CHAPTER XX Chapter Title254

New Republic

1789–1825

Pitcher honoringWashington’s

inauguration, 1789

Daniel Boone EscortingSettlers Through the Cumberland Gap by

George Caleb Bingham

Why It MattersAs you study Unit 4, you will learn

how the young United States chose itsleaders and established its policies.

The following resources offer moreinformation about this period in

American history.

Primary Sources LibrarySee pages 598–599 for primary source

readings to accompany Unit 4.Use the American History

Primary Source Document LibraryCD-ROM to find additional primary

sources about the new republic.

The

“Observe good faithand justice toward

all nations.”—George Washington, 1796

256

A New Nation

1789–1800Why It Matters

George Washington’s administration faced the huge task of making the new govern-ment work. The Constitution had created the office of the presidency, but Washington

established many procedures and customs.

The Impact TodayPresident Washington set many examples that presidents still follow. These include creat-

ing a cabinet, directing foreign affairs, and serving as chief legislator.

The American Republic to 1877 Video The chapter 8 video, “GeorgeWashington,” examines the issues that arose upon the establishment of the office of president.

1789• Washington becomes

first president

• Judiciary Act passed

1792• France declares

war on Austria

1793• Louvre opens

as public museum in Paris

1794• Slavery abolished in

all French colonies

Washington1789–1797

1794• Whiskey

Rebellion

CHAPTER 8 A New Nation

1790 1792 1794

1791• Bill of Rights added

to Constitution

Adams1797–1801

257

1795• Nation’s first chief justice,

John Jay, retires1800• France and U.S.

declare peace

1797• XYZ affair

1798• Alien and Sedition

Acts passed

1796• Jenner develops

smallpox vaccine

1799• Rosetta stone

discovered

HISTORY

Chapter OverviewVisit and click on Chapter 8—Chapter Overviews to pre-view chapter information.

Boston Harbor by Robert Salmon Salmon recorded the emergingcities and scenic harbors of the young nation.

CHAPTER 8 A New Nation

1796 1798 tarvol1.glencoe.com

258

April 6, 1789George Washingtonis elected president

April 30, 1789Washington takesthe oath of office

September 1789Judiciary Act sets upfederal court system

December 1791Bill of Rights addedto the Constitution

CHAPTER 8 A New Nation

Celebrations erupted in the streets of Philadelphia, New York, Boston, andCharleston in 1789. News of the Constitution’s ratification was greeted with relief andenthusiasm. All that was needed now was a leader to guide the new nation.

On April 6 the new Senate counted the presidential ballots. To no one’s surprise, thevotes were unanimous. Senator John Langdon wrote to General George Washington:“Sir, I have the honor to transmit to Your Excellency the information of your unanimouselection to the office of President of the United States of America.” Washington wasready to begin the difficult task of leading the country.

President WashingtonThe 57-year-old president-elect made his way slowly toward New York City,

then the nation’s capital. After the Constitutional Convention, George Washing-ton had looked forward to a quiet retirement at his beloved estate of Mount Ver-non. Instead his fellow citizens elected him to the highest office in the land. OnApril 30, 1789, Washington took the oath of office as the first president of theUnited States. John Adams became vice president. ; (See page 598 of the Primary Sources

Library for an excerpt of Washington’s First Inaugural Address.)

Main IdeaPresident Washington and the firstCongress tackled the work of estab-lishing a new government.

Key Termsprecedent, cabinet, national debt,bond, speculator, unconstitutional,tariff

Reading StrategyClassifying Information As you readthe section, re-create the diagrambelow and list the actions taken byCongress and Washington’s firstadministration.

Read to Learn• what actions were taken to launch

the new government.• how Hamilton proposed to

strengthen the economy.

Section ThemeGovernment and Democracy Presi-dent Washington and Congress tookactions that shaped the future of gov-ernment in our nation.

Guide to Reading

The First President

Washington banner

Actions

Washington Congress

Preview of Events✦1789 ✦1790 ✦1791 ✦1792

259CHAPTER 8 A New Nation

Perhaps no office in the new government cre-ated more suspicion among the people than theoffice of president. Many Americans feared thata president would try to become king, but theytrusted Washington. They believed that his lead-ership had brought them victory in the Revolu-tionary War.

Washington was aware of the difficulties he faced. He knew that the precedents, or traditions, he established as the nation’s firstpresident would shape the future of the United States. “No slip will pass unnoticed,” heremarked. One precedent he established con-cerned the way people should address him.Vice President Adams suggested “His High-ness the President of the United States,” butWashington decided that “Mr. President”would be more appropriate.

Washington and the new Congress also hadmany decisions to make about the structure ofgovernment. For example, the Constitution gaveCongress the power to establish executivedepartments, but it did not state whether thedepartment heads would report to the presidentor to Congress.

The First CongressDuring the summer of 1789, Congress set up

three departments in the executive branch ofgovernment. The State Department would han-dle relations with other nations, the TreasuryDepartment would deal with financial matters,and the War Department would provide for thenation’s defense. Congress also created theoffice of attorney general to handle the govern-ment’s legal affairs and the office of postmastergeneral to direct the postal service.

To head the departments, Washington choseprominent political figures of the day—ThomasJefferson as secretary of state, AlexanderHamilton as secretary of the treasury, andHenry Knox as secretary of war. He appointedEdmund Randolph as attorney general. Wash-ington met regularly with the three departmentheads and the attorney general, who togetherbecame known as the cabinet.

Congress created the executive departments;opinion was divided, however, on how muchpower the president should have over them. For

example, should the president be able to replacean official that he had appointed and the Senatehad confirmed? Senators were evenly divided invoting on the issue.

