r e n .

Months s pe n t a t sea p e r y e a r had a s t r o n g r e l a t i o n s h i p

t o m a r g i n a l i t y (Gamna=.54) . Months a t s ea i s t h e most v a l i d

I n d i c a t i o n o f t ime spe n t w i t h i n t h e o c c u p a t i o n , s i n c e t h i s

r e p r e s e n t s t ime sp en t on a s h i p and c o n v e r s e l y t ime spen t

away from sh o r e s i d e l i f e s t y l e s . I t a l s o means t i m e ' e x p o s e d

t o t he s h i p b o a rd community. Year s a t s e a , (Gamma=.29> and

l e n g t h o f t r i p s t o s e a (Gamma=. 2 1 ) , a r e a l s o good bu t l e s s e r

i n d i c a t o r s o f s e a t i m e . A seaman c o u ld go t o s ea f o r s e v e r a l

y e a r s , bu t f o r on ly a few months each y e a r . L ik e w i se , a

Beaman co u ld make o n l y one o r two l ong t r i p s a y e a r .

Ano the r o c c u p a t i o n a l v a r i a b l e , s t a t u s o f t h e job on

s h i p had t he s t r o n g e s t r e l a t i o n s h i p o f a l l v a r i a b l e s

(Gamma=-.59) . Because t h e s eam an ' s o c c u p a t i o n t a k e s up so

much o f h i s t i m e , h i s o c c u p a t i o n abo a rd s h i p i s a m a s t e r

s t a t u s (Banks ton e t a l , 1981) . In a d d i t i o n , t h e p a r a

m i l i t a r y s t r u c t u r e o f t he s h i p , which i s o l a t e s t h e o f f i c e r

from the crew and t h e p r e f e r r e d t r e a t m e n t g i v e n t o o f f i c e r s

e l e v a t e s h i s s t a t u s t o a p o s i t i o n o f p r e B t i g e a bo a rd s h i p .

The h i g h n e g a t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p be tween s t a t u s a boa rd sh i p

and m a r g i n a l i t y would seem t o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h i s p r e s t i g e i s

c a r r i e d a s h o r e .

The s t r o n g e s t backg round v a r i a b l e was e d u c a t i o n

(Gamma=-.47) . T h i s was e x p e c t e d b eca u se e d u c a t i o n i s a

mechanism f o r i n t e g r a t i n g pe o p l e i n t o t h e s o c i e t y o f which

126

t h ey a r e members , hence an I n c r e a s e i n e d u c a t i o n sh ou ld

p rod uce a d e c r e a s e i n m a r g i n a l i t y . S i z e o f community,

l i v i n g i n t h e same community i n which you were r a i s e d , and

m a r i t a l s t a t u s a r e o t h e r backg round v a r i a b l e s whose

r e l a t i o n s h i p s t o m a r g i n a l i t y s u p p o r t e d t he p r e d i c t i o n s .

O r g a n i z a t i o n a l membership and r e l i g i o u s p a r t i c i p a t i o n

a r e b o t h p o s s i b l e i n t e r v e n i n g v a r i a b l e s . Both t he l a c k o f

o r g a n i z a t i o n a l membership and r e l i g i o u s p a r t i c i p a t i o n can be

seen t o be t h e r e s u l t o f t ime spen t a t s e a , s i n c e t h e seaman

ha s l e s s t ime t o p a r t i c i p a t e . The l a c k o f membership i s

shown to have a r e l a t i o n s h i p t o m a r g i n a l i t y .

I n t r o d u c t i o n t o Mu11 i p 1e R e g r e s s i o n A n a l y s i s

The r e s u l t s o f m u l t i p l e r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s a r e

d i s p l a y e d i n T a b l e s 14 t h r ou g h 16. These r e s u l t s w i l l be

compared w i t h t h o s e o b t a i n e d from c o n t i n g e n c y a n a l y s i s .

Those v a r i a b l e s t h a t a f f e c t m a r g i n a l i t y i n t h e m u l t i p l e

r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s w i l l be i n c l u d e d i n p a t h a n a l y s i s .

C on t i n ge ncy a n a l y s i s r e q u i r e d t h a t some d a t a be

c o l l a p s e d . For t h e p u r p o s e s o f m u l t i p l e r e g r e s s i o n ,

c o l l a p s e d d a t a w i l l no l o ng e r be u se d . C o l l a p s i n g d a t a

r e s u l t s i n a l o s s o f i n f o r m a t i o n and shou ld be avo ide d when

p o s s i b l e . The focus o f t h e m u l t i p l e r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s i s

t h e e v a l u a t i o n and measurement o f t he o v e r a l l dependence of

m a r g i n a l i t y on t h e o t h e r v a r i a b l e s . Those v a r i a b l e s t h a t do

no t add t o t h e e x p l a n a t i o n o f m a r g i n a l i t y w i l l be d e l e t e d

f o r t h e p u r p o s e s o f p a t h a n a l y s i s . The r e m a in i n g v a r i a b l e s

127

Tab le 14. Means and S t a nd a rd D e v i a t i o n s (N=250)*

V a r i a b l e Mean S t a n d a r d D e v i a t i o n

M a r g i n a l i t y 59 .69 17.38

Same community a s r a i s e d .40 .49

Community s i z e 3 .03 1.19

Have c h i l d r e n .55 .50

Mar r i ed .53 .50

R e l i g i o u s p a r t i c i p a t i o n .27 .44

O r g a n i z a t i o n a l membership .26 .44

Educat i on 12.48 2.72

Months a t sea 6 .32 1.39

Sh ipboa rd s t a t u s .66 .48

Length o f t r i p s 11.46 4.81

Year s a seaman 20.49 13.31

S a i l i n g on a s i n g l e s h i p .38 .49

TThere a r e 251 c a s e s i n t he sample , bu t because o f 1 m i s s i n g case f o r "Same community as r a i s e d , " t h e r e a r e 250 v a l i d c a s e s when t h i s v a r i a b l e i s i n c l u d e d .

Ihble 15. Zero-Order Correlations Among All Variables (N=250)

<V <V <V <V <V (X6) (X7) <V (V (X10> (XU> (X12J <*13>

Marginality (X̂ ) 1.00Same ocmmaiity as raised (Xg) -.06 1.00Ccnmunlty size (X̂ ) .23 -.01 1.00Have children (X̂ ) .08 .05 .11 1.00Married (Xg) -.12 .01 .02 .51 1.00Religious participation ( V -.14 .06 .01 .02 .16 1.00

Organizational membership (X̂ ) -.30 .09 -.04 .13 .13 .12 1.00Education (Xg) -.45 .10 -.20 -.32 -.17 .02 .10 1.00Months at sea (Xg) .39 -.18 .11 .27 .12 -.02 -.00 -.40 1.00Shipboard status (X̂ g) -.42 -.03 -.25 -.03 .06 -.04 .21 .38 -.29 1.00Length of trips (X^) .20 -.08 -.09 .02 -.08 -.09 -.09 -.11 .18 -.11 1.00Years a seaman (X^) .22 -.27 .10 .37 .29 .03 .14 -.51 .39 .06 .03Sailing on a single ship (X13) .01 -.05 .05 .17 .17 .12 .01 -.15 .23 .04 -.02

129

T a b l e 16. Summary o f S t e pwi se M u l t i p l e R e g r e s s i o n , M a r g i n a l i t y Dependent (N=250)

M u l t i p l e R R* F Be ta

Educat i on .45 .21 9.586* - . 2 1

Sh ip bo a r d s t a t u s .53 .28 10.479* - . 2 0

O r g a n i z a t i o n a l membership .57 .32 17.351* - . 2 2

Months a t sea .60 .36 12.625* .21

M a r r i e d .62 .39 7.098* - . 1 6

Community s i z e .63 .40 4.163* .11

Leng th o f t r i p s .64 .40 2.915* .09

R e g l i g i o u s p a r t i c i p a t i o n .64 .41 2.510* - . 0 8

Year s a t sea .65 .42 3.857* .13

Same community as r a i s e d .65 .42 1.532 .07

S a i l i n g on a s i n g l e s h i p .65 .42 1.273 - . 0 6

Have c h i l d r e n .65 .42 .013 .01

* S i g n i f T c a n t a t !OT l e v e l

130

w i l l be u sed i n p a t h a n a l y s i s , which i s an a p p l i c a t i o n o f

t h e m u l t i p l e r e g r e s s i o n t e c h n i q u e , i n o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e t he

magn i tude o f d i r e c t and i n d i r e c t c a u s a l i n f l u e n c e t h a t each

v a r i a b l e h a s on o t h e r v a r i a b l e s t h a t f o l l o w i t i n t h e

presumed c a u s a l o r d e r .

A good d e a l o f v a r i a n c e i n t h e dependent v a r i a b l e , as

w e l l a s t h e o t h e r v a r i a b l e s , i s shown in Tab l e 14. Zero-

o r d e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n t h e same d i r e c t i o n and r e f l e c t i n g t he

same p a t t e r n s as i n t he c o n t i n g e n c y t a b l e s can be s een in

Tab l e 15. There i s a r e l a t i v e l y low i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n

be tween t h e i ndependen t v a r i a b l e s , a l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e some

r e l a t i v e l y mode ra t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s . The c o r r e l a t i o n be tween

h a v i n g c h i l d r e n and e d u c a t i o n ( r = - . 3 2 ) i s e x p e c t e d ; h i g h e r

e d u c a t e d p e o p l e t e n d t o have fewer c h i l d r e n . The r e l a t i o n

s h i p be tween y e a r s a seaman and h a v i n g c h i l d r e n ( r = . 3 7 ) i s a

f u n c t i o n o f age . The r e l a t i o n s h i p be tween y e a r s a seaman

and e d u c a t i o n ( r = - . 5 1 ) i s a l 6 o a f u n c t i o n o f age . Younger

p e o p l e , g e n e r a l l y , a r e more e d u c a t e d and younge r seamen have

l e s s y e a r s a t s e a . The c o r r e l a t i o n be tween e d u c a t i o n and

months a t s ea ( r = - . 4 0 ) i s a f u n c t i o n o f b o t h age and u n i o n

s e n i o r i t y . The more e d u c a t e d , younger p e r s o n ha s l e s s

s e n i o r i t y ; c o n s e q u e n t l y t he more e d u c a t e d spend l e s s t ime a t

s e a be ca u se t h e y cannot g e t a job a s e a s i l y . T h i s i s due to

t h e c o m p e t i t i v e b i d d i n g f o r j ob s ba s ed on s e n i o r i t y . The

c o r r e l a t i o n be tween s h i p b o a r d B t a t u s and e d u c a t i o n ( r = . 3 8 )

i 8 a s e x p e c t e d . Year s a t Bea and months a t s ea ( r = . 3 9 )

131

sh ou ld be r e l a t e d ; a g a i n , b eca us e o f t he s e n i o r i t y sys tem.

L a s t l y , t he r e l a t i o n s h i p be tween b e i n g m a r r i e d and h a v in g

c h i l d r e n ( r = . 5 1 ) i s s t i l l w i t h u s .

The de g re e o f l i n e a r dependence o f m a r g i n a l i t y on t he

12 i ndep en den t v a r i a b l e s i s shown in Tab l e 16. In a d d i t i o n ,

s c a t t e r p l o t s were examined i n o r d e r t o v i s u a l l y i n s p e c t

p a t t e r n s . Of t he 12 p r e d i c t i o n s t a t e m e n t s , 9 a r e su p p o r t e d

by t he d a t a i n T a b l e 16. Two o f t h e s e v a r i a b l e s , " s a i l i n g

on a s i n g l e s h i p , " and "h a v i n g c h i l d r e n , " were no t s u p p o r t e d

by t he o t h e r a n a l y s e s e i t h e r . In a d d i t i o n , l i v i n g i n t he

Bame community i n which you were r a i s e d , does no t add t o t he

e x p l a n a t i o n o f m a r g i n a l i t y i n seamen. The n i n e r em a in in g

v a r i a b l e s were a l l s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .01 l e v e l . Thus , n i n e

o f t h e o r i g i n a l 12 v a r i a b l e s c o n t a i n e d i n t he 12 p r e d i c t i o n

s t a t e m e n t s have been shown t o be r e l a t e d t o m a r g i n a l i t y i n

seamen. These n i n e v a r i a b l e s w i l l be u s e d t o c o n s t r u c t a

c a u s a l model o f m a r g i n a l i t y i n seamen.

Pa t h A n a l y s i s : Toward a Model o f O c c u p a t i o n a l M a r g i n a l i t yTn- Seamen ~

The p a t h d i ag ram in F i g u r e 1 e x p l a i n s 42% o f t he

v a r i a t i o n i n m a r g i n a l i t y . I t a l s o shows t h a t t h e background

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e r e s p o n d e n t s were j u s t a s i m p or t a n t as

t h e o c c u p a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n t h e e x p l a n a t i o n of

m a r g i n a l i t y . The model shows t he b e t a v a l u e s f o r e ach of

t h e n i n e i ndependen t v a r i a b l e s r e l a t i v e e f f e c t on t h e

dependen t v a r i a b l e , m a r g i n a l i t y .

