the nature of research - observation and writing

Clive McGoun: Communicating CultureClive McGoun: Communicating Culture

11

The nature of researchThe nature of research

Observation and WritingObservation and Writing

Clive McGoun: Communicating CultureClive McGoun: Communicating Culture 22

Physical Description (1)Physical Description (1)

Select a section of this room which is Select a section of this room which is immediately across from where you are immediately across from where you are sitting. Describe this section of the room in sitting. Describe this section of the room in detail. I’ll ask you to stop after 15 minutes.detail. I’ll ask you to stop after 15 minutes.



DiscussionDiscussion How did you approach this exercise?How did you approach this exercise? How is this exercise like the previous? Unlike?How is this exercise like the previous? Unlike? What was the most difficult part of the What was the most difficult part of the

exercise?exercise?


The research tree: summarising The research tree: summarising approachesapproaches

Gay, L.R. & Airasian, P. (2003).


Qualitative ResearchQualitative Research Qualitative research is conducted through an intense and/or prolonged contact with a Qualitative research is conducted through an intense and/or prolonged contact with a

‘field’ or life situation. These situations are typically ‘banal’ or normal ones, reflective ‘field’ or life situation. These situations are typically ‘banal’ or normal ones, reflective of the everyday life of individuals, groups, societies, and organisations.of the everyday life of individuals, groups, societies, and organisations.

The researcher’s role is to gain a ‘holistic’ (systemic, encompassing, integrated) The researcher’s role is to gain a ‘holistic’ (systemic, encompassing, integrated) overview of the context under study: its logic, its arrangements, its explicit and implicit overview of the context under study: its logic, its arrangements, its explicit and implicit rules.rules.

The researcher attempts to capture data on the perceptions of local actors ‘from the The researcher attempts to capture data on the perceptions of local actors ‘from the inside’, through a process of deep attentiveness, of empathetic understanding, and of inside’, through a process of deep attentiveness, of empathetic understanding, and of suspending or ‘bracketing’ preconceptions about the topics under discussion.suspending or ‘bracketing’ preconceptions about the topics under discussion.

Reading through these materials, the researcher may isolate certain themes and Reading through these materials, the researcher may isolate certain themes and expressions that can be reviewed with informants, but that should be maintained in expressions that can be reviewed with informants, but that should be maintained in their original forms throughout the study.their original forms throughout the study.

(Miles and Huberman 1994:6)(Miles and Huberman 1994:6)


Research Design: LinearResearch Design: Linear

1. Define a problem1. Define a problem

2. Formulate a hypothesis2. Formulate a hypothesis

3. Make operational decisions3. Make operational decisions

4. Design a research instrument4. Design a research instrument

5. Gather the data5. Gather the data

6. Analyse the data6. Analyse the data

7. Draw conclusions7. Draw conclusions8. Report the results8. Report the results


Research Design: cyclicalResearch Design: cyclical

Making an ethnographic record

Asking ethnographicquestions

Collecting ethnographic data

Analysing ethnographic data

Writing an ethnography

Selecting an ethnographicproject


Developing a problemDeveloping a problem Qualitative studies can have a range of Qualitative studies can have a range of

aims/purposeaims/purpose Descriptive – describing a social situationDescriptive – describing a social situation Exploratory – opening up research questionsExploratory – opening up research questions Focused – addressing a specific research questionFocused – addressing a specific research question

Evaluative – assessing a defined situationEvaluative – assessing a defined situation Theory building – developing a theoryTheory building – developing a theory Theory testing – verifying a theoryTheory testing – verifying a theory

The aim often determines how well developed the The aim often determines how well developed the problem is.problem is.


Symbolic interactionismSymbolic interactionism

Sociological school which has been influential in Sociological school which has been influential in ethnographic studies. Its principle interests are:ethnographic studies. Its principle interests are: Meaning; human beings act towards things on the Meaning; human beings act towards things on the

basis of the meanings they have for them.basis of the meanings they have for them. Process; these meanings expressed through symbols Process; these meanings expressed through symbols

are handled through an interpretive process.are handled through an interpretive process. Interaction/Context: meanings are the product of Interaction/Context: meanings are the product of

social interaction in society.social interaction in society.

Notice here the line from symbolic interactionism Notice here the line from symbolic interactionism towards Hall’s discussion of representation.towards Hall’s discussion of representation.


Field researchField research

Definition: doing research in a social situation in Definition: doing research in a social situation in which the researcher is present.which the researcher is present.