Vice President Adams broke the tie by votingto allow the president the authority to dismisscabinet officers without the Senate’s approval.This decision strengthened the president’s posi-tion. It also helped create a greater separationbetween the legislative and executive branchesof government by establishing the president’sauthority over the executive branch.

Judiciary ActThe first Congress also had to decide how to

set up the nation’s court system. The Constitu-tion briefly mentioned a supreme court but hadleft further details about the courts to Congress.

Disagreements arose between those favoringa uniform, national legal system and thosefavoring state courts. The two groups reached acompromise in the Judiciary Act of 1789. Withthis act, Congress established a federal courtsystem with 13 district courts and three circuitcourts to serve the nation. State laws wouldremain, but the federal courts would have thepower to reverse state decisions.

The Supreme Court would be the finalauthority on many issues. Washington nomi-nated John Jay to lead the Supreme Court aschief justice, and the Senate approved Jay’snomination. With the Judiciary Act, Congresshad taken the first steps toward creating astrong and independent national judiciary.

Betsy Ross Flag Legend holds thatPhiladelphia seamstress Betsy Rossstitched the first Stars and Stripes in1776. Historical record does not sup-port this account, however. The popular“Betsy Ross flag,” with 13 stars arranged in a circle, did not appear until the early 1790s.

America’s Flags

respectively, or to the people.” With the TenthAmendment, Madison hoped to use the statesas an important line of defense against a too-powerful national government. ; (See pages

234–235 for the entire text of the Bill of Rights.)

Describing Why was the Bill ofRights created?

Economics

Financial ProblemsWashington, himself, rarely proposed laws,

and he almost always approved the bills thatwere passed by Congress. The first presidentconcentrated on foreign affairs and militarymatters and left the government’s economicpolicies to his dynamic secretary of the treasury,Alexander Hamilton.

The new nation faced serious financial prob-lems. The national debt—the amount thenation’s government owed—was growing.Hamilton tried to find a way to improve thegovernment’s financial reputation and tostrengthen the nation at the same time.

$

260 CHAPTER 8 A New Nation

Benjamin Bannekerwas born into a freeAfrican American familyin Maryland. He attendeda private Quaker school,but was largely self-educated. When hisfather died, Bannekersold the family farm anddevoted the rest of hislife to mathematics andnatural sciences.

Banneker’s skill inmathematics promptedThomas Jefferson to givehim a job surveying theland for the new nationalcapital at Washington,D.C. When French archi-tect Pierre L’Enfant wasremoved from the proj-ect, he took his detailedmaps with him. Ban-neker amazed everyone

by redrawing the missingmaps from memory! From1791 to 1796 he madeastronomical and tide cal-culations for a yearlyalmanac. Bannekerbecame a symbol forracial justice in a land notyet ready to grant him therights of citizenship,granted to others in theBill of Rights.

The Bill of RightsAmericans had long feared strong central

governments. They had fought a revolution tothrow off one and did not want to replace itwith another. Many people insisted the Consti-tution needed to include guarantees of per-sonal liberties. Some states had supported theConstitution on the condition that a bill ofrights be added.

To fulfill the promises made during the fightfor ratification of the Constitution, James Madi-son introduced a set of amendments during thefirst session of Congress. Congress passed 12amendments, and the states ratified 10 of them.In December 1791, these 10 amendments wereadded to the Constitution and became knownas the Bill of Rights.

The Bill of Rights limits the powers of gov-ernment. Its purpose is to protect the rights ofindividual liberty, such as freedom of speech,and rights of persons accused of crimes, includ-ing trial by jury. The Tenth Amendment pro-tects the rights of states and individuals bysaying that powers not specifically given to thefederal government “are reserved to the States

261CHAPTER 8 A New Nation

Hamilton’s PlanIn 1790 Hamilton proposed that the new gov-

ernment pay off the millions of dollars in debtsowed by the Confederation government to othercountries and to individual American citizens.The states had fought for the nation’s independ-ence, Hamilton argued, so the national govern-ment should pay for the cost of their help.Hamilton also believed that federal payment ofstate debts would give the states a strong interestin the success of the national government.

Opposition to the PlanCongress agreed to pay money owed to other

nations, but Hamilton’s plan to pay off the debt toAmerican citizens unleashed a storm of protest.When the government had borrowed moneyduring the American Revolution, it had issuedbonds—paper notes promising to repay themoney in a certain length of time. While waitingfor the payment, many of the original bond own-ers—shopkeepers, farmers, and soldiers—hadsold the bonds for less than their value. Theywere purchased by speculators, people who riskmoney in order to make a larger profit. Hamiltonproposed that these bonds be paid off at theiroriginal value. Opponents believed that Hamil-ton’s plan would make speculators rich, and

“established at the expense of national justice, gratitude, and humanity.”

The original bond owners felt betrayed by thegovernment because they had lost money ontheir bonds while new bond owners profited.

Even stronger opposition came from theSouthern states, which had accumulated muchless debt than the Northern states. Southernstates complained that they would have to paymore than their share under Hamilton’s plan.

Compromise Results in a CapitalTo win support for his plan, Hamilton com-

promised. He agreed to a proposal from South-ern leaders to locate the new nation’s capital inthe South after moving to Philadelphia whileworkmen prepared the new city for the federalgovernment. A special district would be laid outbetween Virginia and Maryland along the

banks of the Potomac River. This districtbecame Washington, D.C. In return, Southern-ers supported his plan to pay off the state debts.

Explaining Why did Hamilton’splan to pay off the debt to American citizens cause such astorm of protest?

