the marketing of products to children
TRANSCRIPT
Name: Adrian Mao Hsuan Lin
CID: 00753495
Title: The marketing of products for children: Discuss current company practices and
ethical considerations.
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I. Abstract:
This essay describes and categorises the methods of marketing products to children. It finds
they typically correspond to three of the traditional marketing P’s, namely product, promotion,
and place. It finds that the majority of marketing methods use product-extrinsic features, such as
flashy design or in-box premia, to entice children to buy or pester their parents to buy. This
shows a preference for peripheral routes to persuasion rather than a central route, which would
extol the benefits of the products themselves, a method used which is reserved for adults. The
essay continues by discussing the ethical issues that such methods raise, and the
consequences of such practices. Finally the essay concludes with thoughts on how marketers
can adapt to changing technology to become more ethical while staying profitable.
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Table of Contents
1. Introduction 1 1.1 Background to Research: Why Children? 1 1.2 Overview of Topic 2 1.3 Aims & Objectives 2
2. The Children Market: Attitudes, Wants, and Differences 3 2.1. Segmentation 3 2.2 Consumer Behaviour 3 2.3 Segmenting the Children’s Market 3
2.1.1 Segment: Children, Tweens, and Teens 3 2.1.2 Segment: Categories of Children 4
3. Targeting the Children’s market: Tactics and Strategies. 5 3.1 Product design and features 5
3.1.1 Product: Innate product features 5 3.1.2 Extra features and bonuses 6
3.2 Promotion: Positive Associations and Peripheral Routes to Persuasion 6 3.2.1 Coolness/Fun/Excitement 7 3.2.2 Spokescharacters, tie-ins (with movies), and celebrity endorsements 7 3.2.3 Misleading Messages 8 3.2.4 Differences in gender: 8 3.2.5 Branding 9 3.2.6 Seasonal Marketing 9 3.2.7 Viral Marketing 9
3.3 Place: Channels 10 3.3.1 Physical 10 3.3.2 Traditional Media 11 3.3.3 New Media 11
4 Ethical Considerations 13 4.1 Health 13
4.1.1 Obesity 13 4.1.2 Alcohol: 14
4.2 Happiness 15 4.2.1 Self-esteem: 15 4.2.2 Materialism: 15 4.2.3 Damaging family relationships 16
5 Conclusions & Implications 17
6 References 19
7 Appendices i Appendix A i Appendix B ii Appendix C iii Appendix D iv
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1. Introduction
1.1 Background to Research: Why Children?
Since the early 1980s, companies have pursued the children market after realizing its huge size
and potential (Lusted, 2009). During the 1990s, expenditure for advertising targeting children
increased twentyfold (Strasburger, 2001). Indeed, TV advertising targeted at children increased
tenfold from 1983 to 1997, from $100 million to $1 billion (McClain, Meltzer & Truman, 2003).
McNeal (1999) gives three reasons for this market’s attractiveness.
1. Size and Spending Power
In the US there were around 74 million people under 18 years of age in 20121 (US
Census Bureau, 2012). The money spent by US teenagers alone amounted to $159
billion in 2005 (Lusted, 2009) while children under 12 influence over 500 billion in
purchases annually (Campbell and Davis-Packard, 2000). In 2005, advertisers spent 17
billion USD marketing to children (McNeal, 2006). In addition, studies indicate half of all
weekday afternoon and Saturday morning programs advertised food products (McClain,
Meltzer & Truman, 2003), an essential product category.
2. Influence Power
Children and youths influence other market segments in purchase decisions, such as
parents, or other sub-segments of children. Lusted (2009) calls the nagging of parents
Pester Power. As two- career families become the norm, time-strapped parents have
begun making more purchases out of guilt for not spending enough time with their
children. Indeed, 73% of mothers of children aged 6-17 years said children influenced
the brands and groceries they purchased (McGinnis, Gootman & Kraak, 2006).
Furthermore, research shows advertising increases children’s purchase influence
attempts on their parents; more viewing being correlated with more requests (Smith &
Atkin, 2008).
