The nature of orthographic–phonologicaland orthographic–semantic relationships for Japanesekana and kanji words

Yasushi Hino & Shinobu Miyamura & Stephen J. Lupker

Published online: 10 May 2011# Psychonomic Society, Inc. 2011

Abstract It is generally assumed that orthographic–phono-logical (O-P) consistencies are higher for Japanese kanawords than for kanji words and that orthographic–semantic(O-S) consistencies are higher for kanji words than for kanawords. In order to examine the validity of these assump-tions, we attempted to measure the O-P and O-S consis-tencies for 339 kana words and 775 kanji words.Orthographic neighbors were first generated for each ofthese words. In order to measure the O-P consistencies ofthe words, their neighbors were then classified as phono-logical friends or enemies, based on whether the charactersshared with the original word were pronounced the same inthe two words. In order to measure the O-S consistencies,the similarity in meaning of each of the neighbors to theoriginal word was rated on a 7-point scale. Based on theratings, the neighbors were classified as semantic friends orenemies. The results indicated that both the O-P consisten-cies for kanji words and the O-S consistencies for kanawords were greater than previously assumed and that thetwo scripts were actually quite similar on both types ofconsistency measures. The implications for the nature of thereading processes for kana and kanji words are discussed.

Keywords Orthographic-phonological consistency .

Orthographic-semantic consistency . Japanese kana words .

Japanese kanji words

One of the most salient characteristics of the Japaneselanguage is that words are printed in multiple scripts: kanji,hiragana, and katakana. Kanji is a logographic script, and eachkanji character directly represents meaning. Thus, each kanjicharacter is considered to be a morpheme. In contrast, kanascripts, consisting of hiragana and katakana, are phoneticscripts, and hence each kana character corresponds to a mora,a rhythmic unit of a constant duration consisting of either asingle vowel or a combination of a consonant and a vowel.Although any kanji word can be transcribed into eitherkatakana or hiragana based on its pronunciation, most wordsare typically printed in only a single script. In Japanesesentences, nouns, adverbs, and verb and adjective stems aretypically written in kanji. Grammatical elements such asauxiliary verbs and particles are typically written in hiragana,whereas a number of special types of words (e.g., foreign loanwords, animal names, scientific terms, etc.) are typicallywritten in katakana.

For most Japanese words, therefore, word frequencycounts are available only for one script form. There aresome exceptions, however. For example, the word “glasses”normally appears in all three scripts (katakana メガネ,hiragana めがね, and kanji 眼鏡), and therefore, all the scriptforms have their respective frequency counts.1

1 According to Amano and Kondo’s (2003b) word frequency norms,the frequency counts of the word “glasses,” respectively, among287,792,797 tokens, are 667 for the katakana script form, メガネ; 253for the hiragana script form, めがね; and 1,314 for the kanji scriptform, 眼鏡. In contrast, the frequency count for the word ラジオ(radio) is listed only for the katakana script form, which is 8,696.Similarly, the frequency count for the word 台所 (kitchen) isavailable only for the kanji script form, which is 3,239.

Y. Hino (*)Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Waseda University,1-24-1 Toyama, Shinjuku-ku,Tokyo 162–8644, Japane-mail: hino@waseda.jp

S. MiyamuraNet-Research Department, Custom Research Management Unit,INTAGE Inc,Tokyo, Japan

S. J. LupkerDepartment of Psychology, University of Western Ontario,London, Ontario, Canada

Behav Res (2011) 43:1110–1151DOI 10.3758/s13428-011-0101-0

Different relationships between orthography,phonology, and semantics for kana and kanji words

The central issue investigated in the present research is thesuggestion by a number of researchers that the nature of therelationships between orthography and phonology andbetween orthography and semantics must be quite differentfor words printed in kana and kanji (e.g., Feldman &Turvey, 1980; Frost, 2005; Kimura, 1984; Saito, 1981;Wydell, Butterworth, & Patterson, 1995). Because eachkana character generally corresponds to a single mora, kanais considered a shallow orthography, in which the relation-ships between the kana characters and their sounds (i.e., theorthographic–phonological [O-P] relationships) are quitetransparent. That is, whenever the same kana character isused, it is almost always pronounced the same, as in イス(chair, /i.su/) and リス(squirrel, /ri.su/). In contrast, kanji isconsidered a deep orthography, in which the character–sound relationships are rather opaque. Often, kanji charac-ters have at least two potential pronunciations: the so-calledkun-reading and on-reading pronunciations.2 The kun-readings are of Japanese origin and were assigned to thekanji characters based on their meanings. On the otherhand, the on-readings are of Chinese origin, and thesepronunciations were imported from China together withthese characters. In addition, a number of kanji charactershave more than one on-reading pronunciation, due to thefact that Chinese pronunciations themselves changed overtime for the same characters and that pronunciations wereimported from China several times in history. As a result,kanji characters are pronounced in different ways indifferent contexts [e.g., 親父 (father, /o.ja-zi/) and 親戚

(relatives, /si.N-se.ki/)], suggesting that the O-P relation-ships for kanji words are much less consistent than thosefor kana words.3

In contrast, it is generally assumed that the orthographic–semantic (O-S) relationships are much more consistent forkanji words than for kana words (e.g., Feldman & Turvey,1980; Frost, 2005; Ijuin, 2008; Kimura, 1984; Saito, 1981;Wydell et al., 1995). As previously noted, because each kanjicharacter is a morpheme, it denotes a specific meaning. Thus,

it is likely that words containing the same kanji character tendto share (at least a part of) their meaning, such as with 男性

(male, /da.N-se.i/) and 男子 (boy, /da.N-si/). Kana characters,in contrast, are phonetic characters. Therefore, althoughwords sharing the same kana characters may tend to havesimilar pronunciations, there is no a priori reason to expectthat they would share meanings [e.g., ポケット (pocket, /po.ke.Q.to/) and ロケット (rocket, /ro.ke.Q.to/)].

Empirical findings

The assumptions that O-P consistencies are much higherfor kana words than for kanji words and that O-Sconsistencies are much higher for kanji words than forkana words appear to lead to the theoretical position thatthere are definite processing differences for kana andkanji words. For example, some researchers (e.g.,Morton & Sasanuma, 1984; Saito, 1981) have suggestedthat completely different processes are involved inphonological coding for kana and kanji words, along thelines of the assumptions made by the orthographic depthhypothesis (e.g., Frost, 2005; Frost, Katz, & Bentin,1987). According to this position, phonological codingfor a kana word is assumed to be accomplished by simplyapplying print–sound correspondence rules (i.e., an“assembly” route like that found in the dual-routecascaded model—Coltheart, Rastle, Perry, Langdon, &Ziegler, 2001). In contrast, because word-level informa-tion would have to be retrieved first in order to correctlyname a kanji word, phonological coding for kanji wordscan only be accomplished via the mental lexicon (i.e., a“lexical” route—e.g., Wydell et al., 1995). At the sametime, given the higher O-S consistencies for kanji than forkana words, this position also assumes that, although theprocess of retrieving lexical/semantic information isdriven directly by orthography for kanji words, thisprocess is mediated by phonology for kana words.

Empirical evidence consistent with this position hadbeen reported in some previous studies. For example,Feldman and Turvey (1980) and Saito (1981) comparednaming latencies for the same words written in kana andkanji scripts. Using words normally written in kanji (i.e.,color names), the naming latencies were faster when thewords were transcribed into hiragana than when they werepresented in kanji. In contrast, Saito also reported that,using a task requiring a response based on the meanings ofthe presented word (a sentence judgment task), responselatencies were faster when the words were presented in thefamiliar kanji script than when they were transcribed intohiragana.

Wydell et al. (1995) also reported data generallyconsistent with this position in their naming experiments

2 According to Tamaoka, Kirsner, Yanase, Miyaoka, and Kawakami(2002), 777 out of 1,945 basic kanji characters have only a singlepronunciation (40.05%), indicating that about 60% of kanji characterspossess multiple pronunciations in Japanese.3 Whenwe describemorae using characters from the Roman alphabet, wewill use the format from Tamaoka and Makioka (2004), with thefollowing exceptions: (1) a period [.] is used to denote a moraicboundary, (2) a hyphen [−] is used to denote a morphemic boundary[e.g., /si.N-se.ki/ for 親戚 (relatives)], and (3) a prolonged (“long”)vowel is denoted by using two vowel symbols, with the second onebeing capitalized [e.g., /te.E.pu/ instead of /te.R.pu/ for テープ (tape)].

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using kanji words. In their experiments, naming perfor-mance was compared for kanji words that consisted ofkanji characters with only a single pronunciation (theconsistent condition) and kanji words that consisted ofkanji characters with multiple pronunciations (the incon-sistent condition). If the naming of kanji words isperformed not only via the lexical route but also throughsome sort of assembly route using character–soundcorrespondence rules, naming latencies should be slowerfor words consisting of kanji characters with multiplepronunciations, because there is a possibility that theassembly route could produce conflicting outputs for thesewords. In their six naming experiments, however, Wydellet al. failed to find a consistency effect and, hence,concluded that phonological coding for kanji words isaccomplished only via a lexical route.

Kimura (1984) also reported data indicating that theprocess of retrieving lexical/semantic information isdirectly driven by orthography for kanji words but ismediated by phonology when kanji words are transcribedinto kana. Kimura examined the effect of concurrentarticulation using a relatedness judgment task with thesame word pairs either presented in kanji (their typicalscript) or transcribed into hiragana. In the concurrentarticulation condition, participants were asked to repeat-edly count from 1 to 5 aloud while deciding whether ornot each word pair was related. In this task, relatednessjudgment performance was more disrupted by concurrentarticulation when the word pairs were transcribed intohiragana than when they were presented in kanji. Basedon these results, Kimura suggested that (1) relatednessjudgment performance was more disrupted for hiraganatranscription pairs because the concurrent articulationdisrupts prelexical phonological coding and that (2) theeffect of the concurrent articulation was smaller for kanjiword pairs because word meanings could be directlyretrieved from orthography for those words.

Although there are now a number of findings that areconsistent with the predictions for kanji and kana wordsderived from an orthographic-depth-type hypothesis,more recently this position has been criticized by someresearchers. According to this type of hypothesis, aprocessing advantage would always be expected forkana-written forms over kanji-written forms of the samewords in naming. Yamada (1992), however, reported datainconsistent with this prediction. In his naming task, kanjinumerals were named slightly faster than their hiraganatranscriptions. In addition, Besner and Hildebrandt (1987)reported data inconsistent with the claim that kana-written words are always named only via a shallow,assembly-like process. If phonological coding for kana-written stimuli is always accomplished through anassembly route, there would be no reason to expect

effects of orthographic familiarity or lexicality on thenaming of kana-written stimuli. Besner and Hildebrandt,therefore, compared naming performance for (1) familiarkatakana words that are normally written in katakana, (2)unfamiliar katakana transcriptions of words that arenormally written in kanji, and (3) katakana-writtennonwords. The naming responses for the katakana wordswere faster than those for the katakana transcriptions ofkanji words, which were faster than those for thekatakana nonwords. Consistent with these findings, Hinoand Lupker (1998) also reported significant word fre-quency effects for both katakana and kanji words in theirnaming experiments.

In order to account for the fact that orthographicfamiliarity, word frequency, and lexicality affect namingperformance for the kana-written stimuli, lexical involve-ment in the phonological-coding process would have tobe assumed. Taking a dual-route perspective (e.g.,Coltheart, 1978, 2005; Coltheart, Curtis, Atkins, & Haller,1993; Coltheart et al., 2001), therefore, Besner andHildebrandt’s (1987) and Hino and Lupker’s (1998) datasuggest that phonological coding for kana-written stimuliinvolves not only an assembly route but also a lexicalroute.

Similarly, Fushimi, Ijuin, Patterson, and Tatsumi (1999)suggested that phonological coding for kanji words alsoinvolves both routes. As noted, Wydell et al. (1995)failed to observe a consistency effect for kanji words intheir naming experiments, with their consistency manip-ulation being based on the number of pronunciationspossessed by the constituent kanji characters. Simplymanipulating the number of pronunciations possessed bythe constituent characters may not necessarily produce astrong manipulation of O-P consistency, however. That is,even when a kanji character has multiple pronunciations,the inconsistency would be substantially diminished ifthat character is pronounced the same way whenever it isused in a specific character position in kanji words. Inorder to address this issue, Fushimi et al. (1999)manipulated the O-P consistency for kanji words basedon the pronunciations of their orthographic neighbors(Coltheart, Davelaar, Jonasson, & Besner, 1977), follow-ing the procedure used by Jared, McRae, and Seidenberg(1990). Using this consistency manipulation, Fushimi etal. reported a significant consistency effect in the namingof kanji words.

Similarly, using katakana words with macrons, Hino,Kusunose, Lupker, Kawarada, and Maekawa (2011) recentlymanipulated O-P consistencies for katakana words based onthe pronunciations of their orthographic neighbors andreported a consistency effect in the naming of katakanawords. A reasonable interpretation of this effect is that itarises due to the competition created by conflicting outputs

1112 Behav Res (2011) 43:1110–1151

from the lexical and assembly routes during thephonological-coding process for the inconsistent words.The consistency effects in the naming of kanji and katakanawords, therefore, strongly suggest that, if one takes adual-route perspective, both the lexical and assemblyroutes are involved in the naming of both kanji andkatakana words.4

Note also that some semantic effects have been reportedin the naming not only of kanji words (e.g., Hino, Lupker,& Pexman, 2002; Shibahara, Zorzi, Hill, Wydell, &Butterworth, 2003) but also of katakana words (e.g., Hino,Lupker, Sears, & Ogawa, 1998). These data also indicatethat neither kanji words nor kana words are named only viaan assembly route.

Finally, in contrast to Kimura’s (1984) findings, Kinoshitaand Saito (1992) observed no effect of concurrentarticulation for either kanji words or the hiragana tran-scriptions in their lexical decision experiment. In order tomake a correct “word” decision, presumably, a lexicalrepresentation would have to be selected. If the lexical-selection process is accomplished directly from orthogra-phy for a kanji word but is always mediated by phonologywhen that kanji word is transcribed into hiragana, assuggested by Kimura, lexical decision performance for thehiragana transcriptions should be selectively disrupted byconcurrent articulation.

As a result of the null effect of concurrent articulationfor both kanji words and hiragana transcriptions in theirexperiments, Kinoshita and Saito (1992) suggested analternative explanation for the greater effect of concurrentarticulation for kana transcription pairs in Kimura’s (1984)study. In particular, when a kanji word is transcribed intokana, the kana transcriptions tend to be semanticallyambiguous because there are a number of homophonesamong Japanese kanji words, such as 教会 (church, /kjo.u-ka.i/) and 境界 (boarder, /kjo.u-ka.i/). During the related-ness decisions for kana transcription pairs, therefore,participants would need to maintain the word’s phonolog-ical code in working memory in order to exhaustivelycheck the relatedness of all the possible meanings. Forkanji words, on the other hand, because they are notsemantically ambiguous, the decisions would be easier,and there would be no reason to maintain the phonologicalcode for a long period of time. As such, concurrentarticulation would disrupt the decisions for the kanatranscription pairs much more than those for the kanjiword pairs, implying that Kimura’s findings cannot be

taken as good evidence that the process of retrievinglexical/semantic information is mediated by phonology forkana transcriptions.

The present research

On the basis of the current literature, therefore, it isn’t atall clear whether the nature of the processes involved inreading kana and kanji words are really different, whichraises the further question of whether the O-P and O-Sconsistencies for kana and kanji words are actuallydifferent in the first place. That is, the failure to detecta consistency effect in the naming of kanji words inWydell et al.’s (1995) experiments may be due to the factthat O-P relationships are not necessarily inconsistent forkanji words, even when they consist of kanji charactersthat have multiple potential pronunciations. At the sametime, the consistency effect in the naming of katakanawords in Hino et al. (2011) also raises the possibility thatthe O-P relationships for kana words may not be asconsistent as previously assumed. As such, the O-Pconsistencies for kana and kanji words may not necessar-ily be as different as previously thought.

Similarly, when considering the relationships betweenkanji compound words and their constituent kanjicharacters, the meanings of the compound words arenot necessarily predictable from the meanings of theirconstituents. As noted by Zhou and Marslen-Wilson(2000), although the meanings of English and Chinesecompound words are clearly related to the meanings oftheir constituent morphemes, it is often not possible topredict the meaning of a compound word based on themeanings of its constituents, because the way theconstituents contribute to the meaning of the compoundword is not always the same. To use an English example,a “snowman” is a man made of snow, but a “mailman” isnot a man made of mail. In a similar fashion, themeanings of kanji compound words appear to beunpredictable on the basis of their constituent kanjicharacters, because the same kanji character is used indifferent senses in constructing the meanings of differentkanji compounds [e.g., 助手 (assistant) and 右手 (righthand), in which the shared kanji character, 手 denotes“a person” and “a hand,” respectively]. As a result, kanjiwords sharing the same character are not necessarily verysimilar in meaning, and hence, the O-S relationships forkanji words may not really be as consistent as previouslyassumed.

In the present research, therefore, the goal was tomeasure the degrees of O-P and O-S consistencies for kanaand kanji words in order to examine (1) whether O-P

4 Needless to say, consistency effects in the naming of kanji andkatakana words can be explained in terms of parallel distributedprocessing perspective as well (Fushimi et al., 1999, and Hino et al.,2011, contain detailed accounts of this type).

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relationships truly are more consistent for kana words thanfor kanji words and (2) whether O-S relationships truly aremore consistent for kanji words than for kana words, aspreviously suggested by a number of researchers (e.g.,Feldman & Turvey, 1980; Frost, 2005; Kimura, 1984;Saito, 1981; Wydell et al., 1995).

Stimulus selection

Because it would not be possible to measure the O-P andO-S consistencies for all existing kana and kanji words,we needed to select representative sets of kana and kanjiwords for our analysis. In order for the measuredconsistencies to best reflect the nature of the kana andkanji words in general, we attempted to select kana andkanji words that are as typical as possible. As such, wefirst examined the characteristics of kana and kanji wordsin general using the words found in a relatively smallcomputerized Japanese dictionary (National LanguageResearch Institute, 1993) with 36,780 word entries. Theseword entries were first classified in terms of script type.They included 22,198 kanji words (60.35%) and 6,548kana words (17.80%). The rest of the word entriesconsisted of those printed in combinations of kana andkanji characters (7,966 words, 21.66%) and those involv-ing specific characters from other alphabets (68 words,0.18%). When these kana and kanji words were classifiedin terms of character length, 82.88% of the kanji words(18,397 words) consisted of two kanji characters, whereas80.39% of kana words (5,268 words) were longer, fromthree to five characters in length. This difference is due todifferences in how morae are represented by kana versuskanji characters. Most Japanese words have three to fivemorae. For example, when kana and kanji words involvedin the familiarity rating norms of Japanese words (Amano& Kondo, 2003a) were classified in terms of the numberof morae, 71.53% of kana words (7,571 out of 10,585kana words) and 83.17% of kanji words (42,859 out of51,534 kanji words) consisted of three to five morae.While each kana character corresponds to a single mora,kanji characters generally correspond to multiple morae.As a result, words with three to five morae are generallyprinted in three to five characters in kana, but they aremostly printed in two characters in kanji. Given thissituation, we decided that it would be necessary to usekanji words that are two characters in length and kanawords that are three to five characters in length in ouranalysis.

In order to select the specific stimuli for our analysis,we began by examining nouns from Amano andKondo’s (2003a) syntactic class database. There are

59,850 nouns in the database. These nouns were classi-fied in terms of script type, and then sets of kana words(7,085 words) and kanji words (43,122 words) wereselected. In order to further reduce the number of items,we eliminated all of the items that were not listed in theNational Language Research Institute’s (1970) wordfrequency norms. Virtually all proper nouns were alsoeliminated.5 In addition, homophones (words havingmultiple entries sharing the same pronunciation) andhomographs (words having multiple entries sharing thesame orthographic form) were identified using Amanoand Kondo’s (2003a) familiarity-rating database, andthose words were also eliminated in order to make thecomputations of the O-P and O-S consistencies asstraightforward as possible. As a result, 339 katakanawords that were three to five characters in length and 775kanji words that were two characters in length wereselected as stimuli for the present research.6

The O-P consistency index

For these 339 katakana and 775 kanji words, wemeasured their O-P and O-S consistencies. Becauseconsistency is the degree of transparency or predictabilityfrom one domain to the other, in order to measure theO-P and O-S consistencies for a target word, we firstneeded to collect a group of words that were similar inorthography to the target word. Therefore, we generatedorthographic neighbors for each of the 1,114 words usingthe National Language Research Institute (1993) data-base. That is, following Coltheart et al. (1977), all of thewords generated by changing one character from the targetword were listed as orthographic neighbors for each of the1,114 words.

6 National Language Research Institute (1970) lists only words whoseword frequency counts are more than 4 per 940,533. As a result, itonly contains 13,176 words in total. We used this (relatively small) setof frequency norms because, as will be described later, we needed toreduce the number of items as much as possible in order to conductsubjective ratings (to measure the O-S consistencies). We had noqualms about using these norms, because they have been usedsuccessfully in the past (e.g., Hino & Lupker, 1998, reportedsignificant frequency effects in their lexical decision and namingtasks by manipulating frequency based on the National LanguageResearch Institute norms). According to Amano and Kondo (2003b),the frequency counts in their frequency norms are strongly correlatedwith those in the National Language Research Institute norms(r = .56).

5 An attempt was made to remove all of the proper nouns. However,because Amano and Kondo’s (2003a) syntactic class database doesnot discriminate common nouns from proper nouns, the removal ofproper nouns was based only on the second author’s intuition.

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Because the O-P consistency for a word was defined interms of the degree of similarity in pronunciations forsimilarly spelled words (orthographic neighbors), weclassified the orthographic neighbors as phonologicalfriends or enemies, based on whether or not the sharedcharacters were pronounced the same (at the moraic level)in the target word and the orthographic neighbor (e.g.,Fushimi et al., 1999; Jared et al., 1990). After classifyingthe orthographic neighbors as phonological friends orenemies, we computed the sum of the frequencies of thephonological friends as well as the sum of the frequenciesof the phonological enemies using the National LanguageResearch Institute (1970) frequency norms. The wordfrequency of the target word was added to the summedfrequency of the phonological friends, to produce a valuethat represented the frequency of usage of the character–mora correspondences involved in the target word. Incontrast, the summed frequency of phonological enemieswas taken to represent the frequency of usage of differentcharacter–mora correspondences for the characters involvedin the target word.

Using these values, we computed an index of the O-Pconsistency for each of the 1,114 target words using thefollowing formula:

O� P Consistency Index ¼ ðTarget Frequencyþ Summed Frequency of Phonological FriendsÞ=ðTarget Frequencyþ Summed Frequency of All

NeighborsÞ

In this formula, the summed frequency of the phonolog-ical friends was added to the target frequency, and thisvalue was divided by the value of the summed frequencyof all of the neighbors plus the target frequency. Thisindex produces a value between 0 and 1 depending onthe degree of O-P consistency. The O-P consistencyindex should be close to 1 for words with moreconsistent O-P correspondences, whereas for words withhighly inconsistent O-P correspondences, the valueshould be close to 0. In addition, as noted above,because we classified the orthographic neighbors asphonological friends or enemies in terms of whether theshared characters between a target word and its neighborsare pronounced the same at the moraic level, the O-Pconsistency index reflects the nature of character–morarelationships.

The O-S consistency index

Although the similarity in pronunciations between thetarget word and its orthographic neighbors could be easily

determined in terms of whether or not the shared charactersare pronounced the same, it is somewhat more difficultto determine the similarity in meaning between the targetword and its orthographic neighbors. In order to estimatethe degree of the O-S consistency for each target word,we asked participants to rate the similarity in meaningbetween the target word and its orthographic neighborsusing a 7-point scale, ranging from 1 (very dissimilar)to 7 (very similar). After collecting the ratings, weclassified the neighbors as semantic friends if the meansimilarity rating was 4.00 or higher. Otherwise, theneighbors were classified as semantic enemies. Then, thesummed frequencies of the semantic friends and enemieswere calculated in order to compute the O-S consistencyindex for each of the 1,114 words, using the followingformula:

O� S Consistency Index ¼ ðTarget Frequencyþ Summed Frequency of Semantic FriendsÞ=

ðTarget Frequencyþ Summed Frequency of All

NeighborsÞ

In this formula, the summed frequency of the semanticfriends was added to the target frequency, and this valuewas divided by the value of the summed frequency ofall of the neighbors plus the target frequency. Similar tothe O-P consistency index, the O-S consistency indextook a value between 0 and 1. The O-S consistencyindex should be close to 1 for words with moreconsistent O-S correspondences, but the value shouldbe close to 0 if the O-S correspondences are highlyinconsistent.

