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THE OCEAN BASINS AND MARGINS
Volume 6 The Indian Ocean
THE OCEAN BASINS AND MARGINS Volume 1: Volume 2: Volume 3: Volume 4A: Volume 4B: Volume 5: Volume 6:
The South Atlantic The North Atlantic The Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean The Eastern Mediterranean The Western Mediterranean The Arctic Ocean The Indian Ocean
In Preparation:
Volume 7: The Pacific Ocean
THE OCEAN BASINS AND MARGINS
Edited by Alan E. M. Nairn
Earth Science and Resources Institute University oj South Carolina Columbia, South Carolina
and Francis G. Stehli
College oj Geosciences University oj Oklahoma
Norman, Oklahoma
Volume 6
The Indian Ocean
PLENUM PRESS· NEW YORK AND LONDON
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Nairn, A. E. M. The ocean basins and margins.
Vol. 5- edited by A. E. M. Nairn, M. Churkin, Jr., and F. G. Stehli. Includes bibliographies. CONTENTS: v. I. The South Atlantic. - v. 2. The North Atlantic. - [etc.] - v. 6. The
Indian Ocean. I. Submarine geology. 2. Continental margins. I. Stehli, Francis Greenough, joint
author. II. Title. QE39.N27 551.46'08 72-83046 ISBN 978-1-4615-8040-9 ISBN 978-1-4615-8038-6 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4615-8038-6
© 1982 Plenum Press, New York Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1 st edition 1982 A Division of Plenum Publishing Corporation
233 Spring Street, New York, N.Y. 10013
All rights reserved
No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming,
recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher
CONTRIBUTORS TO THIS VOLUME
z. R. Beydoun
Department of Geology American University of Beirut Beirut, Lebanon
J. Boast
Department of Geology University of South Carolina Columbia, South Carolina
Bruce H. Corliss
Department of Geology and Geophysics
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
Woods Hole, Massachusetts
Joseph R. Curray
Scripps Institution of Oceanography La Jolla, California
v
Kees A. De Jong
Department of Geology University of Cincinnatti Cincinnatti, Ohio
E. M. El Shazly
Nuclear Materials Corporation Cairo, Egypt
Frans J. Emmel
Scripps Institution of Oceanography La Jolla, California
Edward S. Grew
Department of Geology University of Melbourne Parkville, Victoria, Australia
David K. Hobday
Department of Geology and Geophysics
University of Sydney Sydney, New South Wales,
Australia
vi
Charles S. Hutchison
Department of Geology University of Malaya Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
P. E. Kent
Natural Environment Research Council
London, England
Robert B. Kidd
Institute of Oceanographic Sciences
Wormley, Surrey, England
Venkatarathnam Kolla
Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory
Palisades, New York
David G. Moore
Scripps Institution of Oceanography La Jolla, California
Alan E. M. Nairn
Department of Geology University of South Carolina Columbia, South Carolina
Contributors
Russel W. Raitt
Scripps Institution of Oceanography La Jolla, California
Ashok Sahni
Geology Department Panjab University Chandigarh, India
R. Schlich
Institut de Physique de Globe Laboratoire de Geophysique
Marine Strasbourg, France
B. G. J. Upton
Department of Geology University of Edinburgh Edinburgh, Scotland
J. J. Veevers
School of Earth Sciences Macquarie University North Ryde, New South Wales,
Australia
Douglas F. Williams
Department of Geology and Belle W. Baruch Institute for Marine Biology and Coastal Research
University of South Carolina Columbia, South Carolina
CONTENTS
Chapter 1. Sedimentation and Sedimentary Processes in the Indian Ocean
Venkatarathnam Kolla and Robert B. Kidd
I. Introduction .................................................................. . A. Climatology and Geology ............................................ 1 B. Physiography ............................................................ 3 C. Physical Oceanography .............................................. 4
II. Quaternary Sedimentation ................................................. 6 A. Surface Sediments ..................................................... 7 B. Subsurface Sediments ...................................... ........... 18
III. Mesozoic and Cenozoic Sediment Distributions .................... 29 A. Sedimentation Changes at Individual DSDP Sites ........... 30 B. Oceanwide Sedimentation Changes ............................... 31
References ............................................................................ 45
Chapter 2. The Indian Ocean: Aseismic Ridges, Spreading Centers, and Oceanic Basins
R. Schlich
I. Introduction ................................... ... ............................. 51 II. The Morphology of the Indian Ocean ............. ..................... 52
vii
vHi Contents
III. The Exploration of the Indian Ocean .................................. 55 IV. The Data ....................................................................... 59 V. The Submarine Plateaus or Aseismic Ridges ........................ 61
