TheModernAngloDutchEmpireTheModernAngloDutchEmpireitsOrigins,Evolution&OutlookitsOrigins,Evolution&Outlook

by Robert D. Ingraham

TheModernAngloDutchEmpire:itsOrigins,Evolution,andAntiHumanOutlook

byRobertD.Ingraham

Dedication&Acknowledgments

Thisworkisdedicatedtomywifeof28years,AndreaJoyIngraham

SpecialacknowledgmentstoLyndonH.LaRouche,Jr.,whosewritingsinfluencedalmosteverypartofthiswork,

andtohistorians,H.GrahamLowry,AntonChaitkin,andAlanSalisbury.

TableofContents

Preface............................................................................................................ p.1Chapter1ThebestialviewofMan:fromRometoVenice.............................. p.7Chapter2TheVenetianEmpire,beforeandaftertheCouncilofFlorence..... p.11Chapter3TheGiovanirevolution................................................................. p.16Chapter4Sarpi'sweb.................................................................................. p.20Chapter5EmpiricismagainsttheRenaissance............................................ p.25Chapter6Thelegaltheoristsoftheoligarchicalmodel................................. p.37Chapter7ThenewVeniceinAmsterdam...................................................... p.49Chapter8Money,Speculation&Gambling................................................... p.55Chapter9TheAngloDutchEmpire.............................................................. p.61Chapter10ThenatureoftheBeast................................................................. p.68Chapter11TheCommonwealthinAmerica..................................................... p.79Chapter12RichardNixon'streason:thepost1971world................................. p.87

Appendix1PaoloSarpi:Pensieri#146............................................................. p.92Appendix2ExcerptsfromFranklinRoosevelt.................................................. p.94Appendix3ATempleofHope;aBeaconofLiberty............................................. p.101*

Bibliography...................................................................................................... p.102Index................................................................................................................. p.107

August,2008,byRobertD.Ingraham

OntheCoverTheLittleTowerofBabel,PieterBruegeltheElder,MuseumBoijmansVanBeuningen

"Innationswhichhavemadeafalsecommencement,itwouldbefound that the citizen, or rather the subject, has extortedimmunity after immunity, as his growing intelligence andimportancehave both instructedand requiredhim to defendthoseparticularrightswhichwerenecessarytohiswellbeing.A certain accumulation of these immunities constitutes... theessenceofEuropeanLiberty,evenatthishour. It isscarcelynecessarytotellthereaderthatthisfreedom,beitmoreorless,dependsonaprincipleentirelydifferentfromourown.Heretheimmunities donot proceed from,but theyaregranted to thegovernment,being,inotherwords,concessionsofnaturalrightsmade by the people to the state, for the benefit of social protection. So long as this vital difference exists betweenourselvesandothernations,itwillbevaintothinkoffindinganalogies in their institutions. The mildest and justest governments in Europe are, at this moment, theoretically despotisms."

JamesFenimoreCooperTheBravo

1Preface

ThisisabookaboutEmpire.Inonesense,itsmainfocusisonthemodernmanifestationofEmpire,i.e.,themisunderstoodAngloDutchSystem,whichwasborninthelate16thcentury,andcameintomaturitybetween16881763.Thatempireisstillverymuchwithustoday.Inanothersense,thisbookdealswiththebasicquestionofthenatureofEmpireitself,notanyparticularempire,buttheongoingoligarchicalideaofEmpire.

Mostpeopletodaythinkofempiresassomethingofthepast.Werethatonlytrue,theworldpresentlywouldbeinamuchhappiercondition.Whetheryourealizeitornot,theissueofEmpire,andthehumanraceslongstruggletofreeitselffromEmpireisthemostcriticalpoliticalconcernfacingustoday.Wearecurrentlyconfrontedwithaprofoundeconomicandstrategiccrisis,anddefeatingthecurrentschemesoftheEmpireisnowamatteroflifeordeathforhumanity.

Muchofthisbookisverydetailed,withnamesandplacesthatmaynotbefamiliartomany.Iurgeyoutobepatient,andtoworkyourwaythroughthematerial.ThesectionsonRome,Salamanca,JohnLocke,Empiricism,andbankingmayseemtedious,buthopefully,whenyouarefinished,youwillunderstandthatEmpireisthemortalenemyofhumanity,andthatthehistoricalmissionoftheUnitedStatesistoeliminatethatenemyonceandforall.

*****

Virtuallyallmodernacademicallyapprovedhistoriesareincompetent.ThatstatementwillprobablyprovokesomePhDrecipientstodismissthefollowingworkoutofhand,buttherearetwolegitimatereasonsformakingsuchaclaim.ThefirstreasonisthepervasivefailureofaccreditedAmerican,aswellasEuropean,historianstoappreciatetheprofoundimportanceoftheAmericanRevolution,andtheaxiomaticspeciesdifferencebetweentheAmericanconstitutionalrepublicandtheBritishEmpire,adifferencewhichpersistsdowntothepresentday.Theevidenceofthisfailureisperhapsmostglaringinthealmostuniversalinability,orunwillingness,todistinguishbetweentheAmericanmethodsofnationalbankingandtheconstitutionalissuanceofcurrency,contrarytotheEuropeansystemofprivatecentralbanking.Thesecondfailureofmodernhistoriansisthealmostuniversalcontaminationofhistoricalanalysiswithamechanisticfatalistapproach.ThislatterflawisparticularlyobviouswithMarxist,aswellasvariousneo/pseudoMarxisttypes,butthesamecondemnationcanbemadeoftheChicagoandViennaschools'incompetentviewofimpersonalmarketforces.Philosophically,thefollowersofbothMarxandVonHayek,aswellastheirmanyandvariedderivatives,areidenticalintheirempiricalmechanisticmethodology.

Intruth,thesubjectofhistoryisMan,yettheuniversitylibrariesaresatiatedwithhistorybooks,whichevadethemostbasicobviousquestion:Whatisman'snaturewhichsetshimapartfromthelowerbeasts,allowshimtocreatebothscienceandgreatsymphonies,andtoincreasehismasteryovertheplanet?Ortoputitmoreplainly,whatisitaboutmanthatallowshimtoevenhypothesizeabouthumanhistory,sincemonkeys,donkeysandwhaleshavenosuchcapability?Howcananyonewriteacompetenthistoryofmankind,withoutevenaddressingthatquestion?HowdoesoneunderstandMan'shistory,andthelongperiodsofprogress,andretrogressionwhichhavecharacterizedit,unlessonestartswiththefundamentalquestion:Whatdoesitmeantobehuman?Theliteraryjournalsarefullofarticles,writtenbyuniversityprofessorswhowritelikebadimitationJoeFridays:JusttheFacts.Butinreality,suchfactualityproduceslies,becauseofwhatitleavesout.Thisproblemhasbecomemuchworsewiththeadventofthesocalledinformationsociety,afalserealityinwhichrealhistoryisbutcheredbythefactcheckersofWikipedia,andtheirilk.

Thisbookdoesnotpretendtobeahistoryofthehumanracefrombeginningtoend,nordoesit

2makeanyclaimsofprofundityintherealmsofscienceorphilosophy,but,ifwereturntothequestion,WhatisitinMan'snaturewhichsetshimapartfromthelowerbeasts?,asweworkourwaythroughthehistoryandnatureoftheAngloDutchEmpire,hopefullysomeglimmersofunderstandingwillcomeforth.

ThesubjectofthisworkisthemillenialongstruggleofthehumanracetofreeitselffromEmpire:tofreeitselfpolitically,economically,culturally,andmorally.Notfromanyparticularempire,suchastheOttomansorthePersians,butfromthecontinuingontologicalrealityofanongoingoligarchicalideaofEmpire,thewhich,continuestoinfestthisworldinour21stcentury.ThespecificfocusathandisthemodernAngloDutchSystemofempire,becausethatistheonewearecurrentlythreatenedby.Themajorityofthiswritingwillconcentrateonhowthismonstrositycameintoexistenceandconsolidateditspower.Hencetheyearsfrom1582to1763willrequiremostofourattention.However,theriseofVenetianpowerafter1100,aswellasthe19thand20thcenturies'BritishtargetingoftheAmericanRepublic,willalsobeexamined,butnotwiththesamedepthofhistoricaldetail.ThespecificstructuresoftheAngloDutchSystemhaveevolvedovertime,buttheaxiomaticnatureofthemodernoligarchicalempirewascompleteby1763.MypurposehereistoreportontheoriginsofthatAngloDutchSystem,andtoprovideinsightintoitsevilnature.

Humanvoluntarism

Allofrecordedhumanhistoryencompassesacenturieslongfightbetweenthosewhoviewmanasanoblecreature,asGenesissays:madeintheCreator'simage,versustheoligarchicviewofmanasabeast,expendable,aworthlesswretch.Allhumanprogresshasemanatedfromchampionsofthefirstview;empiresresultfromproponentsofthesecondview.Tobeclear,thisisnotaconnectthedotsconspiracytheoryofhistory;thisisaquestionofaxiomaticviewsastothefundamentalnatureofwhatitmeanstobehuman.

Thisbookdefiesallmechanisticversionsofhistory.Thisisverymuchavoluntaristicviewofhistory,whichis,afterall,theonlyhumanwaytoviewmankind'sdevelopment.Historyisnotdeterminedbyevents,norbyinevitableeconomicprocesses.Fromtheprehistoricyearswhenmarinersandastronomersfirststudiedtheprogressionoftheconstellations,mankind'shistoryonandincreasingdominationovertheplanet,hasbeenshapedbyvoluntaristichumanaction,actioncatalyzedbythecreativityofindividualhumanminds.Whensocietieshavebeenimbuedwiththisnotionofwhatitmeanstobehuman,civilizationhasprogressed.Whenempireshavedominated,whenthefewrulethemanylikecattle,mankindhassuffered.

Afewexamplesofthedifferenceinthesetwoviewsofmanmightbeuseful.Someofthefollowingquotationsarewellknown,buttheybearrepeating:

Atpresentthepopulationoftheworldisincreasing...Warsofarhashadnogreateffect onthisincrease...Idonotpretendthatbirthcontrolistheonlywayinwhichpopulationcanbekeptfromincreasing.Thereareothers...IfaBlackDeathcouldbespreadthroughouttheworldonceineverygeneration,survivorscouldprocreatefreelywithout makingtheworldtoofull...thestateofaffairsmightbesomewhatunpleasant,butwhatofit?Reallyhighmindedpeopleareindifferenttosuffering,especiallythatofothers."

BertrandRussell,inhisbook,TheImpactofScienceonSociety,(1952)

Or,takethecaseofGeorgeSoros,who,whenquestionedabouthisroleasaNazicollaboratorin1944Budapest,wherehehelpedtostripcondemnedJewsoftheirpossessions,statedthathefeltnoguiltaboutthiswhatsoever:

"ButtherewasnosensethatIshouldn'tbethere,becausethatwaswell,actually,ina

3funnyway,it'sjustlikeinmarketsthatifIweren'tthereofcourse,Iwasn'tdoingit,but somebodyelsewouldwouldwouldbetakingitawayanyhow.Anditwasthewhether Iwasthereornot,Iwasonlyaspectator,thepropertywasbeingtakenaway.SotheI hadnoroleintakingawaythatproperty.SoIhadnosenseofguilt."

FromaninterviewonCBS'60Minutes,December20,1998

BertrandRussellandGeorgeSorosarenotmerelytwo"private"individuals.Russell,whoalsopubliclyadvocatedpreemptivenuclearwaragainsttheSovietUnion,1wasadescendantfromoneofthemostprominentBritishimperialfamilies.HisancestorEdwardRussellwasaleaderinthe1688GloriousRevolution,andhisgrandfatherLordJohnRussellwastheVictorianBritishPrimeMinisterduringtheyearsofBritain'sgenocideagainsttheIrish,knowntodayasthe"potatofamine."GeorgeSoros,theorganizeroftheoffshoreQuantumFund,andthefounderoftheOpenSociety,istodayoneoftheleadingfinancialspeculatorsintheworld,andthefinancialangelbehindU.S.DemocraticPartyPresidentialprecandidateBarakObama.2

Incontrasttotheantihumanoutlookexpressedabove,takealookathowothersviewhumanity:

Howfair,OMan,doyou,yourpalmbranchholdingStandatthecentury'sunfoldingInproudandnoblemanhood'sprimeWithfacultiesrevealed,withspirit'sfullnessFullearnestmild,inactionwealthystillness,Theripestsonoftime,Freethroughreason,strongthroughlaw'smeasure,Throughmeeknessgreat,andrichintreasure,Whichlongyourbreasttoyoudidnotdisclose,Nature'sownlord,shegloriesinyourbridle,WhoinathousandfightsassaysyourmettleAndshiningunderyoufromoutthewildarose!

FriedrichSchiller,fromTheArtists(translatedbyMariannaWertz)

*Godmademendifferentsothateverymanmighthaveneedofother,andfromhencetheymightallbeknitmorenearlytogetherinthebandofbrotherlyaffection.*Nomanismademorehonorablethananother...outofanyparticularandsingularrespecttohimself,butforthegloryofhiscreatorandtheCommongood.*Wemustloveoneanotherwithapureheart,fervently,sothatwedelightineachother,mourntogether,laborandsuffertogether...Wemustbearoneanothersburdens.