By computing the O-P and O-S consistency indices forthe 339 katakana and 775 kanji words, we were able tocompare these indices between the katakana and kanjiwords in order to examine (1) whether the O-P consisten-cies are higher for kana words than for kanji words and (2)whether the O-S consistencies are higher for kanji wordsthan for kana words.

O-P analysis

Method

Stimuli and procedure As noted, 339 katakana nouns(3.95 characters in length on average, ranging from threeto five characters) and 775 kanji nouns with twocharacters were selected from Amano and Kondo’s(2003a) syntactic class database. The mean numbers ofmorae were 3.83 for the 339 katakana words and 3.66 forthe 775 kanji words. All of these words were non-

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homophonic and nonhomographic according to Amanoand Kondo’s (2003a) familiarity-rating database and werelisted in the National Language Research Institute’s (1970)word frequency norms.7

For each of the 1,114 words, orthographic neighborswere generated using the National Language ResearchInstitute (1993) database and were classified as phonolog-ical friends or enemies, as illustrated in Table 1. Then, thesummed frequencies of the phonological friends andenemies were computed using the frequency norms of theNational Language Research Institute (1970). When aneighbor was not listed in the norms, the frequency countwas assumed to be zero. Based on the target frequency andthe summed frequencies of the phonological friends andenemies, the O-P consistency index was computed for eachof the 1,114 words.

Results

The mean O-P consistency indices and the mean summedfrequencies of the phonological friends and enemies forthe 339 katakana words and the 775 kanji words areshown in Table 2, along with their mean word frequenciesand orthographic neighborhood sizes. In addition, thetarget frequency, orthographic neighborhood size,summed frequency of the phonological friends plus targetfrequency, summed frequency of the phonological ene-mies, numbers of phonological friends and enemies, andthe O-P consistency indices for each of the 1,114 wordsare listed in the Appendix. As shown in Table 2, the O-Pconsistency index was higher for the katakana words (.94)than for the kanji words (.82), a difference that wassignificant in a one-way ANOVA, F(1, 1112) = 65.83,MSE = .05, p < .001, η2 = .056.

Note, however, that the 1,114 words involved a numberof words with no orthographic neighbor listed in NationalLanguage Research Institute (1970) frequency norms.Although the computed O-P consistency index is 1.00 forall of these words, the words clearly possess uniquespelling patterns and, hence, unique O-P relationships,

much like the so-called “strange” words in English (e.g.,Seidenberg, Waters, Barnes, & Tanenhaus, 1984). There-fore, giving the consistency indices for these words thesame weight as those for words that actually haveneighbors when calculating mean consistencies may pro-duce a somewhat misleading result. Specifically, doing somay artificially inflate the mean consistency index for bothkatakana and kanji words.

Note also that, because the number of orthographicneighbors is, in general, negatively correlated withword length (e.g., Forster, Davis, Schoknecht, &Carter, 1987) and because katakana words were longerthan kanji words in our stimulus set, the mean number oforthographic neighbors was significantly smaller for thekatakana words (1.77) than for the kanji words (47.59), adifference that was significant in a one-way ANOVA,F(1, 1112) = 900.80, MSE = 549.85, p < .001, η2 = .448.As a result, there were 213 katakana words with noneighbors listed in National Language Research Institute(1970) norms and only 7 kanji words of this sort.Therefore, it’s possible that the degree of O-P consisten-cy was overestimated more for the katakana words thanfor the kanji words in our stimulus set. In order to addressthis issue, we recomputed the mean O-P consistencyindices for the katakana and kanji words after removingthe words with unique spelling patterns. The results ofthat analysis are shown in Table 3. As seen in the table,after removing the 213 katakana words and 7 kanji wordswith unique spelling patterns, the mean O-P consistencyindex for katakana words was decreased to .83 (from .94as shown in Table 2), whereas the mean for the kanjiwords was unchanged (.82). As a result, the O-Pconsistency indices were essentially the same for the 126katakana words (.83) and 768 kanji words (.82), a nonsignif-icant difference in a one-way ANOVA, F(1, 892) = 0.31,MSE = .06, η2 = .000.8

In addition, because there were small correlationsbetween the O-P consistency indices for the 894 wordsand both target frequency, r = .088, p < .01, andorthographic neighborhood size, r = −.196, p < .001, weattempted to ascertain whether these factors might have

7 Mean word lengths, numbers of morae, word frequencies, andorthogrtaphic neighborhood sizes were compared for the 339 katakanawords and 775 kanji words. As expected, mean word lengths weresignificantly greater for the katakana words (3.95) than for the kanji words(2.00), F(1, 1112) = 5,175.23, MSE = 0.17, p < .001, η2 = .823. Meannumbers of morae were also greater for the katakana words (3.83) thanfor the kanji words (3.66), F(1, 1112) = 17.37, MSE = 0.36, p < 001,η2 = .015. Mean word frequencies were higher for the kanji words(27.15) than for the katakana words (18.67), F(1, 1112) = 7.67, MSE =2,213.46, p < .01, η2 = .007, and mean orthographic neighborhood sizeswere much higher for the kanji words (47.59) than for the katakanawords (1.77), F(1, 1112) = 900.80, MSE = 549.85, p < .001, η2 = .448.

8 After removing the 213 katakana and 7 kanji words with uniquespelling patterns, the mean word lengths were 3.45 for the remaining126 katakana words and 2.00 for the remaining 768 kanji words,F(1, 892) = 4,712.95, MSE = 0.05, p < .001, η2 = .841. The meannumbers of morae were 3.42 for the katakana words and 3.66 for thekanji words, F(1, 892) = 22.43, MSE = 0.28, p < .001, η2 = .025. Themean word frequencies were 17.81 for the katakana words and 27.15for the kanji words, F(1, 892) = 3.73, MSE = 2,531.93, p < .06, η2 =.004, and the mean orthographic neighborhood sizes were 4.36 for thekatakana words and 47.96 for the kanji words, F(1, 892) = 306.73,MSE = 670.84, p < .001, η2 = .256.

1116 Behav Res (2011) 43:1110–1151

affected our contrast between katakana and kanji words.9

To do so, we also conducted a multiple regression analysison the O-P consistency indices for the 894 words in orderto determine whether the script type difference (katakanavs. kanji words) could explain a unique amount of variancein the O-P consistency indices after removing the varianceexplained by target frequency and orthographic neighbor-hood size. In this analysis, orthographic neighborhood size,target frequency, and script type were used as predictorvariables and entered into the equation in that order, in astepwise manner. For the script type variable, katakana andkanji words were coded as 0 and 1, respectively. Theregression equation explained a significant amount ofvariance in the O-P consistency indices, R2 = .055,F(3, 890) = 17.43, MSE = .06, p < .001. A summary ofthe results from the regression analysis is shown in Table 4.

As illustrated in Table 4, orthographic neighborhood sizewas a significant predictor variable, β = −.252,t(890) = −6.67, p < .001, reflecting the fact that the O-Pconsistency indices decrease for words with more ortho-graphic neighbors. Target frequency was also a significantpredictor variable, β = .091, t(890) = 2.78, p < .01,reflecting the fact that the O-P consistency indices werehigher for higher-frequency words. In addition, script type

was also a significant predictor variable after the varianceexplained by the other two variables was removed, β = .103,t(890) = 2.72, p < .01. Surprisingly, the β for script type waspositive, indicating that the O-P consistency index was nowhigher for the kanji words than for the katakana words.10

Finally, because the sample sizes were so dramaticallydifferent for the katakana and kanji words in our analyses,we attempted to carry out an analysis involving the samenumbers of katakana and kanji words, with the word setsbeing equated on word frequency and orthographic neigh-borhood size. A subset of 38 katakana words and 38 kanjiwords were selected from the 894 words. The mean wordfrequencies were virtually identical for the katakana words(17.32) and the kanji words (17.50), F(1, 74) = 0.00,MSE = 361.83, η2 = .000, as were mean orthographicneighborhood sizes for the katakana words (8.92) and thekanji words (9.61), F(1, 74) = 1.78, MSE = 5.00, η2 = .023.Consistent with the results from the regression analysis, the

Table 1 An example of computing the O-P consistency index for a katakana word, ペース (pace, /pe.E.su/)

Frequency Frequency

Target

ペース (pace, /pe.E.su/) 6

Phonological friends Phonological Enemies

ケース (case, /ke.E.su/) 20 アース (earth, /a.A.su/) 0

ベース (base, /be.E.su/) 12 コース (course, /ko.O.su/) 66

レース (race, /re.E.su/) 22 ソース (source, /so.O.su/) 0

ページ (page, /pe.E.zi/) 36 ダース (dozen, /da.A.su/) 0

ホース (horse, /ho.O.su/) 0

Total 96 66

Orthographic neighbors generated using the National Language Research Institute (1993) database were classified as phonological friends orenemies based on whether the shared characters between the neighbor and target were pronounced the same at the moraic level. The frequencycounts were taken from National Language Research Institute (1970). The O-P consistency index of ペース = 96 / (96 + 66) = .59

10 An identical multiple regression analysis was also conducted for theentire set of the katakana and kanji words. The regression equationexplained a significant amount of variance in the O-P consistency indices,R2 = .112, F(3, 1110) = 46.61, MSE = .05, p < .001. In addition, bothorthographic neighborhood size, β = −.298, t(1110) = −7.84, p < .001,and target frequency, β = .084, t(1110) = 2.97, p < .01, were significantpredictor variables. In contrast, script type was not a significant predictorvariable, β = −.044, t(1110) = −1.15, suggesting that the O-P consistencyindices were comparable for the katakana and kanji words when thewords with unique spelling patterns were included in the analysis.

Note that, as shown in Table 2, the mean word frequencies andorthographic neighborhood sizes were smaller for the 339 katakana wordsthan for the 775 kanji words. Further, the standard deviations of thesevariables were also smaller for the katakana words than for the kanjiwords (word frequencies, 26.56 for the katakana words and 53.59 for thekanji words; orthographic neighborhood sizes, 2.94 for the katakanawords and 28.04 for the kanji words). As such, the ranges of frequenciesand orthographic neighborhood sizes were more limited for the katakanawords. As a result, it’s possible that it was somewhat more difficult todetect the effects due to these variables on the O-P consistency indices forthe katakana words in our regression analyses.

9 Given how the O-P and O-S consistency indices were defined, it wasalmost inevitable that small correlations of this sort would arise.Target frequency contributes to both the numerator and denominatorof the formulas, however, the numerator is, of necessity, a smallernumber than the denominator. Therefore, target frequency willcontribute relatively more to the numerator than to the denominator,leading to small positive correlations between target frequency and theconsistency indices. In contrast, orthographic neighborhood size willcontribute more to the denominator than to the numerator, because allof the neighbor frequencies are counted in the denominator total,while only a subset of the neighbor frequencies are counted in thenumerator total. As a result, one would expect a small negativecorrelation between orthographic neighborhood size and the consis-tency indices.

Behav Res (2011) 43:1110–1151 1117

mean O-P consistency index for the kanji words (.88) wassignificantly higher than that for the katakana words (.70)in a one-way ANOVA, F(1, 74) = 7.94, MSE = .08, p < .01,η2 = .097.

Discussion

The results of our analysis of the O-P consistencies for thekatakana and kanji words indicated that the degrees of O-Pconsistency were somewhat more comparable for katakana andkanji words than has previously been assumed. In our initialanalysis, the mean O-P consistency index was slightly higherfor the 339 katakana words than for the 775 kanji words, asshown in Table 2. But because katakana words were longerthan kanji words, katakana words generally possessed fewerorthographic neighbors, and as a result our stimulus setinvolved 213 katakana words, but only 7 kanji words, withunique spelling patterns and, hence, an O-P consistency indexof 1.00. Because words having unique spelling patterns haveunique relationships between orthography and phonology, aswith the “strange” words in English, it may be misleading toconclude that these words actually possess what has beenconventionally considered to be consistent O-P relationships.To address this potential issue, we removed these words fromour stimulus set and recomputed the mean O-P consistencyindices for both katakana and kanji words. With these wordsremoved, the O-P consistency indices were now identical forthe 126 katakana and 768 kanji words.

In order to resolve another potentially important issue,the potential confound with target frequency and ortho-graphic neighborhood size, we conducted a regressionanalysis in which the factors target frequency and ortho-graphic neighborhood size were included as predictorsalong with script type. When the variance explained bytarget frequency and orthographic neighborhood size was

removed, the O-P consistency indices were actually higherfor kanji words than for katakana words. Similar resultswere also observed in the ANOVA using the 38 katakanaand 38 kanji words having equivalent word frequencies andorthographic neighborhood sizes.

The upshot of these analyses is that the O-P consisten-cies were actually quite comparable for the katakana andkanji words. What is likely to seem most surprising aboutthese results would be that our set of katakana words wouldactually have a consistency index less than 1.00 (i.e., thisfact might seem more surprising than the fact that kanjiwords are actually fairly consistent once context—that is,the other constituent character in the word—is taken intoaccount). Kana words have been assumed to have highlyconsistent O-P relationships; however, what the presentresults document is that that assumption is actuallyincorrect. In particular, katakana words with macronspossess inconsistent O-P relationships. The macron, whichis a quite common character, is a dash-like character [e.g.,the ー in ソース (source, /so.O.su/)] that denotes that thevowel involved in the previous character is a prolonged(“long”) vowel. Combining the macron with the previouskatakana character, therefore, creates a single syllable witha long vowel (i.e., a /CVV/ syllable). That is, the long-vowel syllable (which has two morae, /CV/ and /V/) has aduration twice as long as a syllable with a single mora, witha macron being pronounced the same as the vowel involvedin the previous katakana character. Because there are fivedifferent vowels in Japanese phonology (e.g., /a/, /e/, /i/, /o/,and /u/), a macron has five different possible pronunciationsat the moraic level. Hence, katakana words with macronsclearly involve inconsistent character–mora relationships.

Although Tamaoka and Terao (2004) suggested that thesyllabic units play a major role and the moraic units playessentially no role in the naming of kana-written strings, as

1118 Behav Res (2011) 43:1110–1151

Table 2 Mean word frequency (Freq.), mean orthographic neighbor-hood size (N), mean O-P consistency index (O-P Index), mean oftarget frequency plus summed frequency of the phonological friends

(Friends), and mean summed frequency of the phonological enemies(Enemies) for the 339 katakana words and the 775 kanji words

Script type Freq. N O-P index Friends Enemies

339 katakana words 18.67 1.77 .94 31.85 5.33

775 kanji words 37.25 47.59 .82 481.13 120.69

Table 3 Mean word frequency (Freq.), mean orthographic neighbor-hood size (N), mean O-P consistency index (O-P Index), mean oftarget frequency plus summed frequency of the phonological friends

(Friends), and mean summed frequency of the phonological enemies(Enemies) for the 126 katakana words and the 768 kanji words afterremoving the words with unique spelling patterns

Script type Freq. N O-P index Friends Enemies

126 katakana words 17.81 4.36 .83 53.23 14.34

768 kanji words 27.15 47.96 .82 485.27 121.79

previously noted, Hino et al. (2011) reported a significanteffect of character–mora consistency in the naming ofkatakana words when examining words containing macrons.Hino et al.’s findings in their naming task, as well as theresults of our analysis, indicate that the O-P relationships (i.e.,character–mora relationships) for kana words are actually lessconsistent than previously assumed.

Our results also suggest, of course, that the O-Prelationships for kanji words are more consistent thanpreviously assumed. Although most kanji characters corre-spond to multiple pronunciations, what our results show isthat when each character is used in a specific position incompound words, it tends to be pronounced the same. Thisanalysis provides a reasonable explanation of Wydell etal.’s (1995) results. As previously noted, Wydell et al. failedto observe a consistency effect in the naming of kanji wordswhen O-P consistency was manipulated based on thenumber of pronunciations possessed by the constituentcharacters. Because there is a strong tendency for each kanjicharacter to be pronounced the same when it is used in aspecific position in the word, O-P consistency was notstrongly manipulated in Wydell et al.’s experiments.

For the present purposes, however, the point is that ourresults indicate that the O-P consistencies are quite compara-ble for kana and kanji words. Based on our results, therefore, itbecomes somewhat harder to make the argument that there areprocessing differences in the phonological coding of kana andkanji words due to differences in the nature of the relation-ships between orthography and phonology.

O-S analysis

The next issue to be addressed is the question of the O-Sconsistencies for kana and kanji words. In particular, weattempted to evaluate whether the O-S relationships reallyare more consistent for kanji than for kana words.

Method

Participants A total of 876 undergraduate and graduatestudents from Waseda University participated in this study

in exchange for a small amount of money (¥500). All of thestudents were native Japanese speakers.

Stimuli For each of the 339 katakana and 775 kanji wordsused in the analysis of the O-P consistencies, orthographicneighbors were generated using the National LanguageResearch Institute (1993) database, and each of theneighbors was paired with the target word only if it waslisted in the frequency norms of National LanguageResearch Institute (1970). This procedure was employedto reduce the number of word pairs used in the subjectiveratings. Nonetheless, 12,407 word pairs were created withthis procedure. The 12,407 word pairs were then randomlydivided into 31 sets of word pairs, each of which consistedof either 400 or 401 word pairs. Based on the 31 sets ofword pairs, 31 versions of a questionnaire were created. Ineach questionnaire, the instructions to the participants wereprinted on the first page. Starting on the second page, wordpairs were randomly ordered and printed with a 7-pointscale ranging from 1 (very dissimilar) to 7 (very similar).The rating scale was printed below each word pair. Because32 word pairs were printed on one page, each questionnaireconsisted of 14 pages in total.

Procedure The data collection was conducted in groups ina normally lit room. A group of participants was gathered inthe room, and an experimenter handed a pencil and aquestionnaire to each of the participants. At the front of theroom, the experimenter read aloud the instructions printedon the first page of the questionnaire. That is, theexperimenter asked participants to rate the similarity inmeanings for each of the word pairs printed in thequestionnaire by circling the appropriate number on thescale. The participants were also instructed (1) to use theentire scale in their ratings, (2) to be consistent in their useof the scale across all of the word pairs, (3) to quicklypreview all of the word pairs in order to get an idea of theirrange, and (4) to be careful not to skip any of the pairs. Atleast 27 participants were assigned to each version of thequestionnaire. The entire session took about 30 min.11

Results

After collecting the 876 participants’ rating data, meanratings were computed for all of the 12,407 word pairs.Based on the mean ratings, orthographic neighbors of each

Table 4 Summary of the results from the multiple regression analysison the O-P consistency indices for the 126 katakana and 786 kanjiwords

Predictor variable β t

Orthographic neighborhood size –.252 –6.67**

Target frequency .091 2.78*

Script type (katakana = 0, kanji = 1) .103 2.72*

df = 890. * p < .01. ** p < .001

11 For 10 versions of questionnaire, there were 27 participantsassigned to each version. A total of 28 participants were assigned toeach of another 10 versions, 29 participants to each of a further 5versions, and 30 participants to each of another 5 versions. Finally, 31participants were assigned to 1 version.

Behav Res (2011) 43:1110–1151 1119

of the 1,114 words were classified as semantic friends orenemies. An orthographic neighbor was classified as asemantic friend if the mean rating of the target–neighborpair was greater than or equal to 4.00. Otherwise, theorthographic neighbor was classified as a semantic enemy.After classifying the orthographic neighbors, summedfrequencies of semantic friends and enemies were comput-ed using the National Language Research Institute (1970)frequency norms, and an O-S consistency index wascomputed for each of the 1,114 words. Table 5 illustratesan example of computing the O-S consistency index for thekanji word 簡素 (simple).

The mean O-S consistency indices and the meansummed frequencies of the semantic friends and enemiesfor the 339 katakana words and the 775 kanji words areshown in Table 6, along with their mean word frequenciesand orthographic neighborhood sizes. The summed fre-quency of the semantic friends plus the target frequency, thesummed frequency of the semantic enemies, the numbers ofsemantic friends and enemies (involving only those thatwere listed in National Language Research Institute, 1970),and the O-S consistency indices for each of the 1,114 wordsare also listed in Appendix. In contrast to the predictions, asshown in Table 6, the O-S consistency index was actuallyhigher for the katakana words (.76) than for the kanji words(.26), a difference that was highly significant in a one-wayANOVA, F(1, 1112) = 689.73, MSE = .08, p < .001,η2 = .383.

As with O-P consistency, however, it was possible thatthe degree of O-S consistency was overestimated more forthe katakana words than for the kanji words because thekatakana word set involved more words with uniquespelling patterns (as previously noted, there were 213katakana and 7 kanji words of this sort). As with the O-Pconsistency index, the O-S consistency index will result in

a value of 1.00 when there is no orthographic neighborlisted in the frequency norms. Therefore, once again weremoved the 213 katakana and 7 kanji words with uniquespelling patterns and recomputed the mean O-S consistencyindices for the remaining 126 katakana and 768 kanjiwords. The results are shown in Table 7. As can be seen inthat table, after removing the 220 words with uniquespelling patterns, the O-S consistency indices were stillhigher for the 126 katakana words (.34) than for the 768kanji words (.25), a difference that was, once again,significant in a one-way ANOVA, F(1, 892) = 14.31,MSE = .06, p < .001, η2 = .016.

In addition, as with the O-P consistency indices, the O-Sconsistency indices for the 894 words were positivelycorrelated with target frequency, r = .244, p < .001, andnegatively correlated with orthographic neighborhood size,r = −.419, p < .001. To address concerns raised by thisissue, we conducted a multiple regression analysis on theO-S consistency indices for the 894 words in order todetermine whether the script type difference (katakana vs.kanji words) could explain a unique amount of variance inthe O-S consistency indices after removing the varianceexplained by target frequency and orthographic neighbor-hood size. Similar to the regression analysis on the O-Pconsistency indices, katakana and kanji words were codedas 0 and 1, respectively, for script type, which was used as apredictor variable, together with target frequency andorthographic neighborhood size. These predictor variableswere, then, entered into the regression equation in astepwise manner, just as in the analysis of the O-Pconsistency indices. The regression equation explained asignificant amount of variance in the O-S consistencyindices, R2 = .251, F(3, 890) = 99.52, MSE = .05, p < .001.A summary of the results from the regression analysis isshown in Table 8.

Table 5 An example of computing the O-S consistency index for a kanji word, 簡素 (simple, /ka.N-so/)

Rating Frequency Rating Frequency

Target

簡素 (simple) 5

Semantic Friends Semantic Enemies

簡易 (simple) 6.28 15 要素 (element) 2.21 20

簡単 (easy) 5.78 46 炭素 (carbon) 1.29 8

酵素 (enzyme) 1.25 9

酸素 (oxygen) 1.13 39

水素 (hydrogen) 1.07 9

Total 66 85

Orthographic neighbors generated using the National Language Research Institute (1993) database were classified as semantic friends or enemiesbased on the mean similarity ratings for the target–neighbor pairs. The frequency counts were taken from National Language Research Institute(1970). The O-S consistency index of 簡素 = 66 / (66 + 85) = .44

1120 Behav Res (2011) 43:1110–1151

As illustrated in Table 8, orthographic neighborhoodsize was a significant predictor variable, β = −.480,t(890) = −14.27, p < .001, reflecting the fact that theO-S consistency indices were lower for words with moreorthographic neighbors. Target frequency was also asignificant predictor variable, β = .256, t(890) = 8.81,p < .001, reflecting the fact that the O-S consistencyindices were higher for higher-frequency words. Inaddition, script type was a significant predictor variablewhen the variance explained by the other two variableswas removed, β = .101, t(890) = 2.99, p < .01. Because theβ for script type was positive, the results suggested thatthe O-S consistency indices were now higher for the kanjiwords than for the katakana words. Thus, when theimpacts of both word frequency and orthographic neigh-borhood size were removed for the katakana and kanjiwords, the O-S consistency indices were higher for thekanji than for the katakana words.12

Finally, as in the analyses of the O-P consistency indices,we also compared the O-S consistency indices for the 38katakana and 38 kanji words that were selected in the O-Panalysis using a one-way ANOVA. For these words, themean O-S consistencies were significantly higher for thekanji words (.50) than for the katakana words (.17),F(1, 74) = 30.69, MSE = .07, p < .001, η2 = .293. Assuch, consistent with the results from the regressionanalysis, the O-S consistencies were higher for the kanjithan for the katakana words when target frequency andorthographic neighborhood size were equated for katakanaand kanji words.

