the need for psychological science. the need for psychological science examples of faulty reasoning...
TRANSCRIPT
The Need for Psychological Science
The Need for Psychological ScienceExamples of Faulty Reasoning
o Hindsight Bias “I-knew-it-all-along” phenomenon
o Overconfidence The tendency to think we know more than we do
o Confirmation bias A tendency to search for information that confirms one’s preconceptions
o False consensus effect The tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs
o Belief bias The tendency for one’s preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning
o Belief perseverance The tendency to cling to one’s conceptions after the basis on which they were formed are discredited
Research Methods in Psychology
o Descriptive Methodso Naturalistic Observationo Case Studies o Surveys
o Correlational research (May include survey, interviews, tests, naturalistic observation, longitudinal, cross-sectional studies)
o Experimental
o Quasi-Experimental (no random assignment to condition)
SLG Distinguish among the various research methods and be able to identify the relative advantages and disadvantages of each
Research Methods in Psychology
Descriptive Research Methods
o Naturalistic observationo Advantages
oAvoids observer effect/reactivity (of subject)oProvides ideas for further research
o Disadvantages oPotentially time consuming oNo control of variables or over extraneous variablesoNot replicable
o Examples – Piaget, Naturalistic examples, Quasi…
SLG Discuss the relative advantages and disadvantages of naturalistic observation and provide an example of this type of research
o Surveys, interviews, questionnaires and tests
o Advantages oRelatively inexpensive, easy way of collecting large
amounts of data (attitudes, interests, aptitudes) oAssuming a true random sample – generalizable
o DisadvantagesoPoor construction or administration of questionsoPoor sample= unrepresentative (not generalizable)oMeasures beliefs, not behaviorso Issues of self-report, memory and honesty
o SLG Discuss the relative advantages and disadvantages of surveys/questionairres and identify an example of this type of research
Descriptive Research Methods
Descriptive Research Methods
o Case studies – Of individuals, groups or phenomena
o AdvantagesoPotentially, deeply revealing about individuals
o DisadvantagesoNo experimental control oSample size extremely small – generalizability? oPotential bias, both subject and experimenter
o Examples, Phineas Gage, Freud and Little Hans, H.M. NPR
o SLG Discuss the relative advantages and disadvantages of case studies and provide an example of this type of research
Descriptive Research Methods
o Archival Research
o AdvantagesoEnormous amounts of data used to see trends relationships
and outcomes
o Disadvantages oNo control over data collection or if reliable
o Examples – Analysis of studies conducted by other researchers, or look at historical data (e.g. the Wild Child)
o SLG Discuss the relative advantages and disadvantages of archival research and provide an example
Research Methods
o Longitudinal method Examples? Ads/Disads?
o Cross-sectional method Advantages?
o Cross-cultural methodPurposes?
Correlational Studies
o Correlational studies look at the degree of relationship between variables and not the effect of one variable on another variable
o Correlation DOES NOT equal causation. A relationship may be suggested, but it does not prove that one variable causes the other to change. For example, a correlational study may suggest a relationship between academic success an self-esteem, but it does not mean that academic success causes increases self-esteem…
o C&Cheadlines
o SLG Provide an example of a correlational study and explain why it does not prove causalityo Distinguish between causal and correlational claims
Correlational Studies
Partic GPA TV Hours/ week
#1 3.1 14
#2 2.4 10
#3 2.0 20
#4 3.8 7
#5 2.2 25
#6 3.4 9
#7 2.9 15
#8 3.2 13
#9 3.7 4
#10 3.5 21
Correlational Studies
o Examples of Positive Correlationo 1. SAT scores and college those with higher SAT scores also
have higher grades in collegeo 2. Happiness and helpfulness as people’s happiness level
increases, so does their helpfulness
o Examples of Negative Correlationo 1. Education and years in jail people who have more years of
education tend to have fewer years in jailo 2. Crying and being held babies held less tend to cry more
o SLG Distinguish between positive and negative correlation
Scatterplots and Correlation
o Correlation coefficient (Pearson-product moment correlation coefficent) measures 3 typeso +1.00 = Positive (or direct)o -1.00 = Negative (indirect)o 0 = No correlation
o SLG Distinguish between positive, negative and no correlation
Correlational Studies - Problems
o Illusory correlation detecting relationships where none exist (weather=cold). Other examples?