JohnWinthrop,fromAModelofChristianCharity(1630)

ReasonisthatwhereinmangoesbeforeallotherearthlycreaturesandcomesafterGodonly...ForwhereasGodandnaturehathfurnishedothercreatures,somewithhoofs, otherswithotherinstruments,andweaponsbothdefensiveandoffensive,manisleft naked,anddestituteofallthese,butmaycomforthimselfinthatoneendowmentof reason,andprovidence,wherebyheisabletogovernthemall.

JohnRobinson,PastorofthePlymouth(Pilgrim)Church,fromOfFaith,Hope,andLove,ReasonandSense

1 In the Bulletin of Atomic Scientists, 19482 Your Enemy George Soros, published June, 2008 by LaRouchePAC

4ThesetwosetsofquotationsdonotrepresentmerelysubjectivedifferencesofopinionaboutthenatureofMan.Rather,thesetwoviolentlycontraryviewsofMandefine,atleastinprinciple,thedifferencebetweenEmpireandRepublic.ThefollowingtwoquotationsfromHenryC.Carey,theforemostAmericaneconomistofthe19thcentury,demonstratethisdifferenceinanhistoricallyconcreteway:

"Twosystemsarebeforetheworld.Onelookstopauperism,ignorance,depopulation, andbarbarism;theothertoincreasingwealth,comfort,intelligence,combinationofaction, andcivilization.Onelookstowarduniversalwar;theothertouniversalpeace.OneistheEnglishsystem;theotherwemaybeproudtocalltheAmericansystem,foritistheonlyoneeverdevised,thetendencyofwhichwasthatofelevatingwhileequalizingtheconditionofmanthroughouttheworld."

TheHarmonyofInterests,(1851)

"Henceitisthatweseetheslavetradeprevailtosogreatanextentinallthecountries subjecttotheBritishsystem....Thesystemtowhichtheworldisindebtedfortheseresultsiscalled"freetrade;"buttherecanbenofreedomoftradewherethereisnofreedomofman,forthefirstofallcommoditiestobeexchangedislabour,andthefreedomofmanconsistsonlyintheexerciseoftherighttodetermineforhimselfinwhatmanner hislabourshallbeemployed,andhowhewilldisposeofitsproducts....It[theBritishSystem]isthemostgiganticsystemofslaverytheworldhasyetseen,andthereforeitis thatfreedomgraduallydisappearsfromeverycountryoverwhichEnglandisenabledto obtaincontrol."

TheSlaveTrade,DomesticandForeign,(1853)

This,then,isthebattlefield,thetwoopposingsides,inafightthathasexistedforthousandsofyears,afightwhoseoutcomeisstillundeterminedasoftoday.

1582

In1582,apoliticalrevolutioninVenicebroughttopowertheGiovaniparty,associatedwiththeServitemonkPaoloSarpi.Theseedsofthisrevolutionwerealreadyplantedsomeyearsbefore1582,butitwaswiththeascensiontopoweroftheGiovani,andthecontinuingcareerofSarpi,upuntilhisdeathin1623,thatthemodernAngloDutchSystemwasborn.ThelocusofthisnewempirewasgraduallyshiftedtonorthernEuropefirsttoAmsterdam,thentoLondonandnewtheoriesoffinance,trade,internationallaw,andgovernmentwerecreated,forthepurposeofensuringcontinuedoligarchicalrule.Thosetheories,andtheantihumanphilosophicalmethodbehindthem,continueinpracticeuptothisveryday.

1582wasnotthebeginningof"Empire,"butitwasthebeginningofthemodernformofempire,theAngloDutchLiberalSystem.Thephilosophical,economic,andscientificideasthathavecomedowntousfromthat1582revolutionarevirtuallyallencompassing.Tobesure,theyincludeconceptsofprivatefinance,moneyandtrade,whichevolvedoverdecadesintowhatbecametheBritishSystemof"freetrade."Inaddition,however,thephilosophicalempiricismofSarpiandhisepigone,hashadprofoundinfluencesovervirtuallyeverybranchofphilosophy,science,andmathematics.Someofthoseinfluenceswillbetakenupinthiscurrentwork.Fornow,however,theimportantguideposttokeepbeforeus,isSarpi'sdenialofbasichumannature.CoherentwiththeEmpireideaof"ruleofthefewoverthemany"isthenecessitytodenytheideaoflawfulhumancreativity.Theprospectofaselfgoverningrepublic,inwhichthefosteringofhumanreason,scientific

5andtechnologicalprogress,andindividualcreativityisconsciouslypromoted,isanathematotheEmpirecrowd.TheirsisanOlympianoligarchicalview,andfromtheirstandpoint,Sarpi'smostinvaluablecontributionishisunderstandingthat"mentalchains"aremoreeffectivethenarmiesinenforcinghumanservitude.

Thefalsityofmodernism

Frequently,today,itisalltoocommontohearanapologistfortheEmpiresuchasFelixRohatynstatethatthepoliciesofFranklinRooseveltarepass,a"thingofthepast."PuttingtoonesidetheulteriormotivesofsomeonelikeRohatyninmakingsuchastatement,toomanygulliblepeoplehavebeenmiseducatedintheideathathistoryprogressesinirreversiblelinear"stages,"eachofwhichdeterminesafixedsetofpolicyoptions.AlunaticclinicalexampleofthistypeofthinkingisAlvinToffler's"ThirdWave"nonsense.AmorewidespreadtypeofBritishpropagandaistheassertionthatwehavemoved,againirreversibly,fromanindustrialtoapostindustrialeconomy,andtherelatedassertionthatwehavemovedfromaworldofnationaleconomiestoaglobalizedeconomyoflimitedornonexistentnationalsovereignty.Thisisallassertedashistoricalfact.TheironyhereisthatitisthesamepeoplemakingthoseassertionstheCityofLondonandWallStreetcrowdwhohavebeenattempting,sinceRichardNixonabolishedtheBrettonWoodsSystemin1971,toturnbacktheclockonhistory,toreversethepoliciesofFranklinRoosevelt,toeradicatetheAmericanSystemofAlexanderHamilton,HenryCarey,andAbrahamLincoln,andtoGOBACKtoasystemofprivatefinanciersrulingtheworld.

The1648TreatyofWestphaliaestablishedasystemofrelationsamongperfectlysovereignnationstates.ThesubsequentAmericanrevolutionand1789U.S.ConstitutiondefinedtheintentofthenewnationtobethepromotionoftheGeneralWelfare,andledtothedevelopmentoftheAmericanSystemofEconomics.ThesewerealleffortstofreehumanityfromthedegradationofEmpire.Since1876,theEmpirecrowdhasbeendeterminedtoREVERSEthesehistoricalbreakthroughs,toreturntoapre1776worldcontrolledbyaprivatefinancialelite.Today,thisreactionarydesignisalwaysputforwardwiththemostardentclaimsthatglobalization,universaldemocracy,andtheinformationagerepresentsomethingnew,andareusheringina21stcenturyenlightenederaforhumanity.Protectivetariffsaredeclaredreactionary;SocialSecurityisdeclaredoutmoded;unregulatedoffshorebankingisdefendedasanexampleofthe"newfreedom."Withallofthechutzpahofacarnivalbarker,theEmpirehasconvincedmillionsoffoolsthat"snowisblack,"intheirclaimsthatthe21stcenturymanifestationsofEmpirerepresentprogressandhumanfreedom.

ThistransparentEmpirepropagandaisactuallyarathertiredtactic.It'sthesamelinethatBritishspokesmenusedinattackingtheprotectivetariffsofAbrahamLincoln,andithasbeenusedmanytimessince.ConsiderwhatSunYatSen,thefounderofmodernChinaandaproponentoftheAmericanSystemofEconomics,saidaboutBritishdesignsin1924:

"AnewtheoryisemerginginEngland,proposedbyintellectuals,whichopposesnationalismonthegroundthatitisnarrowandilliberal;thatdoctrineiscosmopolitanism...Iconstantlyhearyoungmensaying,'(SunYatSen's)Principlesarenot adaptedtothetendenciesofmoderntimes;thelatestandbestdoctrineiscosmopolitanism.'Isitreally?...CosmopolitanismisthesamethingasChina'stheoryof worldempiretwothousandyearsago...(Today)thenationswhichareemployingimperialismtoconquerothersandwhicharetryingtomaintaintheirownfavoredpositionsassovereignlordsofthewholeworldareadvocatingcosmopolitanismandwant theworldtojointhem"

TheThreePrinciplesofthePeople,1924

6Simplysubstitutethewordglobalizationforcosmopolitanism,andyouseethesameBritishimperialoutlook,resurrectedtoday,clothedinthelanguageofthe21stcentury.

Thecrisisandtheopportunity

AswemovetowardstheNovember,2008PresidentialelectionintheUnitedStates,thismodernsystemofempireisfacingaprofoundexistentialcrisis,perhapsthethegravestcrisisofitsseveralcenturiesexistence.Itsownpolicieshaveproducedchaos,hyperinflation,financialruin,andmostimportantofallagrowingresistancebytheworld'speoplestothecontinuationofoligarchicalrule.Moreandmorepeopleare"lookingbehindthecurtain,"andbeginningtoseethatthewizardisreallyapatheticcreature.TherecentdefeatoftheLisbonTreatyintheIrishreferendum,theincreasingresistanceofnationstotheimperialgenocidaldemandsoftheWorldTradeOrganization,andtheunprecedentedresponseofAmericanvoterstoHillaryClinton'scampaignindefenseoftheinvisibleAmericans,3allportendanhistoricopportunityforrevolutionaryeconomicandmonetarychange.

Thedangertohumanitytodayisgreat,andwithoutthenecessaryreforms,humansufferingwillincreasedramaticallyinthemonthsandyearsahead.Nevertheless,thiscrisisisalsoanopportunity,andwecanrejoice,thatthemeansexisttotoridtheworldforeverofthepestilenceofEmpire.

Inearliertimesaworksuchasthiswouldhavebeenunnecessary.Althoughsomeofthedetailswhichwillbepresentedbelowmayhavebeenunknowntopreviousgenerationsofpatriots,itisindisputablythecasethatBenjaminFranklin,AlexanderHamilton,JohnQuincyAdams,theCareys,HenryClay,andAbrahamLincolnallunderstoodpreciselythattheSystemofEmpirewasthemortalenemyofAmerica.AndtheyalsounderstoodthattheEmpirehadrootswhichwentfarbackintohumanhistory.Remember,itwastheAmericanpatriotThomasPainewhoreferredcontemptuouslytoKingGeorgeIIIasMisterWelf.4Tragically,todaythisknowledgeislargelygone.Hopefully,thisworkwillhelptorectifythat.

RobertIngrahamAugust,2008

3 In a campaign which increasingly evoked memories of Franklin Roosevelt's defense of the forgotten man, after March 5, 2008, Clinton scored a string of primary victories, by increasing margins, eventually passing Barack Obama in the total popular vote, despite massive opposition from the George Soros-controlled Democratic Party leadership.

4 For an explanation of the terms Welf and Guelph, see Chapters 2 and 3 of this work

7Chapter1TheBestialViewofMan:fromRometoVenice

In1433,CardinalNicholasofCusa,writinginBookIIofhisConcordantiaCatholica,states

SinceNaturalLawisbasedonreason,alllawbynatureisrootedinthereasonofman.

andlaterinBookIIIofthesamework,hesays:

Thereisinthepeopleadivineseedbyvirtueoftheircommonequalbirthandtheequal naturalrightsofallmen,sothatallauthoritywhichcomesfromGodasdoesmanhimselfisrecognizedasdivinewhenitarisesfromthecommonconsentofallthesubjects...Thisisthatdivinelyordainedmaritalstateofspiritualunionbasedonalastingharmonybywhichacommonwealthisguidedinthefullnessofpeacetowardeternal bliss.

ThisPlatonicconceptofthedivinesparkofreasoninherentinallhumanbeingsthatwhichdistinguishesusfromthebeastsisthebasisforallmodernnationstaterepublics,including,mostemphatically,ourownUnitedStates.EmpirehasalwaysstriventoextinguishthisconceptofManfromtheplanet,andtorelegatethehumanspeciestotheservileconditionswhichexistedundertheRomanEmpire,orthelaterRomancreated,feudalsystem.

TheideaofEmpirebeginsinprehistorictimes,butitisthelegacyofBabylon,andtheparadigmaticroleoftheBabylonianpriesthoodasthecontrollersofreligion,bankingandculture,whichsetthemodelfortheancientworld,includingthePersianEmpire,theroleoftheGreekTempleatDelphi,theRomanEmpire,andRome'scontinuationatByzantium.

In533A.D.,theByzantineEmperorJustinianissuedtheCorpusJurisCivilis,acompilationofalloftheRomanlawcodeswhichhadbeenpromulgatedoverthepreviousseveralcenturies.Tothisday,RomanLaw,andthebestialviewofManitembodies,definestheEmpireview.RomanLawcodifiesrulebyanoligarchy,anditdefinespropertyrights,includingthepropertyofhumanslaves,asthebasisforalllaw.RomanLawremainedtheimperiallegalsystemoftheByzantineEmpire,lastinguntil1453.

AfterthecollapseoftheRomanEmpireinthewest,theantihumanoutlookofthatempirecontinued,andwasconcretizedinthesocalledfeudalsystem,asystemthatcameintoexistenceasaproductofthetaxationandrelatedcodesoftheRomanEmperorDiocletian,whoruledfrom284to305A.D.ItwasDiocletiansreformswhichestablishedthelegalandeconomicbasisfortheemergenceoffeudalism,asystemwherethevastmajorityoftheEuropeanpopulationwereboundtothelandaslittlemorethantwoleggedfarmanimals.5Thiswasasystemofdefactoperpetualslavery.