America’s Architecture

The Capitol is the seat of the United States Congressin Washington, D.C. Built on a hill popularly called Capi-tol Hill, the Capitol contains floor space equivalent toabout 4 acres. The dome of the United States Capitol, finishedin 1863, is one of the most famous landmarks in theUnited States. Other important parts of the Capitolinclude the Rotunda, directly under the dome, the SenateChamber in the north wing, the House Chamber in the

Checking for Understanding1. Key Terms Write a paragraph for

each group of terms below. Group 1:precedent, cabinet. Group 2:national debt, bond, speculator.Group 3: unconstitutional, tariff.

2. Reviewing Facts Name three thingsthat Hamilton wanted to do to createa stable economic system andstrengthen the economy.

Reviewing Themes3. Government and Democracy What

compromise did Congress reach inestablishing a court system?

Critical Thinking4. Analyzing Primary Sources Hamil-

ton said about Washington, “He con-sulted much, pondered much,resolved slowly, resolved surely.” Didthis make Washington a good firstpresident? Explain.

5. Comparing Re-create the diagrambelow. Compare the views of Hamil-ton and Jefferson. In the boxes, write“for” or “against” for each issue.

Analyzing Visuals6. Picturing History Examine the pic-

ture of the U.S. Capitol on page 261.The Capitol is one of the most widelyrecognized buildings in the world.What members of the governmentserve in the Capitol? What does theU.S. Capitol symbolize to you?

Building the EconomyHamilton made other proposals for building

a strong national economy. He asked Congressto create a national bank, the Bank of the UnitedStates. Both private investors and the nationalgovernment would own the Bank’s stock.

The Fight Over the BankUntil this time only three banks existed in the

nation. All three had been established by stategovernments. Madison and Jefferson opposedthe idea of a national bank. They believed itwould benefit the wealthy. They also chargedthat the Bank was unconstitutional—that theConstitution had no provision for creating suchan institution. Hamilton argued that althoughthe Constitution did not specifically say thatCongress could create a bank, Congress still hadthe power to do so. In the end the presidentagreed with Hamilton and signed the bill creat-ing the national bank.

Tariffs and TaxesAt the time, most Americans earned their liv-

ing by farming. Hamilton thought the develop-ment of manufacturing would make America’s

economy stronger. He proposed a tariff—a tax onimports—to encourage people to buy Americanproducts. This protective tariff would protectAmerican industry from foreign competition.

The South, having little industry to protect,opposed protective tariffs. Hamilton did winsupport in Congress for some low tariffs to raisemoney rather than to protect industries. By the1790s the revenue from tariffs provided 90 per-cent of the national government’s income.

The final portion of Hamilton’s economic pro-gram concerned the creation of national taxes.The government needed additional funds tooperate and to make interest payments on thenational debt. At Hamilton’s request Congressapproved a variety of taxes, including one onwhiskey distilled in the United States.

Hamilton’s economic program gave thenational government new financial powers.However, his proposals split Congress and thenation. The opponents—including Jefferson andMadison—feared a national government withstrong economic powers dominated by thewealthy class. They had a very different visionof what America should become.

Comparing Summarize the argu-ments for and against protective tariffs.

262 CHAPTER 8 A New Nation

Expository Writing You havebeen given the task of choosing thefirst cabinet members. Write a jobdescription for the secretaries ofstate, treasury, and war. Then inter-view classmates to see who wouldbe best suited for each position.

Issue Hamilton Jefferson

National bank

Protective tariff

National taxes

263CHAPTER 8 A New Nation

November 1791Little Turtle defeatsSt. Clair’s forces

March 1793Washington beginssecond term

July 1794Western farmers revoltin Whiskey Rebellion

August 1794Battle of FallenTimbers occurs

October 1795Spain opens MississippiRiver to American shipping

Far removed from the bustle of trade and shipping along the Atlantic coast, farm-ers on the western frontier lived quite differently. In fact, western ways seemedalmost primitive to travelers from the East. They seemed to notice only the poorroads and the boring diet of corn and salted pork. Living in scattered, isolatedhomesteads, frontier farmers were proud of their self-reliance. They wanted no“eastern” tax collectors heading their way.

The Whiskey RebellionHamilton’s taxes led to rebellion in western Pennsylvania. The farmers were

in an uproar over having to pay a special tax on the whiskey they made fromsurplus corn. In the backcountry most farmers lived by bartering—exchangingwhiskey and other items they produced for goods they needed. They rarely hadcash. How could they pay a tax on whiskey?

The farmers’ resistance was mostly peaceful—until July 1794, when federalofficers stepped up efforts to collect the tax. Then a mob of about 500 peoplearmed with swords, guns, and pitchforks attacked tax collectors and burneddown buildings.

Main IdeaIn the 1790s, the new governmentstruggled to keep peace at home andavoid war abroad.

Key Termsneutrality, impressment

Reading StrategyClassifying Information As you readthe section, re-create the diagrambelow and list results of governmentactions during the early Republic.

Read to Learn• how the federal government

asserted its power in the West.• how the United States tried to stay

out of European conflicts.

Section ThemeGeography and History The newgovernment clashed over control ofthe Northwest Territory.

Early Challenges

Drawing of tax collector

Government action Results

Treaty of Greenville

Proclamation of Neutrality

Jay’s Treaty

Pinckney’s Treaty

Preview of Events

Guide to Reading

✦1790 ✦1792 ✦1794 ✦1796

The armed protest, called the WhiskeyRebellion, alarmed government leaders. Presi-dent Washington and his advisers decided tocrush the challenge. The rebellion collapsed as soon as the army crossed the AppalachianMountains.

By his action, Washington served notice tothose who opposed government actions. If citi-zens wished to change the law, they had to do sopeacefully, through constitutional means. Gov-ernment would use force when necessary tomaintain the social order.