Discussion

In order to examine whether the O-S consistencies arehigher for kanji words than for kana words, we attempted tomeasure the O-S consistencies for 339 katakana and 775kanji words. As shown in Table 6, the O-S consistencyindices for these words were higher for the katakana wordsthan for the kanji words. Because the katakana words werelonger than the kanji words, the number of orthographicneighbors was smaller for the katakana words (1.77) thanfor the kanji words (47.59). As a result, there were manymore katakana words than kanji words that had noorthographic neighbor listed in the word frequency norms.According to the formula used to compute the O-Sconsistency index, that index was always 1.00 for thesewords. Because these words are considered to have uniquespelling patterns and unique O-S relationships, one couldargue that giving those words the same weight as wordswith neighbors when calculating mean O-S consistenciestends to artificially inflate the calculated means.

In order to examine this issue more closely, werecomputed the mean O-S consistency indices for thekatakana and kanji words after removing the words withunique spelling patterns. Even when the words of this sortwere removed, however, the O-S consistency indices werestill significantly higher for the 126 katakana words (.34)than for the 768 kanji words (.25).

Only when the variance explained by target frequencyand orthographic neighborhood size was removed in aregression analysis were the O-S consistency indices higherfor the kanji than for the katakana words. Similar resultsemerged in an ANOVA in which target frequency andorthographic neighborhood size were equated for 38katakana and 38 kanji words. Both of these analysesdemonstrate that the O-S consistency index is stronglymodulated by the orthographic neighborhood size of aword, even after removing the words with unique spellingpatterns. Regardless of script type, when a word has moreorthographic neighbors, almost by necessity, it increases theprobability of having semantic enemies in the orthographicneighborhood. Such would more likely be true for katakanawords, because katakana characters are phonetic in nature,

12 An identical multiple regression analysis was also conducted for theentire set of the katakana and kanji words. This equation explained asignificant amount of variance in the O-S consistency indices, R2 =.492, F(3, 1110) = 358.62, MSE = .07, p < .001. Further, bothorthographic neighborhood size, β = −.395, t(1110) = −13.74,p < .001, and target frequency, β = .154, t(1110) = 7.17, p < .001,were significant predictor variables. In addition, script type was also asignificant predictor variable, β = −.367, t(1110) = −12.73, p < .001.Because all of the words with unique spelling patterns were involvedin this analysis, the β for script type was negative, indicating that theO-S consistency indices were higher for the katakana than for thekanji words.

Behav Res (2011) 43:1110–1151 1121

Table 6 Mean word frequency (Freq.), mean orthographic neighbor-hood size (N), mean O-S consistency index (O-S Index), mean oftarget frequency plus summed frequency of the semantic friends

(Friends), and mean summed frequency of the semantic enemies(Enemies) for the 339 katakana words and the 775 kanji words

Script type Freq. N O-S index Friends Enemies

339 katakana words 18.67 1.77 .76 18.74 18.42

775 kanji words 37.25 47.59 .26 108.78 492.85

and there is no reason to expect that words sharing the samekatakana characters will also share meanings [e.g., ポケット(pocket) and ロケット (rocket)]. As a result, katakanawords with more orthographic neighbors would tend tohave more semantic enemies and, hence, less consistentO-S relationships.

For kanji words, on the other hand, it had been expectedthat words having the same kanji characters would tend tohave similar meanings, because kanji characters aremorphemes. According to our data, however, this expecta-tion receives only limited support. Rather, as discussed byZhou and Marslen-Wilson (2000), the meaning of acompound word does not appear to always be transparentand predictable from the meanings of its constituentmorphemes, not only in English and Chinese, but also withJapanese kanji words. As a result, for words written ineither script, the probability of having semantic enemieswas not small, and the O-S relationships were lessconsistent when there were more orthographic neighbors.This tendency does appear to be somewhat weaker for kanjiwords than for katakana words, however. Thus, when thevariance explained by orthographic neighborhood size andtarget frequency was removed in the regression analysis(and when these two variables were equated as much aspossible in the word sets used in the ANOVA), the O-Sconsistency indices were higher for kanji than for katakanawords.

What is also clear, however, based on our results, is thatthe conclusion that the O-S relationships are more consis-tent for kanji than for kana words is, at best, a weak one.Rather, because kanji words are generally shorter than kanawords and because the numbers of orthographic neighborsare also generally larger for kanji words than for kanawords, kanji words generally possess numerous semanticenemies, and hence, the potential advantage in O-Sconsistencies for kanji words due to their morphemicstructure appears to be, to a large extent, negated.Therefore, a reasonable conclusion from these resultswould be that, in contrast to what has been previouslyassumed, the O-S relationships appear to be reasonablysimilar for kana and kanji words.

General discussion

On the basis of the assumption that Japanese kana and kanjiwords possess qualitatively different relationships betweenorthography and phonology, the suggestion has been madethat the nature of the phonological-coding process is alsodifferent for kana than for kanji words. In particular,according to a position that follows from the orthographicdepth hypothesis (see, e.g., Frost, 2005; Frost et al., 1987),because the O-P relationships are quite transparent forkana-written words, kana words are assumed to be namedonly via assembly-type processes (e.g., Kimura, 1984;Morton & Sasanuma, 1984; Saito, 1981). In contrast,because kanji characters generally possess multiple pronun-ciations (e.g., on-reading and kun-reading pronunciations),the O-P relationships are considered to be fairly complicatedfor kanji words. As a result, kanji words are assumed toalways be named as a result of processing on a lexical route(e.g., Kimura, 1984; Saito, 1981; Wydell et al., 1995).

According to this theoretical position, the nature of thesemantic-coding process is also assumed to be different forkana and kanji words. Because kanji characters carry meaning(i.e., morphemes), words sharing the same kanji characters areexpected to have similar meanings. In contrast, because kanacharacters are phonetic, there is no reason to expect that wordssharing the same kana characters will also share meanings. Ifso, the relationships between orthography and semanticsshould be more consistent for kanji words than for kanawords. Based on these assumptions, therefore, lexical/seman-

Table 8 Summary of the results from the multiple regression analysison the O-S consistency indices for the 126 katakana and 786 kanjiwords

Predictor variable β t

Orthographic neighborhood size –.480 –14.27**

Target frequency .256 8.81**

Script type (katakana = 0, kanji = 1) .101 2.98*

df = 890. * p < .01. ** p < .001

1122 Behav Res (2011) 43:1110–1151

Table 7 Mean word frequency (Freq.), mean orthographic neighbor-hood size (N), mean O-S consistency index (O-S Index), mean oftarget frequency plus summed frequency of the semantic friends

(Friends), and mean summed frequency of the semantic enemies(Enemies) for the 126 katakana words and the 768 kanji words afterremoving the words with unique spelling patterns

Script type Freq. N O-S index Friends Enemies

126 katakana words 17.81 4.36 .34 18.01 49.57

768 kanji words 27.15 47.96 .25 109.52 497.34

tic coding has been assumed to be carried out based directlyon orthography for kanji words but to always be mediated byphonology for kana words (e.g., Kimura, 1984; Saito, 1981).

More recent empirical findings have appeared to challengethis theoretical position. For example, word frequency andfamiliarity effects have been reported in the naming not only ofkanji words but also of kana words (e.g., Besner &Hildebrandt,1987; Hino & Lupker, 1998). Some semantic effects have alsobeen reported in the naming of both kanji words (e.g., Hino etal., 2002; Shibahara et al., 2003) and kana words (e.g., Hinoet al., 1998). Further, print–sound consistency effects havealso been reported in the naming of both kanji words (e.g.,Fushimi et al., 1999) and kana words (e.g., Hino et al., 2011).In contrast to the position based on the orthographic depthhypothesis, all of these findings suggest lexical/semanticinvolvement in the naming of both kanji and kana wordsand, hence, suggest that the phonological-coding processesmay be rather more similar in nature for kanji and for kanawords than has previously been thought.

Consistent with the original assumption that lexical/semantic coding is carried out directly from orthographyfor kanji words but is always mediated by phonology forkana-written words, Kimura (1984) reported that perfor-mance in a relatedness judgment task was more disruptedby concurrent articulation for hiragana transcription pairsthan for the original kanji word pairs. Using a lexicaldecision task, however, Kinoshita and Saito (1992)reported no effect of concurrent articulation for either theoriginal kanji words or their hiragana transcriptions.Further, because the larger effect of concurrent articulationfor the hiragana transcription pairs in Kimura’s studycould be accounted for in terms of the increased semanticambiguity for hiragana transcription pairs, it is not at allclear that Kimura’s data have much to say about the natureof lexical/semantic coding differences for kana and kanjiwords.

The bulk of the evidence, therefore, seems to indicatethat the nature of the processes involved in phonologicalcoding and lexical/semantic coding are actually somewhatsimilar for kana and kanji words, with the present findingsraising the question of whether the O-P and O-S relation-ships themselves are really different for kana and kanjiwords. Wydell et al. (1995), for example, failed to observea consistency effect in the naming of kanji words whenconsistency was manipulated by considering the number ofpossible pronunciations possessed by the constituent kanjicharacters. Given the fact that a consistency effect doesarise in the naming of kanji words when consistency ismanipulated using orthographic neighbors (e.g., Fushimi etal., 1999), Wydell et al.’s results appear to reflect thetendency for a kanji character to be pronounced the same

whenever it is used in a specific character position. Thisfact alone would indicate that the O-P relationships forkanji words are more consistent than previously assumed.In addition, because the meaning of a compound word isnot always transparent and predictable from the meaningsof its constituent morphemes (e.g., Zhou & Marslen-Wilson, 2000), it is not necessarily the case that wordssharing the same kanji characters are inevitably similar inmeaning. As such, the O-S relationships for kanji wordsappear to be somewhat less consistent than previouslythought.

O-P consistencies and the nature of phonological codingfor kana and kanji words

In our analysis of the O-P consistencies for 339 katakanawords and 775 kanji words, the results clearly indicated thatthe O-P consistencies were fairly high not only for thekatakana words (.94), but also for the kanji words (.82).Equally importantly, when words with unique spellingpatterns were removed from the stimulus set, the O-Pconsistency indices were comparable for the katakana (.83)and kanji words (.82). Further, when the variance explainedby target frequency and orthographic neighborhood sizewas removed using a regression analysis (and when thesevariables were equated by selecting the small set ofkatakana and kanji words analyzed with an ANOVA), theO-P consistency index was actually higher for the kanjiwords than for the katakana words.

These results clearly indicate that, in contrast to what hadbeen previously assumed (e.g., Kimura, 1984; Morton &Sasanuma, 1984; Saito, 1981; Wydell et al., 1995), O-Pconsistencies are fairly comparable for kana and kanji words.Our results, therefore, suggest that it is not at all unreason-able to assume qualitatively similar processes in the namingof kana and kanji words, a position consistent with morerecent findings (e.g., Besner & Hildebrandt, 1987; Fushimiet al., 1999; Hino et al., 2011; Hino & Lupker, 1998; Hino etal., 2002; Hino et al., 1998; Shibahara et al., 2003).

When comparing pronunciations of shared kanji charac-ters across orthographic neighbors, there are some cases inwhich the constituent kanji character is pronounceddifferently not because the same character is assigned todifferent types of pronunciations [e.g., on-reading vs. kun-reading pronunciations such as 食品 (food, /sjo.ku-hi.N/) vs.手品 (magic, /te-zi.na/)] but because a phonemic alternationoccurs at the morphemic boundary [e.g., 食品 (food, /sjo.ku-hi.N/) vs. 新品 (something new, /si.N-pi.N/)]. In ouranalysis, we always classified phonemic alternations asdifferent pronunciations. One may argue, however, that this

Behav Res (2011) 43:1110–1151 1123

classification is somewhat misleading, because the twocharacters still share the same type of the pronunciation.

If, instead, we had classified the phonemic alternationsas the same pronunciation, the phonological enemiescreated by the phonemic alternations would have beenclassified as phonological friends. Hence, the O-Pconsistency indices for kanji words would have beeneven higher. In contrast, because most of our katakanawords were monomorphemic and because they would bespelled differently whenever a phonemic alternationoccurred, the orthographic neighbors for katakana wordswould not involve phonemic alteration. As such, even ifphonemic alternations had been classified as the samepronunciations for kanji words, our general conclusionwould be essentially the same. That is, both katakana andkanji words possess highly consistent and reasonablycomparable O-P relationships.

O-S consistencies and the nature of lexical/semanticcoding for kana and kanji words

In our analysis of O-S consistencies, we measured thesimilarity in meanings between the target word and itsorthographic neighbors, allowing us to classify theorthographic neighbors as semantic friends or enemiesand then to compute an O-S consistency index. Incon-sistent with the prediction from the position based on theorthographic depth hypothesis, the computed O-S con-sistency index was higher for the 339 katakana words(.76) than for the 775 kanji words (.26). Further, whenwords with unique spelling patterns were removed fromthe stimulus set, the O-S consistency index was stillhigher for the katakana words (.34) than for the kanjiwords (.25). An advantage due to the morphemicstructure of kanji words was observed in the regressionanalysis and in the ANOVA involving a small set ofmatched items, however. That is, the O-S consistencyindices were higher for the kanji words than for thekatakana words in the regression analysis when thevariance explained by target frequency and orthographicneighborhood size on the O-S consistency indices wasremoved, and in the ANOVA when these two variableswere equated for 38 katakana and 38 kanji words. Basedon our results, therefore, it does not appear, to any largedegree, that the O-S relationships are noticeably moreconsistent for kanji words than for kana words.

Together with other empirical findings (e.g., Kinoshita &Saito, 1992), our results therefore appear to provide achallenge to the position based on the orthographic depthhypothesis, in which lexical/semantic coding is assumed to

be carried out directly from orthography for kanji words butto be mediated by phonology for kana words. That is, giventhe similar O-S and O-P consistencies for kana and kanjiwords, there would be no reasonable basis for assumingprocessing differences during lexical/semantic coding as afunction of script type.

There are, of course, a number of other characteristicsthat do seem to be different for kana and kanji words—forexample, their morphemic structure. Thus, it is possible thatthere truly are some qualitatively different aspects of theprocessing of kana and kanji words, because of those othercharacteristics that differ between them. For example,assuming that polymorphemic words are, initially, analyzedinto the morpheme-level representations and then integratedinto a single, whole-word representation, as suggested byTaft (2003, 2004), it may be the case that morphemicprocessing always takes place when reading kanji com-pound words.

Note, however, that there are some polymorphemickana words in Japanese as well [e.g., フライパン (/fu.ra.i-pa.N/, frying pan) and ホームラン (/ho.O.mu-ra.N/, homerun)]. Therefore, it is not clear that kanji and kana wordsactually differ qualitatively on this dimension, either.Although this issue is beyond the scope of the presentresearch, future research will need to address the issue ofmorphology in order to provide a better understanding ofthe characteristics of Japanese kana and kanji words, aswell as the nature of the processes involved in thereading of those words.

Author Note This research was supported by JSPS KAKENHI(19530667).

Appendix: List of 339 kana and 775 kanji words used inthe present research

Character length (Len), number of morae (Morae), wordfrequency (Freq.), orthographic neighborhood size (N),summed frequency of phonological friends plus targetfrequency (PF_F), summed frequency of phonological ene-mies (PE_F), number of phonological friends (PF_N), numberof phonological enemies (PE_N), O-P consistency index (O-PIndex), summed frequency of semantic friends plus targetfrequency (SF_F), summed frequency of smantic enemies(SE_F), number of semantic friends (SF_N), number ofsemantic enemies (SE_N), and O-S consistency index (O-SIndex) for 339 katakana and 775 kanji words, along with theirEnglish translations. See the text and table note at the bottomof Appendix for more details.

1124 Behav Res (2011) 43:1110–1151

No.

Item

Pronunciatio

nEnglishtranslation

Len

Morae

Freq.

NO-P

relatio

nship

O-S

relatio

nship

PF_F

PE_F

PF_N

PE_N

O-P

Index

SF_F

SE_F

SF_N

SE_N

O-S

Index

1コンテナー

*/ko.N.te.na.A/

container

55

50

50

00

1.00

50

00

1.00

2ドロップ

*/do.ro.Q.pu/

drop,candy

44

51

50

10

1.00

50

00

1.00

3メトロ

*/m

e.to.ro/

Metro,asubw

aysystem

inTo

kyo

33

50

50

00

1.00

50

00

1.00

4トランス

/to.ra.N.su/

trance

44

54

163

04

01.00

5158

02

0.03

5パスタ

*/pa.su.ta/

pasta

33

50

50

00

1.00

50

00

1.00

6バラード

*/ba.ra.A.do/

ballad

44

50

50

00

1.00

50

00

1.00

7ドクター

*/do.ku.ta.A/

doctor

44

50

50

00

1.00

50

00

1.00

8マガジン

*/m

a.ga.zi.N

/magazine

44

51

50

10

1.00

50

00

1.00

9バリケード

*/ba.ri.ke.E.do/

barricade

55

50

50

00

1.00

50

00

1.00

10ボウリング

*/bo.u.ri.N.gu/

bowlin

g5

55

05

00

01.00

50

00

1.00

11レバー

/re.ba.A/

lever,liv

er3

35

115

01

01.00

510

01

0.33

12ボイラー

*/bo.i.ra.A/

boiler

44

50

50

00

1.00

50

00

1.00

13コメディー

*/ko.me.di.I/

comedy

54

50

50

00

1.00

50

00

1.00

14ガード

#/ga.A.do/

guard

33

512

3979

66

0.33

5113

07

0.04

15マスター

/ma.su.ta.A/

master

44

53

120

30

1.00

57

01

0.42

16ヌード

#/nu.U.do/

nude

33

59

4356

18

0.43

594

06

0.05

17ブレーン

/bu.re.E.N/

brain

44

52

150

20

1.00

510

01

0.33

18チーズ

/cji.I.zu/

cheese

33

54

480

23

1.00

543

01

0.10

19ヒロイン

*/hi.ro.I.N/

heroine

44

51

50

10

1.00

50

00

1.00

20フライパン

*/fu.ra.i-pa.N/

frying

pan

55

50

50

00

1.00

50

00

1.00

21マッサージ

*/m

a.Q.sa.A.zi/

massage

55

50

50

00

1.00

50

00

1.00

22シート

#/si.I.to

/seat,sheet

33

58

1043

26

0.19

549

04

0.09

23ストライキ

/su.to.ra.i.k

i/strike

55

51

110

10

1.00

56

01

0.45

24ポケット

/po.ke.Q.to

/pocket

44

53

250

30

1.00

520

01

0.20

25チャーター

*/tja.A.ta.A/

charter

54

50

50

00

1.00

50

00

1.00

26シングルス

*/si.N

.gu.ru.su/

singles

55

51

50

10

1.00

50

00

1.00

27コンビ

/ko.N.bi/

combinatio

n,apair

33

52

310

20

1.00

526

01

0.16

28ユーモア

*/ju

.U.m

o.a/

humor

44

50

50

00

1.00

50

00

1.00

29バット

#/ba.Q.to

/bat

33

515

980

150

1.00

593

05

0.05

30シンボル

*/si.N

.bo.ru/

symbol

44

50

50

00

1.00

50

00

1.00

31オートバイ

*/o.O.to

.ba.i/

motorbike

55

50

50

00

1.00

50

00

1.00

32スローガン

*/su.ro.O.ga.N/

slogan

55

50

50

00

1.00

50

00

1.00

33スポンサー

*/su.po.N.sa.A/

sponsor

55

50

50

00

1.00

50

00

1.00

34タイミング

*/ta.i.mi.N

.gu/

timing

55

50

50

00

1.00

50

00

1.00

35リポート

/ri.p

o.O.to

/report

44

51

180

10

1.00

180

10

1.00

36タイトル

*/ta.i.to.ru/

title

44

50

50

00

1.00

50

00

1.00

37レザー

/re.za.A/

leather

33

62

110

20

1.00

65

01

0.55

38ピーナッツ

*/pi.I.na.Q.tu

/peanuts

55

60

60

00

1.00

60

00

1.00

39チック

#/cji.Q.ku/

tic3

36

1045

010

01.00

639

02

0.13

40コンドル

/ko.N.do.ru/

condor

44

61

150

10

1.00

69

01

0.40

41ピクニック

/pi.k

u.ni.Q.ku/

picnic

55

61

130

10

1.00

67

01

0.46

Behav Res (2011) 43:1110–1151 1125

(con

tinued)

No.

Item

Pronunciatio

nEnglishtranslation

Len

Morae

Freq.

NO-P

relatio

nship

O-S

relatio

nship

PF_F

PE_F

PF_N

PE_N

O-P

Index

SF_F

SE_F

SF_N

SE_N

O-S

Index

42マンホール

*/m

a.N.ho.O.ru/

manhole

55

60

60

00

1.00

60

00

1.00

43ハーモニー

*/ha.A.m

o.ni.I/

harm

ony

55

61

60

10

1.00

60

00

1.00

44ボーカル

/bo.Oka.ru/

vocal

44

61

410

10

1.00

635

01

0.15

45アクセント

*/a.ku.se.N.to

/accent

55

60

60

00

1.00

60

00

1.00

46ストライク

/su.to.ra.i.k

u/strike

55

61

110

10

1.00

65

01

0.55

47サーカス

/sa.A.ka.su/

circus

44

61

100

01

01.00

694

01

0.06

48フォーム

*/fo.O.m

u/form

43

61

60

01

1.00

60

00

1.00

49アクション

*/a.ku.sjo.N/

actio

n5

46

06

00

01.00

60

00

1.00

50カーテン

*/ka.A.te.N/

curtain

44

60

60

00

1.00

60

00

1.00

51ミステリー

*/m

i.su.te.ri.I/

mistery

55

61

60

10

1.00

60

00

1.00

52バスケット

*/ba.su.ke.Q.to

/basket

55

61

60

10

1.00

60

00

1.00

53リサイタル

*/ri.sa.i.ta.ru/

recital

55

60

60

00

1.00

60

00

1.00

54フォーク

/fo.O.ku/

fork

43

61

120

10

1.00

66

01

0.50

55アート

#/a.A.to

/art

33

612

648

66

0.11

648

04

0.11

56アンテナ

*/a.N.te.na/

antenna

44

60

60

00

1.00

60

00

1.00

57アマチュア

*/a.m

a.tju

.a/

amateur

54

60

60

00

1.00

60

00

1.00

58アドバイス

*/a.do.ba.i.su/

advice

55

60

60

00

1.00

60

00

1.00

59タンカー

*/ta.N.ka.A/

tanker

44

60

60

00

1.00

60

00

1.00

60タレント

*/ta.re.N.to

/talent

44

60

60

00

1.00

60

00

1.00

61ライバル

*/ra.i.b

a.ru/

rival

44

60

60

00

1.00

60

00

1.00

62デビュー

*/de.bju.U/

debut

43

61

60

10

1.00

60

00

1.00

63ペース

#/pe.E.su/

pace

33

69

9666

45

0.59

6156

05

0.04

64チェック

*/cje.Q.ku/

check,

cheque

43

60

60

00

1.00

60

00

1.00

65データ

/de.E.ta/

data

33

61

170

10

1.00

611

01

0.35

66レタリング

/re.ta.ri.N

.gu/

lettering

55

71

150

10

1.00

78

01

0.47

67ビールス

*/bi.I.ru.su/

virus

44

71

70

10

1.00

70

00

1.00

68ダーク

*/da.A.ku/

dark

33

75

70

32

1.00

70

00

1.00

69サマー

*/sa.ma.A/

summer

33

70

70

00

1.00

70

00

1.00

70カステラ

*/ka.su.te.ra/

asponge

cake

44

71

70

10

1.00

70

00

1.00

71スモッグ

*/su.mo.Q.gu/

smog

44

70

70

00

1.00

70

00

1.00

72オート

#/o.O.to

/auto

33

78

5516

44

0.77

764

05

0.10

73ポロシャツ

*/po.ro-sja.tu

/polo

shirt

54

70

70

00

1.00

70

00

1.00

74クリーム

*/ku.ri.I.m

u/cream

44

70

70

00

1.00

70

00

1.00

75ジープ

/zi.I.pu/

jeep

33

75

731

05

0.18

731

02

0.18

76ギャング

*/gja.N.gu/

gang

43

70

70

00

1.00

70

00

1.00

77ローラー

/ro.O.ra.A/

roller

44

71

79

01

0.44

79

01

0.44

78パセリ

*/pa.se.ri/

parsley

33

70

70

00

1.00

70

00

1.00

79アベック

*/a.be.Q.ku/

acouple

44

70

70

00

1.00

70

00

1.00

80ボーリング

*/bo.O.ri.N

.gu/

bowlin

g5

57

07

00

01.00

70

00

1.00

81アイロン

/a.i.ro.N/

iron

44

71

370

10

1.00

730

01

0.19

82オルガン

*/o.ru.ga.N/

organ

44

70

70

00

1.00

70

00

1.00

83カーペット

*/ka.A.pe.Q.to

/carpet

55

70

70

00

1.00

70

00

1.00

84ダンプカー

*/da.N.pu.ka.A/

dumptruck

55

70

70

00

1.00

70

00

1.00

85カントリー

*/ka.N.to

.ri.I/

country

55

70

70

00

1.00

70

00

1.00

86ストーブ

*/su.to.O.bu/

stove

44

71

70

01

1.00

70

00

1.00

87ブラック

/bu.ra.Q.ku/

black

44

74

430

40

1.00

736

01

0.16

1126 Behav Res (2011) 43:1110–1151

(con

tinued)

No.