WiththeemergenceofVenetianpowerinthe11thcentury,weseethereturnofanexplicitRomanImperialoutlooktoWesternEurope.Duringthisperiod,therespectivegeopoliticalrolesofVeniceandtheByzantineEmpirewerereversed.Venice,previouslyasatellite/clientstateofConstantinople,emergedby1200asthedominantmilitaryandeconomicforceintheMediterranean.In1096VeniceorganizedthefirstCrusade,tobefollowedbyfourmoreoverthenext126years.OutofthesecrusadestheVenetianempirewasborn.TheinfamousfourthCrusade,whereinVeniceorganizedthesackandmilitaryoccupationofConstantinoplein1204,gaveVenicetheislandofCreteandalmostalloftheByzantinecoloniesalongtheAdriaticSea.Bythemiddleofthe13thcentury,Venetiangalleys

5 Lessons of the 14th Century Dark Age, by Will Wertz, Fidelio, Vol. 7, No. 3, 1998

The Emperor Diocletian

8dominatedtheMediterraneanandwereactivelytradinginFlandersandLondon.TheVenetianEmpirewastheleadingimperialmaritimepowerinallofEurope.

ThemedievalFondi'stwoprojects

DuringthisfirstVenetianera,twointerrelatedculturalprojectsweresetintomotion,bothaimedatsolidifyingandextendingoligarchicalrule.ThefirstprojectwasthetranslationofallofAristotle'sextantworksintoLatin.ThesecondwastherevivalandrepublishingoftheworksthatmadeupRomanCivilLaw.

ThemedievalsystemthatemergedfromthepartnershipoftheVenetiansandtheNormanfeudalnobility,andthatdominatedEuropeforcenturies,wasinasense,aworldwithoutprogress.Warsmightbefought,kingsmightliveanddie,butthefixednatureofthezerogrowthfeudalsystemseemedpermanent.AristoteleanismandRomanLawwerethetwoepistemologicalsocialcontrolmechanismsperfectlysuitedforthisprimitiveoligarchicalschema.RomanLawestablishedthelegalbasisfortreatingthevastmajorityofthepopulationasnonthinkingbeasts.Aristoteleanism,withit'semphasisonsensecertainty,notonlydeniedthePlatonicnotionsofhypothesisandcreativity,butalsopostulatedacosmologyofafixedperfecteduniverse,withinwhichnochangeorprogressispossible.

ThemedievalrevivalofRomanLawwasthejointproductofanalliancebetweenVeniceandwhatbecameknownastheGuelphfactionofthefeudalnobility.ThisrevivalbeganwiththefoundingoftheSchoolofJurisprudence(laterUniversity)atBolognain1084,byMatildaofTuscany(10461114).TheheiresstoimmensefeudallandowningsinnorthernItaly,MatildawasmarriedtoDukeWelfVofBavaria,anditwasthewarsthatMatildaandWelfVfoughtagainsttheGermanKingHenryIVinnorthernItalywhichgavebirthtotheVenetianalliedGuelphParty.HerroleinthepersonalhumiliationofHenryIVearnedherthesobriquetofMatildaofCanossa.6

PinpointingtheexactdateoftheRomanLawrevivalisimpossible.SupposedlyanintactcopyofJustinian'sDigestwasdiscoveredinthelate11thcentury,butnooneknowsexactlywhen,orwhodiscoveredit.Whatisknownforcertainisthe1084deployment,byMatilda,oftheItalianjuristIrneriustofoundtheSchoolofJurisprudenceatBologna,andthat,bythe

early12thcentury,thisschoolhadbecometheEuropeancenterforalllegalstudies.ThecurriculumwasbasedentirelyonthestudyofRomanLaw,particularlytheDigest.Irnerius,himself,lecturedontheentireCorpusJurisCivilis.HischiefworkistheSummaCodicis,thefirstsystematicapplicationofRomanLawtomedievaljurisprudence.Pepo,anotherearlyBolognaprofessor,wrotecommentariesonJustinianandotherRomantexts.Beginninginthe11th&12thcenturies,variousnewcommentaries,knownasglosses,werealsowrittenontheCorpusJurisCivilis,andthesebecameextremelyinfluentialintheirownright.

Bytheearly13thcenturytherewere10,000studentsatBologna,andtheUniversitywasknownastheMaterStudiorum.ItwastheintellectualcenterofmedievalEurope.GraduatesoftheUniversityfoundedmanyotherschools,includingVincenza(1204),Arezzo(1215),andPadua(1222),andatalloftheseschools,thecurriculummimickedthatofBologna.

6 This Matilda should not to be confused with her near contemporary, the Empress Matilda (1101-1169). This second Matilda was the daughter of the English King Henry I, and the first in line to the English throne. She was married, at the age of 12, to the German Emperor Henry V, but after his death, she re-married, this time to Geoffrey, the Duke of Anjou. Their progeny became the founders of the Angevin (or Plantagenet) dynasty in England. Matilda's son, King Henry II, ruled over vast feudal holdings in England, Normandy, Aquitaine, Gascony, and Touraine, and Henry's heir, Richard the Lionheart, became the leader of Venice's Third Crusade in 1191. Throughout most of their history the Plantagenets were puppets of Venice's Lombard League.

Matilda of Tuscany: Godmother to the Black Guelphs

9RomanLaw

RomanLawbeginswiththeconceptthatallmenarebeasts:"Thelawofnatureisthatlawwhichnatureteachestoallanimals.Forthislawdoesnotbelongexclusivelytothehumanrace,butbelongsto allanimals,whetheroftheearth,theair,orthewater."(TheInstitutes;OfPersons).UnderRomanLaw,thereisnodistinctionmadebetweenhumansandbeasts.Manis"bornintonature"likeanyotheranimal,andsubjecttothesamerules.TheInstitutessaythat,"Bythelawofnatureallmenareoriginallybornfree,"butthisfreedomisnotthefreedomofcreaturesmadeinGod'simage;rather,itisthe"freedom"intowhichwilddogsorsavagebeastsareborn(bornfreeinastateofnature).

RomanLawusestheterms"NaturalLaw"and"LawofNature"interchangeably.InRomanusage,NaturalLawisnotderivedfromman'scapacitytodiscoverthelawsoftheuniverse,andtoactuponthatuniversetocontinueGod'screationbasedonthehumansparkofreason.Rather,"thelawsof natureremaineverfixedandimmutable."(TheInstitutes;OfPersons).InRomanLawthereisacompleteabsenceofphysicaleconomyandman'sPrometheanroleinscience.Everythingisdiscussedfromthestandpointofman'sfixedrelationwith(andwithin)nature.InRomanLaw,"NaturalLaw"asNicholasofCusawouldhaveexpressedit,doesnotexist.

Sincethereisnorealuniversal"NaturalLaw,"societiesarefreetoenactlawswhichinfringeuponthe"LawsofNature."Forexample,"Freedomisthenaturalpowerofdoingwhatweeachplease,unlesspreventedbyforceoflaw...Slaveryisaninstitutionofthelawofnations,bywhichonemanismadethepropertyofanother,contrarytonaturalright.Slavesareinthepoweroftheirmasters,apowerderivedfromthelawofnations;foramongallnationsitmayberemarkedthatmastershavethepoweroflife anddeathovertheirslaves."

ThisRomandistinctionbetweentheLawofNatureandtheLawofNations(manmadelaw),istheoriginofthecenturieslongdebateoverNaturalLawvs.PositiveLaw.ItshouldbenotedthatfromGrotius,throughLocke,downintothemodernera,thisdebateisaxiomaticallyflawed,becausemostofthoseinvolvedarenottalkingabout(Cusa'sorPlato's)NaturalLaw,buttheRomanLawofNature.

TheheartandsoulofRomanLawistheCorpusJurisCivilis,writtenatthedirectionoftheEmperorJustinianandissuedin533AD.TherewereoriginallythreepartstotheCorpus,withafourthaddedlater.ThefirstthreepartswerenotwrittenatthetimeofJustinian,butcompiledfrommucholdersources.Thefourpartsare:

1)TheCodexJustinianus[Codex](alloftheextantconstitutions,goingbacktothetimeofHadrian)2)ThePandects[Digest](writingsofgreatRomanjurists,alongwithcurrentedicts.ItconstitutedthecurrentRomanlawofthetime.)3)TheInstitutiones[Institutes](intendedasastudyguideforlawschools,andincludedextractsfromtheCodexandDigest.)4)TheNovellaeConstitutiones(newlawsandstatutesadoptedduringJustinian'stime.)

TheCorpusJurisCivilisisthesourceofallmodern"contractlaw,"aswellasvarioustheoriesofpropertyrights.Again,theapproachtakeniscompletelybestial:"Thethingswetakefromour enemiesbecomeimmediatelyoursbythelawofnations,sothatevenfreementhusbecomeourslaves... Preciousstones,gemsandotherthingsfoundupontheseashorebecomeimmediately,bynaturallaw,thepropertyofthefinder."(TheInstitutes;OfThings)

TheargumentemployedbyHugoGrotiusinhisworkOntheFreedomoftheSeasisentirelybasedonRomanLaw.IfyouhavereadGrotius,comparehimwiththefollowingquotes:"Bythelawof naturethesethingsarecommontomankindtheair,runningwater,thesea,andconsequentlythe

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shoresofthesea."Andalso:"Wildbeasts,birds,fish,andallanimals...sosoonastheyaretakenbyanyone,immediatelybecomebythelawofnationsthepropertyofthecaptor;fornaturalreasongivesto thefirstoccupantthatwhichhadnopreviousowner."(bothfrom,TheInstitutes;OfThings)

ThisissueofRomanLawisnotesoterica.RomanLawhasdefinedtheoligarchicalnotionofnaturallawandjurisprudencedowntothemodernera.TheNapoleonicCodewasperhapstheworstmodernfascistversionofRomanLaw,butsadly,theaxiomsofRomanLawcanbefoundtothisdayintheconstitutionsofmanynations,includinginpresentdayEurope.

Aristotle

DespitetheearlierPlatonic(Augustinian)influenceoverWesternChristianity,theVenetianascendancyofthe12thand13thcenturiesbroughtwithitanonslaughtofAristoteleanism.ThisAristoteleanpestilenceenteredEuropeviatworoutes.FirstwastherevivalofRomanLawitself,whichisAristotelean,bothinitsverynatureandduetothefactthatmanyancientRomanjuristswereleadingAristoteleanscholars.(ThemostfamousofthesewasPaulus,circa200AD).Thesecondentrypointwasthetranslation,andrepublishingofAristotle'swritings.

ThisAristoteleanrevivalbeganinthe11thcentury,andprogressedintandemwiththeaforementioneddevelopmentsatBologna.Atfirstthenewtranslations(intoLatin)camefromIslamicSpainandnorthernAfrica,andstandardhistoriesusuallyemphasizethis.However,afterthe1209VenetianconquestofConstantinopleandseizureofCyprus,itwasVenicethatbecamethecenterofAristoteleanscholarship.ThefirstEuropeantranslationofAristotlehisPoliticswaspublishedtherein1270.ThisworkquicklybecamethemoststudiednonreligioustextinEurope.TheemergingEuropeanuniversities,includingtheItalianones,aswellasOxford,Cambridge,andParis,allbecamecentersoftherevivedstudyofRomanLawandAristotle,suchthatbythelate13thcentury,atmanyoftheuniversities,thethreemainareasofstudywereCanonLaw,RomanLaw,andAristotle.

AftertheTurkishconquestofConstantinoplein1453,thousandsofGreekemigresfledtoCrete,aVenetianpossession,creatingasecondwaveofVenetianAristoteleanscholarship.

Whystartthisway?

Althoughthepost1582developmentsinVenice,Amsterdam,andLondonusheredinanewmodernformofEmpire,inacertainsensethepeculiarlyEuropeancharacteristicsofEmpirethathavecomedowntoustoday,canallbefoundinthefirstVenetianempireofthe12th,13th,and14th

centuries,fromtheusuryoftheLombardLeaguetotheantihumannotionsofAristoteleanismandRomanLaw.Throughouttheensuingcenturies,whereveryoufindAristotleandRomanLaw,youarecertaintofindtheVenetianpestilence,andviceversa.Nomatterwhatotherchangesmighthaveoccurred,theyarealwayspresent.Always.Novirus,noplagueofanykind,hastorturedthehumanspeciesthroughoutitshistory,ashavethesedeadideasfromthepast.

Nominalistsmisunderstandeverythingabouthistory.Thus,historianswithoutacluewillconcludethattheLombardLeagueofcitieswasdeployedagainsttheexpansionoftheGermanEMPIRE.SomewilleventalkabouttheEMPIREofCharlemagne.Suchanalysisisreallyjustdrivel.Empiresarenotempiresbecauseoftheirgeographicalboundaries,norbecausetheyhavehereditarymonarchies,norbecausetheyhavecolonies.Empiresareempiresbecauseoftheirnature,onewherehumansaretreatedlikecattle,tobeusedandculledbyanoligarchy.AsIsaid,mosthistoriansarebadlyconfused;howelsecouldtheypossiblyrefertoVeniceasarepublic?

Inhistoricalresearch,asintrackingadangerousanimal,onelooksforthespoor.RomanLawandAristoteleanismaretheEmpire'sspoor.