Fig u re 1. Pa th Diagram o f M a r g i n a l i t y In Seamen

Length o f T r i p s

Years a t Se

Educat ion '

Sh ipboa rd S t a t u s

Months a t Sea

M a r i t a l S t a t u s

Coimmnity S i z e

O r g a m z a t i ona l Membership


R e l i g i o u s P a r t i c i p a t i o n

133

The e f f e c t o f s even i ndependen t v a r i a b l e s on o r g a n i z a

t i o n a l membership and t h en on r e l i g i o u s p a r t i c i p a t i o n a r e

shown on d i r e c t l i n e s t o each o f t h e s e i n t e r v e n i n g v a r i a b l e s

The s t r o n g e s t i n f l u e n c e s on o r g a n i z a t i o n a l membership

a r e : y e a r s a t s ea ( . 1 9 ) ; e d u c a t i o n ( . 1 6 ) ; and s h i p b o a r d

s t a t u s ( . 1 4 ) . The o t h e r f ou r v a r i a b l e s had a b s o l u t e b e t a

v a l u e s be low + .1 0 . The s t r o n g e s t i n f l u e n c e s on t h e second

i n t e r v e n i n g v a r i a b l e , r e l i g i o u s p a r t i c i p a t i o n , a r e : m a r i t a l

s t a t u s ( . 1 6 ) ; e d u c a t i o n ( . 1 0 ) ; and s h i p b o a r d s t a t u s ( - . 1 0 ) .

The f o u r o t h e r v a r i a b l e s had b e t a v a l u e s below + .10 .

Community s i z e ha s no i n f l u e n c e on e i t h e r i n t e r v e n i n g

v a r i a b l e .

E d u c a t i o n , as e x p e c t e d , ha s t he s t r o n g e s t i n f l u e n c e

among t he backg round v a r i a b l e s ( - . 2 1 ) . M a r i t a l s t a t u s

( - . 1 5 ) and community s i z e ( . 1 1 ) b o t h have modera te

i n f l u e n c e s on m a r g i n a l i t y . Months a t s ea had t h e s t r o n g e s t

i n f l u e n c e on m a r g i n a l i t y among t h e o c c u p a t i o n a l v a r i a b l e s

( . 1 9 ) . Years a t s ea ( . 1 1 ) and l e n g t h o f t r i p s ( . 0 9 ) had

mode ra t e i n f l u e n c e s on m a r g i n a l i t y .

Sh ipboa rd s t a t u s may be c o n s i d e r e d a background , as

w e l l a s an o c c u p a t i o n a l v a r i a b l e . T h i s i s due t o t h e un ique

s t r u c t u r e o f t h e i n d u s t r y . Some seamen come i n t o t he

I n d u s t r y as g r a d u a t e s o f m a r i t i m e academies o r t r a i n i n g

s c h o o l s ; t h i s would seem to r e f l e c t a background v a r i a b l e .

O t h e r seamen have worked t h e i r way up t o t h e s e h i g h e r s t a t u s

p o s i t i o n s , making i t an o c c u p a t i o n a l v a r i a b l e . But because

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t h e s e t r a i n i n g s c h o o l s and academies have , as t h e i r s o l e

f u n c t i o n , t h e t r a i n i n g o f m a r i t i m e o f f i c e r s , t h ey a r e seen

a s a p a r t o f t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l i z a t i o n o f t h e seaman; con

s e q u e n t l y s h i p b o a r d s t a t u s i s t r e a t e d a s an o c c u p a t i o n a l

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c . Sh ipboa rd s t a t u s ha s a r e l a t i v e l y s t r o n g

i n f l u e n c e on m a r g i n a l i t y ( - . 2 1 ) . S u b o r d i n a t e s t a t u s

a p p a r e n t l y a m p l i f i e s t he i s o l a t i n g e f f e c t .

O r g a n i z a t i o n a l membership ha s a r e l a t i v e l y s t r o n g

i n f l u e n c e on m a r g i n a l i t y ( - . 2 1 ) . R e l i g i o u s p a r t i c i p a t i o n

h a s a v e ry mode ra t e i n f l u e n c e ( - . 0 8 ) . As s u p p o r t e d by t he

o t h e r methods o f a n a l y s i s , b e l o n g i n g t o o r g a n i z a t i o n s , i n

p a r t i c u l a r , r e d u c e s m a r g i n a l i t y i n seamen.

The r e s u l t s o f t h e s e f i n d i n g s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e l o ng e r

t h e t ime t he seaman spends a t s e a , t h e more m a rg i n a l he

becomes . Hi s m a r g i n a l i t y i s seen as a r e s u l t o f h i s l a c k o f

p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n s h o r e s i d e s o c i e t y ; c o n v e r s e l y , t h i s means

an i n c r e a s e d amount o f t ime spen t w i t h i n t he m arg in a l

c u l t u r e o f t he s h i p . The l e v e l o f t h e s eam an ' s m a r g i n a l i t y

i s m e d i a t e d by c e r t a i n background and e x t r a - o c c u p a t i o n a l

v a r i a b l e s , a s t he s o c i o l o g i s t would e x p e c t .

The q u e s t i o n now i s how does m a r g i n a l i t y , as an

i nd ependen t v a r i a b l e , e f f e c t wor ld v i ew and l i f e s t y l e . In

o t h e r words , what a r e t he co nsequ ences o f m a r g i n a l i t y . The

f o l l o w i n g c h a p t e r w i l l a t t e m p t t o i d e n t i f y and d e s c r i b e

t h e s e i n f l u e n c e s .

CHAPTER VI

A DESCRIPTIVE ELABORATION OF THE EFFECTS OF BEING A SEAMAN

I n t r o d u c t i on

F u r t h e r e l a b o r a t i o n o f t h e p rob l em i s h e r e p r e s e n t e d

t h ro ug h d e s c r i p t i o n and c o r r e l a t i o n a n a l y s i s o f m a r g i n a l i t y

( a s measured by a l i e n a t i o n ) w i t h o t h e r d imens ions o f t he

seaman’ s s o c i a l l i f e . In a s e n s e , t h i s i n v o l v e s t he

r e v e l a t i o n o f p a r a l l e l f e a t u r e s o f m a r g i n a l i t y i n t he

l i f e s t y l e o f seamen and s t r i c t l y s pe ak in g cannot be viewed

as d e t e rm i n e d by t h a t m a r g i n a l i t y . In many c a s e s i t i s l i k e

t h e c h i ck en and t h e egg an a logy ; which one came f i r s t cannot

a lways be d e t e r m i n e d . I t i s assumed t he a s s o c i a t i o n be tween

t he v a r i a b l e s i n c l u d e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r a r e consequences of

s e a f a r i n g as an o c c u p a t i o n . As w i l l be s e e n , t he p e r v a s i v e

c o r r e l a t i o n s be tween s o c i a l i n t e g r a t i o n measurements and

m a r g i n a l i t y g i ve v a l i d i t y t o t h i s r e s e a r c h ’ s concep t o f

m a r g i n a l i t y i n seamen.

T h i s c h a p t e r w i l l u s e 23 v a r i a b l e s which a r e t ak en from

q u e s t i o n s on t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e . The Spearman r a n k - o r d e r

c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t w i l l be u s ed f o r c o r r e l a t i o n

a n a l y s i s . Spearman’ s ( r ) r e q u i r e s t h a t t h e v a r i a b l e s be atDl e a s t o r d i n a l l e v e l . These d a t a s a t i s f y t h a t r e q u i r e m e n t .

The d e s c r i p t i v e a n a l y s i s w i l l be done w i t h t h e d a t a g a t h e r e d

i n t he i n t e r v i e w s , as we l l a s t he p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e o f t he

r e s e a r c h e r . Each o f t he 23 v a r i a b l e s w i l l be a n a l y z e d under

one o f t h e f o l l o w i n g f ou r c a t e g o r i e s : e f f e c t s on f ami ly

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l i f e ; a t t i t u d e s t oward ( h o s t i l i t y ) s e a l l f e and seamen;

g e n e r a l s o c i a l i n t e g r a t i o n ; and economic i n t e g r a t i o n . These

q u e s t i o n s were chosen be cau se t h ey were s een t o be v a l i d

I n d i c a t o r s o f t he fo u r c a t e g o r i e s above. The c o r r e l a t i o n s

o f a l l t h e s e v a r i a b l e s w i t h m a r g i n a l i t y were found t o be

s i g n i f i c a n t , a t l e a s t , a t t h e .01 l e v e l . None o f t h e 23

v a r i a b l e s s e l e c t e d ha s more t h an two m i s s i n g c a s e s .

Ef f e c t s on Fami ly Li fe

The re were f i v e v a r i a b l e s u sed a s measu re s o f t he

e f f e c t s on f a m i ly l i f e .

(1) How o f t e n does t h e seaman see r e l a t i v e s ?( Q u e s t i o n 14)

(2) Does he s ee women i n o t h e r p o r t s ?(Q u e s t i o n 41)

(3) How w e l l does he know h i s w i f e o r g i r l f r i e n d ' s f r i e n d s ?( Q u e s t i o n 68)

V a r i a b l e s f ou r and f i v e a r e measu red by t he d e g re e t o which he a g r e e s o r d i s a g r e e s w i t h t he r e s p e c t i v e s t a t e m e n t .

(4) Seamen do no t have as c l o s e a r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e i r f a m i ly a s men who work on t h e beach . ( Q u e s t i o n 90)

(5) I w i l l be g l a d when I am no l o n g e r go i ng t o sea so 1 can spend more t ime w i t h my f a m i ly .( Q u e s t i o n 98)

Seamen, due t o t h e n a t u r e o f t h e i r o c c u p a t i o n , do not

see r e l a t i v e s as o f t e n a s someone who works on t h e b e ac h .

The seaman, be ca us e o f h i s l ong a b se n c e s may l o s e t h e s e

k i n s h i p bond s , t h u s r e i n f o r c i n g h i s m a rg i n a l s t a t u s . But

137

some seamen r e p o r t e d t h e i r r e l a t i v e s d i d no t want t o see

them b e cau se t h ey were seamen. The i d e a one comes away from

th e i n t e r v i e w s w i t h i s t h a t t ho se seamen who B a y t h e y do no t

see r e l a t i v e s do no t be ca us e t h e y do no t f i t i n w e l l w i t h

them. The l o n g e r t hey s t a y a t s e a , t he l o n g e r t hey a r e

exposed t o t h e s e a f a r i n g c u l t u r e ; c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e g r e a t e r

t h e c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s be tween them and t h e i r r e l a t i v e s .

When r e l a t i v e s came o v e r t o ou r house my f a t h e r would l e a v e .

I f our r e l a t i v e s knew he was home th ey would no t come. As

one seaman pu t i t , "my f a m i ly does no t speak t o seamen, I

have not s een any o f them in 20 y e a r s . "

There was a modera t e r e l a t i o n s h i p be tween m a r g i n a l i t y

and no t s e e i n g r e l a t i v e s ( r = . 2 1 ) . T h i s i n d i c a t e s t h a t5

t h o s e who were m a rg i n a l were l e s s l i k e l y t o see r e l a t i v e s .

Of t h e r e s p o n d e n t s , 15.2% r e p o r t e d t hey n e v e r saw r e l a t i v e s ;

41.7% seldom saw r e l a t i v e s and 43.4% s a i d t h ey saw r e l a t i v e s

o f t e n .

Whether o r no t t h e seaman s e e s women i n o t h e r p o r t s can

be c o n s i d e r e d a consequence o f h i s m a r g i n a l i t y . The t ime

spe n t a t s e a , f o r t h e s i n g l e seaman, removes him from the

o p p o r t u n i t y f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g and l e a r n i n g t o m a i n t a i n

r e l a t i o n s h i p s . The more he s e e s p r o s t i t u t e s , t he l e s s he i s

a b l e t o e s t a b l i s h and m a i n t a i n normal r e l a t i o n s h i p s . Those

m a r r i e d men who see p r o s t i t u t e s a r e i nd eed Bha r ing a v e r y

p e r s o n a l p a r t o f t h e i r l i f e w i t h a " s t r a n g e r , " r a t h e r t han a

sp ou se . Some m a r r i e d seamen, on s t e a d y r u n s , have women

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t h a t t h ey " k e e p . " They were i n f a c t m a i n t a i n i n g two

h o u s e h o l d s .

There a r e many seamen who do no t u se p r o s t i t u t e s ; 31.5%

o f t h i s sample . There was a modera te c o r r e l a t i o n be tween

m a r g i n a l i t y and s e e i n g women i n o t h e r p o r t s Cr = . 2 6 ) . I t i sD

t h e p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e o f t he r e s e a r c h e r t h a t v e r y few

seamen do no t use p r o s t i t u t e s . I t i s so w i d e ly a c c e p t e d in

the seamen l i f e s t y l e , and i n dee d , t hey a r e v e r y " c he a p . "

When t h e s e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s were g i v e n out a t a un io n m ee t i n g

i n New O r l e a n s , t he agent t o l d t he members t o d i r e c t t h e i r

a t t e n t i o n t o q u e s t i o n number 41.

. . . T h i s su rvey w i l l no t have you r name on i t anywhere . So you do no t have t ol i e . So a l l o f you can check o f f y e s t ot h i s q u e s t i o n because we know we a l l do.

The r e s p o n s e from the members was loud l a u g h t e r .

Some o f t h e younger seamen, and e s p e c i a l l y t hos e

o f f i c e r s who were g r a d u a t e s o f m a r i t i m e aca dem ies , s a i d t hey

d i d no t see women i n o t h e r p o r t s . They saw t h i s as somehow

d e s t r o y i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p t hey have w i t h a s t e a d y g i r l o r

sp ou se . Most o f t h e s e younge r men i n t e r v i e w e d , who had a

s t e a d y g i r l f r i e n d i n home p o r t , s a i d t h ey d i d no t i n t e n d to

s h i p ou t v e r y l ong . Each had a goa l t o a cc ompl i sh and t hen

were g o i n g t o q u i t and ge t m a r r i e d . They saw t h e seamen

l i f e s t y l e a s b e i n g i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h f a m i ly l i f e . Of cou r s e

t h e r e was t he m a te , about 55 y e a r s o l d , who had m a r r i e d a

woman 23 y e a r s o l d . He d i d no t s ee o t h e r women b e c a u s e , "my

w i f e ha s t h e b e s t pus sy i n Alabama, I c o u l d n ' t g e t n o t h i n g

139

l i k e t h a t I n no whore h o u s e . " He does no t a p p e a r t o be a

t r u e e x c e p t i o n .