1 This report defines a child as a person under eighteen years of age as defined by The UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, ratified by the UK government in 1991, (Article 1, Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989).
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3. Future Effects
Children represent the future market, and building brand awareness and loyalty is easier
during youth because children are more impressionable than adults. Kunkel (2001)
found that until age 8, children do not understand selling intent. Marketers know children
are also more gullible and receptive. In addition, as children are maturing faster, this
window of opportunity has become more important, and marketing methods must adapt.
1.2 Overview of Topic
For these reasons, it is understandable why companies would target children as a market.
Kunkel & McIlrath (2008) note that US children saw 30,000 advertisements a year in the 1980s,
40,000 in 1990, and kids and adults averaging 60,000 in 1999. Because of the nature of
children (young, impressionable, holding potential, etc) the tactics and techniques marketers
use for them may differ from techniques for adult consumers. However, ethical issues also arise
upon targeting children because of their vulnerability and gullibility to these tactics
1.3 Aims & Objectives
This essay shall outline and categorise the various techniques marketers use to target children,
including the ethical problems that arise thence. It shall aim to demonstrate that the majority of
children-oriented marketing tactics do not emphasise the innate product features but rather
extrinsic factors such as tying the product with positive feelings and external bonuses (premia).
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2. The Children Market: Attitudes, Wants, and Differences
2.1. Segmentation Segmentation is the categorisation of people into different groups sharing a common feature.
These characteristics usually indicate details relevant to marketers. Examples include
demographics (age, sex, cultural origin), geography (urban, rural, northern, southern), and
psychographics (personality, behaviour, hobbies).
2.2 Consumer Behaviour Marketers also seek to understand consumer behaviour to improve sales, asking questions
such as ‘what do customers want?’ and ‘how do customers buy?’ Maslow’s (1943) Hierarchy of
Needs suggests a ‘pyramid’ of needs, where each tier requires fulfilment before the next level is
sought. The foundational physiological and security requirements support higher needs such as
social and personal achievement (Appendix A). Next, AIDA is a model that suggests an offering
must first get Attention, generate Interest, arouse a Desire, and then inspire Action toward its
purchase.
2.3 Segmenting the Children’s Market 2.1.1 Segment: Children, Tweens, and Teens
The children segment subdivides further into young children, tweens, and teens. These groups
differ significantly in ways such as desires, independence, advertising sensitivity, and
discretionary income.
While young children and teens have long been treated as different groups, tweens were
categorised relatively recently and represent children between these two age groups. Tweens
have emerged as children began acting and wanting to be treated older at younger ages.
Among other differences, tweens want more independence than young children, but are unlike
teens, being still too young to work, and are thus financially dependent (Siegel, 2004).
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2.1.2 Segment: Categories of Children
Peer groups at school are meaningful segments too. Each group has its wants and needs and
responds differently to different strategies. Marketers have identified four personality types
commonly found among school-age children: Edges, Persuaders, Followers, and Reflexives
(Lusted, 2009). Coincidentally, these groups also fit the Technology Adoption Lifecycle chart
(Appendix B) in their speed of adopting trends.
Group Qualities Key Maslow’s values Equivalent in
Technology
adoption Life Cycle
Edges � Rule-breaking individualists
� Makes things cool
� Self Development � Innovators
Persuaders � High social status / Popular
� Trendy / In fashion
� Value coolness
� Self Development
� Social Status
� Early adopters
Followers � Risk averse
� Follow trends
� Wish to be popular
� Social Status � Early and Late
Majority
Reflexives � Uncool
� Unpopular
� Social Status � Laggards
Marketers find the Persuaders and Followers the key segments to target and emphasise social
status-through-products as the key advertising feature. Followers are the majority of school-age
youth, their size making them attractive to marketers. Followers tend to follow Persuaders, who
are seen as more popular and who Followers aspire to be. Hence, Persuaders are also
important, having influence over other segments. While Persuaders themselves follow Edges,
marketers struggle to market to Edges and must rely on Persuaders. Finally, Reflexives are
avoided due to their unpopularity (Lusted, 2009).