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Chapter2TheVenetianEmpire,beforeandaftertheCouncilofFlorence

BeginningwiththenationbuildingpoliciesofCharlemagne,andcontinuingundertheSalicandHohenstaufenrulersinGermany,EuropebegantoslowlyrecoverfromthedevastationoftheRomanEmpireandit'saftermath.Bythe12thcentury,populationwasincreasing,aswasfoodproductionandmanufacturingactivity.ThesepositivedevelopmentswerealldestroyedbythepoliciesofVenice,particularlyafter1200,asEuropewasdrivenintoacollapse,resultinginahorrorbeyondanythingintheimaginationofeventheworstoftheCaesars.

Culturally,unliketherealmofCharlemagneortheHolyRomanEmpire,Veniceofthe12ththrough14thcenturieswasverymuchaproductofitsRomanandByzantinepast.NeverconqueredduringtheGothinvasions,apartofJustinian'sempireinthe6thcentury,andintermarriedovercenturieswithByzantinenobility,theVenetianoligarchywasneverreallyEuropean,butratheracontinuationoftheancientAsianempiremodelofBabylonanditssuccessors.ThroughtheVenetianSenate,theCouncilof10,andthelaterCouncilof3,aformofpermanentoligarchywasestablished,whosepowerlastedwellintothe18thcentury.

FromtheperiodofthefirstCrusadein1099throughtothecollapseanddepopulationoftheBlackDeathin13471351,EuropewasdominatedbythisfirstmanifestationofaVenetianempire.DespiteVenice'sseizureofByzantineandothercolonies,thiswasneverprimarilyanempireofgeographicalexpansion,butofmaritimeand,particularly,financialascendancy.UnlikeGermany,theLowCountries,orFrance,Venicepossessednoindustry,saveforit'sgiantmilitary/navalfactory,theArsenal.Theirpowerwasintheircontrolovertrade,particularlytradebetweenEuropeandtheEast,andinbankingandcurrencymanipulation.

Venice'sfirstpartnersincreatingtheirempireweredrawnfromthetheNormannobilityofEurope,particularlyfromFranceandAngevinEngland.ItwastheNormanswhoactedasthecannonfodderforVenice'swarsofconquest,knownastheCrusades.VenicealsocontrolledtheBlackGuelph(Welf)partyofthenorthernItaliancities,alliedwiththepapacy.BeginningwiththeGuelphsmilitarycampaignsagainstFrederickBarbarossain1176,theVenicecontrolledLombardLeaguewasborn,agroupwhichcametoincludeallofthemajorcitiesofnorthernItaly,withtheexceptionofMilan.TheseLombardLeaguecitiesthenservedasthecentersfortheemergenceoftheusuriousLombardbankingsystem.

ThisVenetiancontrolledallianceofthenorthernAngevinnobility,theGuelphdominatedLombardLeague,andtheVatican,ruledoverEurope,andthroughthepowerofthebankinghousesoftheLombardLeague,imposedafinancialsystembasedentirelyonextremeusuryandeconomiclooting.

Although13thcenturyLombardbankingisusuallyassociatedwiththemajorFlorentinebanksofBardi,Peruzzi,andAcciaiuoli,ashasbeenconclusivelydocumentedinotherlocations,7Venice'scontrolofgoldandsilvertradingmadeittheactualgodfatheroftheLombardBankingsystemofthisperiod.NotonlytheFlorentinebanks,butincreasinglyeveryroyalcourtinEurope,fromNaples,toFrance,toEngland,toCastile,andevenincludingthepapalcourtatAvignon,cameunderthedominationofVenice'scontrolofsilverandgoldtrading.

7 Money and Banking in Medieval and Renaissance Venice, by Frederick C. Lane; and How Venice Rigged the First, and Worst, Global Financial Crash, by Paul Gallagher, Fidelio, Vol. 4, No. 4, 1995

Doge Enrico Dandolo: leader of the infamous 4th Crusade

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Formorethan100years,thisVenetiancreatedmonstrositydestroyedandlootedthecontinentofEurope.CountriessuchasNaplesandEnglandweredrivenintobankruptcy;woolenandotherproductioncollapsed;foodproductiondeclined;and,bynolaterthan1290,Europebegantolosepeople.Cities,towns,andnationswereallensnaredintheVeniceLombardwebofdebtandusury.Intheabsenceofsovereignnationalcreditinstitutions,theLombardbankersbecamethedefactocreditorsandfinancialdictatorsofEurope.

Muchlikethefinancialvulturesoftoday,theLombardbankersnotonlydrovetheirvictimsintodebt,butusedthatdebttoseizerealassets.By1325,forexample,thePeruzzibankownedalloftherevenuesoftheKingdomofNaples,themostproductivegrainbeltoftheentireMediterraneanarea.InCastileandEnglandtheentiretyofwoolproductionwaspledgedascollateralfortheLombardloans.ThesituationinFrance,Hungary,andelsewherewassimilar.EuropewastransformedintoagigantictaxfarmaslocalrulerslootedtheireconomiesandpeopletosendmoneyacrosstheAlps.

By1300wholesectionsofEuropewereexperiencingsevereeconomicdecline,foodshortages,andlossofpopulation.Continentwidefaminesstruckin131417,andagainin13289.Thefinancialbubblebegantoburstinthe1320s,withafirstwaveofLombardbankingfailures.Financialdoomsdayarrivedin13421345withthecollapseoftheAcciaiuoli,Buonacorsi,Bardi,andPeruzzibankinghouses.

ThebubonicplaguesweptacrossEuropefrom1347to1351,killinganestimated30percentofthepopulation,andinmanyareasfarmorethan50percent.From1351throughtotheearly15thcentury,thepopulationdeclinedfurther,asdisease,famineandeconomicdevastationplayedthemselvesout.

TheRenaissance&thecreationofnationstates

ThehorrorvisitedonEuropefrom1320to1420destroyedthesocialfabricaswellasthepoliticalandphilosophicalaxiomsofthemedievalworld.Oneresultwasthat,althoughVenicesurvivedthecollapseofthelate14thcentury,itspowerwasgreatlyweakened,givingpoliticalleadersthroughoutEuropetheabilitytothrowofftheLombardfinancialshacklesandbegintorebuildtheirnations.Bytheearly1400s,theremainingLombardbankerswerebeingexpelledfromcountryaftercountry:Arragonin1401,Englandin1403,Flandersin1409,andFrancein1410.TheVenetianultramontanefinancialempirecrumbledasnationsbegantoexertsovereigntyovertheirownaffairs.

Atthesametime,theprofoundexistentialnatureofthepreviouscentury'scrisis,createdtheopportunity,inthe1400s,foraseachangeinphilosophicalandscientificoutlook,includingareexaminationofthenatureofManandhisroleintheuniverse.

BeginningwiththerevivaloftheworksoftheantiGuelphItalianpoetDanteAlighieriincludingnotonlyhisCommedia,buthispoliticalworkssuchasDeMonarchiaandtheearly15th

centurytranslationandpublicationofPlato'sdialogues,8newideasingovernmentandhumansocietybegantotoemerge,ideascoherentwitharevolutionarychangeinMan'sselfconception.Manypeoplewereinvolvedinthis,withtheearlyroleofPetrarchbeingexemplary.

ThegreatestfigureofthisperiodwastheGermanchurchmanNicholasofCusa.InhiswritingsOnNotOtherandOnLearnedIgnorance,CusarefutedthemedievalscientificmethodologyofAristotleandEuclid,returningsciencetoitsPlatonic/Pythagoreanorigin.InTheCatholicConcordanceCusaestablishedthe

8 The Renaissance and the Rediscovery of Plato and the Greeks, by Torbjorn Jerlerup, Fidelio, Vol XII, No.3, 2003

Cardinal Nicholas of Cusa

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principleoftheCommonwealth,anationstatebasedontheprincipleofagap,oftheCommonGood,andinhisOnthePeaceofFaith,hepresentedthebasisforanecumenicalpeaceamongnations.

Cusa'slifework,almostuniversallyignoredinthehistorybooksoftoday,representsoneofthegreatestrevolutionaryinterventionsinallofhumanhistory.Inhisscientificandmathematicalwritings,CusadestroyedAristoteleanism,andreturnedsciencetoitsrightfuldomainofhypothesisandhumancreativity.ForCusa,Manwasnotabeast,afarmanimal,oraslave,buteachhumanbeingwasacreatureendowedwithcreativereason.FromCusa'sinfluencecamethegreatDomebuiltbyFlippoBrunelleschi,constructedontheprincipleofthecatenary,attheSantaMariadelFioreCathedralinFlorence;thebreakthroughsindynamicsandperspectivebyLeonardoDaVinci;themapofToscanelliwhichprovidedColumbuswitharoutetotheNewWorld;andmany,manyother

radiatingeffects.Cusaorganizedthegreat1439CouncilofFlorence,whichbroughtleadersfromthroughout

Europeintoanagreementontheagapicprincipleofthefilioque,andestablishedthebasisforanewcivilization,9builtontheprinciples,ofhumanreason,theCommonGood,andnationalsovereignty.

In1461LouisXIascendedtothethroneofFrance,andproceededtoestablishthefirstmodernsovereignnationstate,basedonCusa'sCommonwealthprinciple.10AlliedwiththeMediciinFlorence,Louisproceededtobuildports,roads,schools,printinghouses,industry,andinfrastructure.Heprovidedsupportforthecities,createdanationalcurrency,andbrokethepowerofthefeudalbaronies.TheseareLouis'ownwords,takenfromhisbookLeRosierdesGuerres(TheRosebushof Wars):

ConsideringthatthecharacteristicofKingsandPrincesandtheirKnights,isthattheir estateandvocationistodefendthecommongood,bothecclesiasticandsecular,andtoupholdjusticeandpeaceamongtheirsubjects,andtodogood,theywillhavegoodinthisworldandintheotherandoutofdoingevilwillonlycomegrief;andonemustcountonedayonleavingthisworldtogoandgiveanaccountofone'sundertakingsandreceiveone'sreward.Andtoexposetheirlivesforothers,ofwhichamongallotherestatesoftheworldismosttobepraisedandhonored.Andbecausethecommongoodwhichconcernsmany,whichisthepublicmatteroftheRealmismorepraiseworthythantheparticular, bywhichthecommongoodisoftenfrustrated;wehavegladlyputinwritingthedeedsof princesandoftheirknightsandallthegoodtenetsthatservedtheircause....

Readtheabovequoteagain,andthencomparewhatLouissaysabouttheCommonGood,withthenotionsofRomanLawandthepoliciesoftheLombardLeaguediscussedabove.NicholasofCusasdiscoveryoftheCommonwealthprincipleadiscoveryofanactualuniversalprinciplewasoneofthemostprofoundrevolutionsinhumanhistory,anditproducedaseachangeinthepoliticalorganizationofhumanity.

9 Nicholas of Cusa and the Council of Florence, by Helga-Zepp LaRouche, Fidelio, Vol. 1, No. 2, 199210 The Commonwealth of France's Louis XI: Foundations Of The Nation State, by Pierre Beaudry, New Federalist, July 3, 1995

Brunelleschi's revolutionary Duomo in Florence

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LouisXIsexamplewascontagious.In1485,HenryTudor,whohadlivedinBrittanyandFranceduringthereignofLouis,invadedEngland,overthrewthelastofthePlantagenetkings,RichardIII,andestablishedTudorrule.Asking,HenryVIIadoptedthesamemethodsofnationaleconomicdevelopmentandsovereignty,thatLouishadpursuedinFrance.LikeLouisheattackedthepowerofthefeudalnobility,andimplementednationalpoliciesinspiredbytheprincipleoftheCommonGood.AshadoccurredinFrance,foodproduction,nationalincome,andpopulationallincreased,forthefirsttimeinmorethanacentury.TheseinitiativesinsovereigntyandnationbuildingwerenotlimitedtoFranceandEngland,butaffectedtheIberianpeninsula,Flanders,andelsewhere.TakentogetherwiththerevolutioninscienceundertakenbyNicholasofCusaandhisallies,anewfutureformankindseemedtobeathand.WiththesuccessofColumbus'transAtlanticvoyagein1492,thechancetoannihilatetheoldfeudaloligarchicorderwasunfolding.AsDesideriusErasmusdeclaredtoThomasMoreina1499letter,humanityseemedpoisedatthedawnofanewera.

VeniceagainsttheCommonwealth

Erasmuswasnotwronginhisassessment.TheestablishingofsovereignnationstatesinFranceandEngland,togetherwiththeradiatinginfluenceofCusasrevolutioninscience,threatenedtheveryexistenceoftheVenetiansystemofusuryandslavery.ButtheVenetiansfoughtback.

DemonstratingthesameoligarchicalarroganceasthatoftheOlympiangods,thefirstreactionofVenicetotheserevolutionarychangeswastotrytoforcethegeniebackinthebottle,toreimposethefeudalworldofusuryandAristotlebyforceandbloodshed.AndVenicestillpossessedthemeanstotry.InthemidfifteenthcenturyVenicewasstillthemostpowerfulmaritimenationinEurope,controlledEurope'sslaveandbulliontrade,maintainedthemostextensivepoliticalintelligenceoperationsonthecontinent,andwasthehomeofthemostinfluentialcenterofAristoteleanscholarshipinEurope,theUniversityofPadua.