A. The Ninetyeast Ridge ................................................. 63 B. The Chagos-Laccadive Ridge, the Seychelles Bank, and
the Mascarene Plateau ................................................ 64 C. The Madagascar Ridge and the Crozet Plateau ................ 68 D. The Mozambique Ridge and the Agulhas Plateau ............. 72 E. The Ob, Lena, and Marion Dufresne Seamount Chain ..... 74 F. The Kerguelen-Heard Plateau and Broken Ridge ........... 76 G. The Naturaliste, Wallaby, Exmouth, and Scott Plateaus.. 81 H. Conclusion ................................................................ 84
VI. The Ocean Basins and Midocean Ridge ............................... 85 A. The Sheba Ridge and the Gulf of Aden .......................... 86 B. The Carlsberg Ridge, the Arabian and Eastern Somali
Basins ...................................................................... 88 C. The Central Indian Ridge ............................................ 91 D. The Southwest Indian Ridge ....................................... 95 E. The Southwest Indian Ridge: The Crozet and Central Indian
Basins ............................................................... 99 F. The Madagascar Basin ............................................... 109 G. The Mascarene Basin ................................................ 114 H. The Wharton Basin ................................................... 118 I. The Perth, Cuvier, Gascoyne, and Argo Abyssal Plains ... 123 J. The Western Somali Basin and the Mozambique Basin .... 128 K. Conclusion ............................................................... 134
References ............................................................................ 135
Chapter 3. The Southeast African Margin
David K. Hobday
I. Introduction .. .... .... ...... .......... ....... ...... ..... ..... ............... ... 149 II. The Early Paleozoic Natal Embayment ............................... 152
III. Dwyka Glaciation in Natal and Adjoining Areas ................... 155 IV. The Ecca ....................................................................... 158 V. Beaufort and Stormberg Sedimentation ............................... 160
VI. Volcanism and Continental Fragmentation ........................... 162 VII. Mesozoic Basins ............................................................. 164
VIII. Land Surfaces and Tertiary Basins of Natal and Zululand.... 167 IX. Tertiary Deposits of Mozambique ...................................... 170
Contents ix
X. Quaternary History.......................................................... 171 XI. Conclusions .................................................................... 175
References ............................................................................ 176
Chapter 4. The Somali Ocean Basin and the Continental Margin of East Africa
P.E. Kent
I. Introduction ................................................................... 185 II. The Structural Framework ................................................ 187
III. Development of the Coastal Sedimentary Basins .................. 187 A. Carboniferous and Permo-Triassic (Karoo) ..................... 188 B. Jurassic and Early Cretaceous...................................... 188 C. Later Cretaceous ....................................................... 189 D. Tertiary.................................................................... 190
IV. Structure of the Somali Ocean Basin .................................. 194 V. The Relation of Continent and Ocean ................................. 197
VI. The Palaeoposition of Madagascar .. .... .. .. .. .. .. .. .... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 200 VII. Conclusions.......... ................................................ ..... ..... 201
References ............................................................................ 202
Chapter 5. The Red Sea Region
E.M. EI Shazly
I. Introduction ................................................................... 205 II. Stratigraphy ................................................................... 205
A. Basement Rocks ........................................................ 208 B. Sedimentary Cover in the Red Sea Region ..................... 211 C. Contribution of DSDP Drilling to Red Sea Stratigraphy.... 216 D. Phanerozoic Vulcanism ...................................... ......... 218
III. The Red Sea ................................................................... 220 A. Geophysical Observations* ........................................ 222 B. Petrology of Red Sea Rocks .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ...... .. .. .. .. .. .. 229 C. Metasomatic Development of Red Sea Rocks ................. 231
* Written by S. Hall, University of Houston, Texas.