Belonging is a major theme here. Children want to belong, and as friends become increasingly
important the older one gets, so too do brands, as wearing similar brands helps one connect
and be identified with a group (Siegel, 2004). Indeed, a survey found that 62% of 12-13 year
olds felt better about themselves when they bought certain products (Lusted, 2009). Thus,
social status has become tied to, and fuelled by, consumerism.
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3. Targeting the Children’s market: Tactics and Strategies. Understanding segments facilitates finding appropriate targeting tactics. Targeting is when
marketers use specific tactics to better access and sell to a specific market segment.
The marketing mix describes a mix of marketing that make up a marketing strategy. This
framework works well describing tactics used to target children. Traditionally four existed:
Product, Placement, Price, and Promotion. For children, the main distinguishing P’s are
Product, Placement, and Promotion.
3.1 Product design and features
3.1.1 Product: Innate product features
Often, product features are key to marketing to children. Barcus (1980) discovered four product
categories composed 80% of all advertising to children—toys, cereals, candies, and fast-food
restaurants—a pattern that has remained stable through time (Kunkel & McIlrath, 2008).
3.1.1.1 Kid versions
Kid-versions of common products entice children by differentiating themselves in child-
appealing ways, such as vibrant colours, names, packaging, spokescharacters or tie-ins from
other brands. Lusted (2009) calls this trans-toying, when everyday products become toys such
as McGinn’s (2003) examples of ‘Heinz EZ SquirtTM, a “kid-friendly”ketchup, available in
“Blastin’ Green” and “Funky Purple” colors’ as cited by the IMNA (2006). Similarly, kid-versions
of stores have appeared. The Gap has Baby Gap and Pottery Barn has Pottery Barn Kids while
restaurants have profited from creating indoor playgrounds for children (Lusted, 2009).
3.1.1.2 Convenience
Convenience and portability have become a trend for the food industry. For children, portable
and convenient foods such as snack-packs and TV-dinners have fostered more independence.
This appeals to more independent-minded children such as tweens, and parents looking for
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some reprieve from responsibility. For example, breakfast pastries, a highly convenient good,
were a category started by Kellogg in 1963 with their product – the Pop Tart.
3.1.2 Extra features and bonuses
Premium marketing seeks to promote the main product by offering extras such as toys or
collectibles in products such as Kinder chocolate eggs or McDonalds Happy Meals. This
common tactic appears in 10% of children-targeting advertising (Kunkel & Gantz, 1992).
Oftentimes the toy drives the child’s desire for what would otherwise be a substitutable product.
For example, food and beverage companies sell more by cross-promoting with toys, books, and
clothing brands, all highly profitable markets (IMNA, 2006). Sometimes, children must purchase
products several times to get the toy, or earn points to redeem a reward (Smith & Atkin, 2008).
The in-box premia may also be random. This random payout psychologically encourages repeat
purchases, drawing from the psychological effects of irregular payouts as in gambling where
people continue because they believe every attempt brings them closer to winning.
3.2 Promotion: Positive Associations and Peripheral Routes to Persuasion With children, marketers primarily use peripheral routes to persuasion (Petty, Cacioppo, &
Schumann, 1983). Tying the advertised product or brand to positive associations is a common
peripheral advertising technique heavily used when marketing to children. This is usually
achieved by verbally or visually juxtaposing products and the desired qualities or objects with
those qualities in advertisements.
Marketing typically directly targets children, or indirectly targets them via caretakers such as
parents(IMNA, 2006). With children, marketing typically associates the product with coolness
and fun/excitement rather than the products’ inherent features such as taste or health, or quality
or functionality, which are the foci when targeting caretakers (Schor, 2004) who require a central
route to persuasion, and who need thoughtful consideration before purchasing. Indeed, Stern
and Resnik (1991) found while around half of adult-targeting commercials included ‘salient
product information such as price, quality, or availability,’ children-targeted advertising rarely
did. Emotions are elicited rather than information being provided.