Explaining How did the WhiskeyRebellion affect the way government handled protesters?

Geography

Struggle Over the WestThe new government faced difficult problems

in the West. The Native Americans who livedbetween the Appalachian Mountains and theMississippi River denied that the United Stateshad any authority over them. On many occa-sions Native Americans turned to Britain andSpain to help them in their cause. Both countrieswelcomed the opportunity to prevent Americansettlement of the region.

Washington worried about European ambi-tions in the Northwest Territory. He hoped thatsigning treaties with the Native American tribesin the area would lessen the influence of theBritish and Spanish. American settlers ignoredthe treaties and continued to move onto landspromised to the Native Americans. Fightingbroke out between the two groups.

Washington sent an army under GeneralArthur St. Clair to restore order in the NorthwestTerritory. In November 1791, St. Clair’s forceswere badly beaten by Little Turtle, chief of theMiami people. More than 600 American soldiersdied in a battle by the Wabash River.

Many Americans believed that an alliancewith France would enable them to defeat thecombined forces of the British, Spanish, andNative Americans in the West. The British, whostill had forts in the region, wanted to hold on tothe profitable fur trade. The possibility of French

involvement in the region pushed the British tomake a bold bid for control of the West. In 1794the British governor of Canada urged NativeAmericans to destroy American settlements westof the Appalachians. The British also beganbuilding a new fort in Ohio.

Battle of Fallen TimbersThe Native Americans demanded that all set-

tlers north of the Ohio River leave the territory.Washington sent another army headed byAnthony Wayne, a former Revolutionary Wargeneral, to challenge their demands. In August1794 Wayne’s army defeated 800 Native Ameri-cans under Shawnee chief Blue Jacket at theBattle of Fallen Timbers (near present-dayToledo, Ohio). The Battle of Fallen Timberscrushed the Native Americans’ hopes of keep-ing their land. In the Treaty of Greenville(1795), the Native Americans agreed to surren-der most of the land in present-day Ohio.

Describing What did Native Amer-ican groups do to fight more effectively in the Northwest?

Problems With EuropeShortly after Washington was inaugurated in

1789, the French Revolution began. At first mostAmericans cheered upon hearing the news. TheFrench had helped the Americans in their strug-gle for independence, and their revolutionseemed to embody many of the ideals of theAmerican Revolution.

By 1793 the French Revolution had turnedbloody. The leaders had executed the king andqueen of France and thousands of French citi-zens. Public opinion in the United States startedto divide. The violence of the French Revolution,as well as its attack on religion and disregard ofindividual liberties, offended many Americans.Others hailed the new republic as a copy of theUnited States.

When Britain and France went to war in 1793,some Americans, particularly in the South,sympathized with France. Others, especiallymanufacturers and merchants who traded withthe British, favored Britain. Hamilton, Adams,and their supporters generally sided with the

264 CHAPTER 8 A New Nation

CHAPTER 8 A New Nation 265

British. Jefferson was pro-French. A French vic-tory, Jefferson reasoned, would help drive theBritish out of North America.

Washington hoped that the nation couldmaintain its neutrality—that is, that it wouldnot take sides in the conflict between France andBritain. As time went on, however, neutralitybecame increasingly difficult.

Washington Proclaims NeutralityThe French tried to involve the United States

in their conflict with Britain. In April 1793, theysent diplomat Edmond Genêt (zhuh•NAY) tothe United States. His mission was to recruitAmerican volunteers to attack British ships.

President Washington took action to discour-age American involvement. On April 22 heissued a Proclamation of Neutrality. It prohib-ited American citizens from fighting in the warand barred French and British warships fromAmerican ports. Genêt’s plans eventually failed,but he did manage to sign up a few hundredAmericans to serve on French ships. These shipsseized British vessels and stole their cargoesbefore Washington ended their adventures byclosing American ports.

Outraged by the French attacks at sea, theBritish began capturing American ships thattraded with the French. The British also stoppedAmerican merchant ships and forced their crewsinto the British navy. This practice, known asimpressment, infuriated the Americans. Britishattacks on American ships and sailors, alongwith the challenge in the West, pushed thenation closer to war with Great Britain.

A Controversial TreatyPresident Washington decided to make one

last effort to come to a peaceful solution withBritain. He sent John Jay, chief justice of theSupreme Court, to negotiate.

The British were willing to listen to Jay’s pro-posals. War with the United States would onlymake it harder to carry on the war with France,and the United States was Britain’s best market.

Ft. Washington(Cincinnati)

Ft. Defiance

Ft. Recovery

Ft. Miami

L a k eE r i e

Battle of FallenTimbers, 1794

St. Clair'sdefeat, 1791

Ohio R.

Wabash R.

NORTHWESTTERRITORY

KY.

VA.

PA.

N.Y.

Greenville TreatyLine, 1795

Land ceded byNative Americans

50 kilometers0

50 miles0

Lambert Equal-Areaprojection

N

S

EW

Native American Campaigns

Route of GeneralArthur St. ClairRoute of GeneralAnthony Wayne

Battle

Fort

Upon signing the Treaty of Greenville,12 Native American nations received$20,000 worth of goods to share.How did the treaty affect whitesettlement?

History

General Anthony Wayne’s forces marched north from Fort Wash-ington to fight the Shawnee chief Blue Jacket.1. Location When and where was St. Clair defeated?2. Location On what lake was Fort Miami located?

Checking for Understanding1. Key Terms Use the terms neutrality

and impressment in a sentenceabout Washington’s administration.

2. Reviewing Facts What message wasWashington sending to the Americanpeople when he used force to stopthe Whiskey Rebellion?

Reviewing Themes3. Geography and History How did

the Treaty of Greenville affect theland claims of Native Americans inthe Northwest Territory?