How we l l a seaman knows h i s w i f e ' s o r g i r l f r i e n d ' s

f r i e n d s i n d i c a t e s how w e l l he i s i n t e g r a t e d i n t o t h e i r l i f e .

Th e re was a n e g a t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p be tween m a r g i n a l i t y and

knowing you r w i f e o r g i r l f r i e n d ' s f r i e n d s ( r = - . 3 8 ) . Of t heS

r e s p o n d e n t s , 20.9% s a i d t hey d i d no t know them a t a l l ; 9.2%

o n l y knew t h e i r names; 39.8% o n l y knew them a l i t t l e and

30.1% knew them v e r y w e l l . Many o f t he seamen i n t e r v i e w e d

s a i d t h e i r w i f e ' s f r i e n d s d i d no t come a round when t hey were

home. The f r i e n d would c a l l ; t h e w i f e would t e l l them he

was i n .

The w i f e o f t h e seaman l i v e s i n two w or ld s - one w i t h

h e r husband and t h e o t h e r w i t h o u t him. She t e n d s t o n o t mix

them becau se she knows from e x p e r i e n c e t hey a r e no t

c o m p a t i b l e . Wives , o f seamen i n t e r v i e w e d , say t h a t t h ey

become t o r n be tween f r i e n d s and huBband. My own mo the r was

g l a d t o see my f a t h e r , b u t a f t e r a few days she was g l a d t o

s ee him go. Whi le i n t e r v i e w i n g my f a t h e r and u n c l e d u r i n g

t h i s r e s e a r c h , t hey b r oug h t up t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y f e l t

unwelcomed i n t h e i r own home and, a t t i m e s , want ed t o go

ba ck t o s e a .

The nex t v a r i a b l e i s v e r y much r e l a t e d t o t he one j u s t

d i s c u s s e d . A t o t a l o f 64.9% o f t h e r e s p o n d e n t s a g r e e d i n

some d e g r e e w i t h t h e s t a t e m e n t , "Seamen do no t have bb c l o s e

a r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e i r f ami ly as men who have a shore

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s i d e j o b . " T h i s s t a t e m e n t i s s u p p o r t e d by t he f a c t t h a t

n e a r l y o n e - t h i r d o f t h e seamen w i t h c h i l d r e n s a i d t hey knew

t h e i r c h i l d r e n e i t h e r a l i t t l e o r not much. Many c h i l d r e n

o f seamen n e v e r r e a l l y know t h e i r f a t h e r s . I t was not u n t i l

my f a t h e r was 62 y e a r s o l d and r e t i r e d seven y e a r s t h a t we

had a meaningfu l c o n v e r s a t i o n . In many ways, he i s s t i l l a

s t r a n g e r t o me.

When seamen come home t h i n g s change; f r i e n d s and

r e l a t i v e s do no t come ove r and t h e f ami ly p u t s on a f a cade

of e v e r y t h i n g b e i n g a l r i g h t . No one b r i n g s him t h e i r

p r ob l em s , t hey do no t want t o b o t h e r t h e i r f a t h e r who i s

on ly home a few months o f t he y e a r . These f i n d i n g s r e v e a l

t h a t t h e seaman p e r c e i v e s t h i s l a c k of c l o s e n e s s .

Dur ing t he i n t e r v i e w s , I met a former sh ipmate who had

become a longshoreman. His f a t h e r had a l s o been a seaman.

He q u i t b eca u se he wanted t o spend more t ime w i t h h i s

chi Id.

. . . I want t o do t h i n g s my f a t h e r ne v e r d i d , t ak e him f i s h i n g , watch him p l a y s p o r t s , maybe I ’ l l even j o i n a p a r e n t ’ sc lu b a t s c h o o l . I j u s t d o n ' t want myk i d growing up w i t h o u t a f a t h e r .

F u r t h e r supp o r t came from the h i g h c o r r e l a t i o n be tween

m a r g i n a l i t y and t ho se who a g re ed w i t h q u e s t i o n number 90

( r = . 5 8 ) .5

The l a s t v a r i a b l e d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n i s t he

s t a t e m e n t , " I w i l l be g l a d when I am no l on g e r go ing to

sea so I can spend more t ime w i t h my f a m i l y . ” Of the

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r e s p o n d e n t s , 68.5% a g r eee d i n some deg ree w i t h t h i s s t a t e

ment . There i s a modera te c o r r e l a t i o n be tween m a r g i n a l i t y

and t hose who a g re ed w i t h t h i s s t a t e m e n t ( r = . 2 2 ) . Th i ssr e l a t i o n s h i p i s i n t he e x p e c t e d d i r e c t i o n . Many younger

seamen s t a t e d t h i s q u i t e p l a i n l y i n t he i n t e r v i e w s . They

d i d not want t o was t e t h e i r l i v e s on t he w a t e r . O t h e r s s a i d

t hey saw the d i f f i c u l t y i n m a i n t a i n i n g b o t h a s t a b l e f ami ly

l i f e and a l i f e a t s e a . But each a l s o was t r y i n g t o seek a

compromise be tween making money and spe nd ing enough t ime

w i t h t h e i r f ami ly .

There were o l d e r seamen who, a l t h o ug h t hey knew they

d i d not have a c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e i r f a m i ly , s t i l l

would not be g l ad when t hey were no l ong e r go i ng t o s ea .

They know t h a t when t hey q u i t , t h ey w i l l no t f i t i n . The

d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e deg ree of c o r r e l a t i o n be tween m a r g i n a l i t y

and t h e s e l a t t e r two s t a t e m e n t s b r i n g out t h i s di lemma tha’t

t he seaman f a c e s . Th i s i s why so many o l d t i m e r s who have

long s i n c e r e t i r e d c o n s t a n t l y r e t u r n to t he un io n h a l l .

Re ce n t l y a m a r i t i m e u n i o n moved t h e i r h a l l from

downtown to an a r e a on t he o u t s k i r t s o f t he c i t y . Most o f

t he c o m p l a i n t s about t he move came from r e t i r e d seamen who

c l a imed i t was too f a r t o come by bus . These r e t i r e d men

a r e coming t o a h i r i n g h a l l . Here t hey a r e no t s t r a n g e r s o r

o u t s i d e r s . Here t hey a r e amongst t h e i r f e l l o w seamen, whose

l i f e s t y l e s and wor ld views a r e more l i k e l y t o be s i m i l a r to

t h e i r s .

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Seamen, due t o t h e i r m a r g i n a l i t y , do no t have a c l o s e

r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e i r f ami ly and r e l a t i v e s . His

m a r g i n a l i t y c a u se s him to see p r o s t i t u t e s i n o t h e r p o r t s and

r e t r e a t to t he comfor t o f t he un ion h a l l i n home p o r t .

Those who a r e not m a r g in a l ( a s measured by a l i e n a t i o n ) a r e

more l i k e l y t o have c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h e i r f a m i l i e s

and r e l a t i v e s . Co ns e q u e n t l y , t h e s e same men a r e l e s s l i k e l y

t o see women i n o t h e r p o r t s and l e s s l i k e l y t o spend t h e i r

home p o r t t ime i n t he un ion h a l l .

A_tHtudes Toward _ ( H o s Se a 1 i fe and Seamen

There were n i n e measure s u sed as i n d i c a t o r s o f

a t t i t u d e s toward s e a l i f e and seamen.

(1) Do you want t o change t o a sho re s i d e o c cu pa t i o n? (Q ue s t i on 18)

(2) Do you want t o change your o c c u p a t i o n , i f you cou ld make t he same money on t h e beach?( Q ue s t i on 19)

(3) Would you want you r son t o become a seaman? (Q u e s t i o n 21)

(4) Would you be u p s e t i f your d a u g h t e r m a r r i e d a seaman?( Q u e s t i o n 25)

(5) I s you r w i f e o r g i r l f r i e n d f r i e n d s w i t h the wives o r g i r l f r i e n d s o f o t h e r seamen?( Q u e s t i o n 32)

(6) Would you mind i f your w i f e were f r i e n d s w i t h a n o t h e r seaman?(Que s t i o n 66)

(7) The deg ree t o which he a g r e e s o r d i s a g r e e s w i t h t he s t a t e m e n t , " o t h e r seamen make good f r i e n d s . "(Q u e s t i o n 92)

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(8) I f you had i t t o do a l l ove r a g a i n would you become a merchant seaman?( Q u e s t i o n 69)

(9) The deg ree t o which he a g r e e s o r d i s a g r e e s w i t h t he s t a t e m e n t , "go ing t o sea i s l i k e go ing t o j a i l . "(Q u e s t i o n 87)

There was a low r e l a t i o n s h i p be tween m a r g i n a l i t y and

wa n t i ng t o change to a shore s i d e job ( r = . 1 4 ) . O n e - t h i r d

o f t he r e s p o n d e n t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t hey wanted t o work on t he

beach . But when a sked i f t hey wanted t o change i f t he job

p a i d as much as t hey were making as seamen, 59.0% answered

" y e s . " The c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h m a r g i n a l i t y a l s o i n c r e a s e d

( r = . 2 3 ) .S

Seamen r e a l i z e t he s a c r i f i c e s t h ey make f o r t he money

t h ey e a r n . Most w i l l t e l l you t hey on ly do i t f o r the

money. One of t he d i s t o r t e d p e r c e p t i o n s o f s e a l i f e t h a t t he

p u b l i c ha s i s t h a t seamen go t o sea f o r t he ad v en t u r e i t

p r o v i d e s . The f a c t t h a t 61.8% o f t he r e s p o n d e n t s ag r eed in

some deg ree w i t h t he s t a t e m e n t , "The a d v en t u r e and t h r i l l of

go ing t o sea i s no t as g r e a t as i t i s made out to b e , "

s u g g e s t s t h a t t h i s i s not t he c a s e . These f i g u r e s show most

do i t f o r t he money, and t hey would q u i t i f t hey cou ld f i n d

a job p a y in g t he same money on t he be ach . Perhaps , t h i s i s

why so many q u i t and r e t u r n t o t he o c c u p a t i o n . Seamen

c o n s t a n t l y look f o r t he o p p o r t u n i t y t o work on t he beach .

There i s more t o i t t h an money, however , a s one seaman put

i t , " I t r i e d work ing a sh o r e bu t I j u s t c o u l d n ’ t s t a n d i t . "

144

Seve ra l seamen I n t e r v i e w e d r e p o r t e d q u i t t i n g s e v e r a l t imes

bu t a lways r e t u r n i n g .

. . . I s h i p out f o r t h e money, n o t h i n g e l s e , ev e r y t im e I f i n d a job on t he beach making good money I t r y i t . . . bu t I j u s t d o n ' t l i k e i t on t he beach .

The seaman does not l i k e i t b e cau se he does no t f i t i n .

There was a modera t e r e l a t i o n s h i p be tween m a r g i n a l i t y

and no t w a n t i n g you r son to become a seaman ( r - . 3 0 ) ,si n d i c a t i n g t h a t t he more m arg in a l t he seaman i s t he l e s s

l i k e l y he i s t o want h i s son t o become a seaman. Only 29.5%

of t h e r e s p o n d e n t s wanted t h e i r sons t o become seamen; 9.2%

s a i d i t was h i s c h o i c e and 61.4% s a i d t hey d i d no t want

t h e i r sons t o become a seaman. As one seaman put i t , "I

would l e t my son be a n y t h i n g bu t a s eaman . ”

The nex t q u e s t i o n , "would you be u p se t i f your d a u g h t e r

m a r r i e d a seaman?” , had a h i g h e r c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h

m a r g i n a l i t y ( r = . 3 7 ) , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t he more marg i na l the sseaman i s t he more l i k e l y he i s t o be u ps e t i f h i s d a u g h t e r

would mar ry a seaman. O n e - t h i r d o f t he r e s p o n d e n t s s a i d

t hey would be u p s e t i f t h e i r d a u g h t e r s m a r r i e d a seaman. A

deck o f f i c e r r e p o r t e d , i n an i n t e r v i e w , t h a t he would on ly

be u p s e t i f h i s d a u g h t e r m a r r i e d an u n l i c e n s e d seaman. Th i s

may r e f l e c t t he ext reme s t a t u s c o n s c i o u s n e s s t h a t e x i s t s

aboard s h i p . Ano the r comment was, " w o u l d n ' t you be u ps e t i f

you r d a u g h t e r m a r r i e d a seaman?"

I t i s e v i d e n t , from t h e s e answer s , t h a t seamen do not

h o l d t h e i r j obs i n ve ry h i g h r e g a r d . I t might a l s o be added

145

t h a t t h e s e were h y p o t h e t i c a l q u e s t i o n s f o r t h ose w i t h no

c h i l d r e n . C o n t r o l l i n g f o r c h i l d r e n would l i k e l y i n c r e a s e

t h e s e p e r c e n t a g e s .