TothisendVeniceturnedtonewallies,theHapsburgdynasty,firstinAustria,theninSpain.AspartofthisHapsburgoperation,theVenetianscreatedanewfinancialfronttoreplacethatofthedefunctLombardbankerstheHouseofFugger.JacobFugger,aninsignificantAustrianspicetraderresidinginVenice,waspickedupbytheVenetiansandmadetheiragentincontrolofmostofthesilverandcopperminesincentralEurope.Fromthevastwealthaccumulatedintheseoperations,FuggercreatedthemostpowerfulbankinghouseinEurope,andthenbankrolledtheAustrianHapsburgs,previouslyonlysecondtierGermannobility,intocontroloftheHolyRomanEmpire.

In1518,utilizingaseriesofdynasticmarriages,theHapsburgstookcontrolofSpainandtheFuggersbecamealsothebankerstotheSpanishmonarchy.AftertheSpanishbankruptcyof1575,theFuggerswerereplacedasthefinancialcontrollersoftheSpanishcrownbyVenice'sjuniorpartner,Genoa.ButforVenice,thatjustmeantsubstitutingoneproxyforanother.11

Inessence,the14thcenturyBlackGuelphpartywasrebornastheHolyAlliance,aVeniceHapsburgVaticanaxis,withVeniceindirectcontrolofthePapalCuria.VenicealsocontrolledthepoliciesofSpainthroughitsFuggerandGenoeseallies,who,asthecreditorstotheSpanishgovernment,drainedoffallofthelootfromSpainsmassivetrafficingold,silver,andslaves,manipulatedeveryaspectofSpanishpolicy,anddrovetheSpanishCrownintobankruptcyseveraltimes.Atthesametime,VenicelaunchedanalloutcounterattackagainsttherevolutioninscienceinitiatedbyNicholasCusaandhisfollowers.LikeZeustheythoughttheycouldoutlawmansaccesstofirethroughtheuseofimperialforce.Thiseffortculminatedinthe15451563CouncilofTrent,whichattemptedtoreimposeAristoteleanrigidity,essentiallybyPapaldecree.Themastermindofthis

11 Genoa had been subservient to Venice ever since her defeat by Venice in the 1380 Battle of Chioggia. Previously, Genoa was also a loyal member of Venice's Lombard League syndicate.

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socalledCatholicCounterReformationwastheVenetianCardinalGasparoContarini.

AttheheartofthisVenetiancounteroffensivewastheuseofterror.Sheerbarbaricterror.WiththeinitiationoftheSpanishInquisitionin1478,underthedirectionofTomsdeTorquemada,Europewasdrenchedinbloodshed,settingofftheWarsofReligionwhichdidnotenduntil1648.Wavesofmasskillings,persecution,andinflamedpassionsengulfedEurope,thevictimofwhichwasthehumanistidealsoftheRenaissance.12Theensuingdecadesofpartisanreligiouswarfare,creatingalmostacontinentwidepsychosis,wereahammer,aimedatshatteringthedevelopmentofsovereignnationstatecommonwealths.13

TheendoftheOldRegime

Ultimately,thisVenetianstrategydidntwork.Bytheearly16thcenturythegeopoliticalcrisisfacingVenicewasaninescapablereality.ThewaroftheLeagueofCambrai,from1509to1513,whenforeigntroopshadenteredtheVenetianLagoon,hadexposedthemilitaryvulnerabilityofVenice'sdefenses.Inaddition,bymidcentury,Venicewasthreatenedwiththelossofnotonlyhercolonies,butherentireaccesstotradewiththeeast,atthehandsoftheOttomanTurks.DespitetheVenetianHapsburgPapalvictoryatthe1571BattleofLepanto,VenicelostCyprusandothercolonies,andwasforcedtosignahumiliatingtreatywiththeTurksin1573.Economically,Venicebegantohemorrhage.Between1560and1600,thesizeoftheVenetianmerchantmarineshrankbyonehalf.In1560abankingcrisisstruck,lastingintothe1580s.Thiswasatotalcollapse,suchthatby1584everyprivatebankinghouseinVenicehadclosed.

Atthesametime,theexplosionoftransoceanictravelhadcreatedanentirelynewstrategicreality.SmallbutsignificantnumbersofEuropeansbegantoemigrate,particularlytotheWesternHemisphere,hopingtoescapetheoldworldoligarchicalmatrix.VenicewasinnopositiontomeetthischallengeoftheNewWorld,toundertakethetaskofimposingaglobalmaritimeempire.

Perhaps,ifVenicehadstucktoitsreactionarymethods,itcouldhavefoundawaytoovercomeitsdifficultiesanddealwithmostofthechallengesmentionedabove.Buttherewasoneproblemthatcouldnotbesolvedusingtheoldmedievalmethods.TheideaoftheCommonwealthtogetherwithunprecedentedscientificandtechnologicalprogresshadbeenunleashedbytheRenaissance.Thezerogrowthworldoffeudalismwasforeverdead.DespitealloftheVenetianinspiredbloodshedandintrigues,humanprogresswasonthemarch,andsomeinVenicerealizedthatthenewideasofscientificprogressandnationalsovereigntycouldnotbestoppedbytheSpanishInquisitor'storturechamber.

After1513,newinitiativesweretakentotransformcertainfundamentalfeaturesoftheEmpire,tochangeitinordertosaveit.Anewdirectionwasrequired.Thisallplayedoutoveraperiodofseveraldecades,withimportantinputsfromItaly,Flanders,Spain,andelsewhere,but,ultimately,thecreationofanewmodelofEmpirewouldhavetocomefromanewleadershipinVeniceitself.

12 "Two poor creatures have been burnt, and the whole city has turned Lutheran... Either I am blind or they aim at something else than Luther. They are preparing to conquer the phalanx of the muses." - in a letter from Erasmus to Thomas More, 152313 To understand the face of this evil, see Friedrich Schiller's Don Carlos

Torquemada's Inquisitors

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Chapter3TheGiovanniRevolution

ThemodernEuropeancivilizationunleashedbytheFifteenthCentury"golden"Renaissance,hadbroughtthemodernsovereignformofrepublic,alsoknownasasystemofcommonwealths,intobeing.Sarpi'sviewwasthatthisnewenemy,thecommonwealth,couldnotbedefeatedifthefinancieroligarchicalinteresttypifiedbymedievalVenetianusury,refusedtoadapttoreformsinfavorofsomelimiteduseofthenewideasofpracticeassociatedwiththescientificrevolutionwhichhadbeenlaunched,largely,byVenice'schosenchiefenemy,CardinalNicholasofCusa.

LyndonH.LaRoucheJr.,TheEndofOurDelusion

In1613,attherequestoftheVenetianSenate,themonkPaoloSarpi,wroteTheHistoryoftheInquisition.ThiswasfollowedthreeyearslaterbySarpi'smostfamouswork,TheHistoryoftheCouncilofTrent.Withthesetwowritings,issuedatatimewhenhewasthechiefcounselortotheVenetiangovernment,SarpiofficiallyannouncedtotheworldthattheVenetianSpanishVaticanalliancewasdead.However,theseworksonlyproclaimedwhateveryonealreadyknew.Earlier,in1606,SarpihadledtheVenetiangovernmentintoanopenconfrontationwithRomeoverPapalinsistenceofecclesiasticalrightsinVenice.Attheheightoftheensuingcrisis,PopePaulVissuedaPapalBull,excommunicatingtheVenetianDoge,theSenateandeveryinhabitantofVenice.ShortlythereafterheissuedaseparateBullpersonallyexcommunicatingSarpiasecondtime.Inaddition,hedeclaredaPapalInterdictagainsttheentirestateofVenicewhichremainedineffectuntil1609.WhenVenicerefusedtobackdown,RomedeployedpaidassassinstoVenice,wheretheyattackedSarpi,stabbinghimrepeatedlyintheneckandheadandleavinghimfordead.Sarpirecoveredfromhiswounds,andfromthenonVeniceneverstrayedfromitsnewcourse.

WhoweretheGiovani?

Inthelate1570s,afactionemergedinVenice,determinedtomoveVeniceinanewdirection.TheywerenamedthepartyoftheGiovani(theyouthful),andin1582theybrokethepoweroftheCouncilof10,andforcedtheVenetianoligarchytoreturnpoliticalcontroltotheSenate,whichtheGiovanicontrolled.Thesewerenotdowntroddensansculotterevolutionaries.TheycamefromsomeofthemostpowerfuloligarchicalfamiliesinVenice,andtheirranksincludedseveralfutureDoges,includingLeonardoDonato,whoprotectedSarpiduringtheInterdictcrisis,andNicoloContarini,whowasperhapsSarpi'sclosestallyamongtheVenetiannobility. Bythe1590s,itwasSarpiwhowastheacknowledgedintellectualleaderoftheGiovanifaction,anditwasSarpi'sviewswhichwoulddeterminethestrategicpoliciesofVeniceuntilyearsafterhisdeath.DespitethefactthatSarpiandhisallieswouldultimatelymoveVeniceintoanopenstrategicandmilitaryalliancewiththeProtestantnorth,theactionsoftheGiovanihadnothingtodowithreligion.TheirswasasharedgoaltosavethesystemofEmpirewhichVenicehadepitomizedformorethanfourcenturies.

TheVenetiancollaboratorsofSarpiweregroupedaroundaseriesofridotti(salons),butitwastheridottoofAndreaMorosini,whosefamilyhadcontributednumerousDogestoVeniceoverthecenturies,whichbecametheepicenterofSarpi'sinnercircle.ParticipantsotherthanSarpihimself

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includedGiovanniFrancescoSagredo(latertobeSarpi'shandsoncontrollerofGalileo,twoofhisgrandsonswouldalsobecomeDoges),NicoloContarini(futureDogeandtheprotectorofMonteverdi),AndreaMorosini,LeonardoDonato(anotherfutureDoge),MarcTevisiano,OttavioBuono,DomenicoMolino(heservedasSarpi'sgobetweeninacorrespondencewithFrancisBacon),AntonioQuirini(oneofseveralmembersoftheVenetianSenateactiveintheRidottoMorosini,QuiriniwouldpublishpamphletsindefenseofSarpithatwereplacedonthePapalIndex),MariniZane,LeonardoMocenigo(latertheBishopofCeneda),JacopoMorosini,andothers.

Therewereotherridottiforotherpurposes;somewerecentersofdiscussionsinmathematics,orphysiology,suchastheRidottoNavedOro,whereGalileospentmuchofhistimewhenhewasnotatMorosini'sRidotto.Otherridotti,likethePaduanhomeoftheGenoeseGianVincenzoPinella,wereplaceswhereSarpicouldmakecontactwithhisforeign,particularlyProtestant,allies,suchastheFrenchHuguenotDuPlessisMornay.

MuchlikethelaternotoriousactivitiesofMadamedeStaal,thesesalonswerenoteithersimplysocialclubs,norartisticliterarygroups.Ontheonehand,Sarpiwastheunquestionedleaderofthenetwork,andfromtheseridotti,hewouldlaunchthecreationofhisnewscienceofempiricism.Atthesametime,thesemeetingplacesrepresentedtheheadquartersforapoliticalefforttoremakeVenice,andtochangetheentiregeopoliticalmapofEurope.

Thenewbankingparadigm

Fiveyearsafterthe1582Giovannitakeover,thefirstpublicbankinVenicewasestablished,thejustlyfamousBancodellaPiazzadiRialto,sometimessimplycalledtheBankofVenice.Thiswasfollowed,in1619,byasecondbank,theBancoGiro,whichgraduallyabsorbedtheformer.

ThisbankingrevolutionwastheGiovani'sanswertotheRenaissancethreatofthesovereignCommonwealth.Underthisnewbankingsystem,allofthethepre1400usuriouspracticesoftheLombardbankerswereretained,but,essentially,ratherthanhaveprivatefamilybanksloanmoneytothestate,theinnovationwastohavethefinancialoligarchysimplytakeoverthestate,i.e.,toeradicateanyprincipleofnationalsovereignty,toeliminatetheideaoftheCommonGood,andtomakethestateitselfanarmofthefinancialoligarchy.That,inessence,istheAngloDutchfinancialsystem.

Arecent,interesting,ifflawed,paperbythehistoriansFratianniandSpinelli,whichexaminesboththeVenetianbankingrevolution,aswellastherelatedcreationoftheCasadiSanGiorgioinGenoa,providesusefulinsightsintothesedevelopments.14ThemistakeFratianniandSpinellimakeisthat,incomparingthesocalledpublicvs.privatenatureofthebanksinVeniceandGenoa,theyfailtoseethatthefoundingofbothbanksrepresentedanexpansionofthepowerofthefinancialoligarchyoverthecivilstate,andtheytrytoohardtoproveadifferencebetweentheGenoeseandVenetianexperiences.TheBankofVeniceandtheCasadiSanGiorgioweremerelyfirststepstowardsanewbankingparadigm,andtheirlateremulatorsinAmsterdamandLondonwouldgomuchfurtherincreatinganentirelynewformoffinancialempire.

TheBankofVenicebecamethedirectinspirationforthe1609BankofAmsterdam,andtogether,thesetwobankswerethemodelfortheBankofEnglandin1694.People,writingatthattime,wereveryaware,andveryexplicit,thatthenewfinancialmodelwasderivedfromVenice.Thus,intheyearsprecedingthe1688GloriousRevolutioninEngland,wefindthe1651proposalbySirBalthazerGerbierforthecreationofabankofpaymentinLondonafterthestyleofeitherthebankofAmsterdam,orthatofVenice;the1678bookbyDr.MarkLewis,ProposalstotheKingandParliament,wherehecallsforthecreationofanationalbankofissuance,basedonthedesignoftheBankofVenice,whichhepraisesas"theperfectcreditbank;"andthe1690callbyNicholasBarbonforthecreationofanationalpublicbank,modeledonthoseinVeniceandAmsterdam.Itis

14 Did Genoa and Venice Kick a Financial Revolution in the Quattrocento, by Michele Fratianni & Franco Spinelli, Oesterreichische

18

therefore,noexaggerationtosaythatthe1582GiovaniRevolutionwasthepointoforiginfortheAngloDutchSystem.