Item

Pronunciatio

nEnglishtranslation

Len

Morae

Freq.

NO-P

relatio

nship

O-S

relatio

nship

PF_F

PE_F

PF_N

PE_N

O-P

Index

SF_F

SE_F

SF_N

SE_N

O-S

Index

88フルート

*/fu.ru.U.to

/flute

44

71

70

01

1.00

70

00

1.00

89タイル

#/ta.i.ru/

tile

33

76

870

60

1.00

780

04

0.08

90テクニック

/te.ku.ni.Q.ku/

technique

55

71

130

10

1.00

76

01

0.54

91ダブルス

*/da.bu.ru.su/

doubles

44

71

70

10

1.00

70

00

1.00

92プレハブ

*/pu.re.ha.bu/

prefabricatio

n4

47

07

00

01.00

70

00

1.00

93シャッター

*/sja.Q.ta.A/

shutter

54

70

70

00

1.00

70

00

1.00

94コスモス

*/ko.su.m

o.su/

cosm

os4

47

07

00

01.00

70

00

1.00

95ズボン

*/zu.bo.N/

pants

33

72

70

20

1.00

70

00

1.00

96キャスター

*/kja.su.ta.A/

caster,wheel

54

70

70

00

1.00

70

00

1.00

97コラム

/ko.ra.m

u/column

33

71

340

10

1.00

727

01

0.21

98ステップ

#/su.te.Q.pu/

step

44

76

200

60

1.00

713

01

0.35

99ラッシュ

*/ra.Q.sju/

rush

43

70

70

00

1.00

70

00

1.00

100

ポスター

/po.su.ta.A/

poster

44

74

120

40

1.00

75

01

0.58

101

レベル

/re.be.ru/

level

33

72

190

20

1.00

712

01

0.37

102

フリーザー

*/fu.ri.I.za.A/

freezer

55

80

80

00

1.00

80

00

1.00

103

ドライヤー

*/do.ra.i.ja.A/

dryer

55

80

80

00

1.00

80

00

1.00

104

カーボン

/ka.A.bo.N/

carbon

44

81

140

10

1.00

86

01

0.57

105

シューズ

/sju.U.zu/

shoes

43

84

851

22

0.14

851

01

0.14

106

アクリル

*/a.ku.ri.ru/

acrylic

44

80

80

00

1.00

80

00

1.00

107

ソプラノ

*/so.pu.ra.no/

soprano

44

80

80

00

1.00

80

00

1.00

108

グラス

/gu.ra.su/

glass

33

85

960

50

1.00

2076

14

0.21

109

レスリング

*/re.su.ri.N

.gu/

wrestlin

g5

58

08

00

01.00

80

00

1.00

110

ジャンパー

*/zja.N.pa.A/

jumper

54

80

80

00

1.00

80

00

1.00

111

スケール

/su.ke.E.ru/

scale

44

82

2610

11

0.72

828

02

0.22

112

カレンダー

*/ka.re.N.da.A/

calendar

55

80

80

00

1.00

80

00

1.00

113

ホルモン

*/ho.ru.m

o.N/

horm

one

44

80

80

00

1.00

80

00

1.00

114

アカデミー

*/a.ka.de.m

i.I/

academ

y5

58

08

00

01.00

80

00

1.00

115

サイズ

/sa.i.zu/

size

33

82

600

20

1.00

852

02

0.13

116

ベンチ

#/be.N.cji/

bench

33

87

119

07

01.00

8111

03

0.07

117

オーナー

/o.O.na.A/

owner

44

83

700

21

1.00

862

01

0.11

118

リース

#/ri.I.su/

lease

33

810

113

120

28

0.48

8225

06

0.03

119

ステージ

*/su.te.E.zi/

stage

44

81

80

10

1.00

80

00

1.00

120

ネット

#/ne.Q.to

/net

33

810

890

100

1.00

881

04

0.09

121

フィルム

*/fi.ru.mu/

film

43

80

80

00

1.00

80

00

1.00

122

リーダー

/ri.I.da.A/

leader,reader

44

81

89

01

0.47

89

01

0.47

123

コルト

/ko.ru.to

/colt

33

97

750

70

1.00

966

04

0.12

124

フェライト

*/fe.ra.i.to/

ferrite

54

90

90

00

1.00

90

00

1.00

125

セーラー

/se.E.ra.A/

sailo

r4

49

234

71

10.83

932

02

0.22

126

エレキ

*/e.re.ki/

electric

33

90

90

00

1.00

90

00

1.00

127

サテライト

*/sa.te.ra.i.to/

satellite

55

90

90

00

1.00

90

00

1.00

128

ワルツ

*/wa.ru.tu

/waltz

33

90

90

00

1.00

90

00

1.00

Behav Res (2011) 43:1110–1151 1127

(con

tinued)

No.

Item

Pronunciatio

nEnglishtranslation

Len

Morae

Freq.

NO-P

relatio

nship

O-S

relatio

nship

PF_F

PE_F

PF_N

PE_N

O-P

Index

SF_F

SE_F

SF_N

SE_N

O-S

Index

129

フラメンコ

*/fu.ra.m

e.N.ko/

flam

enco

55

90

90

00

1.00

90

00

1.00

130

エンジニア

*/e.N.zi.n

i.a/

engineer

55

90

90

00

1.00

90

00

1.00

131

チェロ

*/cje.ro/

cello

32

90

90

00

1.00

90

00

1.00

132

プライド

*/pu.ra.i.do/

pride

44

91

90

10

1.00

90

00

1.00

133

オリジナル

*/o.ri.zi.n

a.ru/

original

55

90

90

00

1.00

90

00

1.00

134

ストレート

*/su.to.re.E.to

/straight

fastball

55

91

90

01

1.00

90

00

1.00

135

レンズ

*/re.N.zu/

lens

33

90

90

00

1.00

90

00

1.00

136

ハンドル

*/ha.N.do.ru/

handle,steering

wheel

44

90

90

00

1.00

90

00

1.00

137

クラシック

*/ku.ra.si.Q

.ku/

classic

55

90

90

00

1.00

90

00

1.00

138

ドライバー

*/do.ra.i.ba.A/

driver

55

90

90

00

1.00

90

00

1.00

139

スイッチ

*/su.i.Q

.cji/

switch

44

92

90

20

1.00

90

00

1.00

140

エリート

*/e.ri.I.to

/elite

44

90

90

00

1.00

90

00

1.00

141

レーダー

/re.E.da.A/

radar

44

91

98

01

0.53

98

01

0.53

142

レジャー

*/re.zja.A/

leisure

43

90

90

00

1.00

90

00

1.00

143

バレエ

*/ba.re.e/

ballet

33

91

90

10

1.00

90

00

1.00

144

ジャンプ

/zja.N.pu/

jump

43

92

210

20

1.00

912

01

0.43

145

ベッド

*/be.Q.do/

bed

33

91

90

10

1.00

90

00

1.00

146

トンネル

*/to

.N.ne.ru/

tunnel

44

90

90

00

1.00

90

00

1.00

147

アピール

*/a.pi.I.ru/

appeal

44

90

90

00

1.00

90

00

1.00

148

ビジネス

*/bi.zi.n

e.su/

business

44

90

90

00

1.00

90

00

1.00

149

コスト

#/ko.su.to

/cost

33

99

132

09

01.00

9123

05

0.07

150

ゼブラ

*/ze.bu.ra/

zebra

33

100

100

00

1.00

100

00

1.00

151

オリジン

*/o.ri.zi.N

/origin

44

100

100

00

1.00

100

00

1.00

152

ブラザー

*/bu.ra.za.A/

brother

44

101

100

01

1.00

100

00

1.00

153

ファイバー

*/fa.i.b

a.A/

fiber

54

100

100

00

1.00

100

00

1.00

154

ハイヤー

*/ha.i.ja.A/

taxi

44

101

100

10

1.00

100

00

1.00

155

ドッキング

*/do.Q.ki.N

.gu/

docking

55

100

100

00

1.00

100

00

1.00

156

マイペース

*/m

a.i-pe.E.su/

atone’sow

npace

55

100

100

00

1.00

100

00

1.00

157

モード

#/m

o.O.do/

mode

33

109

1089

27

0.10

1089

06

0.10

158

スクール

/su.ku.U.ru/

school

44

101

108

01

0.56

108

01

0.56

159

パルプ

/pa.ru.pu/

pulp

33

101

250

10

1.00

1015

01

0.40

160

ヒント

#/hi.N

.to/

hint

33

107

870

70

1.00

1077

04

0.11

161

ピンク

/pi.N

.ku/

pink

33

105

260

50

1.00

1016

02

0.38

162

ボート

#/bo.O.to

/boat

33

109

7516

54

0.82

1081

05

0.11

163

ナンバー

/na.N.ba.A/

number

44

101

270

10

1.00

1017

01

0.37

164

ギャラリー

*/gja.ra.ri.I/

gallery

54

100

100

00

1.00

100

00

1.00

165

カバー

/ka.ba.A/

cover

33

103

186

02

11.00

10176

02

0.05

166

ブレーキ

*/bu.re.E.ki/

brake

44

100

100

00

1.00

100

00

1.00

167

メッセージ

*/m

e.Q.se.E.zi/

message

55

100

100

00

1.00

100

00

1.00

168

カード

#/ka.A.do/

card

33

1010

3979

46

0.33

10108

07

0.08

169

エネルギー

*/e.ne.ru.gi.I/

energy

55

100

100

00

1.00

100

00

1.00

170

スピンドル

*/su.pi.N.do.ru/

spindle

55

110

110

00

1.00

110

00

1.00

171

ジョッキー

*/zjo.Q.ki.I/

jockey

54

110

110

00

1.00

110

00

1.00

172

ハイツ

/ha.i.tu/

heights

33

111

800

10

1.00

1169

01

0.14

173

グラビア

/gu.ra.bi.a/

gravure

44

111

200

10

1.00

119

01

0.55

174

オーダー

/o.O.da.A/

order

44

114

1117

13

0.39

1117

02

0.39

1128 Behav Res (2011) 43:1110–1151

(con

tinued)

No.

Item

Pronunciatio

nEnglishtranslation

Len

Morae

Freq.

NO-P

relatio

nship

O-S

relatio

nship

PF_F

PE_F

PF_N

PE_N

O-P

Index

SF_F

SE_F

SF_N

SE_N

O-S

Index

175

ブラウス

*/bu.ra.u.su/

brow

n4

411

011

00

01.00

110

00

1.00

176

デート

#/de.E.to

/date

33

117

1737

25

0.31

1143

04

0.20

177

モチーフ

*/m

o.cji.I.fu/

motif

44

110

110

00

1.00

110

00

1.00

178

プリント

*/pu.ri.N.to

/print

44

110

110

00

1.00

110

00

1.00

179

スープ

#/su.U.pu/

soup

33

116

1127

15

0.29

1127

02

0.29

180

モニター

/mo.ni.ta.A/

monito

r4

411

141

01

01.00

1130

01

0.27

181

ピンチ

#/pi.N

.cji/

pinch

33

1110

129

010

01.00

11118

04

0.09

182

ビジョン

*/bi.zjo.N/

vision

43

110

110

00

1.00

110

00

1.00

183

エース

#/e.E.su/

ace

33

119

6566

45

0.50

11120

04

0.08

184

ローン

/ro.O.N/

loan

33

115

116

32

0.65

116

01

0.65

185

セミナー

*/se.mi.n

a.A/

seminar

44

110

110

00

1.00

110

00

1.00

186

コーチ

/ko.O.cji/

coach

33

115

990

32

1.00

1188

02

0.11

187

モデル

*/m

o.de.ru/

model

33

110

110

00

1.00

110

00

1.00

188

ポスト

#/po.su.to

/post

33

117

840

70

1.00

1173

03

0.13

189

ミサイル

*/m

i.sa.i.ru/

missile

44

110

110

00

1.00

110

00

1.00

190

ワンピース

*/wa.N-pi.I.su/

one-piecesuit

55

120

120

00

1.00

120

00

1.00

191

スタンプ

/su.ta.N.pu/

stam

p4

412

138

01

01.00

1226

01

0.32

192

サウンド

*/sa.u.N.do/

sound

44

120

120

00

1.00

120

00

1.00

193

シャンソン

*/sja.N.so.N/

chanson

54

120

120

00

1.00

120

00

1.00

194

カウンター

*/ka.u.N.ta.A/

counter

55

120

120

00

1.00

120

00

1.00

195

ネクタイ

*/ne.ku.ta.i/

tie4

412

012

00

01.00

120

00

1.00

196

カルテル

*/ka.ru.te.ru/

cartel

44

121

120

10

1.00

120

00

1.00

197

プラン

/pu.ra.N/

plan

33

123

360

30

1.00

1224

02

0.33

198

スタイル

*/su.ta.i.ru/

style

44

120

120

00

1.00

120

00

1.00

199

ガソリン

*/ga.so.ri.N

/gas

44

120

120

00

1.00

120

00

1.00

200

ベース

#/be.E.su/

base

33

127

5466

25

0.45

12108

03

0.10

201

キャンプ

/kja.N.pu/

camp

43

121

210

10

1.00

129

01

0.57

202

イメージ

*/i.me.E.zi/

image

44

120

120

00

1.00

120

00

1.00

203

シネラマ

*/si.n

e.ra.m

a/cinema

44

130

130

00

1.00

130

00

1.00

204

スラックス

/su.ra.Q.ku.su/

slacks

55

131

400

10

1.00

1327

01

0.33

205

レポート

*/re.po.O.to

/report

44

130

130

00

1.00

130

00

1.00

206

コミュニケ

*/ko.mju.ni.k

e/communiqué

54

130

130

00

1.00

130

00

1.00

207

キャベツ

*/kja.be.tu/

cabbage

43

130

130

00

1.00

130

00

1.00

208

パトカー

*/pa.to-ka.A/

patrol

car,copcar

44

130

130

00

1.00

130

00

1.00

209

ビニール

*/bi.n

i.I.ru/

vinyl,plastic

44

130

130

00

1.00

130

00

1.00

210

バイク

/ba.i.k

u/motorbike

33

132

390

20

1.00

1326

02

0.33

211

グラフ

/gu.ra.fu/

graph

33

131

400

10

1.00

1327

01

0.33

212

ストップ

/su.to.Q.pu/

stop

44

135

200

50

1.00

137

01

0.65

213

オープン

*/o.O.pu.N/

open

44

130

130

00

1.00

130

00

1.00

214

リスト

#/ri.su.to/

list,wrist

33

138

970

80

1.00

1384

04

0.13

215

ボクシング

*/bo.ku.si.N

.gu/

boxing

55

140

140

00

1.00

140

00

1.00

Behav Res (2011) 43:1110–1151 1129

(con

tinued)

No.

Item

Pronunciatio

nEnglishtranslation

Len

Morae

Freq.

NO-P

relatio

nship

O-S

relatio

nship

PF_F

PE_F

PF_N

PE_N

O-P

Index

SF_F

SE_F

SF_N

SE_N

O-S

Index

216

スタッフ

*/su.ta.Q.fu/

staff

44

140

140

00

1.00

140

00

1.00

217

パーティー

*/pa.A.ti.I/

party

54

140

140

00

1.00

140

00

1.00

218

ゴールド

*/go.O.ru.do/

gold

44

150

150

00

1.00

150

00

1.00

219

ホームラン

*/ho.O.m

u-ra.N/

homerun

55

150

150

00

1.00

150

00

1.00

220

カプセル

*/ka.pu.se.ru/

capsule

44

150

150

00

1.00

150

00

1.00

221

スペシャル

*/su.pe.sja.ru/

special

54

150

150

00

1.00

150

00

1.00

222

パンチ

#/pa.N.cji/

punch

33

159

119

09

01.00

15104

03

0.13

223

スカート

/su.ka.A.to

/skirt

44

155

3918

32

0.68

1542

02

0.26

224

スパイ

*/su.pa.i/

spy

33

151

150

10

1.00

150

00

1.00

225

パイプ

/pa.i.p

u/pipe

33

152

720

20

1.00

1557

02

0.21

226

ツーピース

*/tu

.U-pi.I.su/

two-piecesuit

55

160

160

00

1.00

160

00

1.00

227

ロータリー

*/ro.O.ta.ri.I/

rotary

55

160

160

00

1.00

160

00

1.00

228

ナイター

*/na.i.ta.A/

nightgame

44

161

160

10

1.00

160

00

1.00

229

ラリー

/ra.ri.I/

rally

33

162

210

20

1.00

165

01

0.76

230

オール

#/o.O.ru/

all,oar

33

1612

128

633

90.67

16175

07

0.08

231

インフレ

*/i.N.fu.re/

inflation

44

160

160

00

1.00

160

00

1.00

232

コロナ

*/ko.ro.na/

corona

33

170

170

00

1.00

170

00

1.00

233

キャバレー

*/kja.ba.re.E/

cabaret

54

170

170

00

1.00

170

00

1.00

234

ジャングル

*/zja.N.gu.ru/

jungle

54

170

170

00

1.00

170

00

1.00

235

ポップス

*/po.Q.pu.su/

pops

44

170

170

00

1.00

170

00

1.00

236

マイク

/ma.i.k

u/microphone

33

174

220

40

1.00

175

01

0.77

237

ジャズ

*/zja.zu/

jazz

32

171

170

10

1.00

170

00

1.00

238

ショック

*/sjo.Q.ku/

shock

43

171

170

10

1.00

170

00

1.00

239

プログラム

*/pu.ro.gu.ra.m

u/program

55

171

170

10

1.00

170

00

1.00

240

メンバー

/me.N.ba.A/

mem

ber

44

171

270

10

1.00

1710

01

0.63

241

スケート

/su.ke.E.to

/skating

44

185

2639

23

0.40

1847

03

0.28

242

スクリーン

*/su.ku.ri.I.N/

screen

55

180

180

00

1.00

180

00

1.00

243

リズム

*/ri.zu.mu/

rhythm

33

180

180

00

1.00

180

00

1.00

244

ハロー

*/ha.ro.O/

hello

33

191

190

10

1.00

190

00

1.00

245

ガイド

/ga.i.d

o/guide

33

191

240

10

1.00

195

01

0.79

246

カーブ

/ka.A.bu/

curve

33

192

290

20

1.00

1910

01

0.66

247

ブーム

/bu.U.m

u/boom

33

195

1989

05

0.18

1989

03

0.18

248

システム

*/si.su.te.m

u/system

44

190

190

00

1.00

190

00

1.00

249

タイピスト

*/ta.i.pi.N.gu/

typist

55

200

200

00

1.00

200

00

1.00

250

ロケット

/ro.ke.Q.to

/rocket

44

204

250

40

1.00

205

01

0.80

251

テープ

#/te.E.pu/

tape

33

206

5418

24

0.75

2052

03

0.28

252

ケース

#/ke.E.su/

case

33

209

5466

45

0.45

20100

03

0.17

253

ハイウェー

*/ha.i-we.E/

highway

54

210

210

00

1.00

210

00

1.00

254

パレス

/pa.re.su/

palace

33

211

350

10

1.00

2114

01

0.60

255

ファイト

*/fa.i.to/

fight

43

210

210

00

1.00

210

00

1.00

256

パトロール

*/pa.to.ro.O.ru/

patrol

55

210

210

00

1.00

210

00

1.00

257

テラン

*/be.te.ra.N/

veteran

44

210

210

00

1.00

210

00

1.00

258

テスト

#/te.su.to/

test

33

218

890

80

1.00

2168

04

0.24

259

ビタミン

*/bi.ta.mi.N

/vitamin

44

220

220

00

1.00

220

00

1.00

260

コート

#/ko.O.to

/coat

33

2211

144

167

40.90

22138

07

0.14

261

タイム

/ta.i.mu/

time

33

223

820

30

1.00

2260

03

0.27

1130 Behav Res (2011) 43:1110–1151

(con

tinued)

No.

Item

Pronunciatio

nEnglishtranslation

Len

Morae

Freq.

NO-P

relatio

nship

O-S

relatio

nship

PF_F

PE_F

PF_N

PE_N

O-P

Index

SF_F

SE_F

SF_N

SE_N

O-S

Index

262

レース

#/re.E.su/

race,lace

33

229

5466

45

0.45

2298

03

0.18

263

ピストル

*/pi.su.to.ru/

pistol

44

231

230

10

1.00

230

00

1.00

264

ジャーナル

*/zja.A.na.ru/

journal

54

230

230

00

1.00

230

00

1.00

265

コンクール

*/ko.N.ku.U.ru/

contest

55

230

230

00

1.00

230

00

1.00

266

クーデター

*/ku.U.de.ta.A/

coup

d’etat

55

230

230

00

1.00

230

00

1.00

267

サッカー

*/sa.Q.ka.A/

soccer,football

44

230

230

00

1.00

230

00

1.00

268

レーヨン

*/re.E.jo

.N/

rayon

44

240

240

00

1.00

240

00

1.00

269

セールス

/se.E.ru.su/

sales

44

241

247

01

0.77

247

01

0.77

270

ステンレス

*/su.te.N.re.su/

stainless

55

240

240

00

1.00

240

00

1.00

271

スキー

/su.ki.I/

ski

33

243

2980

12

0.27

2485

02

0.22

272

セーター

/se.E.ta.A/

sweater

44

255

125

303

20.81

25130

03

0.16

273

デザイナー

*/de.za.i.na.A/

designer

55

250

250

00

1.00

250

00

1.00

274

ギター

/gi.ta.A/

guitar

33

262

106

02

01.00

2680

01

0.25

275

スタンド

/su.ta.N.do/

stand

44

261

380

10

1.00

2612

01

0.68

276

ボーナス

*/bo.O.na.su/

bonus

44

261

260

01

1.00

260

00

1.00

277

ハウス

*/ha.u.su/

house

33

270

270

00

1.00

270

00

1.00

278

メロディー

*/m

e.ro.di.I/

melody

54

270

270

00

1.00

270

00

1.00

279

ヒット

#/hi.Q

.to/

hit

33

2712

990

120

1.00

2772

05

0.27

280

チャンス

*/tja.N.su/

chance

43

270

270

00

1.00

270

00

1.00

281

ホーム

#/ho.O.m

u/home

33

289

116

804

50.59

28168

04

0.14

282

マンション

*/m

a.N.sjo.N/

condo,

apartm

ent

54

290

290

00

1.00

290

00

1.00

283

シネマ

*/si.n

e.ma/

cinema

33

301

300

10

1.00

300

00

1.00

284

ハイライト

*/ha.i-ra.i.to/

highlig

ht5

530

030

00

01.00

300

00

1.00

285

コーラス

*/ko.O.ra.su/

chorus

44

301

300

10

1.00

300

00

1.00

286

ナイロン

/na.i.ro.N/

nylon

44

301

370

10

1.00

307

01

0.81

287

モーター

/mo.O.ta.A/

motor

44

303

3025

12

0.55

3025

01

0.55

288

アルバム

*/a.ru.ba.m

u/album

44

300

300

00

1.00

300

00

1.00

289

サロン

/sa.ro.N/

salon

33

313

410

30

1.00

3110

01

0.76

290

スタジオ

*/su.ta.zi.o

/studio

44

310

310

00

1.00

310

00

1.00

291

シーズン

*/si.I.zu.N/

season

44

310

310

00

1.00

310

00

1.00

292

レストラン

*/re.su.to

.ra.N/

restaurant

55

320

320

00

1.00

320

00

1.00

293

ボーイ

/bo.O.i/

boy

33

332

530

20

1.00

3320

02

0.62

294

ポピュラー

*/po.pju.ra.A/

popular

54

330

330

00

1.00

330

00

1.00

295

ローカル

*/ro.O.ka.ru/

local

44

350

350

00

1.00

350

00

1.00

296

ドラマ

*/do.ra.m

a/dram

a3

336

136

01

01.00

360

00

1.00

297

デザイン

*/de.za.i.N/

design

44

370

370

00

1.00

370

00

1.00

298

ホステス

*/ho.su.te.su/

hostess

44

380

380

00

1.00

380

00

1.00

299

ムード

#/m

u.U.do/

mood

33

389

4356

18

0.43

3861

06

0.38

300

ドライブ

*/do.ra.i.bu/

drive

44

400

400

00

1.00

400

00

1.00

301

スピード

*/su.pi.I.do/

speed

44

401

400

10

1.00

400

00

1.00

302

クイズ

*/ku.i.zu/

quiz

33

420

420

00

1.00

420

00

1.00

Behav Res (2011) 43:1110–1151 1131

(con

tinued)

No.