There was a low c o r r e l a t i o n be tween m a r g i n a l i t y and t he

w i f e o r g i r l f r i e n d not b e i n g f r i e n d s w i t h t he wives or

g i r l f r i e n d s o f o t h e r seamen ( r = . 1 6 ) . Only 21.5% o f the

r e s p o n d e n t s s a i d t h e i r wives o r g i r l f r i e n d s were f r i e n d s

w i t h t he wives o r g i r l f r i e n d s o f o t h e r seamen. There was a

modera t e r e l a t i o n s h i p be tween m a r g i n a l i t y and no t wan t i n g

you r w i f e o r g i r l f r i e n d t o be f r i e n d s w i t h o t h e r seamen

( r g= . 3 0 ) . A t o t a l o f 37.8% o f t h e r e s p o n d e n t s answered t h a t

t hey d i d no t want t h e i r spouse o r g i r l f r i e n d t o be f r i e n d s

w i t h a n o t h e r seaman. The d a t a g o t t e n i n t he i n t e r v i e w s

s u p p o r t s t h i s f i n d i n g . Seamen g e n e r a l l y s a i d t hey d id not

wi sh to a s s o c i a t e w i t h o t h e r seamen o u t s i d e o f t he work

p l a c e . Some e x p r e s s e d conce rn ove r t he c a l i b e r o f women

t h a t many seamen had fo r wives o r g i r l f r i e n d s . O t h e r s s a i d

q u i t e b l u n t l y t h a t any a s s o c i a t i o n , no manner how i n d i r e c t ,

t h a t i n c r e a s e d t he p o s s i b i l i t y o f a seaman coming over t o

h i s house w h i l e he was gone was t o be avo id ed . The f o l l o w

ing comments were t y p i c a l o f t h os e g o t t e n in t he i n t e r v i e w s .

. . . I j u s t d o n ' t want anybody coming around my f a m i ly when I 'm no t home.E s p e c i a l l y some seaman. I f he had a w i f e and k i d s and I knew them i t wouldbe a l r i g h t . But I s t i l l w o u l d n ' t wanthim coming ove r a l on e when I 'm not t h e r e .You ge t my d r i f t .

Ano the r comment,

146

. . . S e a m e n d o n ’ t g e n e r a l l y make g r e a t c h o i c e s on w i ve s . I b e t ev e r y guy in t h i s h a l l i s d i v o r c e d a t l e a s t once . I go t enough f ami ly probl ems w i t h o u t my w i f e han g in g a round w i t h some o f t h e s e women.

There was a modera te r e l a t i o n s h i p be tween m a r g i n a l i t y

and answer ing t h a t seamen d i d not make good f r i e n d s

( r = . 3 1 ) ; 38.2% s a i d t h a t seamen d i d no t make good f r i e n d s , sMany o f t he seamen i n t e r v i e w e d even s a i d t hey d i d not want

t o be f r i e n d s w i t h o t h e r seamen.

. . . I do t h i n g s i n f o r e i g n p o r t s t h a t I do not want my f a m i ly t o know a b ou t , i f I am f r i e n d s w i t h a n o t h e r seaman and b r i n g him a round t he house , he might s l i p and l e t my f ami ly f i n d out some o f t h e s e t h i n g s I do.

Anothe r seaman s a i d ,

. . . O t h e r seamen do no t make good f r i e n d s because most o f them a r e d i v o r c e d and ac t c ru d e , t h a t i s t he r e a so n t h a t I n e ve r b rough t my w i f e t o s e a .

A widow o f a seaman r e p o r t e d t h a t when h e r husband d i e d

she d i d no t c a l l t he un ion no r t h e s h i p p i n g company u n t i l

a f t e r t he f u n e r a l . She j u s t d i d not want any seamen a round.

The a u t h o r ' s f a t h e r , i n 33 y e a r s as a seaman, on ly b rough t

seamen i n t o h i s house t w i ce . Both t imes i t was f o r lunch

when t hey were i n a ne a r by s h i p y a r d .

One can suppose t h a t t he r e a so n f o r t h i s l a c k of

f r i e n d s h i p among seamen, and t he low r e g a r d t h a t t hey have

f o r t h e i r f e l l o w s , i s m a r g i n a l i t y . The seaman on t he beach

i s i l l a t e a s e , h av ing a n o t h e r i n t he same p o s i t i o n mere ly

147

m a g n i f i e s t h e o t h e r ' s m a r g i n a l i t y and most l i k e l y w i l l s p o i l

h i s pe r fo rm anc e .

O n e - t h i r d o f t he r e s p o n d e n t s answered t hey would no t do

i t a l l ove r a g a i n . There was a modera te r e l a t i o n s h i p

be tween m a r g i n a l i t y and t hose who would no t become seamen

a g a i n ( r = . 3 2 ) . As s t a t e d b e f o r e , a l o t o f seamen whenS

g i v en t he o p p o r t u n i t y to make t he same money on t he beach

w i l l t r y i t o u t , bu t few rema in . The seaman may want to

change h i s o c c u p a t i o n , bu t t he l o n g e r he s t a y s t he l e s s

l i k e l y he i s t o make a s u c c e s s f u l a d ju s tm e n t .

F i n a l l y , in what may seem t o be t he u l t i m a t e

e v a l u a t i o n , 46.2% o f t he r e s p o n d e n t s ag r eed i n some deg ree

t h a t go in g to sea was l i k e go ing to j a i l . There was a h igh

c o r r e l a t i o n be tween m a r g i n a l i t y and a g r e e i n g w i t h t h i s

s t a t e m e n t ( r = . 5 0 ) . One of t he f i r s t t h i n g s t h a t c o n f r o n t e d st h i s w r i t e r when he s t a r t e d go i ng t o sea was t h a t nobody

l i k e s b e i n g on t he w a t e r . A l o t c r o s s o f f a c a l e n d a r , l i k e

a s e n t e n c e i n j a i l . But a f t e r a wh i l e you f i n d y o u r s e l f in

t h e same b o a t , and e v e n t u a l l y you a c q u i r e t he a d d i t i o n a l

burden o f not l i k i n g t he beach v e r y much e i t h e r .

Generaj. S o c i a l I n t e g r a t i o n

There were f i v e i n d i c a t o r s u sed as measu re s o f g e n e r a l

s o c i a l i n t e g r a t i o n .

(1) Number o f f r i e n d s .( Q u e s t i o n 22)

V a r i a b l e s two t h rough f i v e a r e measured by t he de g re e to which he a g r e e s o r d i s a g r e e s w i t h the r e s p e c t i v e s t a t e m e n t .

148

(2) When I am a t s ea I wi sh I were a t home.(Q u e s t i o n 85)

(3) When I am a t home I w i sh 1 were a t s e a .(Q u e s t i o n 86)

(4) There a r e t ime s when you a r e home t h a t you f e e l l i k e a s t r a n g e r o r an o u t s i d e r .(Q ue s t i o n 91)

(5) I f e e l d i f f e r e n t t hen p e o p l e who work on t h e beach .(Q u e s t i o n 93)

There was a r e l a t i v e l y h i gh n e g a t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p

be tween number o f f r i e n d s and m a r g i n a l i t y ( r = - . 4 4 ) ,si n d i c a t i n g t h a t t he more m arg in a l one i s t he l e s s f r i e n d s he

h a s . Of t he r e s p o n d e n t s , 21.9% r e p o r t e d t hey knew no one

whom th e y c o n s i d e r e d a b e s t f r i e n d . The seaman’ s l a c k o f

f r i e n d s may be even g r e a t e r t han t h i s , however . N e a r ly

o n e - t h i r d o f t he seamen who l i s t e d pe o p l e as b e s t f r i e n d s

saw them l e s s t han t e n t imes i n t h e l a s t t h r e e y e a r s . One

o l d r e t i r e d seaman t o l d me he had l o t s o f b e s t f r i e n d s . But

f u r t h e r c o n v e r s a t i o n r e v e a l e d he had not seen any of t h e s e

p e o p l e i n 15 y e a r s . My f a t h e r had no f r i e n d s . He l i s t e d

fou r men as f r i e n d s he had no t s een o r spoken to i n o v e r 20

y e a r s . A widow o f a seaman i n t e r v i e w e d s a i d h e r husband had

no f r i e n d s . Many seamen s a i d t he l o n ge r t hey s h i p p e d , t he

more t hey found t hems e lve s l o s i n g f r i e n d s .

. . . E a c h t ime I would come b a ck , t hey would have o t h e r f r i e n d s t h a t I d i d n ' t know. Sometimes t hey were d o i n g somet h i n g . G r a d u a l l y 1 began t o f e e l v e ry u n c o m f o r t a b l e a round them and I d i d n ' t c a l l o r go a round . N e i t h e r d i d t h ey .

Ano the r seaman,

149

. . . I t h i n k I began t o ge t on t h e i r n e r v e s because I would come in w i t ha l o t o f money and I wanted t o p a r t y .They c o u l d n ' t a f f o r d i t and b e s i d e s t ho se a s s h o l e s had t o work. I f i n a l l y came to t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t hey a i n ' t wo r th a s h i t . Now I come i n , hang around t he h ou se , go t o t h e h a l l and t h e n s h i p .I ' l l g e t my k i c k s in f o r e i g n p o r t s .

Over 78% o f t he r e s p o n d e n t s a g r e ed i n some de g re e w i t h

the s t a t e m e n t , ' 'when I am a t sea I wi sh I were home." There

was a modera t e r e l a t i o n s h i p be tween m a r g i n a l i t y and a g r e e i n g

w i t h t h i s s t a t e m e n t ( r = . 2 4 ) . A t o t a l o f 47.8% ag reed w i t hsthe s t a t e m e n t , "when I am a t home I wi sh I were a t s e a . But

he r e t h e r e was a much h i g h e r c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h m a r g i n a l i t y

( r g= .45 ) .

Most seamen would be e x p e c t e d t o a g r e e w i t h t he f i r s t

s t a t e m e n t . The i n c r e a s e i n t he r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h

m a r g i n a l i t y sh ou ld be e x p e c t e d w i t h t he second s t a t e m e n t .

Those seamen who do no t f i t in we l l w i t h sho re s i d e s o c i e t y ,

wi sh t o q u i c k l y r e t u r n t o t he comfor t o f t h e i r f l o a t i n g

co lon y .

The nex t two s t a t e m e n t s a r e p e r h a p s t he b e s t

measurements o f t he e f f e c t s o f m a r g i n a l i t y . A f i g u r e of

62.2% o f t he r e s p o n d e n t s ag r ee d i n some de g re e t h a t t h e r e

a r e t imes when you a r e home t h a t you f e e l l i k e a s t r a n g e r or

an o u t s i d e r . There was a h i gh c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h m a r g i n a l i t y

( r s = . 5 3 ) . A sum o f 78.9% o f t he seamen a g r e ed i n some

d e g re e t h a t t hey f e e l d i f f e r e n t t han pe o p l e who work on t he

b eac h . There was a m o d e r a t e l y h i g h c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h

m a r g i n a l i t y and a g r e e i n g w i t h t h i s s t a t e m e n t ( r = . 3 6 ) .s

150

The seamen, who spend t he m a j o r i t y o f t h e i r l i v e s

w i t h i n t h e m arg in a l c u l t u r e o f t he seamen, know t h a t t hey do

no t f i t i n w i t h shore s i d e s o c i e t y . N e a r ly a l l seamen

i n t e r v i e w e d r e c o g n i z e d t he p r i c e t hey had t o pay f o r making

h i g h wages . What t h e s e f i n d i n g s r e v e a l i s t h a t , i nd eed ,

t h e s e h i g h e r wages a r e no t buy i ng a c c e p t a n c e . As d i s c u s s e d

i n t he t h e o r y s e c t i o n , when t he seaman r e a l i z e s he cannot

buy s t a t u s o r a c c e p t a n c e , he comes t o g r i p s w i t h h i s

m a rg in a l s t a t u s . Most seamen s a i d t h ey sought a compromise,

bu t most a d m i t t e d t hey had f a i l e d t o r e a c h one . When one

f e e l s l i k e a s t r a n g e r o r an o u t s i d e r , he r e t r e a t s t o a p l a c e

where he i s an i n s i d e r ; un ion h a l l s and s h i p s .

Economic I n t e g r a t i o n

There were fou r v a r i a b l e s u sed as i n d i c a t o r s o f

economic i n t e g r a t i o n .

(1) Are you b uy i ng a home?(Q u e s t i o n 71)

(2) Do you own any i nves tmen t p r o p e r t y ?( Q ue s t i o n 74)

(3) Do you i n v e s t i n s t o c k s and bonds?(Q u e s t i o n 75)

(4) Do you have a s a v i n g s accoun t ?(Q u e s t i o n 76)

There were no s t r o n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s be tween m a r g i n a l i t y

and no t p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n any o f t h e s e measu re s o f economic

i n t e g r a t i o n . Those who d i d no t own any i nves tmen t p r o p e r t y

had t he h i g h e s t c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h m a r g i n a l i t y ( r = . 2 5 ) ; no t

i n v e s t i n g i n s t o c k s and bonds ( r = . 1 9 ) ; no t b uy in g a homes

151

( r = . 1 6 ) ; and no t h a v i n g a s a v i n g s account had t he lowest sc o r r e l a t i o n ( r = . 1 5 ) . Al l t h e s e v a r i a b l e s a r e i n t he

5

e x p e c t e d d i r e c t i o n , as a r e a l l t h e o t h e r s in t h i s

d e s c r i p t i v e a n a l y s i s .