Critical Thinking4. Predicting Consequences What did

the United States have to gain byremaining neutral in foreign affairs?

5. Determining Cause and EffectRe-create the diagram below. In theboxes, list the cause and effects ofthe Whiskey Rebellion.

Analyzing Visuals6. Geography and History Review

the map on page 265. The NativeAmerican nations surrendered landthat makes up a large part of whatpresent-day state?

In Jay’s Treaty the Britishagreed to withdraw fromAmerican soil, to pay dam-ages for ships they hadseized, and to allow someAmerican ships to tradewith British colonies in theCaribbean. The treaty alsoprovided for settlement ofdebts from before 1776.

Despite these gains few Americans approved ofJay’s Treaty. They protested that the treaty did notdeal with the issue of impressment and did notmention British interference with American trade.Although Washington found fault with the treaty,he realized it would end an explosive crisis withGreat Britain. He sent the treaty to the Senate,which narrowly approved it after a fierce debate.

Treaty With SpainWhen Jay’s Treaty was made, Spanish leaders

realized that the United States and Great Britaincould work together against the Spanish Empirein North America. Thomas Pinckney was sent toSpain to try to settle the differences between thetwo nations. In 1795 Pinckney’s Treaty gave theAmericans free navigation of the MississippiRiver and the right to trade at New Orleans.

Describing Why did many Amer-icans protest Jay’s Treaty?

Washington’s FarewellIn the spring of 1796, Washington announced

he would not seek a third term. By choosing toserve only two terms, Washington set a prece-dent that later presidents would follow.

Plagued with a variety of ailments, the 64-year-old president looked forward to retirement atMount Vernon. He also felt troubled over thedivisions that had developed in American politicsand with what he considered a grave danger tothe new nation—the growth of political parties.

Washington’s “Farewell Address” was pub-lished in a Philadelphia newspaper. In it heattacked the evils of political parties and entan-glement in foreign affairs. He also urged his fel-low citizens to

“observe good faith and justice toward allnations” while avoiding “passionate attachment”and “permanent alliances.”

Washington’s parting words influenced thenation’s foreign policy for more than 100 years.The text is still read aloud in the United StatesSenate each year on Washington’s birthday. ;(See page 615 of the Appendix for an excerpt from Washington’s

Farewell Address.)

Summarizing What issues didWashington speak of in his Farewell Address?

266 CHAPTER 8 A New Nation

Descriptive Writing A tribute is aspeech showing respect and grati-tude. Write a one-paragraph trib-ute that you might have deliveredif you had been asked to speak atGeorge Washington’s funeral.

Cause EffectsCause/Effect

WhiskeyRebellion

Chief Justice John Jay

267

1797John Adamsbecomes president

1798Congress passes Alienand Sedition Acts

1800France makes peacewith the United States

1796Federalists nominate Adams for president;Democratic-Republicans nominate Jefferson

Main IdeaBy the election of 1796, two distinctpolitical parties with different viewsabout the role of the national govern-ment had formed.

Key Termspartisan, implied powers, caucus,alien, sedition, nullify, states’ rights

Reading StrategyClassifying Information As you readSection 3, create a diagram like theone below and list the differencesbetween the Federalists and theDemocratic-Republicans.

Read to Learn• how political parties got started and

what positions they supported.• how John Adams and Thomas Jef-

ferson became candidates of oppos-ing parties in the election of 1796.

Section ThemeGovernment and Democracy Differ-ent values fueled the rise of thenation’s first political parties.

The First Political Parties

CHAPTER 8 A New Nation

The Washington presidency was known for its dignity and elegance. The presidentrode in a coach drawn by horses and accompanied by mounted attendants. He and hiswife, Martha, lived in the finest house in Philadelphia, the new nation’s capital. Theyentertained a great deal, holding weekly receptions. Each year a ball was held onWashington’s birthday. The president wore a black velvet suit with gold buckles, yellowgloves, powdered hair, an ostrich plume in his hat, and a sword in a white leathersheath. Despite these extravagances, Washington’s character and military record wereadmired by most Americans.

Opposing ViewsAlthough hailed by Americans as the nation’s greatest leader, George Washing-

ton did not escape criticism during his two terms as president. From time to time,harsh attacks on his policies and on his personality appeared in newspapers. Onepaper even called Washington “the scourge and the misfortune of his country.”

Issue FederalistsDemocratic-Republicans

Role of federal government

Preview of Events

Guide to Reading

✦1796 ✦1798 ✦1800

George Washington

Most attacks on Washington had come fromsupporters of Thomas Jefferson. They were try-ing to discredit the policies of Washington andHamilton by attacking the president. By 1796Americans were beginning to divide into oppos-ing groups and to form political parties.

At that time, many Americans consideredpolitical parties harmful. Parties—or “factions”as they were called—were to be avoided asmuch as strong central government. Thenation’s founders did not even mention politicalparties in the Constitution.

Washington had denounced political partiesand warned that they would divide the nation.To others it seemed natural that people woulddisagree about issues and that those who heldsimilar views would band together.

In Washington’s cabinet Hamilton and Jeffer-son often took opposing sides on issues. Theydisagreed on economic policy and foreign rela-tions, on the power of the federal government,and on interpretations of the Constitution. Even

268 CHAPTER 8 A New Nation

Washington had been partisan—favoring oneside of an issue. Although he believed he stoodabove politics, Washington usually supportedHamilton’s positions.

Political Parties EmergeIn Congress and the nation at large, similar

differences existed. By the mid-1790s, two dis-tinct political parties had taken shape.

The name Federalist had first describedsomeone who supported ratification of theConstitution. By the 1790s the word wasapplied to the group of people who supportedthe policies of the Washington administration.