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3.2.1 Coolness/Fun/Excitement
Children seek popularity by being cool, a quality they seek through brands. Today’s tweens are
more brand-conscious than ever before with Nickelodeon (2001) finding that the average 10-
year-old has memorised 300 to 400 brands. Coolness is so important that marketers have held
conferences on ‘coolness’ (Lusted, 2009).
Fun is important too. Linn (2005) notes food commercials associate food with fun, action, friends
and excitement, and less so about it’s “great taste” (although taste does feature when the food
is particularly sweet and fruity, tastes that appeal to children).
Fun/excitement is often used in advertisement design. Children in advertisements are often
portrayed having fun using the product alone or with friends (McClain, Meltzer & Truman, 2003).
Advertisers also use audio-visual production techniques to emphasise fun by using techniques
like ‘action, rapid pacing, loud music, animation mixed with live action, close-ups, and rapid cuts’
(IMNA, 2006) or even magic and unusual sound effects (Barcus, 1980). These techniques aim
to attract childrens’ attention, as per the attention and/or interest stage in the AIDA model. After
attention and interest are achieved, desire and call-to-action happen in the rest of the
commercial.
3.2.2 Spokescharacters, tie-ins (with movies), and celebrity endorsements
Advertisers have celebrities endorse products to link brands to their fan bases. For example,
Britney Spears and Christina Aguilera (IMNA, 2006), two singers with similar fanbases,
advertised Pepsi® and Coca- Cola® respectively. Using celebrities also associates the brand
with someone classically attractive. Bandura’s (1986) social-cognitive theory suggests attractive
people are more likely to be emulated and believed. Therefore as celebrities show and use a
product, so too will child viewers follow suit.
Spokescharacters are like celebrities: they tie certain qualities or demeanours to the brand
whilst promoting it. Being companies’ intellectual properties, these spokescharacters are more
versatile, having uses in numerous additional settings such as on the website, games and
commercials. Also, they can be redesigned at will. The IMNA (2006) cites Enrico (1999)’s
example of Kellogg’s Frosted Flakes’ Tony the Tiger being redesigned slimmer and more
muscular to match current aesthetic standards.
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Whereas celebrities and spokescharacters leverage attractive personalities, tie-ins leverage
increased awareness brought by current events, brands, or characters to help promote the
product. Often, tie-ins involve character merchandising, which is when brands obtain licences to
use popular fictional characters such as Spiderman and Harry Potter for promotional purposes
(IMNA, 2006). Thus, brands use the character’s popularity to sell the product, rather than the
product’s inherent features. Often, this tactic cashes in on characters from the most recent
movies. This practice is increasingly common, for example, Coca-Cola spent $287 million on a
co-branding campaign with the Harry Potter movies for product packaging, games, websites,
and in-store displays (IMNA, 2006).
3.2.3 Misleading Messages
One controversial method of creating the impression of healthiness in food products is showing
the often-unhealthy product surrounded by conventionally healthy products such as fruits and
milk or being consumed by slim, fit children (McClain, Meltzer & Truman, 2003). This
juxtaposition associates the product with healthiness by implying causational links without
outright verbally stating it, which would be illegal due to its falseness. Another method, similar to
celebrity endorsements, is having (famous) athletes in the commercial to let viewers associate
the product with fitness.
When benefits cannot be implied and regulations demand disclaimers, companies often use
confusing adult language to mitigate ill effects, eg. saying products are “good source[s] of
energy,” is code for “high in calories” (McClain, Meltzer & Truman, 2003). Indeed, Liebert et al
(1977) and Stutts & Hunnicutt (1987) found disclaimer meanings rarely understood by 6-8 year
olds or pre-schoolers. For example, children do not understand the common disclaimer used in
many calorific, sugar-filled cereals “part of a balanced breakfast”, that other foods are required
for a “balanced breakfast” as one would hope. Instead, they believe the cereal is itself a fully
balanced breakfast. (Palmer & McDowell, 1979).