The prob lem w i t h e x p e c t i n g t h e s e measures o f economic

i n t e g r a t i o n t o have a s t r o n g a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h m a r g i n a l i t y

became a pp a r en t t o t h i s r e s e a r c h e r d u r i n g t he i n t e r v i e w s and

w h i l e r e f l e c t i n g upon h i s t ime spen t as a seaman. There

were s e v e r a l seamen i n t e r v i e w e d who be longed t o s e v e r a l

o r g a n i z a t i o n s , had many f r i e n d s and were g e n e r a l l y we l l

i n t e g r a t e d i n t o t he community. These men answered yes to

a l l o f t he measu re s o f economic i n t e g r a t i o n . But t h e r e a r e

a l s o a n o t h e r group o f men who would a l s o answer ye s t o t h e s e

fo u r q u e s t i o n s . These men a r e no t we l l i n t e g r a t e d i n t o

t h e i r communi t i es . They have few, i f any, f r i e n d s and

b e l o n g t o no o r g a n i z a t i o n s . These seamen save and i n v e s t

t h e i r money. They had swal lowed t he P r o t e s t a n t e t h i c hook,

l i n e and s i n k e r . They save f o r tomorrow. They f i r m l y

b e l i e v e t h a t money buys them s t a t u s . They a r e t he complete

o p p o s i t e o f t he t ype l a b e l e d " s e a daddy . "

T h i s r e s e a r c h e r has known a few seamen who f i t t h i s

t y p e . One was a w i p e r , who was i n h i s 60*s . Th i s was on ly

h i s second s h i p . He had s t a y e d on t he f i r s t one 27 y e a r s .

He was a v e r y w e a l t h y man, bu t a l s o one o f t he most i s o l a t e d

I e v e r met . Ano the r o f t h e s e men was a f i r eman on a

p a s s e n g e r s h i p . He caugh t t he s h i p i n New York i n 1943. He

1 5 2

t oo saved and i n v e s t e d h i s money. Dur i ng t he i n t e r v i e w s i t

was l e a r n e d t h a t he had been d e c l a r e d u n f i t f o r du ty on t h i s

same s h i p he had been on f o r 33 y e a r s . He kep t t e l l i n g

everyone t h e r e were s p i r i t s in t he engine room. Every once

i n a w h i l e he would r e f u s e t o go on wa tch becau se o f t he s e

s p i r i t s . Both of t h e s e men would have answered ye s to a l l

of t h e s e measures o f economic i n t e g r a t i o n . A s c a l e was not

n e c e s s a r y to see t h a t t h e s e men were m a r g i n a l .

Seamen, r e l a t i v e l y s pe ak in g , a r e a b i z a r r e l o t o f men.

Marg ina l would be a complement i n a l o t o f c a s e s . One seaman

s a i d t he r ea so n he a lways made s h o r t t r i p s was because he

co u ld no t t ake t he we i rd o s fo r more t han two weeks a t a

t ime . The q u i e t sh ipmate may be a t y p i c a l American w i t h a

w i f e , a mor tgage and a k i d ; o r he may be a Cuban who l o s t

e v e r y t h i n g when C a s t r o came to power; o r he may be an

ex -con ; o r a guy w i t h a h e r o i n h a b i t ; o r an u nd e rc ove r agent

f o r t he t r e a s u r y d e p a r t m e n t . Th i s r e s e a r c h e r sh ipped once

w i t h a guy who had t o be locked i n a room becau se of t he

e f f e c t s o f a l c o h o l . The nex t t ime I saw him he was a c h i e f

mate . The p o i n t i s t h a t t h i n g s a r e not a lways as they

a p p e a r . The p e c u l i a r i t i e s o f any phenomenon can on ly be

r e v e a l e d t h rough i n t i m a t e p a r t i c i p a t i o n . Sea daddy i s such

a p e c u l i a r i t y .

Sea daddy i s anachron ism. He cannot be measured

be cau se t h e r e a r e no t enough o f h i s k i n d . He i s t he o l d

guy, an e x p e r t a t h i s c r a f t , who t a k e s t he younger seaman

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and t e a c h e s him h i s c r a f t . He i s a l l t h a t r emains of t he

t r a d i t i o n a l seaman. He i s t h e d runken , s p e n t - i t - a l l o l d

s a l t , who owns n o t h i n g and does no t c a r e to do so . He i s

d i s a p p e a r i n g , but he i s a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t he o c c u p a t i o n

t h a t seems to u m b r e l l a p u b l i c o p i n i o n . Modern day seamen

look forward to t he day when he i s p u b l i c a l l y d e c l a r e d a

r e 1i c .

Sea Daddy: An Excu r s u s I n to An Endangered Soc i a l Sp e c i e s

I 'm t he wander ing son w i t h t he ne rvo us f e e t , t h a t n e v e r were meant f o r a s t e a d y b e a t ;I ' v e had many a job f o r a l i t t l e w h i l e ,I ' v e been on t he bum and I ' v e l i v e d i n s t y l e ;And t h e r e was t he r o a d , s t r e t c h i n g m i l e a f t e r m i l e , and n o t h i n g t o do bu t go.

H. H. Knibbs , Songs o f t he Out Lands

The f o l l o w i n g i s a b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h r e e men who

f i t t he sea daddy t ype :

Case I : __J . H.

J . H. was a r e t i r e d c h i e f p e t t y o f f i c e r . He was a

bosun when I knew him. His r e s i d e n c e , when he was no t on a

s h i p was a room in t he back o f a b a r n e a r t he wha r f . A l l

h i s b e l o n g i n g s were e i t h e r i n t h a t room o r aboard s h i p . His

navy r e t i r e m e n t check and a l l h i s o t h e r mai l went to t he

b a r . He s t a y e d t h e r e a t n i g h t when we were i n home p o r t .

When we came i n t o New O r l e a n s , J . H. went s t r a i g h t t o t he

b a r , opened h i s m a i l , s i g n e d ove r h i s r e t i r e m e n t check to

t he b a r i n o r d e r t o cover h i s t a b and t hen immed ia te ly

s t a r t e d ru n n i n g up a new one . No one cou ld buy a d r i n k when

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J . H. was d r i n k i n g . He would d r i n k a l l n i g h t and work a l l

day.

We were on a s t e a d y 21 day r u n , h i t t i n g t he same p o r t s

each t r i p . Upon a r r i v a l in each f o r e i g n p o r t , t h e same cab

d r i v e r would meet J . H . ; a g a i n he would d r i n k and work. I t

seemed t h a t he on ly s l e p t a t s e a . He would spend a l l o f h i s

money and t hen bor row some more. He was good f r i e n d s w i t h

t he cab d r i v e r . He even bought c l o t h e s f o r h i s f a m i ly . The

cab d r i v e r would s t a y w i t h J . H. t he e n t i r e t ime i n p o r t .

But c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a l l sea d a d d i e s , J . H. was as

e q u a l l y s k i l l e d a t h i s c r a f t as he was a t sp e nd in g h i s money

and h a v in g a good t ime . He was t he b e s t a t what he d i d . He

had a p r i d e i n h i s s k i l l s and i t showed i n h i s work. His

was r e s p e c t e d by a l l t he o f f i c e r s and t he crew. J . H. r an

t he deck d e p a r t m e n t , the c h i e f mate j u s t drew h i s pay.

J . H. d i e d ab oa rd s h i p i n h i s bunk one n i g h t i n home

p o r t . He had been out a l l n i g h t , t he nex t day a son o f one

o f t he AB's needed b l o o d , J . H. gave . That n i g h t he went

back out d r i n k i n g and fo r some r e a s o n came back t o t he s h i p

t o s l e e p . He d i e d t h a t n i g h t .

The owner o f t he b a r was s t u c k w i t h h i s t a b , t he cab

d r i v e r l o s t a good cu s tomer , t he whores c e r t a i n l y m i s sed him

and he owed money t o a l o t o f h i s s h i p m a t e s . The b a r c l o s e d

f o r a day w i t h a b l a c k w r e a t h on t he doo r . The cab d r i v e r

c r i e d when we t o l d him. I t d i d no t seem t o make much

d i f f e r e n c e t o t he whore s . We co u l d no t f i n d any f a m i ly . He

155

d i e d b r ok e . The b a r owner and h i s sh ipm a te s t ook ca r e of

t he f u n e r a l .

Case I I : __Hi ck s

Hicks was a n o t h e r one o f t ho se spend i t a l l seaman.

The name sea daddy o r i g i n a t e s w i t h H i ck s , a s he was

nicknamed t h i s by t he crew. We had p a i d o f f , from a t r i p to

Vie tnam, in San F r a n c i s c o . We would t hen go c o a s t w i s e and

r e t u r n t o San F r a n c i s c o b e f o r e l e a v i n g f o r Vietnam a g a i n .

Hicks p a i d o f f w i t h $ 9 , 3 0 0 .0 0 . He t ook h i s money and a few

b e l o n g i n g s and l e f t i n a c ab . He would r e j o i n t he s h ip upon

ou r r e t u r n to San F r a n c i s c o . His l a s t comment b e f o r e

g e t t i n g i n t he cab was:

I 'm go ing to t he bank open a s a v i n g sa c c o u n t , ge t a room, t h en I go ing t oge t d r unk , s t a y drunk and chase pussy u n t i l you f e l l o w s g e t back .

When we got b a c k , i n about t h r e e weeks , Hicks was on the

dock. He was d r e s s e d i n a v e r y fancy doo rman ' s un i f o rm ,

w i t h an e q u a l l y fancy h i g h h a t . There was a long sword

s t u c k i n h i s b e l t . He waved h i s ha t to t he deck gang when

th ey were c l o s e enough to see him. There he s t o o d ; r i p p e d

out o f h i s mind, f l a t b r o k e , and no s u i t c a s e . When he came

aboard he went s t r a i g h t t o t he g a l l e y . We gave him the name

sea daddy.

He had no r e g r e t s . He s a i d he would do i t a g a i n and

a g a i n becau se c h a s i n g pus s y and g e t t i n g drunk was what i t

was a l l ab o u t .

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C a s e I I I :___John

I had made one t r i p w i t h John b e f o r e I i n t e r v i e w e d him.

The t h i n g I remember about him abo a rd s h i p was a book of

p i c t u r e s he had t ak en o f naked women a round t he w o r l d . When

i n t e r v i e w i n g him the s u b j e c t q u i c k l y got a round t o women.

When I met John i n t he h a l l he was w e a r i n g an Hawai ian

s h i r t , r ed p a n t s , g r e e n shoes and an A f r i c a n s a f a r i h a t . He

c a r r i e s a hand p u r s e of money w i t h which he gambles . A l o t

o f seamen c a r r y t h e s e ; i t i s a handy way to h o l d on to your

d i s c h a r g e s , un ion book and sho t c a r d .

John has been m a r r i e d s i x t imes and has l i v e d w i t h

s e v e r a l o t h e r women. He s t a r t e d s h i p p i n g o u t , i n 1939, to

ge t some th ing t o e a t and a p l a c e to s t a y . John en jo ys go ing

to s e a , bu t d e s p i s e s t he new b r e e d o f seamen, who on ly want

a f r e e r i d e .

Where e l s e co u ld you see t he wor ld and ge t some money i n your p o c k e t . I have n e v e r been s i c k excep t f o r two doses of t he c l a p . I ’ve been sunk t h r e e t imesand fucked 400 women i n 50 d i f f e r e n tc o u n t r i e s . The women a r e d i f f e r e n t i n eve r y c o u n t r y . T h a t ' s t he t r o u b l e w i t h seamen t o d ay , t hey c a n ' t f uck .No s a l t in t h e i r v e i n s .

On t he s u b j e c t of women a g a i n , John commented on t he i dea of

b r i n g i n g h i s w i f e to s ea .

A b s o l u t e l y no, she would be t oo much t r o u b l e . I would be bo w l - l e g g e d from fu ck i n g h e r , so I would be too t i r e d t o work. When I was work ing I would have t o wor ry about h e r f u c k i n g a n o t h e r seaman. Then when I got i n p o r t I co u ld not do what I wanted t o .

157

John goes to sea f o r t he money and t he chance i t g i v e s him

to do t h i n g s he co u l d no t do o t h e r w i s e .

These t h r e e men and t h ose o t h e r s who can be c o n s i d e r e d

sea d a d d i e s have some t y p i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . They a r e

s k i l l e d a t t h e i r c r a f t , a lways show up f o r t h e i r watch or

work, t ake g r e a t p r i d e i n t h e i r pe r fo rmance and see t he

modern seaman as l a c k i n g b o t h i n s k i l l s and commitment t o

t he o c c u p a t i o n .

Sea daddy e n jo y s t he seaman l i f e s t y l e , which i s

p r o b a b l y why he w i l l n e v e r r e t i r e . Booze and whores a r e as

common to him as t he w i f e , k i d s and TV a r e to t hose on t he

b eac h . Like Hicks s a i d , g e t t i n g drunk and c h a s i n g pus sy i s

what i t i s a l l ab o u t . He e n jo y s t he work, t he good t imes

and t he freedoms t h a t go ing t o s ea p r o v i d e s . He spends a l l

h i s money and ha s no r e g r e t s . A w i f e and a c a r a r e t he l a s t

t h i n g he wa n t s . When he i s i n home p o r t , he r e n t s a room o r

p e rha ps l i k e J . H. he has a room t h a t he ke ep s .

He ha s l i t t l e to show in t he way o f p r o p e r t y f o r h i s

y e a r s a t s e a . What he does have though , i s a w e a l t h o f

e x p e r i e n c e , t h a t i s a v a i l a b l e o n l y t o t hose t h a t have

t r a v e l e d t he wor ld and seen and t ak en p a r t i n t he s i g h t s and

" e v i l s " t h a t each p l a c e p r o v i d e s . Only t he seaman i s i n a

p o s i t i o n t o en jo y t he p l e a s u r e s o f t he p e a s a n t s , but a l s o

have enough money to p a r t a k e i n t h e f i n e r t h i n g s o f l i f e .