ThebankingchangesinVenicemightappearatfirstasmerelyafewchangesinfinancialstructuresandpractices,buttheaxiomaticchangewasprofound.Firstoff,boththeBancodella PiazzadiRialto,andthesubsequentBancoGiroweregrantedamonopolybytheVenetiangovernmentontheissuanceofbanknotesandbillsofcredit.ThenotesofthesebanksweredeclaredlegaltenderbytheVenetiangovernment,andtheycirculatedpubliclyasthelegalequivalentofmoney.Although,boththeVenicebank,aswellastheSanGiorgioinGenoa,alsofunctionedasdepositbanks,takingindeposits,makingloans,andconductingspecietransactions,itwasthischangeintheirrelationtothestatewhichwaskey.

Thiswasthenewparadigm,fromwhicheverythinglaterdeveloped.Asaconsequenceofthemassivenewfinancialresourcesatitsdisposal,duringthisperiodVenicemadetheshiftfromacommercialeconomytoprimarilyarentierandspeculativeeconomy.By1620,VenicehadbecometheforemostEuropeancenterasaclearinghouseforBillsofExchange.

Fortheoligarchicalfondi,itisnottheindividualVenetian,Spanish,DutchorBritishempireswhichareimportant.Nationsareobstaclestotheoligarchy.ForthefondiitistheSystemofEmpirethatisfundamental.WiththecreationoftheBancodellaPiazzadiRialto,anditslaterimitatorsinAmsterdamandLondon,theoligarchyhadinvented,notnationalbanks,butthebeginningsofwhatwewouldcalltodayprivatecentralbanking.Theinstitutionsofthestateweremadesubservient,ormoreaccurately,werefusedtotheprivatebankingsystem.This,ofcourse,istheessentialideabehindthe20thcentury'scorporativismoftheMussoliniregime,aswellastheideologicaldescendantsofMussolini,likeFelixRohatyn,today.TheCommonwealthwastobeeliminated,tobesupplantedbyaworldrunbythefondi.

MovingtheEmpiretothenorth

AftertheassassinationoftheDutchleaderWilliamtheSilentin1584,thepotentialforacommonwealthtransformationoftheNetherlands15waseliminated.TheSpanisharmy'sdestructionofAntwerpin1585,andtheclosureoftheAntwerpBourse(stockexchange),thenledtothe"greatexodus"fromthesouthernprovincesoftheNetherlandstothenorth,withmorethan19,000merchants,bankers,andBoursespeculatorsfleeingAntwerp,andmostsettlinginAmsterdam.InAmsterdam,theearlierspeculativepracticesoftheBoursewouldbeweddedwiththenewVenetianbankingmodel,toproduceanewfinancialcapitalfortheEmpire.Theearlyfruitsofthiseffortcamequickly,withwiththefoundingoftheDutchEastIndiaCompanyin1602,theAmsterdamExchange(theNewBourse)in1608,andtheBankofAmsterdamin1609.ThatsameyeartheGiovanicontrolledVenetianSenatebecamethefirstgovernmentinEuropetoofficiallyrecognizeDutchindependencefromSpain,andtoexchangeambassadors.

WithinafewyearsthefinancialrevolutioninAmsterdamwouldbemimickedinseveralotherlocations,includingthefoundingoftheBanksofHamburgandSweden,andsimilareventsinothernorthernmaritimecitiesthatwerepreviouslyassociatedwiththeHanseaticLeague.

Venice'snextstepinmakingthisshifttothenorthirreversible,wastopulltheNetherlandstighterintotheVenetianorbit,whilesimultaneouslyinitiatingasimilartransformationinEngland.ThekeytothisoperationwastheVenetianconfrontationwithRomeduringtheInterdictcrisis,andthesubsequentroleofVeniceinprovokingtheThirtyYearsWarof16181648.

Sarpi'spublicleadershipduringtheInterdict,andthefailedefforttoassassinatehim,hadtheeffectofmakinghim,aRomanCatholicmonk,theherooftheProtestantworld.Sarpiwaslionizedamongpolitical,religious,andintellectualcirclesinGeneva,Paris,London,Amsterdam,and

15 See The History of the Revolt of the Netherlands, by Friedrich Schiller

19

elsewhere.AsnewsoftheInterdictspreadthroughEurope,thefirstgovernmenttoofficiallydefendVenicewastheDutchEstatesGeneralwhichofferedmilitaryaid.TheDutchStadholderMauriceofNassaupersonallytenderedhisservicestoVenice.From1610to1618thereexistedastateofundeclaredwarbetweenVeniceandHapsburgSpain,duringwhichVeniceandtheNetherlandswereinanunofficialmilitaryalliance.Later,inthe16151617warbetweenVeniceandHapsburgAustria,5,000DutchtroopsweresenttoserveinVenice,and12DutchwarshipsblockadedtheAdriatictopreventSpanishaidtoAustria.

HenryWotton,theEnglishAmbassadortoVeniceandaSarpisycophant,workedtirelesslyduringthisperiod,attemptingtorecruittheEnglishKingJamesIintoamilitaryalliancewithVenice.Healsoarrangedforthe1618publicationinLondonofthefirstEnglishtranslationofSarpi'sHistoryof theCouncilofTrent.Sarpi'splanwastodrawtheDutch,JamesIofEngland,andtheGermanProtestantprincesintoawaragainstSpain,theHolyRomanEmperorandthePapacy.TheensuingchaoscouldthenbespunbackintoFrance,rekindlingherreligiouswarsafterthe1610assassinationofKingHenryIV.Intheprocess,theheritageofLouisXIsandHenryVIIscommonwealthswouldbeeradicated,andnewclonesofVenicewouldbeconsolidatedinLondonandAmsterdam.

TheroleofSarpiandhisagentsinmanipulatingeventsleadinguptotheoutbreakofwarin1618iswelldocumentedinseverallocations.16Forexample,itwasSarpi,personally,whoadvisedChristian,thePrinceofAnhalt,andhisadvisorChristophvonDohna,toinduceFrederickV,theElectorofPalatine,toacceptthethroneofBohemia,theeventwhichactuallytriggeredtheoutbreakofhostilities.Meanwhile,theVenetianallyMauriceofNassau,fromhiscourtinTheHague,encouragedboththeBohemiansandthesameElectorofPalatineintoopenrevoltagainsttheHapsburgs,andheprovidedfinancialaide(100,000guilderspermonth),aswellasweaponsandammunition,whichwereshippedfromtheUnitedProvincestoFrederick'sarmyinBohemia.

Atthesametime,SarpidispatchedhispersonalassistantFulgenzioMicanziotoLondontopleadwithKingJamestointervenemilitarily,andSarpi'sagent,theEnglishAmbassadorHenryWotton,wenttoVienna,whereheconductedsecretcommunicationswithElizabeth,thewifeoftheElectorofPalatine.ElizabethalsohappenedtobethedaughterofJamesI,andSarpiandWottonhopedthatKingJamescouldbeinducedtoenterthewarindefenseofhisdaughter.

ThefoolishElectorFredericktookSarpisbait.HeacceptedtheBohemianthrone,thussettingoffthewarwhichSarpiwanted.Frederick(knownasthe"WinterKing")wasquicklydefeatedbytheAustrianarmy,andlostnotonlyBohemiabutthePalatineaswell,endinghisdaysasapoliticalrefugeeattheOrangeCourtinTheHague.

ButthewarproducedexactlytheeffectVenicedesired.TheoldRomeHapsburgdominationofEurope,adominationwhichVenicehaddonesomuchtocreate,wasbroken.TheVenetianCalvinistalliancegaveVeniceanentrypointtospreaditsinfluenceandmethodsnorthward;thepoweroftheVenetianPartyinLondon,groupedaroundRobertCecil,FrancisBacon,andtheCavendishfamilywasgreatlyenhanced;andtheNetherlandswerefirmlywithinVenice'sgrip.

In1618,actingastheofficialConsultoreoftheVenetiangovernment,SarpipersonallydirectedthesigningoftheDutchVenetianalliance.ItincludedamutualdefensepackagainsttheHapsburgs,andwhentheDutchresumeddirectwaragainsttheSpanishin1621,theVenetianssuppliedtheDutchgovernmentatTheHaguewithmorethan1millionducatstowardsthewareffort.

16 See, for example, The Role of the Venetian Oligarchy in the Reformation, Counter-Reformation, Enlightenment and the Thirty Years' War, by Webster Tarpley, New Federalist, March 22, 1993

20

Chapter4Sarpi'sWeb

Willyouwalkintomyparlor?saidthespidertothefly;'Tistheprettiestlittleparlorthateveryoumayspy.Thewayintomyparlorisupawindingstair,AndIhavemanycuriousthingstoshowwhenyouarethere.Ohno,no,saidthelittlefly;toaskmeisinvain,Forwhogoesupyourwindingstaircanne'ercomedownagain.

MaryHowitt

In1598,SirEdwinSandys,thenresidinginVenice,wroteabookonthestateofreligioninEurope,titledEuropaeSpeculum.Sandys'editor,andallegedcoauthorwasPaoloSarpi,whohadbefriendedSandysduringthelatter'sextendedstayinVenice.In1605Sandy'sbookwaspublished,inParis,bySarpi'sfriendandconfident,theHuguenotleaderGiovanniDiodoti,completewithanintroductionsuppliedbySarpihimself.

NineyearsafterleavingVenice,SandysbecameoneofthefoundersoftheLondonVirginiaCompany,charteredbyKingJamesI,forthepurposeofestablishingEnglishcoloniesinNorthAmerica.In1618,Sandyswasmadetreasurerofthecompanyandeffectivelyranituntil1623.In1619,underSandysleadership,twodozenAfricanslaves,purchasedfromaDutchmanofwar,werebroughtintoVirginia,thefirstblackslavesinanEnglishspeakingNorthAmericancolony.Theeconomyofthecolonywasorganizedaroundaseriesofplantations,includingCaptainLawne'sPlantationandCaptainWarde'sPlantation,anditwasSandyswhoalsointroducedthecultivationoftobaccoasthemajorcashcropofthecolony.Thuswasthetidewaterslaveplantationsystemestablished,andtheseedlingofthelaterConfederateStatesofAmericaplantedonNorthAmericansoil.SandyslatersatinParliamentformanyyearswhereheintroducedanumberbillssupportingfreetrade,andwasactiveintheaffairsoftheBritishEastIndiaCompanyuntilhisdeath.

TheabovesnapshotoftheSarpi/SandysrelationshipisgiventoillustratethebreadthofSarpi'sinfluenceandreachintheyearsfrom1582to1623.Hiscontacts,correspondence,andnetworks(notincludinghispersonalcoterieintheridottiofVenice),wasstaggeringlywidespread.HisweboffollowersincludedintimatesinmostofthecourtsofEurope,leadingscientificcircles,andthemajoruniversities,includingGeneva,Leyden,OxfordandCambridge.Hiscorrespondencewasvoluminous.DespitethefactthatmostofSarpi'spersonalpapersweredestroyedbyfirein1769,thereare430lettersfromSarpistillextant.DuringtheperiodoftheInterdictandlater,SarpihadunrestrictedaccesstoallofthedispatchessentfromabroadbyVenice'sAmbassadors,17placinghimatthecenterofVenetianintelligencegatheringoperations.HisletterscontainreferencestoeventsaswidespreadastheSpanishgoldtrade,movementsoftheDutchfleet,politicalchangesinEgyptandPersia,andtheissueofcolonizationoftheAmericas.And,ofcourse,thereisalsothescientificandphilosophicalcorrespondence.

TheeffectofthepersonalacclaimwhichdescendedonSarpi,asaresultofhisroleduringtheInterdict,cannotbeunderestimated.NotonlywashisnameonthetonguesoftheelitethroughoutEurope,manyyoungaspiringaristocratsactuallytraveledtoVenicetomeetthegreatmanhimself,includingthefutureBritishPrimeMinisterRobertCecil,anotherfounderoftheLondonVirginiaCompanyWilliamCavendish,andthephilosopherThomasHobbes.

ItisimpossibletofullyanalyzetheentireSarpinetwork,butIwillusetherestofthischaptertogivethumbnailprofilesofaboutadozenofSarpi'salliesanddisciples.Thetruthistherewere

17 News Networks in 17th Century Britain and Europe, by Joan Raymond, Routledge Press, 2006

21

hundredsofsuchSarpiallies,butthesefewbriefsketcheswillhopefullygivesomeindicationofthescopeandnatureofSarpi'sreach.

HenryWottonTheonlymanevertoservethreetimesastheBritishAmbassadortoVenice(16041612,16161619,16211624),WottonwasSarpi'sstaunchestpoliticalsupporterwithintheBritisharistocracy.ItislikelyhemetSarpiasearlyas1590,duringavisittoVenice,anditiscertainthatin1593hewaslivingatthehomeofSarpiconfidentIsaacCasauboninGeneva.From1604to1608,SarpiandWottonmetconstantlywiththeVenetianSenateduringtheInterdictcrisis,andduringthisperiodWottonwasunderthepersonalprotectionoftheGiovaniDogeLeonardoDonato.