Item

Pronunciatio

nEnglishtranslation

Len

Morae

Freq.

NO-P

relatio

nship

O-S

relatio

nship

PF_F

PE_F

PF_N

PE_N

O-P

Index

SF_F

SE_F

SF_N

SE_N

O-S

Index

303

バーテン

/ba.A.te.N/

bartender

44

431

490

10

1.00

436

01

0.88

304

プレス

/pu.re.su/

press

33

433

760

30

1.00

4333

03

0.57

305

ベスト

#/be.su.to

/vest,best

33

438

930

80

1.00

4350

04

0.46

306

チーム

/cji.I.mu/

team

33

436

4865

24

0.42

4370

04

0.38

307

カメラ

*/ka.me.ra/

camera

33

450

450

00

1.00

450

00

1.00

308

パレード

*/pa.re.E.do/

parade

44

460

460

00

1.00

460

00

1.00

309

ゴルフ

*/go.ru.fu/

golf

33

470

470

00

1.00

470

00

1.00

310

タイプ

/ta.i.pu/

type

33

474

970

40

1.00

4750

04

0.48

311

タクシー

*/ta.ku.si.I/

taxi

44

480

480

00

1.00

480

00

1.00

312

シリーズ

*/si.ri.I.zu/

series

44

511

510

10

1.00

510

00

1.00

313

レコード

*/re.ko.O.do/

record

44

520

520

00

1.00

520

00

1.00

314

コンサート

*/ko.N.sa.A.to

/concert

55

520

520

00

1.00

520

00

1.00

315

アパート

/a.pa.A.to

/apartm

ent

44

521

136

01

01.00

5284

01

0.38

316

プレゼント

*/pu.re.ze.N.to

/present

55

530

580

00

1.00

530

00

1.00

317

アルバイト

*/a.ru.ba.i.to/

part-tim

ejob

55

581

580

10

1.00

580

00

1.00

318

ショー

*/sjo.O/

show

32

620

620

00

1.00

620

00

1.00

319

コーナー

/ko.O.na.A/

corner

44

621

6214

01

0.82

6214

01

0.82

320

パート

#/pa.A.to

/part

33

659

7348

36

0.60

6556

05

0.54

321

グループ

*/gu.ru.U.pu/

group

44

730

730

00

1.00

730

00

1.00

322

ステレオ

*/su.te.re.o/

stereo

44

740

740

00

1.00

740

00

1.00

323

スター

/su.ta.A/

star

33

805

106

292

30.79

8055

03

0.59

324

ピアノ

*/pi.a.no/

piano

33

830

830

00

1.00

830

00

1.00

325

デパート

/de.pa.A.to

/departmentstore

44

841

136

01

01.00

8452

01

0.62

326

センター

/se.N.ta.A/

center

44

911

116

01

01.00

9125

01

0.78

327

サービス

/sa.A.bi.su/

service

44

941

100

01

01.00

946

01

0.94

328

リクエスト

*/ri.k

u.e.su.to

/request

55

960

960

00

1.00

960

00

1.00

329

メーカー

*/m

e.E.ka.A/

maker,manufacturer

44

983

980

12

1.00

980

00

1.00

330

ゲスト

#/ge.su.to

/guest

33

109

8193

08

01.00

109

840

40.56

331

ラジオ

*/ra.zi.o/

radio

33

119

0119

00

01.00

119

00

01.00

332

スポーツ

*/su.po.O.tu

/sport

44

171

1171

00

11.00

171

00

01.00

333

テレビ

*/te.re.bi/

TV

set

33

341

0341

00

01.00

341

00

01.00

334

アイデア

*/a.i.de.a/

idea

44

110

110

00

1.00

110

00

1.00

335

トップ

/to.Q.pu/

top

33

205

480

50

1.00

2028

02

0.42

336

ファン

*/fa.N/

fan

32

231

230

10

1.00

230

00

1.00

337

ダイヤル

*/da.i.ja.ru/

dial

44

520

520

00

1.00

520

00

1.00

338

スピーカー

*/su.pi.I.ka.A/

speaker

55

60

60

00

1.00

60

00

1.00

339

パーマ

/pa.A.m

a/perm

33

83

1434

21

0.29

840

02

0.17

340

力作

/ri.k

i-sa.ku/

work-up

24

756

302

2951

50.91

76255

412

0.23

341

人選

/zi.N

-se.N/

perconnelselection

24

888

637

478

5731

0.57

130

985

133

0.12

342

直売

/tjo.ku-ba.i/

direct

marketin

g2

418

49629

5629

200.92

401

284

513

0.59

343

学寮

/ga.ku-rjo.ku/

college

house

24

550

738

350

3910

0.68

109

992

125

0.10

344

今昔

/ko.N-zja.ku/

now

andpast

24

524

526

018

61.00

5521

012

0.01

345

殺虫

/sa.Q-tju.u/

killing

insects

24

525

3643

1015

0.46

5623

33

0.71

346

端的

/ta.N-te.ki/

straight

24

522

550

184

1.00

550

02

0.09

347

小皿

/ko-za.ra/

saucer

23

564

110

189

3628

0.37

5294

013

0.02

348

厚板

/a.tu

-i.ta/

thickplate

24

526

28142

917

0.16

12158

17

0.07

1132 Behav Res (2011) 43:1110–1151

(con

tinued)

No.

Item

Pronunciatio

nEnglishtranslation

Len

Morae

Freq.

NO-P

relatio

nship

O-S

relatio

nship

PF_F

PE_F

PF_N

PE_N

O-P

Index

SF_F

SE_F

SF_N

SE_N

O-S

Index

349

残塁

/za.N-ru.i/

beingstranded

24

531

249

101

283

0.71

21329

112

0.06

350

曲芸

/kjo.ku-ge.i/

acrobatics

24

530

163

026

41.00

32131

18

0.20

351

守衛

#/sju-e.i/

gate

keeper

23

513

124

6710

30.65

77114

43

0.40

352

遊覧

/ju.u-ra.N/

sightseeing

24

538

4727

353

0.64

3242

25

0.43

353

風物

/fu.u-bu.tu

/thing

24

5123

274

111

7548

0.71

12384

129

0.03

354

猟銃

#/rjo.u-zju.u/

ahuntingrifle

24

57

110

70

1.00

110

10

1.00

355

電撃

/de.N-ge.ki/

electric

shock

24

553

1283

053

01.00

131270

125

0.01

356

簡素

/ka.N-so/

simplicity

23

522

151

022

01.00

6685

25

0.44

357

増勢

/zo.u-se.i/

increasing

trend

24

564

412

1455

90.97

103

323

615

0.24

358

良質

/rjo.u-si.tu/

good

quality

24

536

160

034

21.00

5155

010

0.03

359

廉売

/re.N-ba.i/

bargainsale

24

517

474

2715

20.95

14487

17

0.03

360

無配

/mu-ha.i/

nodividend

23

5102

288

9287

150.76

5375

019

0.01

361

即売

/so.ku-ba.i/

spot

sale

24

527

502

129

207

0.80

23608

112

0.04

362

充満

#/zju.u-m

a.N/

fulln

ess

24

512

103

012

01.00

598

03

0.05

363

薬学

/ja.ku-ga.ku/

pharmacy

24

565

1377

2561

40.98

331

1071

623

0.24

364

理性

/ri-se.i/

ratio

nalnature

23

558

568

139

517

0.80

5702

015

0.01

365

身近

/mi-zi.ka/

beingfamiliar

23

527

11325

1215

0.03

84252

35

0.25

366

転入

/te.N-nju.u/

movingin

24

561

363

061

01.00

16347

217

0.04

367

積算

/se.ki-sa.N/

quantitysurvey

24

535

344

194

287

0.64

5533

013

0.01

368

在外

/za.i-ga.i/

resident

abroad

24

562

302

3843

190.89

5335

014

0.01

369

貧血

/hi.N

-ke.tu/

anem

ia2

45

2912

627

20.67

513

02

0.28

370

着実

/tja.ku-zi.tu/

steadiness

24

547

280

4640

70.86

65261

214

0.20

371

月産

/ge.Q-sa.N/

monthly

productio

n2

45

61785

1843

180.98

5798

021

0.01

372

模範

#/m

o-ha.N/

exam

ple,

model

23

511

390

101

1.00

534

01

0.13

373

円滑

*/e.N-ka.tu/

smooth

24

513

50

130

1.00

50

00

1.00

374

水着

/mi.zu-gi/

swim

mingwear

23

5129

35392

3297

0.08

16411

120

0.04

375

標本

/hjo.u-ho.N/

sample

24

545

1257

1001

378

0.56

182240

112

0.01

376

越境

/e.Q-kjo.u/

crossing

theborder

24

522

136

2816

60.83

61103

33

0.37

377

併設

/he.i-se.tu

/parallelestablishm

ent

24

520

635

020

01.00

5630

010

0.01

378

開局

/ka.i-kjo.ku/

openingastation

24

552

678

384

502

0.64

418

644

519

0.39

379

枚数

/ma.i-su.u/

thenumberof

something

24

565

149

3555

100.81

17167

114

0.09

380

発熱

/ha.tu-ne.tu/

occurrence

offever

24

578

251

770

3741

0.25

51016

023

0.00

381

睡眠

#/su.i-mi.N

/sleep

24

512

110

120

1.00

56

01

0.45

382

隔離

/ka.ku.-ri/

isolation

23

515

560

141

1.00

2135

11

0.38

383

苦慮

/ku-rjo/

worry

oneself

22

536

104

032

41.00

1688

25

0.15

384

下痢

/ge-ri/

diarrhea

22

563

203

5928

350.77

15247

111

0.06

385

受託

/zju-ta.ku/

acceptingon

trust

23

529

694

219

272

0.76

243

670

37

0.27

386

戯曲

/gi-kjo.ku/

dram

a2

35

16171

015

11.00

12159

15

0.07

387

団員

/da.N-i.N/

mem

bers

24

548

1795

048

01.00

551740

325

0.03

388

倍率

/ba.i-ri.tu

/magnificatio

nratio

24

518

127

014

41.00

22105

18

0.17

389

受諾

/zju-da.ku/

acceptance

23

523

141

219

212

0.39

177

183

34

0.49

Behav Res (2011) 43:1110–1151 1133

(con

tinued)

No.

Item

Pronunciatio

nEnglishtranslation

Len

Morae

Freq.

NO-P

relatio

nship

O-S

relatio

nship

PF_F

PE_F

PF_N

PE_N

O-P

Index

SF_F

SE_F

SF_N

SE_N

O-S

Index

390

絶望

/ze.tu-bo.u/

depression

24

558

280

100

3523

0.74

5375

014

0.01

391

穏健

#/o.N-ke.N/

moderateness

24

57

580

70

1.00

553

02

0.09

392

適応

/te.ki-o.u/

adaptatio

n2

45

40108

2237

30.83

6664

44

0.51

393

補充

/ho-zju.u/

complem

ent

23

518

109

816

20.93

2592

26

0.21

394

半額

/ha.N-ga.ku/

halfprice

24

552

324

052

01.00

22302

116

0.07

395

旅費

/rjo-hi/

travel

expense

22

539

361

027

121.00

147

214

28

0.41

396

語学

/go-ga.ku/

language

study

23

569

1338

6367

20.96

51396

027

0.00

397

批評

/hi-ha.N/

criticism

23

525

192

820

50.96

107

932

30.54

398

足場

/a.si-ba/

scaffolding

23

572

604

859

3735

0.41

51458

030

0.00

399

行列

/gjo.u-re.tu/

line

24

548

147

439

2919

0.25

5581

012

0.01

400

鈍化

/do.N-ka/

bluntin

g2

35

47568

5242

50.92

5615

014

0.01

401

文民

/bu.N-m

i.N/

civilian

24

573

1070

326

658

0.77

204

1192

128

0.15

402

軍備

/gu.N-bi/

armam

ent

23

546

794

046

01.00

151

643

58

0.19

403

利率

/ri-ri.tu

/interestrate

23

528

289

023

51.00

83206

38

0.29

404

到達

/to.u-ta.tu/

attainment

24

518

114

2316

20.83

28109

16

0.20

405

難問

/na.N.-mo.N/

hard

problem

24

549

678

048

11.00

5673

08

0.01

406

旅券

/rjo-ke.N/

passport

23

521

355

017

41.00

123

232

17

0.35

407

満塁

/ma.N-ru.i/

basesfull

24

532

251

032

01.00

5246

010

0.02

408

暴動

/bo.u-do.u/

rebellion

24

564

1044

563

11.00

67982

315

0.06

409

弾圧

/da.N-a.tu

/suppression

24

525

102

022

31.00

597

07

0.05

410

除去

/zjo-kjo/

elim

ination

22

519

2995

172

0.23

6361

23

0.51

411

棄却

/ki-kja.ku/

dism

issal

23

513

500

130

1.00

545

05

0.10

412

敗北

/ha.i-bo.ku/

defeat

24

514

29107

95

0.21

14122

14

0.10

413

暴落

/bo.u-ra.ku/

asharpfall

24

544

925

413

0.95

592

07

0.05

414

通訳

/tu.u-ya.ku/

translation

24

557

804

204

498

0.80

25983

324

0.02

415

中核

/tju.u-ka.ku/

cenrtalcore

24

573

1364

7465

80.95

450

988

225

0.31

416

騒音

/so.u-o.N/

noise

24

548

6926

3216

0.73

4352

32

0.45

417

断念

/da.N-ne.N/

give-up

24

542

215

040

21.00

5210

010

0.02

418

側面

/so.ku-m

e.N/

aspect

24

558

281

653

50.98

44243

214

0.15

419

国営

/ko.ku-e.i/

governmentoperation

24

589

1543

445

6918

0.78

180

1808

529

0.09

420

査察

/sa-sa.tu

/inspectio

n2

35

17132

017

01.00

4785

23

0.36

421

陣営

/zi.N

-e.i/

administration

24

523

266

023

01.00

11255

16

0.04

422

債務

/sa.i-mu/

indebtedness

23

538

1506

038

01.00

171489

125

0.01

423

年末

/ne.N-m

a.tu/

year-end

24

564

764

1150

140.99

11764

114

0.01

424

新柄

/si.N

-ga.ra/

new

pattern

24

664

698

4558

60.94

6737

027

0.01

425

雑件

/za.Q-ke.N/

sundries

24

640

332

4623

170.88

13342

16

0.04

426

戯評

/gi-hjo.u/

wry

remark

23

623

109

818

50.93

6111

06

0.05

427

綿密

/me.N-m

i.tu/

elaboration

24

617

107

017

01.00

4661

21

0.43

428

永眠

/e.i-mi.N

/rest,pass

away

24

619

400

181

1.00

2911

22

0.73

429

労委

#/ro.u-i/

committee

onlaboraffairs

23

610

225

010

01.00

6219

04

0.03

430

枝肉

/e.da-ni.ku/

dressedcarcass

24

612

380

111

1.00

632

03

0.16

431

日勤

/ni.Q

-ki.N

/dayshift

24

656

1606

1238

3224

0.56

292815

127

0.01

432

内勤

/na.i-ki.N/

office

work

24

685

678

973

120.99

18669

120

0.03

433

評議

/hjo.u-gi/

delib

eration

23

640

906

040

01.00

671

235

610

0.74

434

銀貨

/gi.N

-ka/

silver

coin

23

622

548

022

01.00

6542

04

0.01

435

脱水

/da.Q-su.i/

dehydration

24

687

213

105

6225

0.67

42276

120

0.13

1134 Behav Res (2011) 43:1110–1151

(con

tinued)

No.

Item

Pronunciatio

nEnglishtranslation

Len

Morae

Freq.

NO-P

relatio

nship

O-S

relatio

nship

PF_F

PE_F

PF_N

PE_N

O-P

Index

SF_F

SE_F

SF_N

SE_N

O-S

Index

436

増配

/zo.u-ha.i/

dividend

increase

24

644

299

9335

90.76

66326

417

0.17

437

落第

/ra.ku-da.i/

flunk

24

623

9232

185

0.74

3886

13

0.31

438

弱震

/zja.ku-si.N/

weakearthquake

24

623

5827

1310

0.68

679

03

0.07

439

木馬

/mo.ku-ba/

dummyhorse

23

646

146

2629

170.85

6166

09

0.03

440

和室

/wa-si.tu

/Japanese-style

room

23

641

205

040

11.00

14191

112

0.07

441

来場

/ra.i-zjo.u/

visit

24

676

1012

630

4927

0.62

801562

333

0.05

442

犠打

#/gi-da/

sacrificehit

22

611

136

011

01.00

6130

04

0.04

443

月面

/ge.tu-m

e.N/

surfaceof

themoon

24

682

305

174

5923

0.64

6473

024

0.01

444

氷河

/hjo.u-ga/

glacier

23

615

270

114

1.00

621

02

0.22

445

歳末

/sa.i-ma.tu/

year-end

24

625

4510

196

0.82

2827

43

0.51

446

脚色

/kja.ku-sjo.ku/

dram

atization

24

677

103

742

350.94

6104

08

0.05

447

共著

/kjo.u-tjo/

collectivewritin

g2

36

24439

022

21.00

163

276

112

0.37

448

断片

/da.N-pe.N/

segm

ent

24

624

419

204

0.82

1535

14

0.30

449

両軍

/rjo.u-gu.N/

twoforces

24

646

353

046

01.00

24329

113

0.07

450

無税

/mu-ze.i/

duty

free

23

699

329

1390

90.96

6336

020

0.02

451

献立

/ko.N-da.te/

menu

24

640

6454

040

0.01

6454

017

0.01

452

忍耐

*/ni.N

-ta.i/

endurance

24

64

60

22

1.00

60

00

1.00

453

激増

/ge.ki-zo.u/

sharpincrease

24

624

3811

213

0.78

1336

14

0.27

454

漂流

/hjo.u-rju.u/

drift

24

644

127

043

11.00

6121

07

0.05

455

駅員

/e.ki-i.N

/stationstaff

24

646

1670

046

01.00

281642

124

0.02

456

関脇

#/se.ki-w

a.ke/

Sekiwake,

arank

inSum

owrestlin

g2

46

136

625

310

0.01

6625

07

0.01

457

新卒

/si.N

-so.tu/

recent

college

grad

24

653

649

4549

40.94

78616

222

0.11

458

弾薬

/da.N-ja.ku/

ammunition

24

638

930

299

1.00

1479

16

0.15

459

良識

/rjo.u-si.k

i/common

sense

24

627

157

027

01.00

6988

25

0.44

460

最悪

/sa.i-a.ku/

worst

24

636

715

6130

60.92

61715

112

0.08

461

下期

/si.m

o-ki/

second

semester

23

697

427

246

3661

0.63

30643

227

0.04

462

小幅

/ko-ha.ba/

narrow

range

23

675

177

189

4629

0.48

6360

015

0.02

463

片手

/ka.ta-te/

one-handed

23

695

266

425

5045

0.38

12679

122

0.02

464

密集

/mi.Q

-sju.u/

density

24

647

586

736

110.99

14579

17

0.02

465

改築

/ka.i-cji.k

u/renovatio

n2

46

34516

1733

10.97

163

370

58

0.31

466

物品

/bu.Q-pi.N

/goods

24

658

202

534

2038

0.27

114

622

316

0.15

467

下着

/si.ta-gi/

underw

ear

23

6101

24282

2279

0.08

6300

016

0.02

468

空前

/ku.u-ze.N/

never-before-seen

24

669

663

125

5019

0.84

6782

015

0.01

469

中盤

/tju.u-ba.N/

middlegame

24

685

1403

7477

80.95

601417

228

0.04

470

人柄

/hi.to-ga.ra/

personality

24

685

191

817

3154

0.19

40968

223

0.04

471

重油

/zju.u-ju/

heavyoil

23

650

293

3338

120.90

80246

312

0.25

472

役場

/ja.ku-ba/

public

office

23

663

708

849

3429

0.45

401517

132

0.03

473

熱帯

/ne.Q-ta.i/

thetropical

zone

24

639

119

2424

150.83

16127

18

0.11

474

経歴

/ke.i-re.ki/

career

24

628

1631

024

41.00

980

651

36

0.60

475

巡回

/zju.N-ka.i/

patrol

24

620

160

619

10.96

26140

26

0.16

476

品種

/hi.N

-sju/

breedvariety

23

627

234

922

50.96

68175

26

0.28

Behav Res (2011) 43:1110–1151 1135

(con

tinued)

No.

Item

Pronunciatio

nEnglishtranslation

Len

Morae

Freq.

NO-P

relatio

nship

O-S

relatio

nship

PF_F

PE_F

PF_N

PE_N

O-P

Index

SF_F

SE_F

SF_N

SE_N

O-S

Index

477

学年

/ga.ku-ne.N/

school

year

24

6103

1600

407

8716

0.80

519

1488

245

0.26

478

月額

/ge.tu-ga.ku/

monthly

amount

24

643

256

174

2419

0.60

89341

215

0.21

479

脱退

/da.Q-ta.i/

with

draw

al2

46

3493

2625

90.78

3188

29

0.26

480

断定

/da.N-te.i/

assertion

24

670

1099

3462

80.97

180

953

328

0.16

481

庁舎

#/tjo.u-sja/

governmentbuild

ings

23

69

857

81

0.92

686

03

0.07

482

出力

/sju.tu

-rjo.ku/

output

24

6141

890

1230

7269

0.42

593

1527

352

0.28

483

未定

/mi-te.i/

notyetdeterm

ined

23

666

1132

3460

60.97

61160

031

0.01

484

同居

/do.u-kjo/

livingtogether

23

693

517

179

867

0.74

6690

033

0.01

485

分類

/bu.N-ru.i/

classificatio

n2

46

56379

555

10.99

70314

313

0.18

486

救出

/kju.u-sju.tu

/rescue

24

657

356

2448

90.94

62318

612

0.16

487

国外

/ko.ku-ga.i/

outof

thecountry

24

6115

1584

445

9718

0.78

136

1893

138

0.07

488

突入

/to.tu

-nju.u/

irruption

24

645

303

3532

130.90

50288

313

0.15

489

直球

/tjo.Q-kju.u/

fastball

24

654

269

173

2925

0.61

13429

114

0.03

490

保全

/ho-ze.N/

conservatio

n2

36

24759

2022

20.97

269

510

89

0.35

491

庶民

/sjo-m

i.N/

common

people

23

629

558

199

281

0.74

523

234

55

0.69

492

孤立

/ko-ri.tu

/isolation

23

639

450

633

60.99

90366

215

0.20

493

残高

/za.N-da.ka/

balance

24

632

49287

248

0.15

115

221

43

0.34

494

在住

/za.i-zju.u/

resident

24

625

660

250

1.00

1848

14

0.27

495

釈放

#/sja.ku-ho.u/

release

24

69

760

72

1.00

5719

21

0.75

496

供述

/kjo.u-zju.tu

/statem

ent

24

621

330

174

1.00

627

01

0.18

497

懸念

/ke-ne.N/

anxiety

23

629

179

2422

70.88

15188

18

0.07

498

端麗

/ta.N-re.i/

good-looking

24

719

230

154

1.00

185

11

0.78

499

極上

/go.ku-zjo.u/

highest-quality

24

782

921

6751

310.93

7981

023

0.01

500

早番

/ha.ja-ba.N/

earlyshift

24

741

169

9023

180.65

145

114

18

0.56

501

論語

/ro.N-go/

Analects

23

772

437

072

01.00

7430

010

0.02

502

自発

/zi-ha.tu

/spontaneous

23

7114

1587

201

100

140.89

531735

236

0.03

503

随想

/zu.i-so.u/

essays

24

730

283

030

01.00

7276

010

0.02

504

製粉

/se.i-fu.N/

flourmilling

24

726

342

023

31.00

7335

012

0.02

505

人妻

/hi.to-zu.m

a/married

wom

an2

47

83161

817

2063

0.16

7971

025

0.01

506

鶏卵

*/ke.i-ra.N/

chickenegg

24

75

70

50

1.00

70

00

1.00

507

集配

/sju.u-ha.i/

collectionanddeliv

ery

24

736

247

7928

80.76

7319

015

0.02

508

調味

/tjo.u-mi/

seasoned

23

756

578

163

533

0.78

7734

016

0.01

509

来店

/ra.i-te.N/

comeforshopping

24

736

524

3132

40.94

44511

212

0.08

510

雑用

/za.tu-jo.u/

chore

24

7100

634

6379

210.91

23674

124

0.03

511

街路

/ga.i-ro/

street

23

747

172

2836

110.86

144

564

70.72

512

大胆

/da.i-ta.N/

intrepidity

24

7137

608

1213

32105

0.33

71814

044

0.00

513

手製

/te-se.i/

handmade

23

774

325

6261

130.84

7380

019

0.02

514

出前

/de-ma.e/

deliv

eryservice

23

7106

385

1594

2284

0.19

71972

038

0.00

515

配役

/ha.i-ja.ku/

casting

24

751

235

3239

120.88

27240

113

0.10

516

増刷

/zo.u-sa.tu

/reprint

24

728

319

1426

20.96

169

164

510

0.51

517

真空

/si.N

-ku.u/

vacuum

24

763

211

1929

340.92

7223

09

0.03

518

歌曲

/ka-kjo.ku/

song

23

733

355

4826

70.88

183

220

38

0.45

519

期末

/ki-ma.tu/

term

end

23

723

272

019

41.00

12260

17

0.04

520

悪質

/a.ku-si.tu

/heinousness

24

778

178

7666

120.70

79175

211

0.31

521

英訳

/e.i-ja.ku/

Englishtranslation

24

728

333

027

11.00

288

455

20.86

522

火力

/ka-rjo.ku/

fire

power

23

793

808

4775

180.95

38817

129

0.04

1136 Behav Res (2011) 43:1110–1151

(con

tinued)

No.