3.2.4 Differences in gender:
Techniques targeting males and females are different, often reinforcing gender stereotypes. Toy
ads usually target one or the other as children and parents strongly identify toys as male or
female (Clark & Higonnet, 1999). However, if both can be targeted, the advertisement is more
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often male-targeted as many marketers believe girls will use boys’ products, but not vice versa
(Smith, 1994). Verna (1975) found execution for gender-specific advertisements is different: in
these respective advertisements, as the subject, 87% of girls were passive, while as the subject,
72% of boys were active. In addition, Larson (2001) found girl-directed commercials were more
likely set at home.
3.2.5 Branding
Branding is a marketing staple. A brand is a promise of certain standards and a set of
associations. Often, brands promote product sales by linking the target consumers’ lifestyle
aspirations with the branded product (Roberts, 2004). Nowadays, the interactivity of new media
has made branding more common and flexible. Children are very loyal to brands, often asking
for specific brands (Lusted, 2009). Kids’ fascination with brands stems from their earlier
maturity—kids want to be adults sooner and brands help them feel that way (Lusted, 2009). This
seems to be an aspirational, self-expressional want from Maslow’s Hierarchy’s top layer.
3.2.6 Seasonal Marketing
Seasonal marketing takes advantage of traditional festivals of the western world, such as
Christmas, where gift-giving is common. Kunkel & McIlrath (2008) cite Barcus (1976) that during
Christmastime, toy commercials increase from 20% to 50% of all ads around children’s
programming. Niedermeier (2009) describes supply-control marketing, another tactic used at
this time, where companies under-supply toys forecasted to be high-in-demand, so when
parents cannot purchase these promised gifts they must buy substitutes, and subsequently
obligated, either by guilt or promise to their indignant children, to buy the original gift when
supply resumes. This practice often leads to parent-child conflict (Robertson, 1979).
3.2.7 Viral Marketing
Viral Marketing leverages children’s sensitivity to “coolness” by making consumers believe a
particular good or brand is popular or cool. While this happens naturally as positive word-of-
mouth, brands also generate buzz by secretly hiring and training “trendsetters” to ‘“seed”
messages such as promotions and brand preferences. For example, for the music industry,
pairs of “consumers” have been sent into shops to discuss new releases so that other
customers can hear their discussions (Kaikati & Kaikati, 2004).
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3.3 Place: Channels Channels are important, being the link between audience and product/advertising. This
corresponds roughly to place in the marketing mix and is either physical or media.
3.3.1 Physical
3.3.1.1 Schools
Marketing and schools have become increasingly intertwined as marketers benefit greatly from
schools since all children must attend it, providing a natural captive audience. McClain, Meltzer
& Truman (2003) also note that childhood habits carry onto adulthood and advertising through
school gives the brand credibility. Commercial activities in schools include: product sales, direct
advertising, indirect advertising, and market research.
Product sales occur via vending machines, cafeterias, or via the common exclusive drink
contract where the company offers the school a reduced price to only supply their brand and not
competitors’. Also, they may give schools monetary bonuses depending on products sales in
schools (Johnson & Young, 2003), which creates a possible vested interest. Direct advertising
occurs on vending machines, scoreboards, posters, and banners. Posters and ads are often
seen alongside student posters for school events (McClain, Meltzer & Truman, 2003). Indirect
advertising is more hidden, existing as corporate-sponsored equipment, contests where prizes
are branded items and, more controversially, industry-sponsored educational materials (IMNA,
2006). Market Research is perhaps one of the major benefits marketers derive from schools due
to the size and accessibility of the captive audience.
3.3.1.2 Event and Loyalty Marketing
Event sponsorships are not limited to schools and can happen in such places as shopping malls
and county fairs. Brands help these events financially and benefit in that children learn about
new brands and products, and associate positive feelings with these brands (McClain, Meltzer &
Truman, 2003).