These a r e t he men t h a t no v e l s a r e w r i t t e n abo u t . These a r e

t h e men t h a t t he p u b l i c ha s come to know th rough t h e media .

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The new b r e e d o f seamen a r e t r y i n g t o change t he image

t h a t sea daddy ha s conveyed t o t he p u b l i c . Sea daddy sees

t he new seaman as j u s t a n o t h e r o f f s h o r e worke r . He does not

have any s t y l e .

CHAPTER VII

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

The pu rpose o f t h i s r e s e a r c h was t o e x p l a i n t he

i n f l u e n c e s t h a t b e i n g a merchant seaman has on m a r g i n a l i t y

( as measured by a l i e n a t i o n ) and t he s o c i a l i n t e g r a t i o n of

i t s members. T h i s r e s e a r c h ha s a l s o i n v e s t i g a t e d t he

l i f e s t y l e a d a p t a t i o n s and s o c i a l i d e n t i t i e s o f merchant

seamen as r e l a t e d to t h e i r o r i e n t a t i o n and i d e n t i f i c a t i o n

w i t h t h e i r o c c u p a t i o n on t he one hand and t h e i r f a m i l i a l and

communal t i e s on t he o t h e r . For t he merchant seaman, work

t a k e s p l a c e i n a s e t t i n g w i t h o u t long term p e r s o n a l

commitments t o j o b , to p l a c e or t o c o -w o r k e r s . On t he beach

s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s t end toward t he t r a n s i t o r y and where long

t erm r e l a t i o n s a r e e s t a b l i s h e d , t he seaman i s f o r c e d to

p a r t i a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n . Because o f t he marg i na l n a t u r e o f

h i s o c c u p a t i o n i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d s o c i a l bonds have

s i g n i f i c a n t l y l e s s r e g u l a t o r y power ove r t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s .

T h i s r e s e a r c h ha s shown t h a t m a r g i n a l i t y i s a theme which

p e rv a d e s t he s o c i a l e x i s t e n c e o f merchant seamen.

F i g u r e 2 s e r v e s as a h e u r i s t i c d e v i c e , a summary model

o f t he c e n t r a l i t y o f m a r g i n a l i t y i n t he l i f e o f American

merchant seamen. Th i s r e s e a r c h has shown t h a t t he l ong e r

t he t ime t he seaman spends a t s e a , t he more marg i na l he

becomes ( a l l t h i n g s b e i n g e q u a l ) . His m a r g i n a l i t y i s i n a

s e nse med ia t ed by c e r t a i n s o c i a l and background

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The seaman’ s m a r g i n a l i t y ha s a l s o been

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F i g u r e 2 . A H e u r i s t i c Model o f t h e C a us e and E f f e c t s o f M a r g i n a l i t y i n Seamen

Family and K ins h i p I n t e g r a t ion

S o c i a l and Background C h a r a c t e r i s t i cs

P a r t i c i p a t ion in

V o lu n t a ry Organi z a t i ons

Genera l S oc i a l I n t e g r a t ion|M a r g i na l i t y

Occupat i ona l H o s t i l i t y

Occupat i o na l C h a r a c t e r i s t i cs

Economic I n t e g r a t ion

160

161

shown to be a p r o du c t of h i s l a c k o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n in

v o l u n t a r y o r g a n i z a t i o n s .

The i n f l u e n c e o f t he s eaman ' s m a r g i n a l i t y on

i n t e g r a t i o n w i t h f am i ly and ex t en ded k i n s h i p s , g e n e r a l

s o c i a l i n t e g r a t i o n , economic i n t e g r a t i o n and on c a u s i n g

h o s t i l e a t t i t u d e s toward b o t h t he o c c u p a t i o n and o t h e r

seamen has been i d e n t i f i e d and d e s c r i b e d . The more marg ina l

t he seaman, t he lower t he l e v e l s o f i n t e g r a t i o n and t he more

h o s t i l e h i s a t t i t u d e s toward h i s job and h i s c o -w o rk e r s .

T h i s r e s e a r c h ha s no t avo ided t he c i r c u l a r n a t u r e o f

m a r g i n a l i t y i n t h i s model . T h i s model assumes t h a t

m a r g i n a l i t y i s t he c a t a l y s t i n t he s eaman ' s low l e v e l of

i n t e g r a t i o n i n t o sho re s i d e s o c i e t y . Th i s l a c k o f

i n t e g r a t i o n , i n t u r n , i n c r e a s e s m a r g i n a l i t y .

Impl i c a t i ons fo r F u r t h e r Resea r c h

T h i s model o f o c c u p a t i o n a l l y i nduced m a r g i n a l i t y in

merchant seamen a l s o s e r v e s as an i n d i c a t o r o f f u r t h e r

r e s e a r c h which needs t o be co nduc t ed . The model shows a

r e l a t i o n s h i p be tween s o c i a l and background c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

and f a m i l i a l , s o c i a l and economic i n t e g r a t i o n , as we l l as

a t t i t u d e s toward t he o c c u p a t i o n . A r e l a t i o n s h i p i s a l s o

shown be tween o c c u p a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and t h e s e same

fo u r v a r i a b l e s . A c i r c u l a r r e l a t i o n s h i p i s a l s o shown

be tween t h e s e same fou r v a r i a b l e s and p a r t i c i p a t i o n in

v o l u n t a r y o r g a n i z a t i o n s .

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T h i s r e s e a r c h e r ha s assumed, f o r h e u r i s t i c p u r p o s e s ,

t h a t t he seaman b e g i n s h i s c a r e e r a s a member o f a f ami ly

and community i n which he has s o c i a l r e c o g n i t i o n and r o u t i n e

c o n t a c t . There i s some l i t e r a t u r e t h a t co n t en d s t he

o c c u p a t i o n a t t r a c t s m a r g i n a l men. I f f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h

p ro duc es such a c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h i s does not n e g a t e t he

model , bu t m e re ly t he r ea r r an g em en t o f i t s p a r t s .

T h i s r e s e a r c h ha s a t t e m p t e d t o p r e s e n t a h o l i s t i c

d e s c r i p t i o n o f m a r g i n a l i t y i n seamen. The n o t i o n t h a t t he

p l acement o f t he v a r i a b l e s i n t he model cou ld change upon

f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h i s i n c o n s e q u e n t i a l . Th i s r e l e v a n c e of t he

model f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h i s t h a t i t c o n t a i n s i m p l i c a t i o n s

f o r e l a b o r a t i n g a number o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s .

Ep i l ogue

T h i s r e s e a r c h ha s i d e n t i f i e d m a r g i n a l i t y as b e i n g a

c e n t r a l theme of t he s e aman ' s l i f e s t y l e . The r e s u l t o f t he

s e aman ' s m a r g i n a l i t y ha s been shown to be: p o w e r l e s s n e s s ,

m e a n i n g l e s s n e s s , n o r m l e s s n e s s , c u l t u r a l e s t r a n g e m e n t , s o c i a l

e s t r an ge m e n t and e s t r an g e m e n t from work. I t a p p e a r s t he

s eaman ' s m a r g i n a l i t y d e r i v e s p a r t i c u l a r l y from a s e nse of

n o r m l e s s n e s s . He i s , i n e s s e n c e , a c c e p t i n g " i l l e g i t i m a t e

means" t o r e a l i z e c u l t u r a l l y p r e s c r i b e d g o a l s . He g i v e s up

a huge p o r t i o n o f h i s l i f e i n o r d e r t o make money. For

t h i s s u c c e s s i n making money he e x p e r i e n c e s f e e l i n g s of

e s t r ang eme n t be tween h i m s e l f and t h e s o c i a l sys tem a sh o r e .

163

In e f f e c t , he l o s e s c o n t r o l ove r means o f d i r e c t i n g h i s l i f e

and e x p e r i e n c e s d i s a f f e c t i o n w i t h t he g o a l s o f t he b r o a d e r

s o c i e t y .

The l i f e s t y l e o f t he merchant seaman has c aused

a l i e n a t i o n , bu t t h i s l i f e s t y l e i s chang ing . Newer s h i p s

have s m a l l e r crews and t he s h i p s o f t he f u t u r e w i l l have

even a s m a l l e r number o f men ru n n i n g them a t any one t ime .

As t h e s e crews become s m a l l e r and s m a l l e r . t h e seaman w i l l

spend more and more t ime a lo ne aboard s h i p . T h i s i n c r e a s i n g

au tom a t i on o f s h i p s w i l l a l s o b r i n g l e s s p o r t t ime , i ndeed ,

t h e s e new t e c h n i q u e s f o r l o a d i n g and u n l o a d i n g have a l r e a d y

made p o r t t ime n o n e x i s t e n t f o r some s h i p s . At t he same t ime

v a c a t i o n t ime i s e v e r i n c r e a s i n g .

The seaman o f t he f u t u r e w i l l p e rh ap s spend an

i n c r e a s i n g amount o f t ime w i t h h i s f am i ly . The r e s u l t of

t h i s i n c r e a s e d t ime spen t w i t h f ami ly shou ld c r e a t e more o f

a s e nse of b e l o n g i n g t o t h e sho re s i d e s o c i e t y . The

d i s a p p e a r a n c e o f p o r t t ime and r e d u c t i o n s i n manning s c a l e s

b r i n g s l e s s exposu re t o t he seamen c u l t u r e . No l o ng e r w i l l

he be a b l e t o go a s ho re i n f o r e i g n p o r t s . His i n t e r a c t i o n

w i t h o t h e r seamen aboard s h i p w i l l be r educed s i g n i f i c a n t l y .

One co u l d s p e c u l a t e t h a t t he m a r g i n a l i t y o f t he l i f e s t y l e o f

t h e seaman, as ha s been e x p l a i n e d h e r e , w i l l be r edu ced .

But t he q u e s t i o n i s what w i l l be t he t r a d e o f f f o r r educed

m a r g i n a l i t y . The e f f e c t s o f t h i s i n c r e a s e d i s o l a t i o n aboard

s h i p i s a q u e s t i o n f o r f u t u r e r e s e a r c h .

164

I t would seem to t h i s r e s e a r c h e r t h a t t he merchant

seaman i s becoming more and more l i k e t he o f f s h o r e o i l r i g

worke r . He goes to work on a s t r u c t u r e whose l o c a t i o n makes

l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e be cau se he does not ge t o f f o f i t , except

when h i s " t o u r o f du ty" i s o v e r . The employment c y c l e of

t he o i l i n d u s t r y , where t he worke r works a number o f days

o r weeks f o r an equa l number o f days o f f , w i l l in a l l

l i k e l i h o o d be a d ap t e d by t he mar i t im e i n d u s t r y . T h i s i s

a l r e a d y b e i n g used by some no n - un i on s h i p p i n g companies and

i t i s t he u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h i s r e s e a r c h e r t h a t some un ion

companies have s t a r t e d t o u se i t . I f i n deed , t h i s t ype of

work s c h ed u l e i s u se d , t he h i r i n g h a l l concept w i l l no

l on ge r be v i a b l e . Hence, what ha s been a mechanism f o r

b r i n g i n g seamen t o g e t h e r w i l l be e l i m i n a t e d . In e f f e c t

a n o t h e r r e d u c t i o n i n t he amount o f i n t e r a c t i o n among seamen

and c o n s e q u e n t l y l e s s exposu re t o t he m arg in a l l i f e s t y l e o f

t he seaman.

Anothe r a s p e c t o f t h e s e crew changes t h a t b r i n g s t he

seaman c l o s e r to o f f s h o r e worke r s t a t u s i s t he concept of

u t i l i t y . One o f t he ma jo r v i c t o r i e s f o r un ion i sm was t h a t a

man was a s s i g n e d to a s p e c i a l j ob . No l ong e r cou ld he be

moved a round to do any menial t a s k . But t he u t i l i t y concept

ha s c r e p t back i n . Crewmen a r e now h i r e d to work b o t h on

deck and i n t he eng ine room. I f seamen t h i n k t h a t t h i s i s

g o in g to s t o p h e r e t h en t hey a r e b l i n d t o t he b o l d hand

w r i t i n g on t he w a l l . The merchant seaman i s coming f u l l

165

c i r c l e ; he i s l o s i n g h i s b a r g a i n i n g power . The f u t u r e may

a g a i n b r i n g s h i p s f u l l o f " u t i l i t i e s " o r as t hey a r e c a l l e d

i n t he o i l f i e l d " r o u s t a b o u t s . " As sea daddy s a i d , he i s

becoming j u s t a n o t h e r o f f s h o r e worke r .

The merchant seaman i s c l e a r l y a chang ing o c c u p a t i o n .

A young man now e n t e r i n g t he o c c u p a t i o n does not have a ve ry

b r i g h t f u t u r e . The i n d u s t r y ha s s t a y e d on a f e a s t o r famine

c y c l e . War b r i n g s f e a s t ; peace b r i n g s famine . What i s

needed i s a c o n s t a n t demand f o r seamen. Al though t h e r e ha s

been c o n s t a n t r h e t o r i c from the F e d e ra l Government f o r a

r e v i t a l i z a t i o n o f t he American merchant m a r i n e , l i t t l e has

been done.

The f u t u r e w i l l b r i n g s h i p s w i t h even f u r t h e r

r e d u c t i o n s i n manning s c a l e s . Only a m i r a c l e can save t he

f a t e o f t he American seaman. Only a war , up u n t i l now, has

g iven h i s un i on t he c o m p e t i t i v e edge in b a r g a i n i n g . Only a-

war can save t he peace t ime seaman from r o t t i n g away on t he

beach w h i l e h i s s k i l l s a t r o p h y .

