the nature of procrastination: a meta-analytic review
DESCRIPTION
The Nature of Procrastination: A Meta-Analytic Review. Counseling the Procrastinator in Academic Settings Piers Steel www.procrastinus.com. Overview. Study details Procrastination findings Procrastination and performance Weak correlates Strong correlates Traits & tasks - PowerPoint PPT PresentationTRANSCRIPT
Piers Steel 1
The Nature of Procrastination: A Meta-Analytic Review
Counseling the Procrastinator in Academic
Settings
Piers Steelwww.procrastinus.com
Piers Steel 2
OverviewStudy detailsProcrastination findings
Procrastination and performanceWeak correlates Strong correlates
Traits & tasksTheory of procrastinationTreatment implications
Piers Steel 4
Study DetailsAlmost 500 studies have been written that deal with procrastination directlyThese studies contain over 600 relevant correlations Key terms:
K = Number of Samples/Studies ConductedN = Total Sample Size
Correlations Effect SizeWeak .20Medium .30Large .40
Piers Steel 5
Definition of Procrastination
Three key components:1. Overwhelmingly referred to as a negative
phenomenon – often seen as irrational2. We delay voluntarily, it is our choice3. We intend to do the task, not to avoid it
entirely
To voluntarily delay an intended course of action despite expecting to be worse-off for the delay
Piers Steel 6
Table 1 The Reliability of Procrastination Scales
Name Authors Items K N Academic Procrastination Scale (APS) Milgram & Toubina, 1999 21 7 1,279 .90
Adult Inventory of Procrastination (AIP) McCown & Johnson, 1989 15 17 2,803 .81
Aitken Procrastination Inventory (API) Aitken, 1982 19 3 276 .82
Decisional Procrastination Questionnaires (DPQI, DPQII) Mann, 1982; Mann et al., 1997 5 22 7,476 .79
General Procrastination Scale (GPS) Lay, 1986 20 36 5,396 .87
Procrastination Assessment Scale-Students (PASS) Solomon & Rothblum, 1984 12 3 591 .83
PASS - Frequency 6 8 1,610 .74 PASS - Problem 6 4 923 .73 Procrastination Log - Behavior Lopez & Wambach, 1982 11 4 218 .64 Procrastination Self-Statement Inventory (PSSI) Grecco, 1983 24 2 485 .83
Test Procrastination Questionnaire (TPQ)
Kalechstein, Hocevar, Zimmer, & Kalechstein, 1989 10 2 238 .94
That’s Me – That’s Not Me Tuckman, 1991, 1999 16 11 2,695 .86 Tuckman Procrastination Scale (TPS) Tuckman, 1991 35 3 300 .87
Work Procrastination Scale (WPS) Steel, 2002 9 2 360 .88
Piers Steel 7
Table 2 The Means, Standard Deviations and Intercorrelations of Procrastination Scales
Procrastination Mean Std 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 APS 2.48
(130) .48
(130)
2 AIP 2.71 (3,216)
.68 (2,874) -
3 API 2.72 (2,052)
.55 (1,960) - .60/.75
(20)
4 DPQ 2.62 (4,534)
.70 (2,142) - .46/.57
(2,288) .24/.30
(32)
5 GPS 2.81 (5,843)
.79 (5,240) - .78/.93
(732) .73/.80 (160)
.66/.79 (1,400)
6 PASS 2.93 (2,002)
.64 (1,822) - - - .26/.31
(344) .64/.75 (141)
7 PASS – Freq. 2.29 (2,006)
.64 (2,006) - - - - .60/.75
(102) -
8 PASS – Prob. 2.06 (1,677)
.61 (1,677) - - - - .47/.59
(102) - .70/.93 (403)
9 Procras. Log - - - - - - - - -
10 PSSI 1.80 (355)
.56 (355) - - - - - - -
11 TPQ
2.20 (70)
.68 (70) - - - - - - -
12 That’s Me/Not Me
3.14 (652)
.97 (652) - - - - - - -
13 TPS
2.43 (305) - - - - - - - -
Piers Steel 8
Procrastination & Performance
Over all, a weak (r=-.19, K=34, N=6,295) but consistently negative relationship with academic criteria (e.g., GPA, Exam, etc.)
Procrastination is usually harmful, sometimes harmless, but never helpful
More serious results for financial/career performance
Correlations are negative and moderate to strong in strength
Piers Steel 9
Weak CorrelatesThese relationships have long been suspected of being major causes of procrastination
Rebelliousness, Sensation-Seeking, Neuroticism, and Irrational beliefs
Results here indicate, however, that they generally either are :
Weak causes of procrastinationStrong causes only for a small percentage of people
Piers Steel 10
RebelliousnessTheory
Externally imposed schedules are more likely experienced as aversive, and thus avoided. Also, by delaying work and starting it on one’s own schedule, autonomy is reasserted.
Results (K=21, N=4,350)Almost no supportCorrelations extremely weakExcept for adolescents, few report it as a reason
Piers Steel 11
Sensation-SeekingTheory
People high in this trait are easily bored and long for excitement, and thus they may intentionally put off work to feel the tension of working close to a deadline.