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3.3.2 Traditional Media
Marketing to children also takes place through various media, especially now that children are
increasingly connected. Traditional media differs from new media in various ways. Studies show
TV remains the main channel for reaching youths, especially younger children (IMNA, 2006).
Print media also targets well the various segments via their interests, life stage, and gender. A
study by Neopets® (2003) found magazine advertisements for music, games, makeup and
clothes had a direct effect on 30% of teens’ purchase decisions (IMNA, 2006). In addition,
children’s magazines may include puzzles or games that are actually subtle advertisements
(McClain, Meltzer & Truman, 2003).
One way TV and movies are combatting the skipping over of traditional advertisements is
through product placement—the inclusion of products directly into the program material. Product
placement makes skipping difficult and is less often perceived as advertising, increasing its
promotional ability. Kaikati & Kaikati (2004) note that product placement has recently begun
appearing in music as well.
3.3.3 New Media
New Media offer interesting new ways for children to interact with brands, often blurring the lines
between commercial and non-commercial content. Whereas traditional media send messages
to consumers without a feedback process, new media allows for almost immediate feedback
and makes communication between consumer and company more interactive and finely-tuned.
As children spend more time on the internet, this medium becomes increasingly effective at
reaching children. Websites allow children to learn about and interact with the brand. Websites
may also offer links for parents to purchase products for children, transferring the pester power
from offline to online (Calvert, 2008). Online is important as shopping online is a major activity
for adolescents (Subrahamanyam et al., 2001).
Gathering information on children is also easier, especially since many websites require
registration information. Others even coax children out of personal information using rewards
(Austin & Reed, 1999). Kids clubs may be formed where children join and, in exchange for
volunteering their information (Turow, 2001), often without parents’ knowledge, they receive
discounts, exclusive items, and newsletters about the company and products. Cookies are used
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to discreetly track and remember users’ information and preferences for the marketer and the
user’s convenience (IMNA, 2006). Thus, the brand fosters a one-to-one relationship with the
child consumer, and achieves many marketers’ dream – personal selling – where each offering
is tailored specifically for each customer.
Paralleling product placement are so-called advergames where the brand and its products are
integral units of interaction within kid-friendly games. Here, kids interact with controlled brand
representations. Children focus attention on the brand because of its centrality in the game,
which helps the brand’s image and salience.
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4 Ethical Considerations Children are an impressionable market segment and taking advantage of their lack of
knowledge regarding advertising may be unethical. Also, at such a young age, children’s
cognitive development has not reached the stage where they can form logical rational
judgments. Their knowledge of the world is also limited and sometimes, they may not be able to
tell fact from fiction. Taking advantage of these vulnerabilities raises ethical issues. Although
parents and society want to protect them from advertising and other influences they deem
negative in these sensitive, habit-forming years, the pervasiveness of advertisements and
children-directed marketing makes this an extremely difficult endeavor. Negative impact on
children also impacts society as they are future adults and will therefore have bigger roles in
society. The unethical practices such as misinformation by association and confusion, as well as
the entire practice of advertising to very young children lead to various social problems that
marketers should consider.
4.1 Health
4.1.1 Obesity
Food marketing makes up an enormous proportion of marketing to children and has increased
greatly over the past 20 years (McClain, Meltzer & Truman, 2003). Overwhelmingly, the
marketed food is unhealthy, being high in calories and sugar.
Horgen, Choate, & Brownell (2001) found over half of 9-10 year olds, being impressionable,
thought Ronald McDonald knew best what foods children should eat. In addition, Signorielli and
Lears (1992) found increased exposure to TV is correlated positively to beliefs that fast food and
home-cooked meals are equally healthy. Unsurprisingly, children display increased acceptability
and preference for foods they are more exposed to in advertisements (McClain, Meltzer &
Truman, 2003). suggesting a continued cycle of unhealthy food consumption.
Obesity creates long-term health problems including increased medical costs. US children and
youth obesity rates have skyrocketed over the past four decades as shown by Graph 1 below
(IMNA, 2006:p42), trebling from 5% in the 1960s to 16% in 1999-2002. 16% of US children are
obese, while 15% are at risk of being so and for preschool children (2-5 years old) obesity rates
have more than doubled since the 1970s (IMNA, 2006).