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APPENDIX A

QUESTIONNAIRE

DO NOT PUT YOUR NAME ANYWHERE ON TOTS FORM

AN OCCUPATIONAL STUDY OF MERCHANT SEAMEN

The f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n s have been d e s i g n e d by C r a i g J . F o r s y t h , a former merchant seaman, (now work ing on h i s d o c t o r a l de g re e a t L o u i s i a n a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ) i n an a t t e mp t to f i n d out as much as p o s s i b l e about l i f e as a seaman. His f a t h e r and s e v e r a l o f h i s r e l a t i v e s were a l s o merchant seamen a l l o f t h e i r work ing l i v e s . Nowhere on t h i s q u e s t i o n n a i r e w i l l you be a sked t o g iv e you r name. I f you f i n d t h a t any o f t h e s e q u e s t i o n s do no t ap p l y to you o r you would p r e f e r no t t o answer them, l e ave i t b l a n k . Your f u l l c o o p e r a t i o n w i l l g r e a t l y add t o making t h i s p r o j e c t a s u c c e s s . P l e a s e , Do Not w r i t e you r name anywhere .

1

2

3

4,

Are you r e t i r e d o r s t i l l s h i p p i n g out

7

8

How many y e a r s have you been (were you) a merchant seaman?____

I f r e t i r e d , how many y e a r s have you been r e t i r e d ? __

How many months p e r y e a r a r e (were) you u s u a l l y a t s e a? ____

Do (Did) you t ak e a f ami ly v a c a t i o n ev e r y ye a r ?Yes No____

How many months p e r y e a r do ( d i d ) you spend w i t h your f a m i ly ? ____

How many t imes have you been m a r r i e d ? ____

How many t imes have you l i v e d w i t h a woman t h a t you were no t m a r r i e d t o ? ____

P l e a s e answer t he f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n s about you r m a r i t a l h i s t o r y .

* For m o f Un ion Ma r r i ed Live In

Time Li ved Wi t h Years

Number o f Chi l d r e n j From thTs Re laTTonship

179

180

1 0 .

1 1 .

1 2 .

13.

14.

15.

16.

17 .

18.

What i s y o u r m a r i t a l s t a t u s now?

S i n g l e M a r r i e d__

Li v i n g w i t h Someone O the r ( s p e c i f y )

When some th ing b r e a k s a t you r home when you a r e (were) away, who would be t h e f i r s t p e r s o n your w i f e would c a l 1?

R e l a t i v e F r i e n d ____

Repai rman O th e r ( s p e c i f y )

I f an emergency o c cu r s when you a r e (were) away who would be t he f i r s t p e r s o n your w i f e would c a l l ?

R e l a t i v e F r i e n d ____

Oth e r ( s p e c i f y )

Does ( d i d ) your w i f e see a c l o s e r e l a t i v e o f yo u r s o r o f h e r s a t l e a s t twice a week?Yes No_____

When you a r e i n p o r t how o f t e n do ( d i d ) you see r e l a t i ve s?

O f t e n Seldom Never____

What job do ( d i d ) you u s u a l l y have aboard sh ip?

Check t he members o f your f ami ly who a r e o r were seamen.

None F a t h e r s ____

Unc le B r o t h e r s ____

Sons Cous in s____

G r a n d f a t h e r O the r ( s p e c i f y ) ___

Did any p e r s o n h e l p you ge t s t a r t e d i n t he merchant mar ine?Yes No____

Do (Did) you want t o change your job t o some th ing e l s e , i n s t e a d o f b e i n g a seaman?Yes No

181

19. I f you cou ld f i n d a job making t he same money on the beach as you do ( d i d ) as a seaman, would you q u i t go i ng to sea?Yes No____

20. What o c c u p a t i o n would you want you r son ( o r i f you had a son) to have? ___________________________________

21. Would you want you r son ( o r i f you had a son) to become a seaman?Yes No____

22. How many pe op l e do you c o n s i d e r t o be " b e s t f r i e n d s " o f y o u r s ? ____

23. P l e a s e g i ve t he f o l l o w i n g i n f o r m a t i o n about your " b e s t f r i e n d s ."

j j Are t hey j [ How o f t e n jj C i t y t hey j seaman i Years i seen i n past*

l i v e i n (Yes o r No) known t h r e e y e a r s jj---------------------- [----------------------------- i------------------------- -1

24. What j o b ( s ) have you had b e s i d e s b e i n g a seaman? I f seaman a l l o f you r working l i f e , check h e r e ____

iType o f work How o l d were you ! Why d i d you l eaver, . | ,

1 i

I... i . . . . .i i

i i25. I f you had a d a u g h t e r would you be u ps e t i f she

m a r r i e d a seaman?Yes No

182

26. In t he l a s t 10 y e a r s ( o f your work ing l i f e ) howmany t ime s have you been w i t h you r f ami ly on t h e s eo c c a s i o n s ?

C h r i s t m a s T h an ks g iv in g____

W i f e ' s b i r t h d a y Wedding a n n i v e r s a r y ____

B i r t h o f a c h i l d Wedding o f a c h i l d ___

27. Do (Did) you b r i n g g i f t s home to your f ami ly a n d / o rf r i e n d s ?

Every p o r t O f t e n ____

Seldom Never____

28. How o f t e n do ( d i d ) you c a l l home when on a t r i p ?

Every p o r t Most p o r t s ____

Seldom Never____

29. How o f t e n do ( d i d ) you w r i t e l e t t e r s to f ami ly a n d / o r f r i e n d s ?

1 Each p o r t Most p o r t s ____

Seldom Never____

30. What p r o p o r t i o n o f you r ba se pay do ( d i d ) you send home? ( C i r c l e n e a r e s t p e r c e n t a g e )

100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10%

31. When you a r e (were) a t home who t e l l s ( t o l d ) your c h i l d r e n what t o do?

You Wi f e____

Both o f you O t h e r s ___

32. I s (was) you r w i f e / g i r l f r i e n d c l o s e f r i e n d s w i t h t he wives o r g i r l f r i e n d s o f o t h e r merchant seamen?Yes No_ _I f y e s , how many? ___

183

33. L i s t t he o r g a n i z a t i o n s you b e lo n g t o . I f none , check he r e

( How o f t e n do i Do you‘ h o l d

NameriL mee t i n gs? j o f f i c e ? |

R e l i g i o u s t ! '_ _ _ I ij ii i i

P o l i t i c a l

i- —, | —ji i i ! ! !

Ii~rOthe r

r - 4 -j—H

H

34. What do ( d i d ) you do when you a r e (were) in home and who do ( d i d ) you do i t wi th?(Check a l l t h a t app ly )

p o r t

wi t h i o t h e r ! seamen

1. t r a v e l

r ead

h u n t i n g jand f i s h i n g ___ !

4 . v i s i t f ami ly j

5 . p l ay c a r d s

6 _

7,

go t o b a r s— r

v i s i t f r i e n d s i_

'w i t h t f r i e n d s o t h e r t han seamen

i- t -

"wTTh f ami ly

alone!

i I—I

H

_8_l s g o r t i n g e v e n t s

9. r e l i g i o u s s e r v i c e s

1 0 .

1 1 .

watch T.V.

go t o movies

1 2̂^ £ !!} £ £ _ ( . s g e c ^ f y ^ __________

184

35. Who l i v e s w i t h you i n you r house?(Check a l l t h a t app ly )

Wife Woman who i s no t you r w i f e ____

P a r e n t s C h i l d r e n (How Many? )

O th e r r e l a t i v e s Male f r i e n d ____

Oth e r ( s p e c i f y ) ____

36. Do you f e e l i t w i l l be ( i s ) d i f f i c u l t t o l i v e on t he beach a f t e r r e t i r e m e n t ?Yes__ No_____

37. When you became a merchant seaman d i d you f e e l t h a t t h i s would be you r l i f e ' s work?Yes___ No______

38. Do (Did) you expec t t o r emain a merchant seaman f o r t he r e s t o f your work ing l i f e ?Yes___ No______

39. What do ( d i d ) you c o n s i d e r t o be t he 3 " b e s t " t h i n g s about b e i n g a merchant seaman? ( C i r c l e 3)

1. pay2 . see t he wor ld3. ge t away from th e f a s t pace wor ld4. ge t away from pe op l e5. ge t away from your f ami ly6. f r e e room and boa rd7. t ime o f f8. you en joy t he work9. chance t o do t h i n g s you c o u l d n ' t do i f you were

home10. meet d i f f e r e n t peo p l e

40. What do ( d i d ) you c o n s i d e r t o be t he 3 "wor s t " t h i n g s about b e i n g a merchant seaman? ( C i r c l e 3)

1. b e i n g away from f ami ly and f r i e n d s2. m i s s i n g s p e c i a l e v e n t s3. f e e l i n g a s though you a r e no t a p a r t o f what i s

go i ng on when you r e t u r n4. i n a b i l i t y t o m a i n t a i n a good r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h

you r w i f e o r g i r l f r i e n d5. t h e l o n e l i n e s s o f s h i p - b o a r d l i f e6. t h e a c t u a l work you do7. no t b e i n g a b l e t o b e lo n g t o o r g a n i z a t i o n s8. pe o p l e look down on seamen9. f e e l as t hough you do no t have any r e a l f r i e n d s

10. l a c k o f p r i v a c y

185

41.

42.

43.

44 .

45.

46.

47.

Do ( d i d ) you t ake out o r " s e e ” women i n p o r t s o t h e r t han you r home p o r t ?Yes No____

How long a r e (were) most o f your t r i p s ? ___

Check t he s t a t e m e n t t h a t b e s t d e s c r i b e s your j obs as a seaman.

Mos t l y s t a n d - b y n i g h t r e l i e f ____

Mos t ly r e l i e f j o b s ____

Permanent j obs __

Check t h e s t a t e m e n t t h a t b e s t d e s c r i b e s t he type of s h i p you a r e (were) u s u a l l y on.

Coas tw i se t a n k e r F o r e i g n - g o i n g t a n k e r ______

F r e i g h t e r P a s s e n g e r s h i p ____

What i s you r r e l i g i o n ?

C a t h o l i c _____ P r o t e s t a n t ____

Jewi sh O th e r ( s p e c i f y ) ________________

In what r e l i g i o u s f a i t h were you r a i s e d ?

C a t h o l i c ____ _ P r o t e s t a n t _____

Jewi sh O the r ( s p e c i f y ) ________________

How o f t e n do you a t t e n d r e l i g i o u s s e r v i c e s ?

At Home In Fo re ig n P o r t s

O f t e n O f t e n ____

Seldom Seldom____

Never Never

186

48. Q u e s t i o n s 48 t o 65L i s t e d below a r e some t h i n g s t h a t pe o p l e may

t h i n k a r e good o r bad about b e i n g a seaman. P l e a s e check t he box t h a t b e s t d e s c r i b e s your f e e l i n g s about you r job as a seaman. , , .

Ooo

fH0>>

13OOO+■

d)JX 01 <ri Os a0)■p ^ 0 d) a <HW *H 0) PoP d

I

■adffl

73dCQ>.Fh0)>

48. The pay

_4 9.

50

See t he wor ld

G e t t i n g away from the f a s t pace wor ld_______

5 X.

52 .

Get away f rom pe o p l e

Get away from your f a m i l y _________________

53 Free room and boa rd

54 Time o f f !'t"

55

56

The work you do

Mee t i n g d i f f e r e n t p e o p 1e_ iiT -

57. Chance t o do t h i n g s you c o u ld no t do i f you were home

58. Be ing away from f ami ly and f r i e n d s

5 9 . Mi s s i n g spe c i a l e v e n t s

60, F e e l i n g as t hough you a r e not a p a r t o f what i s go ing on when you r e t u r n

61. Your a b i l i t y t o keep in t ou ch w i t h f r i e n d s ■

6 2 .good r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h | you r w i f e o r g i r l f r i e n d j 1 I | }

i63. L o n e l i n e s s o f s h i p b o a r d |

l i fe________ _______L ! it

64. Lack o f p r i v a c y ji i i! I ....

65. Not b e i n g a b l e to be as | a c t i v e as you would l i k e j to be i n o r g a n i z a t i o n s j and c lub s i

IiIii

i

66

67

68

69,

70,

Would you mind i f your w i f e o r g i r l f r i e n d were f r i e n d s w i t h a n o t h e r seaman?Yes No_ _

How we l l do you f e e l you know you r w i f e ’ s o r g i r l f r i e n d ' s f r i e n d s ?

Very w e l l ____

Only t h e i r name

A 1i 11 l e__

Not a t a l l

How we l l do you f e e l you know you r c h i l d r e n ?

Very w e l l Well enough____

A l i t t l e Not much____

I f you " d i d i t a l l ove r aga in" would you become a merchant seaman?Yes No____

When i n home p o r t , how long i s (was) i t b e f o r e you ge t ( g o t ) bo red w i t h l i f e on t he beach?

Less t han a week

3 o r 4 weeks

1 o r 2 weeks____

A month o r more

Never got b o r e d ____

188

71. Are you c u r r e n t l y b u y i n g a home?Yes No___ __I f y e s , how many y e a r s have you been pa y in g on t he mor tgage?____

72. Do you own a home?Yes No____

73. Are you c u r r e n t l y b u y i n g any i nves tmen t p r o p e r t y such as r e n t a l p r o p e r t y o r land?Yes No____

74. Do you c u r r e n t l y own any i nves tmen t p r o p e r t y ?Yes No____

75. Do you i n v e s t i n s t o c k s o r bonds?Yes No____

76. Do you have a s a v i ng s account ?Yes No

77. What i s your sex?Male Female____

78. What i s your age?_____

7&. C i r c l e h i g h e s t g rade complet ed i n s c h o o l .