Results (K=9, N=1,810)Almost no supportCorrelations extremely weakFew endorse it as a reason
Piers Steel 12
Neuroticism: AnxietyTheory
People procrastinate on tasks because they are more susceptible to experiencing stress and thus find them more stressful
Results (K=44, N=8,540)Little supportCorrelations mostly weak and where strong, due to impulsivenessProcrastination seems to cause anxiety, not vice-versa
Piers Steel 13
Irrational BeliefsTheory
Acts similarly to neuroticism. These beliefs create anxiety and thus make certain tasks unpleasant.
Results (K=65, N=12,072)Little supportCorrelations mostly weak, except for general irrational beliefs where it may be moderate
Fear of failure and perfectionism are extremely lowSelf-perfectionists actually may be less likely to procrastinate
Piers Steel 15
Strong CorrelatesThese relationships are generally more recently seen as major causes of procrastination
Traits: Self-Efficacy, Energy, Impulsiveness & Self-Discipline, Achievement MotivationTask Characteristics: Aversiveness, Delay
Results here indicate they either describe or cause procrastination
Piers Steel 16
Low Self-Efficacy & Self-Esteem
TheoryRelated to irrational beliefs in that people may doubt their ability to do well
Results (K=26, N=4,217; K=33, N=5,846)Good supportFor self-efficacy, strong correlations. Helps to explain the moderate relationship sometimes seen with irrational belief inventories.For self-esteem, moderate to weak correlations
Piers Steel 17
Depression & EnergyTheory
Related to irrational beliefs and low self-efficacy. Burka and Yuen (1983) also discuss how it is harder to initiate tasks when we are tired.
Results (K=53, N=10,233)Moderate supportDepressed people are more pessimistic about outcomes.They are lethargic and thus more likely to find energy-intensive tasks unpleasant.
Piers Steel 18
Impulsiveness & Self-Discipline
TheoryImpulsive people may be more likely to procrastinate as they are beset with desires of the moment and focus their attention upon them.
Results (K=17, N=3,190; K=18, N=3,877)Very strong supportProcrastinators tend to show an intention-action gap, indicating an impulsive shift in motivationThey tend to choose short-term benefits over long-term gains, reflecting a core component of poor self-regulation
Piers Steel 19
Need for AchievementTheory
Those high in achievement motivation set more difficult goals for themselves, find work to be intrinsically engaging and thus necessarily less aversive.
Results (K=38, N=6,136)Strong supportLarge (approximately .50) correlations
Piers Steel 20
Task Aversiveness: Trait & State
TheoryWe seek to avoid aversive stimuli, and consequently, the more aversive the situation, the more likely we are to avoid it (e.g., procrastinate).
Results (K=10, N=1,069; K=8, N=938)Very strong support for both state and trait types:
Aversive tasks tend to be procrastinated. People who find tasks aversive, tend to be procrastinators
Researched with a variety of methodologiesEspecially susceptible for boring or frustrating jobs
Piers Steel 21
Task DelayTheory
The further away an event is temporally, the less impact it has upon our decisions
Results (not correlational)Very strong support from a variety of fields (e.g., economics, behaviorism)Students indicate that they would be less likely to procrastinate as a deadline approaches
Piers Steel 22
Theory of ProcrastinationBig findings
Impulsiveness, Self-Discipline, Task delay
Indicates time a factorEnergy, Need for Achievement, Task Aversiveness
Indicates value/valence a factorSelf-Efficacy, Self-Confidence
Indicates expectancy a factor
Piers Steel 23
Theory of Procrastination
Any one of these variables can exacerbate procrastination This includes having an alternative course of action nearby that is evaluated more favorable
Expectancy ValueUtilityDelay
Piers Steel 24
0102030405060708090
15-Sep 8-Oct 31-Oct 23-Nov 16-Dec
Time
Utility
Socializing
Essay Writing
December 3rd
Expectancy ValueUtilityDelay
Piers Steel 25
TreatmentNeed for a diagnostic procedure.
There are many possible causes of procrastination and then many different supporting factors
It may be expectancy, impulsiveness, task aversiveness, or some combination
For any specific factor, we need to learn whyFor example, if task aversiveness is driving the procrastination for one individual, we still need to learn why he or she finds it unpleasantFor some, though not many, it will be because they are rebellious or have specific irrational beliefs
Piers Steel 26
General Treatment Goals1. Reduce the aversiveness of the
task2. Increase competence with the task3. Improve self-regulatory skills (e.g.,
organization, planning) to decrease impulsiveness
4. Distance temptations
Piers Steel 27
TreatmentsTechniques that likely will be broadly successful are:
Energy RegulationGoal Setting
Specific, Proximal, ChallengingStimulus ControlRoutine Building
Piers Steel 28
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
0 15 30 45 60 75 90
Time
UtilityBackground TemptationsNo Goal SettingGoal Setting
Piers Steel 29
Final Thought: Procrastination Rising
We have been formally measuring procrastination since 1978
It has been significantly rising over the last 25 years, as has debt, obesity and other impulse related issuesThe need for effective treatments has never been greater than now