Two principle methods of field research;Two principle methods of field research; Participant observationParticipant observation interviewinginterviewing

In both, the researcher is the main instrument for In both, the researcher is the main instrument for doing the research.doing the research.

Problems of access and selectionProblems of access and selection


AccessAccess

Definition: gaining permission to carry out the Definition: gaining permission to carry out the field research in a particular social/institutional field research in a particular social/institutional settingsetting

Initial contactsInitial contacts GatekeepersGatekeepers Ethical considerationEthical consideration


Selection strategies: sampling (1)Selection strategies: sampling (1)

people

SitesTime

periods

Processes

events

Social situation

Which aspect of reality do you want to investigate?


Selection strategies: sampling (2)Selection strategies: sampling (2)

QR selection is often based on non-probabilistic QR selection is often based on non-probabilistic samplingsampling Judgement sampling – fitting in with your assumptionsJudgement sampling – fitting in with your assumptions Opportunistic – what is convenient/possibleOpportunistic – what is convenient/possible Snowball sampling – gaining information from one Snowball sampling – gaining information from one

source to anothersource to another Theoretical sampling – selecting to further develop a Theoretical sampling – selecting to further develop a

theorytheory


Selection strategies: exampleSelection strategies: example

A participant observation study exploring how A participant observation study exploring how people cross the road.people cross the road.

Locations: which roads to choose; pedestrian Locations: which roads to choose; pedestrian crossingscrossings

Events: crossing the road; waiting; accidentsEvents: crossing the road; waiting; accidents Time periods; different times during the dayTime periods; different times during the day People; differentiated by age, gender, alone/in groupsPeople; differentiated by age, gender, alone/in groups


Participant observationParticipant observation

The researcher ‘participates’ in the situationThe researcher ‘participates’ in the situation The researcher primarily collects material through The researcher primarily collects material through

observationobservation Look at these field roles:Look at these field roles:

Complete participant

Participant as observer Observer as participant

Complete observer

Comparative detachmentComparative involvement

Fieldwork


Collecting data: making Collecting data: making observationsobservations

Descriptiveobservation

Focusedobservation

Selective observation


Descriptive observationDescriptive observation

Aims to describe the social situationAims to describe the social situation The settingThe setting PeoplePeople eventsevents

Understanding context is fundamentalUnderstanding context is fundamental Descriptive observation often result in narratives Descriptive observation often result in narratives

– stories– stories Events/episodesEvents/episodes Roles/charactersRoles/characters Time sequencesTime sequences


Focussed/Selective observationFocussed/Selective observation

FocussedFocussed Limiting the scope – focussingLimiting the scope – focussing Made after analysing descriptive dataMade after analysing descriptive data They construct particular elements of the studyThey construct particular elements of the study

SelectiveSelective Further focusFurther focus Looking for contrasts, differences between different Looking for contrasts, differences between different

elementselements


Description of a familiar person or Description of a familiar person or strangerstranger

Task: To describe a person sitting across from you, Task: To describe a person sitting across from you, either one you know or a stranger.either one you know or a stranger.

Time: 15 minsTime: 15 mins Select a person to describe physicallySelect a person to describe physically Arrange your 15 minutes to your best advantageArrange your 15 minutes to your best advantage Use descriptive terms and work for accuracyUse descriptive terms and work for accuracy


Description of a familiar person or Description of a familiar person or stranger: Feedbackstranger: Feedback

What can you identify as major differences in What can you identify as major differences in observation of a still life, a setting and a person?observation of a still life, a setting and a person?

How did you approach this exercise?How did you approach this exercise?

What was difficult for you in the exercise and what do What was difficult for you in the exercise and what do you want to do about it?you want to do about it?



Select an area on campus to observe. Set aside Select an area on campus to observe. Set aside 30 minutes of quiet time to describe it. Set 30 minutes of quiet time to describe it. Set reasonable goals for the description. For reasonable goals for the description. For example, select one part of the library or one example, select one part of the library or one section of the student union.section of the student union.

Again, write down your notes in fieldwork form Again, write down your notes in fieldwork form and then write them up on the wiki. (nb do this and then write them up on the wiki. (nb do this with all the observation exercises we complete)with all the observation exercises we complete)


Physical Description (2) FeedbackPhysical Description (2) Feedback

How did you approach this description of a How did you approach this description of a setting?setting?

How did this differ from the previous description How did this differ from the previous description you completed?you completed?

What was the most difficult part of this exercise What was the most difficult part of this exercise for you?for you?

the nature of research - observation and writing

Education

nature of research observation

research design

research questions

research instrument

research tree

participant observation

field research definition

descriptive data