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

1 y e a r o f c o l l e g e 2 y e a r s o f c o l l e g e

3 y e a r s o f c o l l e g e c o l l e g e g r a d u a t e

80. What i s your p l a c e o f b i r t h ? ( s t a t e o r c ou n t r y )

81. In what p l a c e d i d you spend most o f you r ch i l dhood?

82. Where do you l i v e now?__________________________ __

83. Where have you l i v e d most o f you r working l i f e ?

84. Are you a g r a d u a t e o f any m ar i t i m e academy o r t r a i n i n g s c h o o l ?Yes N o ___I f y e s , name oT sc h o o l_____________________________________

189

TO WHAT DEGREE DO YOU AGREE WITH THE FOLLOWING STATEMENTS:

I if 1 ! 8 : fenI

£ef8£

i

i l ln

i

$Q

o

CO j

85 . When I am a t sea I wi sh I were a t home.

11

86 . When I am a t home I wi sh I were a t s e a .

00 Going t o sea i s l i k e go ing t o j a i l ( s e r v i n g a s e n t e n c e ) .

ri

00 1

oo | 1 i

I f e e l t h a t I am a good p e r s o n , as good as o t h e r p e o p l e .

00 I f e e l t h a t t h e r e a r e a l o t o f good t h i n g s about me. ——4_1I

O 1

w Seamen do not have as c l o s e a r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e i r f ami ly as men who have a sho re s i d e j ob .

91. There a r e t imes when you a r e home t h a t you f e e l l i k e a s t r a n g e r o r an o u t s i d e r .

1

ii1i

92 . O th e r seamen make good f r i e n d s .

tiii. . ...j......

93. I f e e l d i f f e r e n t t han pe o p l e who work on t he b e ac h .

iii<t

94. The a d v e n t u r e and t h r i l l o f go i ng t o sea i s no t as g r e a t as i t i s made out t o be .

i

11 !

190


Stro

ngly

A

gree

r -

- A

gree

1 Some

what

Agr

ee

Some

what

Dis

agre

e1 1

|

P r Stro

ngly

D

isag

ree

i

95. A lcoho l i sm i s a w i d e sp re a d p rob l em among seamen.

iiiii i

96. Drug abuse i s a w i d e sp re a d prob lem among seamen.

iii97. Gambling i s a w i d e sp r e a d

p rob l em among seamen.

i1ii

98. I w i 11 be g l a d when I am no l o n ge r go ing to sea so I can spend more t ime w i t h my f a m i ly .

99. Al l i n a l l , I am i n c l i n e d t o f e e l t h a t I am a f a i l u r e .

100. I am a b l e t o do t h i n g s as we l l as most o t h e r p e o p l e .

101. I f e e l I do no t have much to be p roud o f . 11

10 2. On t he whole I ams a t i s f i e d w i t h m y se l f . 1

103. I c e r t a i n l y f e e l u s e l e s s ! a t t im e s . i

_ p1i

1104. At t ime s I t h i n k I am !

no good a t a l 1. !

1i*

105. These days a p e r s o n does j no t r e a l l y know who he i can count on. i

1

1106. There i s no t much chance t

t h a t p e op l e w i l l r e a l l y I do a n y t h i n g t o make t h i s i c o u n t r y a b e t t e r p l a c e 1 t o l i v e i n . 1 i

itii1ii!iI

191

TO WHAT DEGREE DO YOU AGREE WITH THE FOLLOWING STATEMENTS:: i

1 Stro

ngly

A

gree

Agr

ee I Some

what

Dis

agre

e

|

Stro

ngly

D

isag

ree

107 . Succes s i s more dependent on l uck t han r e a l a b i l i t y .

i 1

108. Nowadays a p e r s o n ha s to l i v e p r e t t y much f o r today and l e t tomorrow t ak e c a r e o f i t s e l f .

109. I t i s h a rd t o f i g u r e out who you can r e a l l y t r u s t t h e s e days .

110. I t i s h a r d l y f a i r to b r i n g c h i l d r e n i n t o t he wor ld w i t h t he way t h i n g s look fo r t he f u t u r e .

I l l . In s p i t e o f what some peop l e s ay , t he l o t o f t he aver age man i s g e t t i n g worse .

1

112. There i s l i t t l e use w r i t i n g t o p u b l i c o f f i c i a l s becau se t h ey a r e no t r e a l l y i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e p robl ems of t he ave r ag e man.

113. There a r e so many i d e a s about what i s r i g h t and wrong t h e s e days t h a t i t i s h a rd t o f i g u r e out how to 1ive you r 1i f e .

114. So many pe o p l e do t h i n g s we l l t h a t i t i s e a sy to become d i s c o u r a g e d .

115 . Th ings a r e chang i ng so f a s t t h e s e days t h a t one does no t know what to expec t from day t o day.

i i1 1 i i i i1 ! 1 1

i i i i i i i i i i1 1! 1

192


ho

-PCO

116. Most pe o p l e do no t r e a l i z e how much t h e i r l i v e s a r e c o n t r o l l e d by p l o t s h a t c h e d

i n s e c r e t by o t h e r s . _________

117. Few peo p l e look forwa rd to t h e i r work.

118. Our c o u n t r y ha s too many pe o p l e who can do l i t t l e t o r a i s e t h e i r s t a n d a r d

o f 1i v i ng._________________

119. I t i s u s u a l l y b e s t to t e l l you r s u p e r i o r s o r b o s s e s what t hey r e a l l y want t o h e a r .

120. Peop l e do a lmost a n y t h i n g i f t he reward i s h i gh

enough.______________________

121. Which one b e s t d e s c r i b e s where you l i v e ? (Check one)

R u r a l ____

Town o r c i t y w i t h p o p u l a t i o n o f :

2 , 500____ 2 ,500 - 10 ,000_____

10.000 - 25 ,000_____ 25,000 - 50 ,000____

50.000 - 100 ,000_____ Over 100,000____

122. What i s you r e t h n i c i d e n t i f i c a t i o n ?( I f you p r e f e r no t t o answer , l e ave i t b l a n k )

American In d i an

B1ack____

O r i e n t a l

H i s p a n i c ____

Whi t e ____

O t h e r ( s p e c i f y )

193

123.

1 2 4 .

What k i n d o f c a r ( s ) do you own?

Make_________________ Year_________________

Make_________________ Year_________________

Make_________________ Year_________________

I f you c o u ld b r i n g you r w i f e ( o r i f you had a w i f e ) w i t h you on a t r i p t o s e a , would you?Yes No

APPENDIX B

INTERVIEW GUIDE

Occuga^t i.onaJ_ S^tud^ o f Merchant. Seaman

1. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ( ag e , hometown, m a r i t a l s t a t u s )

2. Employment s t a t u s ( r e t i r e d , seaman, q u i t )

3. Background (how he got s t a r t e d , y e a r s o f s e r v i c e , f a t h e r a seaman)

4. Employment h i s t o r y ( l e n g t h o f t r i p s , k i n d s of s h i p s , r a n k , l o n g e s t p e r i o d w i t h o u t work, o t h e r o c c u p a t i o n s )

5. F a m i l y ' s o p i n io n o f h i s job

6. Hi s o p i n i o n of o t h e r seamen

7. His o p i n i o n o f s e a f a r i n g

8. C y c l i c a l n a t u r e o f h i s o c c u p a t i o n (un ion ha 11- s h i p - h o m e )

9. R e l a t i o n s h i p t o f r i e n d s and community (how o f t e n s ee s f r i e n d s , c l o s e n e s s o f r e l a t i o n s h i p , o r g a n i z a t i o n s )

10. P l an s f o r f u t u r e

11. Sh ipboa rd l i f e ( r e l a t i o n s h i p to o t h e r seamen- f r i e n d s h i p s formed and f o r how long , co p ing w i t h i s o l a t i o n , s h o r t t e rm n a t u r e o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s , o t h e r seamen as f r i e n d s , f r i e n d s h i p s w i t h pe o p l e i n o t h e r d e p a r t m e n t s , o f f i c e r - c r e w f r i e n d s h i p s )

12. Idea o f go in g t o sea ( l i k e go ing to j a i l )

13. P l a c e s v i s i t e d and t h i n g s t hey have done

14. T r a d i t i o n a l r o l e o f seamen

15. Changing r o l e o f seamen

194

APPENDIX C

SCALE ANALYSIS

M a r g i n a l i t y was measured u s i n g an a l i e n a t i o n s c a l e

dev e lop ed by S t r e u n i n g and R icha rd son (1965) which t hey

c o n c e p t u a l i z e d a s a measure o f f e l t r e j e c t i o n and emot iona l

d i s t a n c e from group l i f e . The s c a l e c o n s i s t s o f 16 L i k e r t -

type i t e m s , f i v e o f which were deve l ope d from S r o l e ' s

a l i e n a t i o n s c a l e , and t he o t h e r s c o n c e p t u a l i z e d from the

t h e o r i e s o f Marx, Durkheim, Fromm and Mer ton (Robinson and

Sh av e r , 1970: 184 ) . The i tem r e s p o n s e s from t h i s sample of

seamen were a na ly ze d by i n t e r - i t e m c o r r e l a t i o n s and s i n g l e

i t em c o r r e l a t i o n s w i t h t o t a l s c o r e s .

Tab l e 17 c o n t a i n s t he i n t e r - i t e m c o r r e l a t i o n m a t r i x of

a l l 16 i t e m s . Examina t i on o f t h e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s r e v e a l s an

o v e r a l l h i g h a s s o c i a t i o n be tween i t e m s . A l l c o r r e l a t i o n s

a r e s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t a t t he .001 l e v e l .

The i n d i v i d u a l i t em c o r r e l a t i o n s w i t h t he t o t a l s c o r e s

(minus t h e i t em s c o r e ) i s p r e s e n t e d i n Tab l e 18. Al l o f

t h e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e a l s o s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t a t

t he .001 1e v e l .

195

105

106

107

108

109

110

111

112

113

114

115

116

117

118

Inter-Item Correlations of the Marginality Scale (N=251)

105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120

1.00

.49 1.00

.40 .43 1.00

.41 .42 .52 1.00

.73 .52 .44 .52 1.00

.45 .51 .46 .48 .52 1.00

.49 .55 .42 .48 .55 .63 1.00

.42 .56 .36 .41 .53 .41 .49 1.00

.44 .43 .39 .49 .55 .43 .44 .33 1.00

.43 .45 .46 .45 .53 .39 .42 .39 .63 1.00

.43 .43 .38 .43 .56 .51 .54 .44 .53 .48 1.00

.52 .52 .32 .44 .59 .48 .50 .47 .43 .47 .52 1.00

.33 .39 .32 .29 .38 .36 .39 .32 .39 .46 .37 .44 1.00

.24 .24 .20 .36 .28 .32 .34 .30 .35 .31 .34 .25 .32 1.00

.49 .47 .46 .43 .55 .45 .45 .49 .44 .55 .41 .51 .39 .36 1.00

.50 .37 .35 .35 .50 .37 .41 .43 .37 .39 .51 .50 .43 .20 .51 1.00 196

197

Tab le 18 . M a r g i n a l i t y S c a l e I tem Means Range and C o r r e l a t i o n s With

, S t a n d a r d D e v i a t i o n s T o t a l Sc o r e s (N=251)

Quest ion No. X SD r* Rangi

Quest ion 105 3.91 1.56 .66 5.00

Quest ion 106 3.60 1.70 .66 5.00

Quest ion 107 3.08 1.62 .57 5.00

Quest ion 108 3.37 1.70 .63 5 .00

Que s t i on 109 3.99 1.62 .76 5 .00

Quest ion 110 3.47 1.61 .66 5.00

Quest ion 111 3.75 1.64 .69 5.00

Quest ion 112 4.22 1.59 .62 5 .00

Quest ion 113 3.18 1.64 .65 5.00

Quest ion 114 2.92 1.50 .66 5 .00

Quest ion 115 3. 90 1.45 .67 5.00

Quest ion 116 3.82 1.81 .68 5 . 00

Quest ion 117 4.16 1.40 .54 5 .00

Quest i on 118 3.57 1.62 .42 5 .00

Quest ion 119 3.94 1.63 .67 5 .00

Quest ion 120 4 .86 1.16 .60 5 .00

*ATT reTatTonsETps are sTgnTTTcant at tEe . TeveT

VITA

The a u t h o r was bo rn i n New O r l e a n s d u r i n g t he Truman

a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . He was e du ca t e d i n a New York C a t h o l i c

e l e m e n t a r y s choo l and a New O r l e a n s p u b l i c h i g h s c h o o l . He

was awarded h i s B.A. from the U n i v e r s i t y o f New O r l e a n s in

1977. He r e c e i v e d h i s M.A. deg ree from the same u n i v e r s i t y

in 1979. He i s a t p r e s e n t a c a n d i d a t e f o r t he Doc to r o f

Ph i l o so ph y de g re e i n Soc io logy a t L o u i s i a n a S t a t e

U n i v e r s i t y .

198

EXAMINATION AND THESIS REPORT

Candidate: Craig J. Forsyth

Major Field: Sociology

T itle of Thesis: The L i f e s t y l e o f Merchant Seamen: A S oc io log ica l Analysiso f Occupationally Induced Marginality

Approved:

Major Professor and Chairman

( H i —Dean of the Graduate S^iool

EXAMINING COM M ITTEE:

/ h i u , ( ( (C . L L **- 4

L ~ " '—

Date of Examination:

December 2 0 , 1982

the lifestyle of merchant seamen: a sociological analysis

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