WottonalsoplayedanimportantroleinrecruitingandorganizingtheproVenetiancircleatOxfordUniversity,groupedaroundtheItalianProtestantAlbericusGentili.Amongothers,thisgroupincludedRobertCecil,ThomasWalsingham,JohnDonne,andJamesFlorio.WhenGalileo'sSidereusNuncias(StarryMessenger)waspublishedin1610,WottonsentacopytoRobertCecilontheverysameday.

FrancisBaconBaconwasbroughtintocontactwithSarpibyWilliamCavendish,shortlyafterCavendish'sprotegeThomasHobbesbegantoserveasBacon'spersonalsecretary.CavendishwasinregularcontactwithSarpi,andthereareindicationsthatHobbesappointmentmayhavebeenarrangedatthesuggestionofSarpiorhisaideMicanzio.In1616CavendishpersonallyinitiatedthecorrespondencebetweenSarpiandBacon,whichthenlastedformanyyears.Inthecourseoftheirrelationship,Baconsentmanyofhisworks,includinghisEssays,toSarpiforcritique.Micanzio,inoneofhisletterstoWilliamCavendish,saidofBacon,thatheissofullofknowledge,moralanddivine,thattheabundanceofthisbreastiscommunicatedtowhatsoeverhereads.

MicanzioactuallybecameBacon'sofficialliteraryagentinVenice,helpingtospreadhisfamethere,andanotherSarpially,MarcoAntoniodeDominis,alsoaidedBaconbytranslatinghisEssaysintoItalian.

Bacon'sfamousphilosophicalmethodofinduction,whereunderstandingproceedsfromthesensestotheintellect,istakenentirelyfromSarpi,asiseasilydemonstratedbycomparingitwithSarpi'sPensieri#146,writtenmanyyearsearlier.18Baconwas,infacttheperfectagentforspreadingSarpi'smethodofempiricismintoEngland,andhisphilosophicalinfluencecontinuedtogrowintheyearsfollowinghisdeathin1626,culminatinginthefoundingoftheOxfordGroup(InvisibleCollege)inthe1640s,theforerunneroftheBritishRoyalSociety.

PhillippeduPlessisMornayAmajorCalvinistleader,andthereputedauthorofthe"monarchomach"19VindiciaecontraTyrannos,Mornaywassometimesreferredtoasthe"HuguenotPope."AgraduateoftheVenetiancontrolledUniversityofPadua,MornaywasanintimateassociateofPaoloSarpi.HemademanyvisitstotheridottiofVenice,andhewasatSarpi'ssidethroughouttheInterdictcrisis.MornaywasalsoaclosefriendoftheEnglisharistocratPhilipSidney,andvisitedSidneyathishomeinPenshurst.SidneytranslatedMornay'sAWorkConcerningtheTruenessoftheChristianReligionintoEnglish,andafterSidney'sdeathhiswifeMary,publishedherowntranslationofanotherwork

18 See Appendix 119 See Chapter 6

22

byMornay,ADiscourseofLifeandDeath,aswellastwooriginalpoemsinpraiseofMornay.MornaywasalsoaleadingadvisortoHenryofNavarre,andaccordingtosomesourcesrivaled

evenSullyininfluence.AfterHenry'sconversiontoCatholicismin1593,Mornayresignedfromhisservice.HethenestablishedthemostinfluentialHuguenotschoolinEurope,theUniversityofSaumur,whichbecamehisbaseofoperationsfortheremainderofhislife.

FrancoisHotmanaFrenchlawyer,HotmanlivedinGenevafrom1547to1556,workingasJeanCalvin'ssecretary,andaccompanyingCalvintotheDietofWorms.In1560,HotmanwasoneoftheprincipalorganizersofthefailedAmboiseconspiracy(aHuguenotplottooverthrowtheGuisefamily,andputLouisIBourbon,thePrinceofConde,ontheFrenchthrone).From1560to1572HotmanwasaprincipalleaderoftheHuguenots.In1572hepublishedhismajorworkFrancoGallia,inwhichheattackedthepowerofthemonarchy.HotmanwasbothafriendandyearslongcorrespondentofPaoloSarpi.HealsomaintainedalengthycorrespondencewithAlbericoGentiliatOxford.

Marcantun(MarcoAntonio)deDominisaleadingmathematicsandTheologyprofessorattheUniversityofPadua,deDominiswasformanyyearsonintimatetermswithSarpi.AtPaduaheconductedexperimentsonoptics,physics,andmechanics,utilizingSarpi'snewempiricistmethodology.ARomanCatholicBishop,deDominissidedwithVeniceduringtheInterdict.ToescapetheInquisition,hefledtoGenevain1615,andtwoyearslaterHenryWottonarrangedforhisdepartureforEngland.By1617hewaslecturinginCambridge,andin1619hewasnamedDeanofWindsorCollege.BeforeleavingVenice,deDominiswasgivenacopyoftheHistoryoftheCouncil ofTrentbySarpi,whichwithWotton'shelp,deDoministhenhadpublishedinLondon.

DeDominiswasakeyentrypointforSarpiintoBritishscientificcircles.BasedonearlierworkbySarpi,deDominisdevelopedatheoryofthetides,thatwaslaterincorporatedintoIsaacNewton'stheoryofgravitation.In1611hepublishedabookonopticswhichwasalsohighlypraisedbyNewton.DeDominisalsoplayedanimportantroleinthehandlingofFrancisBacon,includingtranslatingBacon'sEssaysintoItalian,andarrangingtohavethempublishedinVenice.

Eventually,deDominismetaverysadend.UnderthreatsfromtheVatican,hereturnedtoRomeandattemptedtorejointheCatholicChurch,buthewasarrestedforhispreviousheresy.Hediedinprisonawaitingtrial.ByorderoftheInquisition,hisbodywasdraggedthroughthestreetsofRome,andthenpubliclyburned.

HuigdeGroot(HugoGrotius)Arguably,oneofthemostinfluentialwritersonthesubjectofinternationallawinthelast400years,GrotiuswasverymuchensnaredinSarpi'sweb.MuchofGrotius'theoriesonlawandtradeareactuallytakenwholesalefromthetheoristsoftheSpanishSchoolofSalamanca,20anditwastheSalamancanspluralistfreemarketviewsoninternationallawwhichwereincorporated,almostintoto,inGrotiusworkDeJurePraedae,which,inturn,servedasthephilosophicaljustificationforthenewAmsterdambasedsystemofEmpire.

GrotiuswasformanyyearsincorrespondencewithSarpi,andhisattitudecanonlybedescribedasgroveling.HereferredtoSarpiasPaolotheGreat,and

20 See Chapter 7

23

lookedtoSarpiforapprovalofhisworks.UnfortunatelyforGrotius,fromSarpi'sstandpoint,bothheandOldenbarneveldtwereonthewrongsideofthepoliticalfightintheNetherlands,whichreachedaclimaxin1618.SarpisupportedGrotius'enemiesintheHouseofOrange,notforideologicalreasons,butbecausetheywerethewarparty,committedtoamilitaryalliancewithVenice,andintobringingtheDutchintothehostilitiesagainsttheHapsburgs.WhenGrotiusandOldenbarneveldtwerearrested,Sarpishednotears.

Later,inexileinParis,GrotiuswouldbecomeanactivememberoftheempiricistMersenneCircle,whichincludedThomasHobbesandmembersoftheCavendishfamily,andwasrundirectlyoutofVenicebySarpi'ssecretaryMicanzio.

GiovanniDiodatiBorninGeneva,DiodatibecamethethirdheadoftheGenevaChurch,succeedingTheodoreBeza,whowasthesuccessortoJeanCalvin.In1618,hewasoneoftheleadersoftheSynodofDort,whichhelpedbringVenice'sally,MauriceofNassau,intopowerintheNetherlands.In1607,DiodotiwasbroughttoVenicebyduPlessisMornay,andsomereportsoftheperiodsuggestthat,duringtheInterdict,itwasatriumvirateofSarpi,Diodoti,andWilliamBedell(HenryWotton'schaplain),whicheffectivelyrantheVenetiangovernment.DiodotiwaseventuallyfrustratedinhisgoaltobringVeniceintotheCalvinistfold.HefailedtoseethatthiswasnotSarpi'saim.SarpiwasnoProtestant.21Sarpi'srelationswiththeCalvinists,wereinfact,likethoseofthespidertothefly.Theymaybeinhabitingthesameweb,buttheirpurposesforbeingtherearequitedifferent.

DiodatialsotranslatedintoFrench,andhadpublishedinParis,bothSarpi'sHistoryoftheCouncilofTrent,andEdwinSandys'EuropaeSpeculum.

IsaacCasaubonBorninGenevatoFrenchHuguenotparentsCasaubonbecameaprofessorofGreekstudiesatCalvin'sGenevaAcademyin1581.HemaintainedextensivecontactswithleadingacademiccirclesthroughoutEurope,anditwasthroughhimthatSarpifrequentlypassedletters,particularlytohisnetworksattheUniversityofLeydenintheNetherlands.Casaubon'sGenevahomefunctionedasawaystationformanytravelersontheirwaytoVenice.CasaubonwasalsoaclosecollaboratorofJosephScaliger,thepatronofGrotiusinLeyden.HelatermovedtoFrance,butin1610,aftertheassassinationofHenryIV,hefledtoEnglandinthecompanyofLordWottonofMarley(thebrotherofHenryWotton,andamemberofJamesI'sPrivyCouncil).InEnglandheenteredintothepersonalserviceofKingJamesI.ThroughouthislifehemaintainedaregularcorrespondencewithSarpi.

ThomasHobbesandWilliamCavendishthestoryofThomasHobbesandtheCavendishfamilywillbetoldlaterinthiswork.22FornowIwilljustsaythattheCavendishfamilywereunquestionablytheclosestpersonalalliesthatSarpihadinEngland.WilliamCavendish,theSecondEarlofDevonshire,accompaniedThomasHobbesonatriptoVenicein1614,wheretheybothmetwithPaoloSarpiandhisassociates.23FollowingthistripCavendishmaintaineda13yearcorrespondencewithSarpiandhissecretaryMicanzio,from1615to1628.SeventysevenofSarpi'slettersfromthiscorrespondencestillexist,alltranslatedfromtheItalianintoEnglishbyThomasHobbes.ItwasthoughtformanyyearsthatMicanziowrotetheletters,butitisnowproventhat,untilthetimeofhisdeathin1623,Sarpihimselfwastheauthor.24

21 Paolo Sarpi: Between Renaissance and Enlightenment, by David Wooten, Cambridge, 198322 See Chapter 623 This is confirmed in a letter written by the then British Ambassador to Venice, Dudly Carleton.24 News Networks in 17th Century Britain and Europe, by Joan Raymond, Routledge Press, 2006

Thomas Hobbes

24

ItwasalsothissameCavendishwhowasafoundingDirectoroftheVirginiaCompany,andamemberofthegroupwhichseizedcontroloftheCompanyin1619.HisalliesattheCompany,andinParliament,includedSouthampton,EdwinSandys,JohnDanvers,andseveralothers.DuringhistenureasaDirectoroftheVirginiaCompany,CavendishgaveoneofhissharestoHobbes,allowingHobbestoattendDirectorsmeetings.

ThomasHobbeslaterbecameactiveintheMicanziorunParisbasedMersenneCircle,whichwastobecomeacenterforthepropagationofGalileo'sworks,andahotbedforempiricistscience.ItwasduringtheMersenneCircleperiodthatHobbeswouldwriteTheLeviathanandDeCive,hisrecipesforoligarchicalrule.

25

Chapter5EmpiricismagainsttheRenaissance

Whathasphilosophytodowithmeasuring.Itsthemathematiciansyouvegottotrust; theyarethesurveyorsofemptyairthewayIcansurveythefieldandtellyouhowlongit is.

LeOperediGalileoGalilei(TheWorksofGalileoGalilei)

Thischapterbringsusbacktothefundamentalissueraisedatthebeginningofthiswork:thenatureofmanandhisroleintheuniverse.Venice'sbreakwiththeHolyAlliancewasnotsimplypolitical;itwasarealizationbySarpiandhisassociatesthatfeudalismandbackwardnesscouldnolongerbeimposedbybruteforceandsuperstition.TheRenaissanceideaofthecommonwealth,Cusa'srevolutioninscience,andtheeconomicprogresstheybothengendered,couldnolongerbecontainedeitherbyVenice'spurelygeopoliticalmaneuvering,norbythebeliefstructuresofthemiddleages.Thesebeliefswere,infact,inevitablydoomed.TheworkofCusa,leadingacenturylaterintothediscoveriesofJohannesKepler,annihilatedtheentiremedievalAristoteleanphilosophy.

Sarpiknewthattherewasnosavingtheoldmechanismsofsocialcontrol.Inordertopreserveoligarchicalruleheformulatedathreefoldstrategy:1)Developanewscienceofradicalmaterialism,knownasempiricism,anddemandthatallscientificinvestigationutilizethisempiricalmethod;2)Usethediscoveriesofthisnewempiricalscience,tofalselyclaimforhimselfandhisassociatesthelaurelsforoverturningthedictatorshipofAristoteleanism(thisiswheretheGalileoProjectfitsin);3)Utilizingsympatheticnetworksandindividuals,tospreadthisnewempiricalsciencefromonecornerofEuropetoanother,untilitwashegemoniceverywhere.