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Healthcare costs society, causing reduced productivity from both short-term and long-term
effects on children’s emotional, physical, and social functions. Yearly hospital costs for children
increased more than threefold over the last 20 years, from $35 million USD (1979-1981) to $127
million (1997-1999) (IMNA, 2006). Poor diets may cause more “adult diseases” to appear in
children, contributing to various leading causes of death and healthcare costs such as coronary
diseases, cancer, stroke, diabetes, high blood pressure, and high cholesterol as well as
resultant decreased independence and quality of life (McClain, Meltzer & Truman, 2003). These
adult diseases generally develop from childhood habits, which could be quietly influenced by
marketing forces.
4.1.2 Alcohol:
While children cannot purchase it, alcohol is often marketed in a way that attracts them, having
sweet, fruity flavours. Although purchase by children is illegal, they may drink it (therefore
building brand loyalty) if the opportunity arises, such as at parties or when offered it by another
person (Lusted, 2009). This promotion of alcohol may lead to problems such as alcoholism and
delinquent behaviour.
Graph 1.
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4.2 Happiness Advertising can also harm children’s happiness, primarily by promoting self-comparison to
actors (Self Esteem) and their possessions with their peers’ (Materialism).
4.2.1 Self-esteem:
Advertising damages children’s self esteem, especially females, when comparing themselves to
attractive models in advertisements. Martin & Kennedy (1993) found that for fourth, eighth, and
twelfth graders, comparison to models in advertisements was negatively related to self-esteem
and perceptions of physical attractiveness.
4.2.2 Materialism:
Modern western consumer culture encourages children to equate possessions with self-worth.
Indeed, Schor (2005) finds teens are increasingly measuring their value based on the value of
their possessions. Atkin (1975) found a significant positive correlation between television and
statements by fourth to seventh graders that “the most important thing is to have lots of money”
Materialism harms society too by promoting waste and creating unhappiness. Smith & Atkin
quote from Buijzen and Valkenburg (2001) that television advertising may instil materialism in
children
‘because it is designed to arouse desires for products that would not otherwise be
salient. Advertising emphasizes that possessions are important, and that obtaining
these possessions will result in many desirable qualities, such as beauty, success,
status, and happiness. Advertising communicates the ideology that desirable
qualities can be obtained only by material possessions.’
An increased desire to have things means disappointment when such desires are frustrated, as
Isler, Popper, & Ward’s (1987) study found where over 25% of children noted disappointment
when parents did not buy the products they wanted.
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4.2.3 Damaging family relationships
Advertising damages familial relationships too through so-called “pester power” where children
pester parents to buy products for them, products that are typically unhealthy. Parents must
reject their children’s requests or yield, a lose-lose situation. Atkin (1975) found through surveys
that denying requests occasionally causes conflict between child and parent and that about 25%
of parent-child interaction in the supermarket was of conflict (Atkin, 1978). This nagging
undermines parental power and strains the relationship as marketers and parents give
conflicting messages about the best food choices (McClain, Meltzer & Truman, 2003). In fact,
Johnson & Young (2008) gives the example of Dibb’s (1994) study where 8-year-olds would
“rather get a treat with Tony the Tiger or Ronald McDonald than with their father, teacher, or
grandparent.” Indeed, advertisers often exploit adolescents’ desires to rebel against authority
and appear cool to disparage adults (Linn, 2005), which damages relationships further and
encourages strife.
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5 Conclusions & Implications This essay investigated common practices in marketing to children. Its main findings seem to
suggest the current marketing practices for children are effective due to children’s
impressionability and responsiveness to the advertising foci of product-external aspects such as
premia and associations, which appeal to many children’s wishes to be popular or grown up
through a peripheral route of persuasion rather than a central route that encourages careful
consideration.