Item

Pronunciatio

nEnglishtranslation

Len

Morae

Freq.

NO-P

relatio

nship

O-S

relatio

nship

PF_F

PE_F

PF_N

PE_N

O-P

Index

SF_F

SE_F

SF_N

SE_N

O-S

Index

523

頭痛

/zu-tu.u/

headache

23

719

180

118

1.00

711

01

0.39

524

水爆

/su.i-ba.ku/

hydrogen

bomb

24

793

341

3967

260.90

15365

116

0.04

525

適切

/te.ki-se.tu

/rightness

24

731

155

030

11.00

7580

44

0.48

526

番付

/ba.N-zu.ke/

numerical

ranking

24

723

209

188

1211

0.53

7390

09

0.02

527

実例

/zi.tu-re.i/

exam

ple

24

776

329

332

4135

0.50

142

519

622

0.21

528

漁民

/gjo-m

i.N/

fishingpeople

23

742

621

199

384

0.76

82738

310

0.10

529

弁論

/be.N-ro.N/

oration

24

751

237

051

01.00

96141

49

0.41

530

名門

/me.i-mo.N/

honorablefamily

24

768

558

4759

90.92

7598

018

0.01

531

免税

/me.N-ze.i/

duty

free

24

724

237

024

01.00

37200

39

0.16

532

出願

/sju.tu

-ga.N/

application

24

783

176

1183

2756

0.13

395

964

228

0.29

533

在学

/za.i-ga.ku/

beingin

school

24

771

1374

071

01.00

151359

127

0.01

534

激戦

/ge.ki-se.N/

severe

fight

24

762

290

1160

20.96

39262

314

0.13

535

著作

/tjo-sa.ku/

literarywork

23

750

324

2945

50.92

28325

116

0.08

536

連敗

/re.N-pa.i/

consecutivelosses

24

751

452

5344

70.90

7498

018

0.01

537

直結

/tjo.Q-ke.tu/

direct

connectio

n2

47

5175

173

2526

0.30

90158

312

0.36

538

集約

/sju.u-ya.ku/

consolidation

24

743

394

042

11.00

60334

311

0.15

539

広域

/ko.u-i.k

i/broadarea

24

721

200

169

156

0.54

126

243

25

0.34

540

親族

/si.N

-zo.ku/

family

24

748

205

3140

80.87

104

132

46

0.44

541

海域

/ka.i-i.k

i/oceanarea

24

743

462

039

41.00

111

351

211

0.24

542

荷物

/ni-mo.tu/

burden

23

783

56247

1469

0.18

35268

119

0.12

543

同一

/do.u-i.tu/

identification

24

785

607

160

805

0.79

288

479

725

0.38

544

祖国

/so-ko.ku/

homeland

23

772

1124

416

5616

0.73

291511

324

0.02

545

接続

/se.tu-zo.ku/

association

24

723

113

2813

100.80

7134

09

0.05

546

罰金

/ba.Q-ki.N

/fine

24

753

523

7446

70.88

7590

022

0.01

547

無罪

/mu-za.i/

innocence

23

799

255

1390

90.95

7261

013

0.03

548

発掘

/ha.Q-ku.tu/

excavatio

n2

47

64724

285

3628

0.72

64945

121

0.06

549

任務

/ni.N

-mu/

assignment

23

744

1495

044

01.00

549

946

719

0.37

550

合弁

/go.u-be.N/

jointventure

24

756

231

172

3125

0.57

7396

014

0.02

551

翻訳

/ho.N-ja.ku/

translation

24

716

250

151

1.00

250

30

1.00

552

牛肉

#/gju.u-ni.k

u/beef

24

710

790

100

1.00

772

03

0.09

553

納税

/no.u-ze.i/

taxpaym

ent

24

729

130

2124

50.86

41110

48

0.27

554

外部

/ga.i-bu/

outside

23

787

886

112

7512

0.89

99899

128

0.10

555

頭取

/to.u-do.ri/

president

24

723

737

617

0.16

737

04

0.16

556

発注

/ha.Q-tju.u/

order

24

770

743

285

4228

0.72

29999

122

0.03

557

武力

/bu-rjo.ku/

force

23

789

755

4776

130.94

98704

523

0.12

558

長女

/tjo.u-zjo/

oldestdaughter

23

768

552

284

5018

0.66

28808

116

0.03

559

税率

/ze.i-ri.tu

/taxrate

24

717

202

013

41.00

44158

111

0.22

560

撤退

/te.Q-ta.i/

evacuatio

n2

47

1749

017

01.00

1831

14

0.37

561

削減

#/sa.ku-ge.N/

cutdown

24

710

160

91

1.00

160

10

1.00

562

遅番

/o.so-ba.N/

late

shift

24

823

3033

1211

0.48

1548

12

0.24

563

弱電

/zja.ku-de.N/

light

electrical

24

840

241

2730

100.90

8260

07

0.03

Behav Res (2011) 43:1110–1151 1137

(con

tinued)

No.

Item

Pronunciatio

nEnglishtranslation

Len

Morae

Freq.

NO-P

relatio

nship

O-S

relatio

nship

PF_F

PE_F

PF_N

PE_N

O-P

Index

SF_F

SE_F

SF_N

SE_N

O-S

Index

564

絶唱

/ze.Q-sjo.u/

singingat

thetopof

one’svoice

24

836

170

528

80.97

8167

08

0.05

565

行状

/gjo.u-zjo.u/

behavior

24

858

207

439

3919

0.32

8638

014

0.01

566

脱獄

/da.tu-go.ku/

prison

breaking

24

829

4955

1415

0.47

3371

26

0.32

567

同窓

/do.u-so.u/

alum

ni2

48

77489

143

743

0.77

57575

424

0.09

568

簿記

/bo-ki/

bookkeeping

22

827

205

027

01.00

8197

07

0.04

569

応接

/o.u-se.tu/

reception

24

821

790

021

01.00

523

267

17

0.66

570

硫酸

#/rju.u-sa.N/

vitrioloil

24

812

1930

102

0.39

2326

12

0.47

571

残金

/za.N-ki.N

/remaining

amount

24

874

564

175

6410

0.76

65674

325

0.09

572

反落

/ha.N-ra.ku/

fallback

24

862

381

052

101.00

8373

019

0.02

573

心得

/ko.ko.ro-e/

acquaintanceship

24

847

8209

146

0.04

8209

011

0.04

574

乱闘

/ra.N-to.u/

braw

l2

48

3359

1131

20.84

700

40

1.00

575

極端

/kjo.ku-ta.N/

extrem

e2

48

4949

2626

230.65

1956

28

0.25

576

便所

/be.N-zjo/

washroom

23

847

70279

938

0.20

8341

013

0.02

577

突進

/to.Q-si.N

/stam

pede

24

843

236

4236

70.85

40238

310

0.14

578

概算

/ga.i-sa.N/

approxim

ation

24

836

344

108

315

0.76

67385

110

0.15

579

漁村

/gjo-so.N/

fishingvillege

23

822

122

019

31.00

109

135

10.89

580

油圧

/ju-a.tu

/hydraulic

pressure

23

821

890

192

1.00

881

05

0.09

581

民芸

/mi.N

-ge.i/

folk

art

24

838

394

038

01.00

66328

216

0.17

582

拝見

/ha.i-ke.N/

seeing

24

862

265

048

141.00

8257

05

0.03

583

動力

/do.u-rjo.ku/

motivity

24

889

874

187

7514

0.82

154

907

333

0.15

584

電極

/de.N-kjo.ku/

electrode

24

843

1169

042

11.00

224

945

118

0.19

585

三男

/sa.N-na.N/

thirdson

24

828

855

023

51.00

8847

09

0.01

586

陳列

/cji.N-re.tu/

display

24

821

280

210

1.00

820

03

0.29

587

不便

/fu-be.N/

inconvenience

23

897

1106

7590

70.94

81173

023

0.01

588

出題

/sju.tu

-da.i/

beingon

thetest

24

888

947

1183

3256

0.44

806

1324

232

0.38

589

極秘

/go.ku-hi/

topsecret

23

830

1556

822

0.21

863

08

0.11

590

勲章

/ku.N-sjo.u/

medal

24

815

290

150

1.00

821

02

0.28

591

万全

/ba.N-ze.N/

full-blow

n2

48

27253

722

50.97

105

155

18

0.40

592

返却

/he.N-kja.ku/

return

24

829

100

3026

30.77

7060

46

0.54

593

用具

/yo.u-gu/

tool,tackle,utensil

23

840

272

040

01.00

98174

512

0.36

594

撃墜

#/ge.ki-tu.i/

shootin

gdown

24

87

88

52

0.50

160

10

1.00

595

序盤

/zjo-ba.N/

earlyinnings

23

820

740

200

1.00

866

05

0.11

596

論評

/ro.N-pjo.u/

comment,review

24

849

8598

3217

0.46

109

745

30.60

597

決裂

/ke.tu-re.tu/

breakoff

24

821

75275

813

0.21

8342

011

0.02

598

分配

/bu.N-pa.i/

distributio

n2

48

58325

8541

170.79

79331

317

0.19

599

偏見

/he.N-ke.N/

prejudice

24

855

265

043

121.00

8257

05

0.03

600

閉会

/he.i-ka.i/

adjournm

entsine

24

846

1373

045

11.00

131360

118

0.01

601

留任

/rju.u-ni.N

/continuancein

office

24

839

264

1038

10.96

8266

014

0.03

602

脱皮

/da.Q-pi/

exuviatio

n2

38

2955

3213

160.63

879

08

0.09

603

税関

#/ze.i-ka.N/

custom

s2

48

11229

710

10.97

62174

26

0.26

604

混雑

/ko.N-za.tu/

clutter

24

823

730

230

1.00

3340

12

0.45

605

増収

/zo.u-sju.u/

revenuegrow

th2

48

39340

1437

20.96

133

221

711

0.38

606

元日

/ga.N-zi.tu/

New

Year’sDay

24

886

487

974

3650

0.33

901371

433

0.06

607

教材

/kjo.u-za.i/

educationalmaterials

24

849

928

3148

10.97

400

559

417

0.42

608

納入

/no.u-nju.u/

deliv

ery

24

842

280

2137

50.93

21280

212

0.07

609

喫煙

/ki.tu-e.N/

smoking

24

814

8107

77

0.07

8107

01

0.07

1138 Behav Res (2011) 43:1110–1151

(con

tinued)

No.

Item

Pronunciatio

nEnglishtranslation

Len

Morae

Freq.

NO-P

relatio

nship

O-S

relatio

nship

PF_F

PE_F

PF_N

PE_N

O-P

Index

SF_F

SE_F

SF_N

SE_N

O-S

Index

610

結集

/ke.Q-sju.u/

assemble

24

844

945

8835

90.91

99934

512

0.10

611

脱出

/da.Q-sju.tu

/escape

24

866

358

3349

170.92

33358

216

0.08

612

上陸

/zjo.u-ri.k

u/landing

24

865

381

111

4817

0.77

25467

130

0.05

613

離脱

/ri-da.tu

/takeoff

23

819

1531

172

0.33

397

11

0.85

614

路上

/ro-zjo.u/

ontheroad

23

861

954

2949

120.97

8975

018

0.01

615

接近

/se.Q-ki.N

/access

24

823

238

1215

80.95

93157

34

0.37

616

主体

/sju-ta.i/

actor,agent

23

894

1070

094

01.00

201050

128

0.02

617

名簿

/me.i-bo/

namelist

23

853

282

4744

90.86

45284

113

0.14

618

増税

/zo.u-ze.i/

taxincrease

24

841

339

1439

20.96

36317

319

0.10

619

是正

/ze-se.i/

correctio

n2

38

25219

5722

30.79

157

119

38

0.57

620

派出

/ha-sju.tu/

sendingoff

23

948

359

741

70.98

9357

014

0.02

621

変圧

/he.N-a.tu

/transformation

24

944

240

044

01.00

74166

27

0.31

622

建具

/ta.te-gu/

joinery

23

926

124

555

179

0.18

23656

114

0.03

623

特売

/to.ku-ba.i/

bargainsale

24

951

1111

121

429

0.90

301202

129

0.02

624

外勤

/ga.i-ki.N/

outsideduty

24

967

637

112

5512

0.85

16733

117

0.02

625

堅実

/ke.N-zi.tu/

wisdom

24

930

268

1727

30.94

90195

48

0.32

626

和服

/wa-fu.ku/

Japanese-style

clothing

23

954

204

042

121.00

75129

69

0.37

627

職安

/sjo.ku-a.N/

public

employmentagency

24

924

269

6019

50.82

9320

011

0.03

628

朝方

/a.sa-ga.ta/

inthemorning

24

969

259

543

1851

0.32

9793

020

0.01

629

率直

/so.Q-tjo.ku/

frankness

24

915

166

132

0.73

157

11

0.68

630

重力

/zju.u-rjo.ku/

gravity

24

9111

926

8089

220.92

19987

136

0.02

631

欲望

/jo.ku-bo.u/

desire

24

936

272

031

51.00

9263

09

0.03

632

薬剤

/ja.ku-za.i/

medication

24

918

4425

144

0.64

5910

21

0.86

633

品物

/si.n

a-mo.no/

goods

24

989

50321

3059

0.13

23348

122

0.06

634

速球

/so.Q-kju.u/

fastball

24

932

255

1921

110.93

15259

17

0.05

635

税法

/ze.i-ho.u/

taxlaw

24

953

244

5933

200.81

25278

116

0.08

636

利息

/ri-so.ku/

interest

23

932

187

027

51.00

83104

32

0.44

637

推測

/su.i-so.ku/

guess

24

923

214

822

10.96

54168

35

0.24

638

内側

/u.cji-ga.wa/

inside

24

988

47410

2365

0.10

57400

215

0.12

639

弊害

/he.i-ga.i/

harm

fuleffect

24

931

210

031

01.00

96114

44

0.46

640

不在

/fu-za.i/

absence

23

998

1440

097

11.00

91431

027

0.01

641

独裁

/do.ku-sa.i/

autocratic

24

929

356

028

11.00

39317

114

0.11

642

家賃

/ja.cji.N/

houserent

23

948

35337

741

0.09

9363

010

0.02

643

作者

/sa.ku-sja/

author

23

979

649

455

5524

0.59

182

922

421

0.16

644

宿泊

/sju.ku-ha.ku/

accommodation

24

916

810

115

1.00

972

02

0.11

645

矛盾

*/m

u-zju.N/

contradiction

23

90

90

00

1.00

90

00

1.00

646

在日

/za.i-ni.cji/

residing

inJapan

24

990

601

841

4248

0.42

161426

136

0.01

647

根拠

/ko.N-kjo/

reason

23

917

6124

143

0.72

5926

23

0.69

648

暫定

/za.N-te.i/

temporary

24

950

1064

3444

60.97

193

905

225

0.18

649

開幕

/ka.i-ma.ku/

curtain-up

24

953

512

384

512

0.57

606

290

89

0.68

650

官僚

/ka.N-rjo.u/

governmentofficial

24

932

136

032

01.00

105

313

20.77

Behav Res (2011) 43:1110–1151 1139

(con

tinued)

No.

Item

Pronunciatio

nEnglishtranslation

Len

Morae

Freq.

NO-P

relatio

nship

O-S

relatio

nship

PF_F

PE_F

PF_N

PE_N

O-P

Index

SF_F

SE_F

SF_N

SE_N

O-S

Index

651

派閥

#/ha-ba.tu

/political

faction

23

910

570

100

1.00

948

03

0.16

652

購入

/ko.u-nju.u/

purchase

24

931

279

031

01.00

88191

210

0.32

653

議論

/gi-ro.N/

discussion

23

950

529

050

01.00

146

383

513

0.28

654

鋳鉄

/tju.u-te.tu

/castiron

24

1016

176

013

31.00

58118

25

0.33

655

夜学

/ja-ga.ku/

nightschool

23

1087

1399

872

150.99

551352

128

0.04

656

手芸

/sju-ge.i/

fancyw

ork

23

1071

195

302

2645

0.39

44453

122

0.09

657

別冊

/be.Q-sa.tu/

supplementary

volume

24

1023

6318

158

0.78

1071

03

0.12

658

平凡

/he.i-bo.N/

mediocrity

24

1038

444

935

30.98

121

332

211

0.27

659

邸宅

#/te.i-ta.ku/

residence

24

107

359

07

01.00

326

332

20.91

660

筆記

/hi.Q

-ki/

write-dow

n2

310

50210

039

111.00

35175

17

0.17

661

主翼

/sju-jo.ku/

mainwing

23

1047

728

047

01.00

10718

017

0.01

662

紅茶

/ko.u-tja/

tea

23

1017

16113

143

0.12

10119

03

0.08

663

新株

/si.N

-ka.bu/

new

stock

24

1053

659

4549

40.94

10694

025

0.01

664

標識

/hjo.u-si.k

i/mark,

sign

24

1023

173

023

01.00

10163

07

0.06

665

脱線

/da.Q-se.N/

sidetrack

24

1065

309

2656

90.92

10325

021

0.03

666

給油

/kju.u-ju/

fueling

23

1023

363

020

31.00

79284

26

0.22

667

実演

/zi.tu-e.N/

demonstratio

n2

410

72640

332

3735

0.66

182

668

523

0.21

668

世相

/se-so.u/

social

situation

23

1040

590

424

328

0.58

47967

213

0.05

669

墓参

/bo-sa.N/

visitin

gagrave

23

1019

354

014

51.00

10344

02

0.03

670

豚肉

#/bu.ta-ni.k

u/pork

24

1010

420

91

1.00

1725

12

0.40

671

射撃

/sja-ge.ki/

shootin

g2

310

27204

023

41.00

123

812

80.60

672

鉄骨

/te.Q-ko.tu/

iron

fram

e2

410

37154

4930

70.76

136

673

30.67

673

消印

/ke.si-i.N/

postmark

24

1030

40207

921

0.16

10237

010

0.04

674

打席

/da-se.ki/

at-bat

23

1037

307

8134

30.79

135

253

311

0.35

675

圧迫

/a.Q-pa.ku/

oppression

24

1016

6019

124

0.76

790

50

1.00

676

襲撃

/sju.u-ge.ki/

attack

24

1023

204

622

10.97

148

625

60.70

677

民衆

/mi.N

-sju.u/

common

people

24

1028

322

027

11.00

124

198

410

0.39

678

職務

/sjo.ku-mu/

duties

23

1050

1620

547

31.00

1141

484

920

0.70

679

談話

/da.N-w

a/talking

23

1038

509

033

51.00

126

383

14

0.25

680

分担

/bu.N-ta.N/

assigningtasks

24

1041

325

540

10.98

79251

310

0.24

681

短縮

/ta.N-sju.ku/

shortening

24

1026

123

2125

10.85

31113

15

0.22

682

借金

/sja.Q-ki.N

/debt

24

1063

543

114

4617

0.83

39618

324

0.06

683

保存

/ho-zo.N/

preservatio

n2

310

35553

3427

80.94

119

468

611

0.20

684

採択

/sa.i-ta.ku/

adoptio

n2

410

15138

015

01.00

122

163

20.88

685

風雲

/fu.u-u.N/

whirlwind

24

1164

8226

4816

0.76

1197

011

0.10

686

記名

/ki-me.i/

registratio

n2

311

65616

856

90.99

64560

312

0.10

687

手軽

/te-ga.ru/

easiness

23

1158

321

6244

140.84

30353

116

0.08

688

特約

/to.ku-ja.ku/

specialagreem

ent

24

1164

862

9457

70.90

19937

128

0.02

689

特設

/to.ku-se.tu

/purpose-built

24

1151

1240

9444

70.93

111323

029

0.01

690

必着

/hi.Q

-tja.ku/

notlaterthan

24

1153

59297

3221

0.17

73283

27

0.21

691

毛布

/mo.u-fu/

blanket

23

1134

2266

1519

0.25

1177

03

0.13

692

卓球

/ta.Q-kju.u/

ping-pong

24

1124

246

019

51.00

11235

05

0.04

693

北欧

/ho.ku-o.u/

Nroth

Europe

24

1116

109

1912

40.85

6761

44

0.52

694

発明

/ha.tu-m

e.i/

invention

24

1193

546

831

4746

0.40

751302

233

0.05

695

学力

/ga.ku-rjo.ku/

academ

icability

24

11121

1448

410

9823

0.78

293

1565

645

0.16

696

調節

/tjo.u-se.tu

/adjustment

24

1136

478

163

333

0.75

79562

112

0.12

1140 Behav Res (2011) 43:1110–1151

(con

tinued)

No.

Item

Pronunciatio

nEnglishtranslation

Len

Morae

Freq.