o Third-Variable o Research showed a strong correlation between
contraceptive use and number of electrical appliances in the home (Li, 1975). Why?
o CorrelationMethodsReviewWS
• SLG Provide examples of problems related to correlational claims
Experimentation
o Important Terms/Concepts. Most know…must knowo hypothesiso independent/dependent variableso operational definitions (quantifiable)o population and random/stratified sample o representative sampleo generalizabilityo experimental and control group (or condition)o random assignmento placebo use and effecto confounding variableso single and double blind procedureso statistical method/significanceo replication
Define your Population
o Population the group researchers wish to studyo All humans?o People with depression?o Adolescents?
o SLG Distinguish between population and a sample
Sampling
o Sample a subgroup of your population
o In order for results to be generalizable to the population, a sample must be representative (size is key)
o Random sample everyone in the population has an equal chance of being in your sample
o SLG Explain the relationship among the concepts of random sampling representativeness and generalizability
Operational Definitions (for Variables)
o Definitions should be clearly defined and quantifiableo Operational definitions reduce subjectivity and expectancy
effects and allow for replication
o SLG Explain what is meant by an operational definition. Provide an example of an operational definition for both the independent and dependent variable in a given experiment
Independent and Dependent Variables
o Practice in Identifying Variableso IDVDExercises
o SLG Distinguish between independent and dependent variables
Confounding (Hidden) Variables
o Confounding variables Variables in a study that are not controlled for (outside factors, e.g.?)
o Ways to control for confounding variableso Large sample size (more apt to be representative)o Random assignment to groups (control and experimental)o Blinding - Single v. double
oSingle controls for reactivity (observer effects)oDouble controls for expectancy effects (research bias)
o Placebos or sham treatment
o SLG Explain what is meant by a confounding variable IYOW
Experimentation – Other Terminology
o Quasi-Experimental design "experiments that have treatments, outcome measures, and experimental units, but do not use random assignment to create the comparisons from which treatment-caused change is inferred." (Cook & Campbell)
o A between-subject design Different subjects. This enables random assignment of subjects to conditions
oo A within subjects design Same subjects where each is exposed
to all of the conditions (uses repeated measures)
Research pitfallso Experimenter Bias
o Self-fulfilling prophecy The experimenter arrives at conclusions that support his/her hypotheses based on the need to do so, not data
o Halo effects The tendency for people to transfer a positive opinion based on irrelevant information, i.e., people tend to think that more attractive people are also smarter
o SLG Provide an explanation for and examples of different kinds of experimenter bias
Research pitfallso Observer effect (aka reactivity) the effect the experimenter’s
presence has on subjects
o The Hawthorne effect is the tendency for change to occur simply because subjects are aware an experiment is being conducted
o Social desirability bias is the tendency for subjects to be able to respond in an experiment in a way that they believe would be most socially desirable
o SLG Define and provide an example of different kinds of observer effects
Ethics in Experimentation
o APA Requirements/Guidelines - Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (2002)o Human experimentation must cause no harmo Informed consento Confidentialityo Debriefing
o Research institutions must have an Institutional Review Board (IRB)
o Role of deception? (Baumrind)
o SLG Know, describe and apply the APA ethical guidelines
Animal experimentation
o Controversies
o Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees o Appropriate Beneficial and Caring (ABC) Guidelines
o Issues of anthropomorphism, generalization, and anthropocentrism
o SLG Explain the controversies related to animal experimentation in psychology