Segmentation helps marketers locate ideal segments to target. Some segments are profitable,
while others are not, and some influence the choices of segments they interact with. Targeting
different segments will require different methods as each has different levels of influence, and
different wants and desires as illustrated in Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. Younger children may
not care about being popular while older children may, meaning brands and fashion matter
more to the latter than the former. Finally, marketers must remember that promotional activities
are just one of the many P’s of marketing. Place is important too as children can be found in a
more limited set of environments, such as school, while new media offers new ways to reach
and interact with children as well.
However, marketers should take care not to overstep the ethical boundaries of marketing to
children due to this group’s vulnerability. Marketing has been accused of disregarding ethics by
taking advantage of children’s low defences to advertising by providing false or misleading
information. In so doing, they promote unhealthy materialism and damage self-esteem and
health, activities that incur costs on society both mental and economical. Ethicality aside,
marketers would do well to mind societal tolerance levels. Recent campaigns such as the Dove
Real Beauty campaign where all body types are embraced (appendix C) and food-related
documentaries (appendix D) suggest that people are beginning to harbour strong feelings
regarding the effects of marketing, both to children and adults. Indeed, a 2007 Wall Street
Journal poll found 64% of respondents disagree with using popular characters to sell to children,
and that marketing to children under 12 should be illegal. Keeping in line with what is acceptable
would avoid public relations and image problems for marketers while continuing to effectively
leverage the importance of children as a market.
Perhaps the biggest development is new media. With new media, children are no longer
passive consumers. This offers a whole range of obstacles and opportunities for marketers.
18
With tablets and connectedness abounding, marketers and children can interact more often and
without parental knowledge, but children can also interact with other consumers discussing
newest trends and brands to the benefit or detriment of those brands (Levinson, 2013).
Previously this interaction would have been more difficult. Brands should adapt as this
development potentially gives consumers more power to think for and amongst themselves.
Indeed, some brands have used social media to benefit mutually both consumer and company
such as Lego’s campaigns, which bring together families (Levinson, 2013). With new media
changing how companies and consumers interact, giving consumers more power through
increased access to information and ability to compare, brands may do well by positively
engaging consumers through social media and less deceptive practices, taking heed of
ethicality, as well as focusing on more pro-social advertising and products.
Word count: 4842
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i
7 Appendices
Appendix A
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs:
This image below was created based on Maslow’s 1943 paper “A Theory of Human Motivation.”
Marketing to children using brands typically target the esteem level of the pyramid as they will
derive some self-esteem, respect from others, and social status within their peer groups from
owning certain brands.
ii
Appendix B Technology Adoption Lifecycle
The Technology Adoption Lifecycle was first conceptualised by Bohlen, J. M., Beal, George M.
(1957) and Rogers, E. M. that envisioned the process of technology adoption as a bell curve
with the earliest user group being really small, and the last user (or non-user) group being
relatively small while the vast majority of people form a bulge in the middle as they adopt the
product. The graph popularized by Rogers, E. M. (1962) as the following (Image accessed from
Freelancer Consulting, 2013).
The behaviour of children segments is similar in their speed of adoption and conservatism and
provides and interesting comparison between the two.
iii
Appendix C The Dove® Campaign for Real Beauty
The Dove Campaign for Real Beauty was a 2004 campaign for the Dove brand that wanted to
promote the natural beauty of women rather than the made-up and uncommon model-type
women often seen on television. The creation of this campaign was due to Dove’s realisation
that “ only 2% of women around the world would describe themselves as beautiful.” (Unilever,
2013). However, more importantly the viral nature with which the campaign was received and
spread suggested that people identified with its core message, a message that may soon
concern young children as well.
Image from Unilever’s Dove Real Beauty Campign website (Unilever, 2013).
iv
Appendix D Food related documentaries Various food related documentaries have been produced often providing a critique
against the western world’s adoption of unhealthy fast food and junk food, which has
caused an obesity epidemic. This trend indicates worry about food and health as well as
those affected by it, some of which are the children whom food marketers often target.
Image from IMDb.com (IMDb, 2013).