NO-P

relatio

nship

O-S

relatio

nship

PF_F

PE_F

PF_N

PE_N

O-P

Index

SF_F

SE_F

SF_N

SE_N

O-S

Index

697

入団

/nju.u-da.N/

joiningateam

24

1160

585

127

555

0.82

145

567

517

0.20

698

祝日

/sju.ku-zi.tu

/public

holid

ay2

411

83473

941

3944

0.33

531361

431

0.04

699

県立

/ke.N-ri.tu/

prefecturalgovernment-run

24

1138

440

634

40.99

51395

116

0.11

700

港湾

#/ko.u-wa.N/

port

24

113

410

30

1.00

1130

01

0.27

701

完了

/ka.N-rjo.u/

completion

24

1117

442

017

01.00

86356

23

0.19

702

座席

/za-se.ki/

seat

23

1131

289

031

01.00

11278

09

0.04

703

移住

/i-zju.u/

immigratio

n2

311

1973

2016

30.78

7518

52

0.81

704

殺到

/sa.Q-to.u/

rush

24

1114

2636

410

0.42

1151

03

0.18

705

任命

/ni.N

-me.i/

appointm

ent

24

1143

239

541

20.98

21223

19

0.09

706

評判

/hjo.u-ba.N/

credit

24

1120

155

128

155

0.55

47236

16

0.17

707

財務

/za.i-mu/

financialaffairs

23

1146

1622

046

01.00

100

1522

227

0.06

708

留学

/rju.u-ga.ku/

overseas

education

24

1157

1346

1056

10.99

161340

126

0.01

709

活版

/ka.Q-pa.N/

printedmatter

24

1227

115

142

720

0.45

74183

27

0.29

710

執事

/si.tu-zi/

butler

23

1282

1191

182

6616

0.87

121361

030

0.01

711

乳業

/nju.u-gjo.u/

dairyindustry

24

1269

2106

058

111.00

122094

024

0.01

712

便秘

/be.N-pi/

constip

ation

23

1217

578

107

0.88

1253

04

0.18

713

帝都

#/te.i-to/

empire

capital

23

1212

103

012

01.00

103

02

01.00

714

直通

/tjo.ku-tu.u/

direct

24

1253

771

2934

190.96

96704

411

0.12

715

炊事

/su.i-zi/

cooking

23

1274

1179

143

6410

0.89

811241

226

0.06

716

活性

/ka.Q-se.i/

activ

ation

24

1256

259

275

4214

0.49

47487

212

0.09

717

新春

/si.N

-sju.N/

new

spring

24

1263

678

4654

60.94

43718

326

0.06

718

同封

/do.u-fu.u/

enclosure

24

1279

489

148

745

0.77

12625

029

0.02

719

借款

/sja.Q-ka.N/

giving

credit

24

1214

3040

410

0.43

3139

23

0.44

720

式場

/si.k

i-zjo.u/

ceremonialhall

24

1257

849

599

3126

0.59

561392

127

0.04

721

風俗

/fu.u-zo.ku/

public

morals

24

1257

8216

516

0.84

1286

010

0.12

722

風速

/fu.u-so.ku/

windspeed

24

1260

140

1652

80.90

21135

113

0.13

723

冷却

/re.i-kja.ku/

cooling

24

1230

132

026

41.00

9240

35

0.70

724

水域

/su.i-i.k

i/water

area

24

1298

439

3972

260.92

12466

019

0.03

725

背広

/se-bi.ro/

suits

23

1216

1849

412

0.27

1255

03

0.18

726

恋愛

/re.N-a.i/

love

24

1222

1229

193

0.29

410

10

1.00

727

団結

/da.N-ke.tu/

union

24

1222

235

021

11.00

100

135

18

0.43

728

反撃

/ha.N-ge.ki/

counterattack

24

1257

523

049

81.00

288

235

717

0.55

729

暗殺

/a.N-sa.tu/

assassination

24

1244

5217

431

0.75

1257

03

0.17

730

老後

/ro.u-go/

post-retirem

entyears

23

1244

975

043

11.00

31944

19

0.03

731

土俵

/do-hjo.u/

sumoring

23

1237

119

191

307

0.38

12298

06

0.04

732

出現

/sju.tu

-ge.N/

emersion

24

1277

278

1183

2156

0.19

625

836

428

0.43

733

出産

/sju.Q-sa.N/

birthing

24

12107

1036

921

7037

0.53

206

1751

142

0.11

734

主役

/sju-ja.ku/

cantralplayer

23

1268

677

2458

100.97

86615

314

0.12

735

海軍

/ka.i-gu.N/

navy

24

1250

520

046

41.00

68452

410

0.13

736

選出

/se.N-sju.tu

/elect

24

1259

742

9149

100.89

354

479

512

0.42

737

拠点

/kjo-te.N/

lodgment

23

1249

198

048

11.00

35163

110

0.18

Behav Res (2011) 43:1110–1151 1141

(con

tinued)

No.

Item

Pronunciatio

nEnglishtranslation

Len

Morae

Freq.

NO-P

relatio

nship

O-S

relatio

nship

PF_F

PE_F

PF_N

PE_N

O-P

Index

SF_F

SE_F

SF_N

SE_N

O-S

Index

738

抑制

/jo.ku-se.i/

inhibitio

n2

412

25187

025

01.00

73114

35

0.39

739

部会

/bu-ka.i/

group,

committee

23

1257

1652

056

11.00

128

1524

224

0.08

740

予測

/jo-so.u/

predictio

n2

312

26652

026

01.00

136

516

49

0.21

741

達成

/ta.Q-se.i/

accomplishm

ent

24

1232

499

031

11.00

107

392

213

0.21

742

売却

/ba.i-kja.ku/

sello

ut2

412

26106

8624

20.55

119

733

50.62

743

死去

/si-kjo/

demise,

loss

22

1241

203

4240

10.83

186

596

30.76

744

優雅

/ju.u-ga/

elegance

23

1322

844

021

11.00

13831

06

0.02

745

博物

/ha.ku-bu.tu/

naturalhistory

24

1384

221

130

4143

0.63

13338

022

0.04

746

舶来

/ha.ku-ra.i/

foreignarticle

24

1331

278

122

292

0.70

13387

08

0.03

747

婚礼

/ko.N-re.i/

wedding

24

1324

340

231

1.00

295

11

0.85

748

減配

/ge.N-pa.i/

dividend

reduction

24

1333

125

120

1617

0.51

53192

111

0.22

749

先着

/se.N-tja.ku/

firstcome

24

1386

293

3667

190.89

29282

116

0.09

750

測量

/so.ku-rjo.u/

measurement

24

1336

820

351

1.00

3646

22

0.44

751

果物

/ku.da-m

o.no/

fruits

24

1385

63265

2955

0.19

36292

320

0.11

752

外科

/ge-ka/

surgery

22

1376

161

471

2452

0.25

26606

120

0.04

753

操縦

#/so.u-zju.u/

flying

24

136

410

51

1.00

2813

11

0.68

754

続出

/zo.ku-sju.tu

/appearingoneafteranother

24

1354

317

115

4113

0.73

19413

114

0.04

755

商売

/sjo.u-ba.i/

business

24

1336

1135

2732

40.98

480

682

611

0.41

756

摘発

/te.ki-ha.tu

/revelatio

n2

413

38302

116

2513

0.72

13405

08

0.03

757

変動

/he.N-do.u/

move,

variation

24

1373

1149

073

01.00

156

993

514

0.14

758

場面

/ba-me.N/

scene

23

1363

641

757

60.99

395

253

315

0.61

759

学則

/ga.ku-so.ku/

code

oftheschool

24

1461

799

363

5011

0.69

361126

127

0.03

760

悪徳

/a.ku-to-ku/

ugly

vices

24

1473

5076

6211

0.40

7947

24

0.63

761

続落

/zo.ku-ra.ku/.

continualfall

24

1435

75108

278

0.41

14169

09

0.08

762

快適

/ka.i-te.ki/

coziness

24

1421

730

201

1.00

5617

11

0.77

763

自筆

/ji-hi.tu/

autograph

23

14109

1292

104

9415

0.93

191377

130

0.01

764

健全

/ke.N-ze.N/

health

24

1412

327

011

11.00

216

111

23

0.66

765

熱心

/ne.Q-si.N

/eagerness

24

1492

300

3868

240.89

38300

211

0.11

766

印鑑

/i.N-ka.N/

seal

24

1413

125

013

01.00

14111

02

0.11

767

花束

/ha.na-ta.ba/

abunchof

flow

er2

414

2644

3613

130.55

1466

04

0.18

768

名物

/me.i-bu.tu

/specialty

24

14128

465

153

7850

0.75

65553

331

0.11

769

運搬

/u.N-pa.N/

transportatio

n2

414

19663

5317

20.93

465

251

56

0.65

770

立体

/ri.Q

.ta.i/

solid

24

1474

438

186

659

0.70

22602

121

0.04

771

海水

/ka.i.su.i/

seaw

ater

24

1499

511

7979

200.87

97493

420

0.16

772

出品

/sju.Q-pi.N

/exhibits

24

14103

446

1439

4954

0.24

697

1188

437

0.37

773

発電

/ha.tu-de.N/

electric

generatio

n2

414

83452

770

4241

0.37

221200

124

0.02

774

議題

/gi-da.i/

topicof

discussion

23

1429

1104

029

01.00

762

342

58

0.69

775

燃料

/ne.N-rjo.u/

fuel

24

1421

352

020

11.00

32320

112

0.09

776

名誉

/me.i-jo/

honor

23

1452

282

4743

90.86

14315

014

0.04

777

喪主

/mo-sju/

hostof

thefuneral

22

1427

9733

1512

0.75

14116

05

0.11

778

純毛

/zju.N-m

o.u/

pure

wool

24

1525

350

232

1.00

1520

03

0.43

779

地目

/cji-mo.ku/

category

ofland

23

15117

936

468

6651

0.67

151399

039

0.01

780

配本

/ha.i-ho.N/

distributio

nof

books

24

1560

1429

1009

5010

0.59

232415

121

0.01

781

殺菌

/sa.Q-ki.N

/sterilizatio

n2

415

1726

367

100.42

3329

12

0.53

782

浴室

/jo.ku-si.tu

/bathroom

24

1519

140

019

01.00

28112

15

0.20

783

食肉

/sjo.ku-ni.ku/

edible

meat

24

1531

346

2128

30.94

55312

39

0.15

1142 Behav Res (2011) 43:1110–1151

(con

tinued)

No.

Item

Pronunciatio

nEnglishtranslation

Len

Morae

Freq.

NO-P

relatio

nship

O-S

relatio

nship

PF_F

PE_F

PF_N

PE_N

O-P

Index

SF_F

SE_F

SF_N

SE_N

O-S

Index

784

雑貨

/za.Q-ka/

generalmerchandise

23

1544

104

2327

170.82

5077

14

0.39

785

適当

/te.ki-to.u/

propriety

24

1546

347

133

451

0.72

37443

314

0.08

786

喜劇

/ki-ge.ki/

comedy

23

1517

8933

152

0.73

8339

33

0.68

787

筋肉

#/ki.N

-ni.k

u/mascle

24

1511

320

92

1.00

1517

02

0.47

788

学術

/ga.ku-zju.tu

/academ

icfield

24

1563

1245

363

5211

0.77

268

1340

1020

0.17

789

告訴

/ko.ku-so/

accusatio

n2

315

1488

014

01.00

5137

23

0.58

790

社説

/sja-se.tu/

edito

rial

article

23

1542

1231

4940

20.96

176

1104

110

0.14

791

追跡

/tu.i-se.ki/

chase

24

1545

127

5239

60.71

127

524

30.71

792

穀物

/ko.ku-m

o.tu/

cereal

24

1580

56247

1367

0.18

15288

020

0.05

793

残業

/za.N-gjo.u/

overtim

ework

24

1580

2128

101

719

0.95

116

2113

326

0.05

794

哲学

/te.tu

-ga.ku/

philo

sophy

24

1554

1338

054

01.00

151323

025

0.01

795

失業

/si.tu-gjo.u/

unem

ployment

24

1583

2172

6759

240.97

126

2113

225

0.06

796

買収

/ba.i-sju.u/

corruptio

n2

415

17123

134

152

0.48

149

108

25

0.58

797

介入

/ka.i-nju.u/

interposition

24

1531

273

031

01.00

30243

110

0.11

798

逆転

/gja.ku-te.N/

adversechange

24

1531

346

024

71.00

15331

05

0.04

799

若手

/wa.ka-te/

junior

23

1598

413

557

5246

0.43

171

799

424

0.18

800

導入

/do.u-nju.u/

introductio

n2

415

32273

030

21.00

21252

110

0.08

801

雑役

/za.tu-e.ki/

fatig

ueduty

24

1657

3182

1938

0.27

2390

15

0.20

802

学芸

/ga.ku-ge.i/

artsandsciences

24

1666

860

363

5511

0.70

711152

329

0.06

803

清潔

/se.i-ke.tu

/cleanliness

24

1629

7670

236

0.52

16130

06

0.11

804

紡績

#/bo.u-se.ki/

spinning

24

167

148

06

11.00

16132

04

0.11

805

婚約

/ko.N-ja.ku/

engagement

24

1630

240

030

01.00

29211

17

0.12

806

木曜

/mo.ku-jo.u/

Thursday

24

1628

326

2116

120.94

150

197

29

0.43

807

順調

/zju.N-tjo.u/

working

order

24

1642

221

042

01.00

36185

113

0.16

808

圧倒

/a.Q-to.u/

crush

24

1618

3733

153

0.53

2644

13

0.37

809

空中

/ku.u-tju

.u/

air

24

1684

399

7069

150.85

53416

126

0.11

810

特許

/to.Q-kjo/

patent

23

1644

196

646

935

0.23

156

686

122

0.19

811

悲劇

/hi-ge.ki/

tragedy

23

1625

100

025

01.00

2773

24

0.27

812

陸軍

/ri.k

u-gu.N/

army

24

1626

187

024

21.00

125

623

20.67

813

打線

/da-se.N/

batting

order

23

1660

405

8157

30.83

141

345

420

0.29

814

秩序

*/cji.tu-zjo/

cosm

os,regularity

23

162

160

20

1.00

160

00

1.00

815

下旬

/ge-zju.N/

end

23

1664

96199

2836

0.33

40255

211

0.14

816

配慮

/ha.i-rjo/

care,attention

23

1638

267

836

20.97

55220

112

0.20

817

減税

/ge.N-ze.i/

taxcut

24

1630

165

4029

10.80

63142

211

0.31

818

学割

/ga.ku-w

a.ri/

discount

forstudents

24

1753

767

419

4112

0.65

171169

028

0.01

819

序曲

/zjo-kjo.ku/

overture

23

1723

179

022

11.00

17162

07

0.09

820

庶務

/sjo-m

u/generalaffairs

22

1738

1483

038

01.00

674

809

223

0.45

821

脱走

/da.Q-so.u/

getaway

24

1738

6226

299

0.70

3949

35

0.44

822

額面

/ga.ku-m

e.N/

face

24

1758

281

054

41.00

17264

015

0.06

823

明確

/me.i-ka.ku/

unam

biguity

24

1734

225

104

2311

0.68

60269

29

0.18

824

税務

/ze.i-mu/

taxservice

23

1741

1554

041

01.00

521502

326

0.03

Behav Res (2011) 43:1110–1151 1143

(con

tinued)

No.

Item

Pronunciatio

nEnglishtranslation

Len

Morae

Freq.

NO-P

relatio

nship

O-S

relatio

nship

PF_F

PE_F

PF_N

PE_N

O-P

Index

SF_F

SE_F

SF_N

SE_N

O-S

Index

825

着陸

/tja.ku-ri.k

u/landing

24

1730

109

4623

70.70

44111

27

0.28

826

出動

/sju.Q-ki.N

/callout

24

17112

1147

1183

5656

0.49

480

1850

439

0.21

827

駐在

/tju.u-za.i/

inresidence

24

1723

386

023

01.00

29357

17

0.08

828

国王

/ko.ku-o.u/

king

24

1782

1306

445

6121

0.75

351716

128

0.02

829

休日

/kju.u-zi.tu/

holid

ay2

417

88510

941

4642

0.35

611390

433

0.04

830

妥協

#/da-kjo.u/

acquiescene

23

174

390

40

1.00

2415

12

0.62

831

保有

/ho-ju.u/

retention

23

1735

579

2032

30.97

83516

512

0.14

832

比率

/hi-ri.tu

/proportio

n2

317

19157

3113

60.84

77111

38

0.41

833

役割

#/ja.ku-wa.ri/

functio

n,role

24

1712

115

5610

20.67

17154

06

0.10

834

魅惑

#/m

i-wa.ku/

fascination

23

189

810

90

1.00

5526

12

0.68

835

親分

/o.ja-bu.N/

boss

24

1883

449

9955

280.82

18530

021

0.03

836

併殺

/he.i-sa.tu

/double

play

24

1826

590

251

1.00

1841

03

0.31

837

勤労

/ki.N

-ro.u/

dilig

entlabors

24

1818

332

1417

10.96

304

422

20.88

838

平年

/he.i-ne.N/

averageyear

24

1891

1299

5383

80.96

148

1204

431

0.11

839

巨大

/kjo-da.i/

gigantism

23

1835

375

035

01.00

274

101

54

0.73

840

女王

/zjo.u-o.u/

queen

24

1837

679

129

2710

0.84

164

644

27

0.20

841

創立

/so.u-ri.tu

/foundatio

n2

418

46496

641

50.99

72430

417

0.14

842

院長

/i.N-tjo.u/

hospitaldirector

24

1860

831

054

61.00

387

444

516

0.47

843

脱税

/da.tu-ze.i/

taxevasion

24

1838

130

5523

150.70

18167

016

0.10

844

認可

#/ni.N

-ka/

approbation

23

188

8985

71

0.51

145

293

20.83

845

弁護

/be.N-go/

advocacy

23

1824

173

024

01.00

9875

44

0.57

846

前半

/ze.N-ha.N/

firsthalf

24

1863

402

5548

150.88

42415

119

0.09

847

会合

/ka.i-go.u/

meetin

g2

418

671735

531

5017

0.77

427

1839

324

0.19

848

就任

/sju.u-ni.N

/accedence

24

1843

317

042

11.00

80237

312

0.25

849

中級

/tju.u-kju.u/

interm

ediate

grade

24

1986

1550

7478

80.95

741550

327

0.05

850

宝石

/ho.u-se.ki/

jewel

24

1926

250

1511

1.00

196

01

0.76

851

入居

/nju.u-kjo/

move-in

23

1964

415

163

568

0.72

56522

120

0.10

852

追放

/tu.i-ho.u/

kickout,ouster

24

1931

173

5227

40.77

19206

09

0.08

853

質疑

#/si.tu-gi/

questio

n2

319

11119

09

21.00

9722

11

0.82

854

連載

/re.N-sa.i/

serialization

24

1945

453

2444

10.95

107

370

215

0.22

855

世話

/se-wa/

care

22

1952

1064

047

51.00

191045

013

0.02

856

近所

/ki.N

-zjo/

neighborhood

23

1971

201

456

3437

0.31

210

447

319

0.32

857

論文

/ro.N-bu.N/

thesis,article

24

1979

156

4970

90.76

37168

210

0.18

858

説得

/se.Q-to.ku/

convictio

n2

419

25169

724

10.96

9878

24

0.56

859

受注

/zju-tju.u/

acceptance

oforder

23

1927

148

219

252

0.40

153

214

17

0.42

860

献金

/ke.N-ki.N

/donatio

n2

419

56567

3649

70.94

27576

122

0.04

861

財源

/za.i-ge.N/

financialresources

24

1918

166

017

11.00

134

324

20.81

862

獲得

/ka.ku-to.ku/

acquirem

ent

24

1919

898

172

0.92

1978

04

0.20

863

明朗

/me.i-ro.u/

cheerful

24

2032

202

104

2111

0.66

37269

19

0.12

864

楽天

/ra.ku-te.N/

optim

istic

24

2036

20153

2115

0.12

27146

13

0.16

865

熟練

/zju.ku-re.N/

proficiency

24

2022

680

211

1.00

626

11

0.91

866

肥料

/hi-rjo.u/

fertilizer

23

2023

352

022

11.00

27325

112

0.08

867

失点

/si.Q

-te.N/

loss

24

2075

285

9366

90.75

93285

116

0.25

868

空軍

/ku.u-gu.N/

airforce

24

2048

312

042

61.00

48264

28

0.15

869

通達

/tu.u-ta.tu/

transm

ittal

24

2059

878

204

518

0.81

200

882

327

0.18

870

権力

/ke.N-rjo.ku/

authority,power

24

2083

791

4769

140.94

177

661

722

0.21

1144 Behav Res (2011) 43:1110–1151

(con

tinued)

No.

Item

Pronunciatio

nEnglishtranslation

Len

Morae

Freq.

NO-P

relatio

nship

O-S

relatio

nship

PF_F

PE_F

PF_N

PE_N

O-P

Index

SF_F

SE_F

SF_N

SE_N

O-S

Index

871

特定

/to.ku-te.i/

attribution

24

2087

1690

128

7413

0.93

446

1372

841

0.25

872

独自

/do.ku-zi/

inim

itableness

23

2022

222

021

11.00

37185

27

0.17

873

有能

/ju.u-no.u/

competent

ability

24

2157

511

752

50.99

79439

518

0.15

874

物色

/bu.Q-sjo.ku/

hunt

out

24

2195

230

2350

450.91

21232

014

0.08

875

右翼

/u-jo.ku/

rightwing

23

2117

5325

116

0.68

2157

05

0.27

876

貯蓄

#/tjo-cji.k

u/savings

23

218

420

71

1.00

420

20

1.00

877

財界

/za.i-ka.i/

business

community

24

2129

718

027

21.00

61657

29

0.08

878

突破

/to.Q-pa/

breakthrough

23

2127

2942

1413

0.41

3536

23

0.49

879

著者

/tjo-sja/

author

22

2162

402

7745

170.84

42437

314

0.09

880

加入

/ka-nju.u/

join

23

2147

357

047

01.00

56301

113

0.16

881

支出

/si-sju.tu/

expense

23

2160

623

752

80.99

21609

021

0.03

882

戦略

/se.N-rja.ku/

strategy

24

2161

414

1860

10.96

250

182

58

0.58

883

座談

/za-da.N/

conversatio

n2

322

37870

037

01.00

177

693

38

0.20

884

窯業

/jo.u-gjo.u/

pottery

24

2258

2116

053

51.00

222094

024

0.01

885

三陸

/sa.N-ri.k

u/Sanriku,northern

pacificcoastin

Japan

24

2226

942

026

01.00

22920

011

0.02

886

係員

/ka.ka.ri-i.N

/attendant

25

2246

1618

741

51.00

751

874

521

0.46

887

実業

/zi.tu-gjo.u/

business

24

22111

2337

332

7041

0.88

156

2513

242

0.06

888

連勝

/re.N-sjo.u/

consecutivewins

24

2255

572

2454

10.96

93503

317

0.16

889

体力

/ta.i-rjo.ku/

physical

strength

24

2293

985

4780

130.95

281004

133

0.03

890

人類

/zi.N

-ru.i/

mankind

24

2288

602

478

5731

0.56

297

783

424

0.28

891

農村

/no.u-so.N/

farm

ingvillage

24

2232

329

032

01.00

274

557

40.83

892

打撃

/da-ge.ki/

batting

23

2235

307

8132

30.79

221

167

711

0.57

893

有力

/ju.u-rjo.ku/

important,influential

24

22107

909

5490

170.94

268

695

831

0.28

894

調印

/tjo.u-i.N

/signing

24

2234

421

163

286

0.72

22562

011

0.04

895

専務

/se.N-m

u/executivemanagingdirector

23

2251

1711

051

01.00

461665

131

0.03

896

欧米

/o.u-be.i/

EuropeandtheU.S.

24

2218

146

010

81.00

6086

24

0.41

897

合意

/go.u-i/

agreem

ent

23

2293

417

172

6825

0.71

73516

219

0.12

898

借地

/sja.ku-cji/

leased

land

23

2390

865

7468

220.92

48891

330

0.05

899

技能

/gi-no.u/

skill

23

2331

662

031

01.00

366

296

49

0.55

900

通学

/tu.u-ga.ku/

commute

24

2396

2106

197

906

0.91

201

2102

247

0.09

901

本質

/ho.N-si.tu/

essence

24

23101

820

097

41.00

102

718

532

0.12

902

単純

/ta.N-zju.N/

simplicity

24

2321

116

021

01.00

3581

14

0.30

903

演劇

/e.N-ge.ki/

dram

a2

423

22321

021

11.00

246

757

30.77

904

窓口

/ma.do-gu.cji/

contact,window

24

2334

111

4619

150.71

23134

08

0.15

905

到着

/to.u-tja.ku/

arrival

24

2343

4718

2815

0.72

2837

15

0.43

906

往復

#/o.u-fu.ku/

roundtrip

24

2413

113

012

11.00

2489

01

0.21

907

答弁

/to.u-be.N/

answ

er,account

24

2421

7869

201

0.53

147

02

01.00

908

年内

/ne.N-na.i/

bytheendof

theyear

24

2478

1277

2264

140.98

291270

126

0.02

909

実質

/zi.Q

-si.tu/

substantiality

24

2476

452

265

5224

0.63

161

556

623

0.22

910

撮影

#/sa.tu-e.i/

film

ing,

shootin

g2

424

1324

78

50.77

247

01

0.77

911

認識

/ni.N

-si.k

i/acknow

ledgment

24

2418

172

8517

10.67

160

973

50.62

Behav Res (2011) 43:1110–1151 1145

(con

tinued)

No.

Item

Pronunciatio

nEnglishtranslation

Len

Morae

Freq.