LyndonLaRouchehasdefinedtheempiricalmethodofSarpiasfollows:

First,theempiricistassumesthatnoexperimentallyverifiableknowledgeexistsoutsidetheboundsofsimplesensecertainty.

Secondly,therefore,everycauseeffectrelationshipwhichcannotbelocatedexplicitlyinasenseobservedagency,isrelatedtoadomainofsuchformsofattributedbiasinstatisticalbehaviorofobservableevents,ortosomeanonymousagencytowhichneithersensecertaintynorcognitivereasonprovidesaccess.

Thirdly,thesecondelementleavesavailableanicheforcreatingtheillusionoftheexistenceofpurelymagicalspiritualpowers,operatingentirelyoutsidethereachofaccessbysensecertainty,butabletomakearbitraryinterventions,evencapriciously,intothedomainofsensecertainty.25

EssentiallywhatSarpididwastosay,Sincescientificprogresscannolongerbestopped,Iwilldeterminethemethodofallscientificinvestigation.Iwilldetermine,notmerelywhatpeoplethinkaboutthephysicaluniverse,buthowtheythink,andIwillensurethatindividualhumancreativity,andthemethodoflawfulhypothesis,isbannedfromallscientificinvestigation.

InSarpi'sworld,thereisnohypothesis,thereisnocreativity,andthereisnodiscovery.Onlyobservationandcalculationoflineardataexists.The21stcenturynameforthisisinformationtheory,andinaworldgovernedbythistheory,nohumanidentityispossible.Machinesandcomputersmayexist,buttheabilitytomakeactualdiscoveriesofprinciplehasbeenoutlawed.Ifthis

25 Laputa's President Bush, by Lyndon H. LaRouche Jr., Executive Intelligence Review, Vol. 29, No. 18, May 10, 2002

26

seemstoodifficulttounderstand,thinkofthedifferencebetweenKeplerandGalileo:Keplersoughtto discovertheprinciplesbehindastronomicalphenomena;Galileolookedatthestarsandwrotedownhis statisticalobservations.ForGalileo,andSarpi,Kepler'suniversalprinciplessimplydonotexist,becausetheycannotbetouched,heard,smelledorvisiblyseen.

Sarpi&Ockham

Inordertodevelophisnewscience,Sarpiwentbacktothewritingsofa14thcenturyFranciscanfriarnamedWilliamofOckham(Occam).TodayOckhamismostlyrememberedfromjustonefamousquote,whichhascometobeknownasOckham'sRazor:

Pluralitasnonestponendasineneccesitate,or,inEnglish,Entitiesshouldnotbemultipliedunnecessarily.

Roughly,Ockham'smeaningisthatwhenconfrontedwithascientific

problem,inwhichthereareseveralpossiblesolutionsorareasofinvestigation,theanswerlieswiththesimplestandmostobvious.Thisreductionistmethoddeniesanyroleforhumanreasonorhypothesisandrejectsanyideaofuniversalprinciples.Ockhamwasalsoafanaticmaterialist,claimingthatallhumanknowledgeisbasedsolelyonsenseperception.UtilizingOckham'sapproach,whatevershredofcausalityorhumanthought,whichhadexistedpreviouslyinAristoteleanism,waseliminatedentirely.

PaoloSarpistatedopenlythatOckhamwasthegreatestinfluenceonhisownscientificoutlook.InalettertotheFrenchHuguenotFrancoisHotmanonJuly22,1608,SarpisaysofOckham,Iolhostimatosopratuttiliscolastici,whichroughlytranslatedis,Ihaveesteemedhim(Ockham)aboveallthe

schoolmen.Beginningin1578,andcontinuingformanyyears,SarpibeganwritinghisPensieri,aseriesof

worksonmathematics,biology,philosophyandreligion.LaudatoryreferencestoOckhamaboundthroughoutthework.Thesewritingswereneverpublished,butwerewidelycirculatedtoSarpi'sfriendsintheridotti.SarpiauthoredthreesetsofPensieri,thefirstonmathematics,philosophy,andphysics,thesecondonmedicineandmorals,andthethirdonreligion.InthePensieriFilosofici Sarpiarguesonthedefectsinmansnaturewhichmakereligionandgovernmentnecessaryinordertocontrolmanspassionsandbaseranimalisticimpulses.ThisargumentanticipatesDescartes'laterviewofalinearmechanisticphysicaluniverse,combinedwithirrationalhumanemotions.ThePensieriReligionecontainsalongattackonAristotleandonChristianconceptsofnaturallaw.Sarpistatesthatitisimpossibleformantoknownaturallaworanyuniversalprinciples,duetothelimitsonhumanreasoning.InthefamousPensieri#146,26Sarpiismostexplicitinhisempiricistmethod,aswellashisextremematerialism.Thereisnorealitywhatsoeveroutsidetheworldofsensoryexperience.

ThePensieriwerenotIvoryTowerspeculations.TheideassetforthbySarpiwereimmediatelyputintopracticetodevelopanewexperimentalscienceandanewmathematics,basedonhisreductionistempiricistmethodology.Accordingtohis18thcenturybiographer,whoexaminedSarpisprivatepapersattheLibraryoftheServiinVenice,Sarpispapersincludedmanyworksongeometry,mechanics,hydraulics,pneumatics,optics,astronomy,andacoustics.Sarpisfirstmajorareaofresearchwashis15821585workonanatomy,asubjectwhichhehadearlierstudiedatPadua.Later,

26 See Appendix 1

William of Ockham

27

asSarpi'sideasgainedinfluenceinvariousEuropeanuniversityfaculties,theearliestrecruitswereamongtheprofessorsofmedicineandmathematics,and,itwasinthosefieldsthatSarpismechanisticmethodsspreadmostquickly.

AmongtheinitialVenetiangroupwhichpromotedSarpisnewscience,wereGiovanniFrancescoSagredo,SantorioSantorio,andMarcAntoniodeDominis.DeDominis,whowehavealreadymetinthepreviouschapter,wasaProfessorofMathematicsattheUniversityofPadua,whereheconductedexperimentsonoptics,physics,andmechanics.Sagredo,aleadingVenetianaristocrat,wasalsoamathematician,andhewasSarpi'spersonalcontrollerofGalileo.Heactuallyinventedthefirstmodernversionofathermometer,whichisusuallyattributedtoGalileo.SantoriowastheChairofTheoreticalMedicineattheUniversityofPadua.Hisbeliefinmechanicswassoinsanethatfor30yearshenotonlyweighedhimselfeveryday,butalsoweighedallthefoodandfluidsheconsumedaswellasalltheurineandfecesheemitted.Hewascelebratedforhisempiricalmethodology.27Hedeniedtheessenceofthings,insistingonthefundamentalmathematicalandmechanicalnatureofthings,whichcouldonlybediscoveredthroughsenseperception.

TheAssaultonAristotle

AristoteleanismhaddominatedEuropefromthe11ththroughtheearly15thcenturies,includingintheuniversitiesandtheCatholicChurch.Itwasnevergood.Buttheanticognitive,fixed,perfected,universeofAristotlewasperfectforVeniceszerogrowthcastesystemofthemedievalcenturies.Duringthatperiod,Aristotlesviewsoncosmology,music,biology,andeconomicswereacceptedwithalmostthefervorofreligiousfundamentalism.AftertherevolutioninscienceeffectedbyNicholasofCusathisbecameimpossible.

Thequestionarises:What'sthebigdeal?Don'tAristotleandSarpibothbasetheirideologyonsenseperception?Yes,theydo,butinSarpi,youhavethismethodinextremis.Itslikethedifferencebetweenabodybuilderinagymwhosaysnopain,nogainandtheMarquisdeSade.Theconceptpaintakesonadifferentmeaning.WithSarpi,humanreasoningceasestoexist.

In1604,theSarpicabalunleashedanopenpublicwaragainstAristoteleanismandtheAristoteleanpriesthoodattheUniversityofPadua.Atthetime,PaduawasthepremiercenterofAristoteleanscholarshipinallofEurope,andhadproducedthetwomostrenownedteachersofAristoteleanlogicduringthatera,theprofessorsGiacomoZabarella(15331589)andCesareCremonini(15501631).TheopeningsalvoofthisattackwasaseriesoflecturesbyGalileoGalilei,targetingAristotle'scosmology,i.e.,thenotionofthefixedstars,existingwithinastatic,perfecteduniverse.TheselecturesweregivenasensationalPRtreatmentbytheSarpinetwork,basedonGalileo'sallegedrecentdiscoveryoftheNewStar,(which,infact,Galileodidnotdiscover).Thiswasnoacademicdebate;itstruckatthecenteroftheAristoteleanestablishment,andwasnothinglessthananattempttooverthrowtheentiretyofmedievalscholasticism.

EvenstilltodayGiacomoZabarellaisconsideredthepremierrepresentativeof16thcenturyItalianAristoteleanism.After1564,hebecameboththeChairinLogicandtheChairinNaturalPhilosophyattheUniversityofPadua.ArigidAristotelean,Zabarella,neverthelessalsoinsistedontherealityofcausality,andsaidthatitisthemindofthescientistwhichcarriesoutthenecessaryproofs.Hewasopposedtousingmathematicalproofsasawayofarrivingattruth.CesareCremonini,whosucceededtotheChairofNaturalPhilosophyin1591,was,moresothanZabarella,anavowedmaterialist,andlikePompanazzibeforehim,hedeniedtheimmortalityofthesoul.Nevertheless,hebecameGalileosleadingcriticattheUniversityofPadua.In1604CremoniniwastheforemostopponentofGalileosviewsontheNewStar,andhewasquotedbyacontemporarysourceatthetimeassaying,themathematiciansadducetheexpressedviewthatitisbadjudgmenttoforsakethesensesandgo

27 Weighing the Soul, Scientific Discovery from the Brilliant to the Bizarre, by Len Fisher

28

searchingforreason(i.e.cause).Inhis1632TheDialogueConcerningTwoChiefWorldSystems,GalileoridiculesCremonini,portrayinghimasthebuffoonishfigureSimplicio.

ThisattackontheAristoteleanestablishmentwasthepremiertaskassignedtoGalileobySarpi.Although,today,manyuninformedpeoplesomehowthinkthatGalileowasachampionofCopernicanism,Galileo,infactwasoneofthelastastronomersoftheperiodtoendorseheliocentrism,whichhedidnotdountilthepublicationofhis1632Dialogue.FromhisarrivalinPaduain1592,upuntilthatmuchlaterdate,allofGalileoseffortswereconcentratedonoverthrowingAristoteleanscholasticismonbehalfofSarpisnewempiricism.

Kepler

Sarpi'splantomonopolizethescientificdiscreditingofAristotletookonanewurgencywiththepublication,in1597,ofJohannesKeplersMysteriumCosmographicum.28Uponthecompletionofthiswork,KeplerhadsentfourcopiesofthebooktoPadua,oneofwhichendedupinthehandsofGalileo,whopasseditontoSarpi.GalileosubsequentlywrotetoKepler,andseveralshortnotespassedbetweenthem.29InSeptember,1597,KeplersentalongerlettertoGalileosuggestingacollaborationbetweenthetwo.FollowingthisexchangeoflettersGalileocutoffallcommunicationwithKepler.OutsideofItaly,thepublicationoftheMysteriumhadapowerfulimpactonthescientificcommunityandledtoKeplersappointmentasImperialMathematiciantotheGermanEmperorin

1601.InVenice,itledtoSarpi's16031604unleashingoftheGalileoProject.Later,afterthepublicationofKeplersAstronomiaNova(NewAstronomy)in1609,Sarpiagainresponded,thistimewiththeVenetiantelescopedemonstrations,andtheacceleratedcampaigntosellGalileoasthepremierauthorityonastronomy.

ForthelaymanitmayseemdifficulttocomprehendthethreatwhichKepler'sworkposedtoSarpi'sdesigns.Butbearinmind:KeplerwasaproclaimedselfconsciousfollowerofthescientificmethodofNicholasofCusa.30NotonlywashismethodologydirectlycontrarytoSarpi'sempiricism,itrepresentedanaxiomaticallydifferentviewofthehumanmind,ofhumannatureitself.Fortheempiricists,manisonlycapableoftakinginsensorydata,andadding,subtractingandmanipulatingthatdatainlinearwaystoarriveatwhattheycallverifiableresults.ThisalsoholdstrueforSarpi'sviewsonmathematics.Anyonewhoacceptsthatapproach,willultimatelybeledtotheunenviableconclusionthatasupercomputeris,infact,equal,or

superior,tothehumanmind.ForCusaandKepler,sciencebeginswherelinearanalysisbreaksdown,wherethepowerofhumanhypothesisleadstothediscovery,notofmoresensorydata,buttotruediscoveryoftheuniversalprincipleswhichunderlietheorderingoftheuniverse.

Recently,ateamofyoungscientistsfromtheLaRoucheYouthMovementhascreatedawebsitewhichcontainsthemostexhaustiveexaminationofKepler's'workthathaseverbeendonebyanyonesinceKepler'sdeath.Forthosewhowishtoexaminethesemattersinmoredepth,Iencourageyoutovisitit.31

AftertheabortiveKeplerGalileocorrespondenceof1597,theVenetiansbrokeoffallcommunicationwithKeplerfor13years.Duringthisperiod,theyknewthattheycouldnotopenly

28 For the significance of Kepler, please see Music & Statecraft, How Space Is Organized, by Lyndon H. LaRouche, Jr.29 Galil