Generally Federalists stood for a strong fed-eral government. They admired Britain becauseof its stability and distrusted France because ofthe violent changes following the French Revo-lution. Federalist policies tended to favor bank-ing and shipping interests. Federalists receivedthe strongest support in the Northeast, espe-cially in New England, and from wealthy plan-tation owners in the South.

Efforts to turn public opinion against Federal-ist policies began seriously in late 1791 whenPhilip Freneau (Freh•NOH) began publishingthe National Gazette. Jefferson, then secretary ofstate, helped the newspaper get started. Later heand Madison organized people who disagreedwith Hamilton. They called their party theRepublicans, or the Democratic-Republicans.

The Republicans wanted to limit govern-ment’s power. They feared that a strong federalgovernment would endanger people’s liberties.They supported the French and condemnedwhat they regarded as the Washington adminis-tration’s pro-British policies. Republican poli-cies appealed to small farmers and urbanworkers, especially in the Middle Atlantic statesand the South.

Citizenship

Views of the ConstitutionOne difference between Federalists and

Republicans concerned the basis of governmentpower. In Hamilton’s view the federal govern-ment had implied powers, powers that werenot expressly forbidden in the Constitution.

• Different philosophies of government

• Conflicting interpretations of theConstitution

• Different economic and regionalinterests

• Disagreement over foreign affairs

• Federalists and Democratic-Republi-cans propose different solutions

• The two parties nominate candidates

• Political parties become a way ofAmerican life

Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton emerged asthe leaders of the two opposing parties.

Analyzing Information How did the first two politicalparties emerge?

269CHAPTER 8 A New Nation

Hamilton used the idea of implied powers tojustify a national bank. He argued that the Con-stitution gave Congress the power to issuemoney and regulate trade, and a national bankwould clearly help the government carry outthese responsibilities. Therefore, creating a bankwas within the constitutional power of Congress.

Jefferson and Madison disagreed with Hamil-ton. They believed in a strict interpretation ofthe Constitution. They accepted the idea ofimplied powers, but in a much more limitedsense than Hamilton did: Implied powers arethose powers that are “absolutely necessary” tocarry out the expressed powers.

The People’s RoleThe differences between the parties, however,

went even deeper. Federalists and Republicanshad sharply opposing views on the role ordi-nary people should play in government.

Federalists supported representative govern-ment, in which elected officials ruled in the peo-ple’s name. They did not believe that it was wiseto let the public become too involved in politics.Hamilton said:

“The people are turbulent and changing. . . .They seldom judge or determine right.”

Public office, Federalists thought, should be heldby honest and educated men of property whowould protect everyone’s rights. Ordinary peoplewere too likely to be swayed by agitators.

In contrast, the Republicans feared a strongcentral government controlled by a few people.They believed that liberty would be safe only ifordinary people participated in government. AsJefferson explained:

“I am not among those who fear the people;they, and not the rich, are our dependence [whatwe depend on] for continued freedom.”

Washington’s DilemmaWashington tried to get his two advisers to

work out their differences. Knowing Jeffersonwas discontented, Washington wrote:

“I have a great sincere esteem and regard for you both, and ardently wish that some linecould be marked out by which both [of] youcould walk.”

Nevertheless, by 1793 Jefferson was sounhappy that he resigned as secretary of state.Alexander Hamilton resigned, too, as secretaryof the treasury. The rival groups and theirpoints of view moved further apart.

The Election of 1796In the presidential election of 1796, candi-

dates sought office for the first time as membersof a party. To prepare for the election, the Fed-eralists and the Republicans held meetingscalled caucuses. At the caucuses members of

Analyzing Information Whichleader would American businessowners favor, and why?

Congress and other lead-ers chose their party’scandidates for office.

The Federalists nomi-nated Vice PresidentJohn Adams as theircandidate for presidentand Charles Pinckneyfor vice president.

The Republicans put forth former secretary ofstate Jefferson for president and Aaron Burr forvice president. Adams and Jefferson, who hadbeen good friends, became rivals. The Federal-ists expected to carry New England. The Repub-licans’ strength lay in the South, which wouldgive most of its votes to Jefferson.

In the end Adams received 71 electoral votes,winning the election. Jefferson finished secondwith 68 votes. Under the provisions of the Constitution at that time, the person with the sec-ond-highest number of electoral votes becamevice president. Jefferson therefore became thenew vice president. The administration that tookoffice on March 4, 1797, had a Federalist presi-dent and a Republican vice president.

Explaining Which political partywould a Boston factory owner most likely support?

President John AdamsJohn Adams had spent most of his life in public

service. One of Massachusetts’s most active patri-ots, he later became ambassador to France and toGreat Britain. He helped to negotiate the Treaty ofParis that ended the Revolution. Under Washing-ton, he served two terms as vice president.

The XYZ AffairWhen Adams took office, he inherited the dis-

pute with France. The French regarded Jay’sTreaty, signed in 1794, as an American attemptto help the British in their war with France. Topunish the United States, the French seizedAmerican ships that carried cargo to Britain.

Adams wanted to avoid war with France. Inthe fall of 1797, he sent a delegation to Paris totry to resolve the dispute. French foreign minis-ter Charles de Talleyrand, however, refused tomeet with the Americans. Instead, Talleyrandsent three agents who demanded a bribe and aloan for France from the Americans. “Not a six-pence,” the Americans replied and sent a reportof the incident to the United States. Adams wasfurious. Referring to the three French agents asX, Y, and Z, the president urged Congress toprepare for war. The incident became known asthe XYZ affair.