NO-P

relatio

nship

O-S

relatio

nship

PF_F

PE_F

PF_N

PE_N

O-P

Index

SF_F

SE_F

SF_N

SE_N

O-S

Index

912

設立

/se.tu-ri.tu/

foundatio

n2

424

42587

175

339

0.77

96666

318

0.13

913

初任

/sjo-ni.N

/beginningworker

23

2577

354

7557

200.83

25404

023

0.06

914

薬局

/ja.Q.kjo.ku/

pharmacy

24

2522

161

3411

110.83

56139

25

0.29

915

薬品

/ja.ku-hi.N/

medicines

24

2545

535

4529

160.92

59521

212

0.10

916

血圧

/ke.tu-a.tu

/bloodpressure

24

2533

101

019

141.00

4556

14

0.45

917

在庫

/za.i-ko/

stock

23

2528

234

028

01.00

25209

010

0.11

918

石炭

/se.ki-ta.N/

coal

24

2533

8919

2013

0.82

8919

12

0.82

919

財産

/za.i-sa.N/

possession

24

2548

747

041

71.00

73674

316

0.10

920

人物

/zi.N

-bu.tu/

figure,person

24

25148

665

584

7672

0.53

306

943

539

0.24

921

圧力

/a.tu

-rjo.ku/

pressure

24

2582

726

7361

210.91

40759

226

0.05

922

今晩

/ko.N-ba.N/

thisevening

24

2628

526

024

41.00

41485

111

0.08

923

下水

/ge-su.i/

sewagewater

23

26126

331

138

7551

0.71

62407

124

0.13

924

集金

/sju.u-ki.N

/billcollection

24

2668

671

7460

80.90

80665

128

0.11

925

社宅

/sja-ta.ku/

company

residence

23

2618

1360

018

01.00

296

1064

110

0.22

926

洋服

/jo.u-fu.ku/

clothes

24

2651

243

041

101.00

158

856

80.65

927

冷凍

/re.i-to.u/

freezing

24

2618

100

014

41.00

928

31

0.92

928

主題

/sju-da.i/

them

e2

326

611429

061

01.00

731356

217

0.05

929

全般

/ze.N-pa.N/

overall

24

2650

861

3646

40.96

385

512

414

0.43

930

育成

/i.ku-se.i/

nurture

24

2632

483

530

20.99

94394

413

0.19

931

運賃

/u.N-cji.N/

fare

24

2625

672

5323

20.93

26699

012

0.04

932

合計

/go.u-ke.i/

total

24

2658

408

172

3325

0.70

44536

216

0.08

933

若者

/wa.ka-m

o.no/

youngpeople

24

2676

162

572

1858

0.22

171

563

416

0.23

934

打点

/da-te.N/

runs

battedin

23

2764

350

8161

30.81

168

263

417

0.39

935

正面

/sjo.u-m

e.N/

frontface

24

2798

392

168

6038

0.70

27533

030

0.05

936

活発

/ka.Q-pa.tu/

vivacity

24

2847

135

438

1631

0.24

35538

113

0.06

937

直営

/tjo.ku-e.i/

direct

managem

ent

24

2853

405

2935

180.93

177

257

214

0.41

938

巡査

/zju.N-sa/

patrol

officer

23

2819

480

618

10.99

105

381

27

0.22

939

所在

/sjo-za.i/

whereabouts

23

2842

453

042

01.00

28425

011

0.06

940

品目

/hi.N

-mo.ku/

article

24

2876

258

176

3838

0.59

61373

312

0.14

941

貨物

/ka-mo.tu/

cargo

23

2879

56247

1267

0.18

35268

119

0.12

942

補助

/ho-zjo/

adminicle

22

2826

187

822

40.96

127

683

60.65

943

農民

/no.u-mi.N

/farm

er2

428

52821

199

511

0.80

212

808

612

0.21

944

法律

/ho.u-ri.tu

/law

24

2846

179

042

41.00

116

636

40.65

945

与党

#/jo

-to.u/

rulin

gparty

23

2810

125

010

01.00

103

222

10.82

946

朗読

*/ro.u-do.ku/

declam

ation

24

2926

290

260

1.00

290

00

1.00

947

討論

/to.u-ro.N/

argument

24

2946

259

043

31.00

160

997

40.62

948

教諭

/kjo.u-u/

teacher

23

2941

834

3140

10.96

636

229

78

0.74

949

黒人

/ko.ku-ji.N

/blackperson

24

29147

773

270

8166

0.74

64979

135

0.06

950

読者

/do.ku-sjo/

reader

23

2965

412

147

4322

0.74

82477

217

0.15

951

決意

/ke.tu-i/

determ

ination

23

2972

285

275

5913

0.51

215

345

317

0.38

952

父親

/cji.cji-o.ja/

father

24

2917

8154

710

0.60

7560

32

0.56

953

複雑

/fu.ku-za.tu/

complication

24

3016

380

160

1.00

380

10

1.00

954

理論

/ri-ro.N/

theory

23

3055

548

055

01.00

30518

019

0.05

955

増大

/zo.u-da.i/

augm

entatio

n2

430

51430

1449

20.97

234

210

911

0.53

956

漁業

/gjo-gjo.u/

fishery

23

3072

2151

063

91.00

212

1939

522

0.10

957

軍縮

/gu.N-sju.ku/

armam

entreduction

24

3040

169

040

01.00

30139

06

0.18

1146 Behav Res (2011) 43:1110–1151

(con

tinued)

No.

Item

Pronunciatio

nEnglishtranslation

Len

Morae

Freq.

NO-P

relatio

nship

O-S

relatio

nship

PF_F

PE_F

PF_N

PE_N

O-P

Index

SF_F

SE_F

SF_N

SE_N

O-S

Index

958

掲載

#/ke.i-sa.i/

posting

24

308

580

80

1.00

3919

11

0.67

959

記入

/ki-nju.u/

fill-in

23

3140

708

040

01.00

184

524

315

0.26

960

造船

/zo.u-se.N/

shipbuild

ing

24

3137

134

031

61.00

31103

07

0.23

961

予約

/jo.-ja.ku/

booking,

reservation

23

3145

792

045

01.00

193

599

117

0.24

962

国防

/ko.ku-bo.u/

natio

naldefense

24

3179

1368

445

6118

0.75

311782

030

0.02

963

脚本

/kja.ku-ho.N/

script,playbook

24

3241

1227

1001

2912

0.55

322196

012

0.01

964

電力

/de.N-rjo.ku/

electricity

24

32105

1778

4793

120.97

333

1492

240

0.18

965

評論

/hjo.u-ro.N/

criticism

24

3351

258

051

01.00

134

124

58

0.52

966

修理

/sju.u-ri/

repair

23

3353

828

850

30.99

79757

120

0.09

967

診断

/si.N

-da.N/

diagnosis

24

3328

161

027

11.00

102

592

50.63

968

義務

/gi-mu/

duty

22

3356

1483

056

01.00

631420

124

0.04

969

入院

/nju.u-i.N/

hospitalization

24

3355

708

127

523

0.85

163

672

123

0.20

970

緊急

/ki.N

-kju.u/

emergency

24

3318

174

018

01.00

114

605

20.66

971

住民

/zju.u-m

i.N/

inhabitant

24

3334

884

241

322

0.79

570

555

67

0.51

972

能率

/no.u-ri.tu

/efficiency

24

3418

176

014

41.00

49127

17

0.28

973

運送

/u.N-so.u/

transportatio

n2

434

341091

5332

20.95

390

754

79

0.34

974

期日

/ki-zi.tu

/duedate

23

3474

671

924

3539

0.42

132

1463

234

0.08

975

文芸

/bu.N-ge.i/

creativ

ewritin

g2

434

61633

127

547

0.83

165

595

421

0.22

976

品質

/hi.N

-si.tu/

quality

24

3434

178

932

20.95

49138

110

0.26

977

職場

/sjo.ku-ba/

workplace

23

3467

718

854

3631

0.46

871485

231

0.06

978

労務

/ro.u-mu/

laborservice

23

3545

1661

045

01.00

583

1078

423

0.35

979

安値

/ja.su-ne/

low

price

23

3532

139

329

725

0.30

88380

17

0.19

980

不明

/fu-me.i/

unclear

23

35112

1450

0108

41.00

411409

134

0.03

981

予防

/jo-bo.u/

preventio

n2

335

26672

026

01.00

35637

013

0.05

982

頭金

/a.ta.m

a-ki.N/

downpaym

ent

25

3664

603

4849

150.93

156

495

322

0.24

983

配達

/ha.i-ta.tu

/deliv

ery

24

3640

278

3136

40.90

58251

215

0.19

984

預金

/jo-ki.N

/depositwith

banks

23

3652

523

7444

80.88

45552

121

0.08

985

部品

/bu-hi.N/

part

23

3649

759

2836

130.96

121

666

117

0.15

986

株価

/ka.bu-ka/

stockprice

23

3622

794

022

01.00

421

373

111

0.53

987

所得

/sjo-to.ku/

income

23

3643

191

842

10.96

36163

010

0.18

988

表明

/hjo.u-m

e.i/

manifestatio

n2

436

49508

640

90.99

105

409

219

0.20

989

暖房

#/da.N-bo.u/

heating

24

3711

970

92

1.00

3760

04

0.38

990

青春

/se.i-sju.N/

adolescence

24

3732

152

4117

150.79

101

921

90.52

991

漁船

/gjo-se.N/

fishingboat

23

3739

158

030

91.00

6791

17

0.42

992

主任

/sju-ni.N

/chief

23

3776

886

074

21.00

47839

224

0.05

993

銘柄

/me.i-ga.ra/

brand

24

3718

430

171

1.00

376

01

0.86

994

魅力

/mi-rjo.ku/

attractio

n2

337

74744

4762

120.94

55736

126

0.07

995

税金

/ze.i-ki.N/

tax

24

3756

624

3050

60.95

108

546

324

0.17

996

全員

/ze.N-i.N/

everyone

24

3784

2223

3683

10.98

164

2095

338

0.07

997

失敗

/si.Q

-pa.i/

failu

re2

438

3874

122

2216

0.38

140

562

50.71

998

結論

/ke.tu-ro.N/

conclusion

24

3865

211

411

4322

0.34

236

386

218

0.38

Behav Res (2011) 43:1110–1151 1147

(con

tinued)

No.

Item

Pronunciatio

nEnglishtranslation

Len

Morae

Freq.

NO-P

relatio

nship

O-S

relatio

nship

PF_F

PE_F

PF_N

PE_N

O-P

Index

SF_F

SE_F

SF_N

SE_N

O-S

Index

999

決議

/ke.tu-gi/

resolutio

n2

338

46863

275

3313

0.76

444

694

519

0.39

1000

判決

/ha.N-ke.tu/

decision

24

3823

393

023

01.00

127

266

49

0.32

1001

出身

/sju.Q-si.N

/origin

24

39102

542

928

6537

0.37

391431

033

0.03

1002

対立

/ta.i-ri.tu

/confrontation

24

3963

788

657

60.99

127

667

423

0.16

1003

都立

/to-ri.tu/

Tokyo

government-run

23

4042

691

2135

70.97

51661

121

0.07

1004

大陸

/ta.i-ri.ku/

continent

24

40137

793

1087

7859

0.42

461834

146

0.02

1005

売店

/ba.i-te.N/

consession

stand

24

4127

395

8622

50.82

226

255

46

0.47

1006

路線

/ro-se.N/

atrainlin

e2

341

48272

048

01.00

51221

114

0.19

1007

改革

/ka.i-ka.ku/

reform

ation

24

4133

304

1732

10.95

273

486

60.85

1008

最適

/sa.i-te.ki/

optim

um2

442

23729

6121

20.92

304

486

410

0.38

1009

練習

/re.N-sju.u/

exercise

24

4222

153

020

21.00

7974

35

0.52

1010

競馬

/ke.i-ba/

hosrse

race

23

4335

67103

2114

0.39

100

701

50.59

1011

主人

/sju-zi.N

/host,master

23

43171

1400

227

117

540.86

431584

048

0.03

1012

職業

/sjo.ku-gjo.u/

occupatio

n2

443

712204

562

91.00

231

1978

622

0.10

1013

目的

/mo.ku-te.ki/

purpose

24

4332

129

1621

110.89

107

381

50.74

1014

国語

/ko.ku-go/

natio

nallanguage

23

44116

1603

445

9818

0.78

601988

232

0.03

1015

演説

/e.N-ze.tu/

speech

24

4443

255

224

1132

0.53

49430

19

0.10

1016

決算

/ke.Q-sa.N/

book

closing

24

4543

574

183

3310

0.76

55702

220

0.07

1017

将軍

/sjo.u-gu.N/

shogun,general

24

4624

294

024

01.00

53241

17

0.18

1018

人民

/zi.N

-mi.N

/common

people

24

4698

988

677

6632

0.59

776

889

825

0.47

1019

平日

/he.i-zi.tu

/weekday

24

47106

863

933

6442

0.48

276

1520

144

0.15

1020

出発

/sju.Q-pa.tu/

departure

24

47105

501

1223

5055

0.29

263

1461

235

0.15

1021

提出

/te.i-sju.tu/

subm

ission

24

4756

476

748

80.99

118

365

215

0.24

1022

中卒

/tju.u-so.tu

/junior

high

graduate

24

4879

1406

7471

80.95

481432

028

0.03

1023

爆撃

/ba.ku-ge.ki/

bombing

24

4830

292

030

01.00

248

447

50.85

1024

雑誌

/za.Q-si/

magazine

23

4835

7723

1817

0.77

4852

04

0.48

1025

契約

/ke.i-ja.ku/

agreem

ent,contract

24

4929

232

027

21.00

72160

26

0.31

1026

歩合

/bu-a.i/

commission

23

5051

501

346

1140

0.59

60787

119

0.07

1027

電停

/de.N-te.i/

stopsfortram

s2

451

351149

035

01.00

511098

018

0.04

1028

本店

/ho.N-te.N/

centralbranch

24

5192

1010

087

51.00

306

704

332

0.30

1029

民間

/mi.N

-ka.N/

privatesector

24

5155

1100

258

3520

0.81

801278

326

0.06

1030

確認

/ka.ku-ni.N

/confirmation

24

5124

249

1021

30.96

83176

17

0.32

1031

母親

/ha.ha-o.ja/

mother

24

5225

110

428

170.72

8963

33

0.59

1032

判断

/ha.N-da.N/

determ

ination

24

5234

213

034

01.00

136

773

70.64

1033

国内

/ko.ku-na.i/

interior

24

53104

1807

456

8123

0.80

982165

242

0.04

1034

本格

/ho.N-ka.ku/

full-scaled

24

5499

1095

097

21.00

661029

233

0.06

1035

民主

/mi.N

-sju/

democratic

23

5443

302

2833

100.92

64266

114

0.19

1036

単位

/ta.N-i/

credit

23

5450

199

049

11.00

54145

012

0.27

1037

料金

/rjo.u-ki.N

/fee

24

5454

625

7447

70.89

167

532

321

0.24

1038

格安

/ka.ku-ja.su/

cheap

24

5515

68107

78

0.39

55120

05

0.31

1039

演出

/e.N-sju.tu

/rendition

24

5656

510

748

80.99

79438

116

0.15

1040

本塁

/ho.N-ru.i/

homebase

24

5785

837

083

21.00

90747

133

0.11

1041

合併

/ga.Q-pe.i/

amalgamation

24

5738

123

249

1127

0.33

95277

111

0.26

1042

連続

/re.N-zo.ku/

sequence

24

5849

469

2448

10.95

158

335

615

0.32

1043

材料

/za.i-rjo.u/

indredients,materials

24

6020

352

020

01.00

78274

112

0.22

1044

組織

#/so-si.ki/

organizatio

n2

360

1060

160

28

0.27

198

222

30.90

1148 Behav Res (2011) 43:1110–1151

(con

tinued)

No.

Item

Pronunciatio

nEnglishtranslation

Len

Morae

Freq.

NO-P

relatio

nship

O-S

relatio

nship

PF_F

PE_F

PF_N

PE_N

O-P

Index

SF_F

SE_F

SF_N

SE_N

O-S

Index

1045

大幅

/o.o-ha.ba/

widerange

24

61141

389

1432

38103

0.21

114

1707

440

0.06

1046

旅館

/rjo-ka.N/

Japanese-style

inn

23

6219

407

015

41.00

62345

08

0.15

1047

国鉄

/ko.ku-te.tu/

natio

nalrailw

ay2

462

831381

445

6518

0.76

261

1565

132

0.14

1048

積極

/se.Q-kjo.ku/

activ

e,positiv

e2

465

1993

269

100.78

6554

05

0.55

1049

宿舎

/sju.ku-sja/

lodgment

23

6522

957

166

0.93

6537

04

0.64

1050

攻撃

/ko.u-ge.ki/

attack

24

6525

230

1324

10.95

207

368

50.85

1051

月収

/ge.Q.sju.u/

monthly

income

24

6737

230

1826

110.93

150

982

100.60

1052

二塁

/ni-ru.i/

second

base

23

6821

1412

017

41.00

101

1311

17

0.07

1053

実力

/zi.tu-rjo.ku/

raw

power

24

68126

923

379

7947

0.71

162

1140

344

0.12

1054

書類

/sjo-ru.i/

communicationmaterials

23

6847

270

7844

30.78

89259

212

0.26

1055

独立

/do.ku-ro.tu/

independence

24

6955

588

649

60.99

81513

223

0.14

1056

防衛

/bo.u-e.i/

defense

24

7031

205

4329

20.83

212

365

40.85

1057

負担

#/fu-ta.N/

burden

23

717

105

425

20.71

9354

13

0.63

1058

助手

/zjo-sju/

assistant

22

7291

371

340

3754

0.52

84627

124

0.12

1059

警察

/ke.i-sa.tu

/policedepartment

24

7228

317

028

01.00

196

121

37

0.62

1060

体育

/ta.i-i.k

u/gymnastics

24

7332

634

031

11.00

127

507

110

0.20

1061

具体

/gu-ta.i/

concrete

23

7359

416

059

01.00

73343

016

0.18

1062

輸入

/ju-nju.u/

import

23

7332

449

032

01.00

73376

013

0.16

1063

入門

/nju.u-m

o.N/

initiation,

introductio

n2

474

60571

127

573

0.82

195

503

216

0.28

1064

注目

/tju.u-mo.ku/

attention

24

7476

328

174

3937

0.65

145

357

214

0.29

1065

芸術

/ge.i-zju.tu/

art

24

7624

600

024

01.00

219

381

25

0.37

1066

知事

/cji-zi/

governor

22

7689

1235

299

7811

0.81

186

1348

132

0.12

1067

即決

/so.Q-ke.tu/

immediate

decision

24

7828

334

3319

90.91

98269

212

0.27

1068

革命

/ka.ku-m

e.i/

revolutio

n2

480

39235

534

50.98

90150

18

0.38

1069

日給

/ni.Q

-kju.u/

daily

wage

24

8458

1653

1238

3424

0.57

121

2770

324

0.04

1070

作曲

/sa.Q-kjo.ku/

compositio

n2

484

37234

500

1621

0.32

211

523

610

0.29

1071

入学

/nju.u-ga.ku/

admission,beingaccepted

into

school

24

8495

1616

127

923

0.93

295

1448

930

0.17

1072

学歴

/ga.ku-re.ki/

academ

icrecord

24

8558

983

363

4711

0.73

848

498

423

0.63

1073

印刷

#/i.N-sa.tu/

print

24

8711

125

011

01.00

8738

02

0.70

1074

名画

/me.i-ga/

famouspaintin

g2

388

69749

410

5415

0.65

126

1033

220

0.11

1075

輸出

/ju-sju.tu

/export

23

8847

472

740

70.99

176

303

112

0.37

1076

運輸

/ju-so.u/

transportatio

n2

392

22670

5320

20.93

193

530

48

0.27

1077

免許

/me.N-kjo/

license

23

102

14138

011

31.00

123

152

20.89

1078

電子

/de.N-si/

electron

23

102

991946

102

7326

0.95

515

1533

432

0.25

1079

喫茶

/ki.Q

-sa/

coffee

shop

23

107

13107

181

120.86

107

180

20.86

1080

責任

/se.ki-ni.N

/responsibility

24

107

36253

035

11.00

107

146

012

0.42

1081

特派

/to.ku-ha/

sendingforaspecialpurpose

23

108

53666

110

4013

0.86

108

668

026

0.14

1082

理事

/ri-zi/

commissioner

22

110

861442

143

788

0.91

138

1447

136

0.09

1083

物価

/bu.Q-ka/

priceof

commodity

23

111

42452

2227

150.95

216

258

215

0.46

1084

食品

/sjo.ku-hi.N/

food

24

112

55705

4939

160.94

296

458

416

0.39

1085

歓迎

*/ka.N-ge.i/

welcome

24

120

5120

05

01.00

120

00

01.00

Behav Res (2011) 43:1110–1151 1149

(con

tinued)

No.

Item

Pronunciatio

nEnglishtranslation

Len

Morae

Freq.

NO-P

relatio

nship

O-S

relatio

nship

PF_F

PE_F

PF_N

PE_N

O-P

Index

SF_F

SE_F

SF_N

SE_N

O-S

Index

1086

海外

/ka.i-ga.i/

overseas

24

130

77533

073

41.00

141

392

219

0.26

1087

急募

/kju.u-bo/

immediate

recruitm

ent

23

132

31340

4629

20.88

307

793

60.80

1088

業務

/gjo.u-m

u/service

23

133

411715

040

11.00

452

1263

622

0.26

1089

金融

/ki.N

-ju.u/

finance

24

133

44340

532

120.99

196

149

36

0.57

1090

作品

/sa.ku-hi.N

/work,

creatio

n2

4134

55653

406

3619

0.62

435

624

517

0.41

1091

店員

/te.N-i.N/

salesassistant,clerk

24

137

471687

044

31.00

159

1528

125

0.09

1092

決定

/ke.Q-te.i/

decision

24

143

661196

109

5511

0.92

313

992

1127

0.24

1093

本社

/ho.N-sja/

centraloffice

23

147

971559

1394

30.99

986

586

534

0.63

1094

発売

/ha.tu-ba.i/

release

24

148

75605

757

3342

0.44

498

864

228

0.37

1095

通知

/tu.u-cji/

notice

23

154

73805

204

658

0.80

411

598

622

0.41

1096

予定

/jo-te.i/

schedule

23

162

681498

3462

60.98

193

1339

137

0.13

1097

通勤

/tu.u-ki.N

/commute

24

172

56893

197

506

0.82

244

846

427

0.22

1098

昨年

/sa.ku-ne.N/

lastyear

24

209

58889

4452

60.95

276

657

320

0.30

1099

履歴

/ri-re.ki/

record

23

244

11335

011

01.00

335

02

01.00

1100

全国

/ze.N-ko.ku/

allpartsof

thecountry

24

262

110

1511

452

9416

0.77

338

1625

241

0.17

1101

販売

/ha.N-ba.i/

sale

24

269

14474

2712

20.95

489

126

20.98

1102

勤務

/ki.N

-mu/

service,

work

23

272

441495

1443

10.99

513

996

719

0.34

1103

発表

/ha.Q-pjo.u/

announcement

24

286

74724

695

3539

0.51

359

1060

223

0.25

1104

技術

/gi-zju.tu/

technique

23

318

23567

023

01.00

434

133

44

0.77

1105

面談

/me.N-da.N/

interview

24

370

481358

745

30.99

1265

100

67

0.93

1106

株式

/ka.bu-si.k

i/stock

24

385

32628

032

01.00

441

187

26

0.70

1107

建設

/ke.N-se.tu/

constructio

n2

4388

23752

2918

50.96

554

227

58

0.71

1108

交通

/ko.u-tu.u/

traffic

24

415

38905

039

11.00

415

490

014

0.46

1109

営業

/e.i-gjo.u/

salesandmarketin

g2

4428

642094

656

81.00

568

1532

321

0.27

1110

面接

/me.N-se.tu/

interview

24

515

291038

726

30.99

900

145

27

0.86

1111

優遇

/ju.u-gu.u/

preferentialtreatm

ent

24

657

271087

026

11.00

929

158

34

0.85

1112

風土

/fu.u-do/

clim

ate

23

1163

113

1653

100.88

5277

49

0.40

1113

実務

/zi.tu-mu/

practical

business

23

1390

1792

332

5535

0.84

472

1589

738

0.23

1114

物質

/bu.Q-si.tu/

physical

matters,substance

24

846

310

2229

170.93

8324

015

0.02

Asterisks

(*)indicate

that

thewordhadno

orthog

raph

icneighb

orlistedin

theNationalLangu

ageResearchInstitu

te(197

0)frequencyno

rms.These

words

werethus

considered

aswords

with

unique

spellin

gpatterns.Whenthenu

mbers

ofph

onolog

ical

friend

sandenem

iesareadded,

they

shou

ldequaltheorthog

raph

icneighb

orho

odsize.Whenthenu

mbers

ofsemantic

friend

sand

enem

iesareadded,

however,theresultissometim

essm

allerthan

theorthog

raph

icneighb

orho

odsize,becauseneighb

orswereom

itted

ifthey

wereno

tlistedin

theNationalLangu

ageResearch

Institu

te(197

0)no

rms,forthecompu

tatio

nof

O-S

consistencyindices.Num

bersign

s(#)indicatethe38

katakana

and38

kanjiwords

thatwereselected

fortheANOVAsdu

eto

thefactthattheir

wordfrequenciesandorthog

raph

icneighb

orho

odsizeswereequatedas

muchas

possible

1150 Behav Res (2011) 43:1110–1151

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Behav Res (2011) 43:1110–1151 1151