Undeclared War With FranceCongress responded with a program to

strengthen the armed forces. It established theNavy Department in May 1798 and set asidemoney for building warships. Congress alsoincreased the size of the army. George Washing-ton was appointed commanding general.

Between 1798 and 1800, United States andFrench naval vessels clashed on a number ofoccasions, although war was not formallydeclared. Adams’ representatives negotiated anagreement with France in September 1800 thatensured peace.

In the view of most Americans, France hadbecome an enemy. The Republican Party, friendlytoward France in the past, hesitated to turnaround and condemn France. As a result, in the1798 elections, Americans voted many Republi-cans out of office.

270 CHAPTER 8 A New Nation

Did Johnny Appleseed scatter apple seeds in thewilderness? There was a real Johnny Appleseed. Johnny,whose real name was John Chapman, was born in Massa-chusetts in 1774. When the rich lands west of the OhioRiver were opened for settlement in the early 1800s, hewas the among the first to explore the new territory.Johnny Appleseed did not scatter seeds as he wandered,as many people believe. As he traveled, he would spotgood sites for planting. There he would clear the landand plant the seeds. His orchards varied in size. Somecovered about an acre. Others covered many acres.When settlers arrived, they found Johnny Appleseed’syoung apple trees ready for sale.

American Heroes

HISTORY

Student Web ActivityVisit and click on Chapter 8—Student Web Activitiesfor an activity on the firstpolitical parties.

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271CHAPTER 8 A New Nation

Alien and Sedition ActsThe threat of war with France made Ameri-

cans more suspicious of aliens, immigrants liv-ing in the country who were not citizens. ManyEuropeans who came to the United States in the1790s supported the ideals of the French Revo-lution. Some Americans questioned whetherthese aliens would remain loyal if the UnitedStates went to war with France.

Federalists in Congress responded with strictlaws to protect the nation’s security. In 1798 theypassed a group of measures known as the Alienand Sedition Acts. Sedition refers to activitiesaimed at weakening established government.

Citizenship

Domestic and Foreign AffairsFor some Americans, fears of a strong central

government abusing its power seemed to becoming true. The Republicans looked to thestates to preserve the people’s liberties and stand

up to what they regarded as Federalist tyranny.Madison and Jefferson drafted documents ofprotest that were passed by the Virginia andKentucky legislatures.

The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions of1798 and 1799 claimed that the Alien and Sedi-tion Acts could not be put into action becausethey violated the Constitution. The KentuckyResolutions further suggested that states mightnullify—legally overturn—federal laws consid-ered unconstitutional.

The resolutions affirmed the principle ofstates’ rights—limiting the federal governmentto those powers clearly assigned to it by theConstitution and reserving to the states all otherpowers not expressly forbidden to them. Theissue of states’ rights would arise again andagain in the nation’s early history.

As the election of 1800 approached, the Fed-eralists found themselves under attack. Theyurged Adams to step up the war with France.They hoped to benefit politically from the

The Alien and Sedition Acts

Naturalization ActRequired that aliens be residents for

14 years instead of 5 years before they became eligible for U.S. citizenship.

Alien ActsAllowed the president to imprison aliens, or

send those he considered dangerous out of the country.

Sedition ActMade it a crime to speak, write, or

publish “false, scandalous, and malicious” criticisms of the government.

Results• Discouraged immigration

and led some foreignersalready in the country toleave.

• Convicted 10 Republicannewspaper editors whohad criticized the Federal-ists in government.

Reaction• Opposition to Federalist

party grows.• Led to movement to

allow states to overturnfederal laws.

Why they were passedThe Federalist-controlled Congress

wanted to:• strengthen the federal government.• silence Republican opposition.

Checking for Understanding1. Key Terms Write a short newspaper

article about the election of 1796 inwhich you use the following terms:partisan, implied powers, caucus.

2. Reviewing Facts Who was electedpresident in 1796, and who becamevice president?

Reviewing Themes3. Government and Democracy

How were the Federalists differentfrom the Republicans in how they felt about a powerful central government?

Critical Thinking4. Drawing Conclusions Do you think

the development of political partieswas necessary? Why or why not?

5. Classifying Information Re-createthe diagram below. Provide informa-tion about the election of 1796 in thespaces provided.

Analyzing Visuals6. Graphic Organizer Skills Study the

diagram on page 271. Who arealiens? Why were the Alien and Sedi-tion Acts passed? How did their pas-sage affect the Federalist Party?

patriotic feelings that war would unleash.Adams refused to rush to war, especially for hisown political gain. Instead he appointed a newcommission to seek peace with France.

In 1800 the French agreed to a treaty andstopped attacks on American ships. Althoughthe agreement with France was in the bestinterest of the United States, it hurt Adams’schance for re-election. Rather than applauding

the agreement, Hamilton and his supportersnow opposed their own president. With theFederalists split, the Republican prospects for capturing the presidency improved. Theway was prepared for Thomas Jefferson in theelection of 1800.

Summarizing How did the peaceagreement with France affect the Federalists?

272 CHAPTER 8 A New Nation

Art Choose the presidential candi-date for whom you would havevoted in 1796. Design a campaignposter or button using words andillustrations to help promote yourcandidate.

Presidential Election of 1796

Candidate

Party

Electoral votes

Winner (check column)

Vice President (check column)

Fighting in Congress The Sedition Act led to hard feel-ings, even violence. This cartoon provides a humorous lookat a fight in Congress. Federalist Roger Griswold attacksRepublican Matthew Lyon with a cane. Lyon seizes a pairof fire tongs and fights back. On the wall is a paintingnamed “Royal Sport” showing animals fighting. How arethe other members of Congress reacting to the fight?

Analyzing Political Cartoons

2 Roger Griswold1 Matthew Lyon 3 painting1 2

3

CHAPTER XX Chapter Title

Reading a Flowchart

Social StudiesSocial Studies

Why Learn This Skill?Sometimes determining a sequence of events can

be confusing, particularly when many events occur atthe same time. A flowchart can help you understandwhat is going on in a series of events.

Learning the SkillFlowcharts show the steps in a process or a

sequence of events. For example, a flowchart couldbe used to show the movement of goods through afactory, of people through a training program, or of abill through Congress. The following steps explainhow to read a flowchart:

• Read the title or caption of the flowchart to findout what you are studying.

• Read all of the labels or sentences on the flowchart.

• Look for numbers indicating a sequence, orarrows showing the direction of movement.

Practicing the SkillRead the flowchart on this page. It shows asequence of events that took place in the North-west Territory. Analyze the information in theflowchart; then answer the following questions.

1 What symbol is used to show the sequence of theevents?

2 What actions taken by the British set off thesequence of events that are reflected in the titleof the chart?

3 What action did Washington take in response totrouble in the Ohio Valley?

4 What information from the chapter could youadd to the flowchart to continue the sequence ofevents?

273

Applying the SkillMaking a Flowchart Imagine that a studentwho is new to your school asks you how to sign upfor a sport or social club. Draw a flowchart outlin-ing the steps the student should follow.

Glencoe’s Skillbuilder InteractiveWorkbook CD-ROM, Level 1, providesinstruction and practice in key social studies skills.

Reviewing Key TermsOn graph paper, create a word search puzzle using thefollowing terms. Crisscross the terms vertically and hori-zontally, then fill in the remaining squares with extra let-ters. List the definition of each term below the puzzle asclues. Share your puzzle with a classmate.1. precedent 5. impressment2. cabinet 6. caucus3. tariff 7. sedition4. neutrality 8. states’ rights

Reviewing Key Facts9. Why did Hamilton want national taxes? Why did some

oppose the taxes?10. What was the importance of the Judiciary Act of 1789?11. What caused farmers in western Pennsylvania to revolt

during the Whiskey Rebellion?12. According to Hamilton, what are implied powers?13. What actions by France led to an undeclared war with

the United States?14. Who was elected president in 1796? Who was elected

vice president?

Critical Thinking15. Analyzing Themes: Government and Democracy

Refer to the grievances listed in the Declaration ofIndependence. How were these grievances addressedin the Bill of Rights?

16. Analyzing Information What did President Washing-ton say in his Farewell Address about political partiesand foreign policy?

17. Comparing Re-create the diagram below. Comparethe positions of the Federalists and Democratic-Republicans on the national bank. In the boxes list the leaders and their positions.

A New Nation

Federal Government• First Congress estab-

lishes three executivedepartments

• Judiciary Act of 1789passes

• Bill of Rights added tothe Constitution

• Nation’s capital moves toWashington, D.C.

• National bank created

• Congress approves tariffs

Early Challenges• Whiskey Rebellion

put down

• Force and treaties slow Native American resistance to settlement

• Washington maintainsAmerican neutrality

• Treaty with Spain allowsaccess to the MississippiRiver

First Political Parties• Federalists emerge, pro-

moting a strong centralgovernment

• Republicans want toleave more power in thehands of the states.

President John Adams• Federalist John Adams

becomes second president

• American and Frenchnaval forces fight anundeclared war

• Federalists in Congresspass the Alien and Sedition Acts

• Virginia and KentuckyResolutions advocatestates’ rights

The New Nation

National Bank

Federalists Democratic-Republicans

Leader: Leader:

Position: Position:

274

Economics Activity24. Math Practice When you deposit money in a bank you

receive interest—a payment for lending money to thebank. To figure simple interest, you need to know whatthe interest rate is. Say, for example, a local bank is offer-ing simple interest on savings accounts at 6 percent peryear. If you deposit $100, how much will you have in theaccount at the end of one year? At the end of four years?

Technology Activity25. Using a Computerized Card Catalog Search your local

library’s computerized card catalog for sources on MountVernon, George Washington’s home. Find the sources onthe library shelves, then use the information you found towrite a two-paragraph description that Washington mighthave written if he had ever wanted to sell his home.

Alternative Assessment26. Review the chapter and make a list of the differences

between the Federalist and Republican parties. Based onyour list, create a symbol to represent each of the parties.

Self-Check QuizVisit and click on Chapter 8—Self-Check Quizzes to prepare for the chapter test.

HISTORY

CHAPTER 8 A New Nation 275

Directions: Choose the bestanswer to the following question.

Certain grievances listed in the Declaration of Inde-pendence were addressed in the Bill of Rights.Which amendment addressed the quartering oftroops?

A 1st Amendment C 8th AmendmentB 3rd Amendment D 12th Amendment

Test-Taking Tip

Read the question carefully. The 12th Amendment was not part of the Bill of Rights, so it can be

eliminated as a possibility.

Practicing SkillsReading a Flowchart Alexander Hamilton promoted the creation of a national bank. Study the flowchart below. Then answer the questions that follow.

18. What is used to show the sequence of events?19. What happens after workers receive payment for work?20. What two parts on this flowchart show who receives

interest on their money?

Geography and History ActivityStudy the map on page 265. Then answer the questions thatfollow.21. Movement In which direction did St. Clair’s troops move?22. Location Along what river was Ft. Washington located?

Citizenship Cooperative Activity23. Researching Work in groups of four to discuss and

develop answers to these questions:• How does the Bill of Rights reflect the principle of

limited government?• What are two individual rights protected in the Bill

of Rights?• Why would it be necessary to change the Con-

stitution?

tarvol1.glencoe.com

Standardized Test Practice