x Contents
IV. Tectonics ....................................................................... 236 V. Conclusions .................................................................... 244
References ............................................................................ 247
Chapter 6. The Gulf of Aden and N.W. Arabian Sea
Z. R. Beydoun
I. Introduction ................................................................... 253 II. Stratigraphy ................................................................... 257
A. Arabian Side ............................................................. 257 B. African Side ............................. .......... ....................... 271
III. Structural Framework and Tectonic Evolution ....................... 280 A. Arabian Side ............................................... .............. 281 B. African Side .............................................................. 285 C. The Gulf of Aden and N. W. Arabian Sea ....................... 297
IV. Conclusion ................................................................... 301 References ............................................................................. 306
Chapter 7. Tectonics of the Persian Gulf, Gulf of Oman, and Southern Pakistan Region
Kees A. De Jong
I. Introduction ........................ ........................................... 315 II. Arabian Platform ............................................................. 317
III. Zagros Orogen ............................................................... 320 A. Zagros Fold Belt ........................................................ 321 B. Zagros Thrust Belt ..................................................... 325 C. Main Zagros Thrust (and Strike-Slip Fault) ..................... 327 D. Internal Zagros .......................................................... 327
IV. Oman Mountains ............................................................. 328 A. Autochthonous Formations ......................................... 329 B. Hawasina Nappe ..................... .................................. 331 C. Semail Ophiolite Nappe .............................................. 332
V. Makran Ranges ............................................................... 333 VI. Southern Pakistan ........ . . ... . ...... . . . . . ........ ..... ..................... 337
A. Kirthar-Suleiman Mountain Belts .................................. 340 B. Chaman Transform Zone ............................................. 342
Contents xi
VII. Conclusions .................................................................... 346 References ............................................................................ 347
Chapter 8. The Structure, Sedimentation, and Evolution of Indian Continental Margins
Ashok Sahni
I. Introduction ................................................................... 353 II. Coastal Physiography ....................................................... 354
A. West Coast ............................................................... 354 B. East Coast ................................................................ 354 C. Sea Level Fluctuations ............................................... 358
III. Geotectonic Framework of the Marginal Basins .................... 358 A. Structural Trends along the West Coast ......................... 359 B. The Structure of the Laccadive-Maldive Ridge in Relation
to the West Coast ofIndia ........................................... 364 C. Structural Trends on the East Coast .............................. 365
IV. Stratigraphy and Paleontology of the Coastal Basins ............. 367 A. Rajasthan, Kutch, Kathiawar, and Cambay Basins ......... 367 B. Deccan Basaltic Lava Flows ........................................ 370 C. Kerala Basin ............................................................. 371 D. Cauvery, Palar, and Godavara-Krishna Basins ............... 372
V. Marginal Sedimentation .................................................... 375 A. West Coast Sedimentation ........................................... 380 B. East Coast Sedimentation ............................................ 384
VI. Evolution ofIndian Continental Margins ............................. 387 VII. Conclusion ..................................................................... 388
References ............................................................................ 389
Chapter 9. Structure, Tectonics, and Geological History of the Northeastern Indian Ocean
Joseph R. Curray, Frans J. Emmel, David G. Moore, and Russell W. Raitt
I. Introduction 399 II. Structure .. ......... ......... . . ............ . . .. . . ....... .................. . . . ... 403
xii Contents
A. Methods ................................................................... 403 B. Area of the Bengal Basin and Bengal and Nicobar Fans ... 405 C. Western Sunda Arc .................................................... 413 D. The Andaman Sea and Burma .... ...... ....... ..... ...... .......... 421
III. Present Tectonics ............................................................ 425 IV. Geological History ........................................................... 431
A. Evolution of the Northeastern Indian Ocean ................... 431 B. Origin of the Ninetyeast Ridge ..................................... 435 C. Collision oflndia and Asia .......................................... 440 D. Reconstruction of Burma and the Andaman Sea .............. 441 E. Quaternary Sediment Distribution ................................. 443
References ............................................................................ 447
Chapter 10. Southeast Asia
Charles S. Hutchison
I. Introduction ................................................................... 451 II. Tectonic Subdivisions ...................................................... 453
III. Precambrian ................................................................... 455 IV. Cambrian ....................................................................... 458
A. Main Range-Tenasserim-Shan Massif .......................... 458 B. Carboniferous Ophiolites ............................................ 458
V. Ordovician ..................................................................... 458 A. Burma...................................................................... 460 B. Thailand ................................................................... 460 C. Indochina ................................................................. 461 D. Peninsular Malaysia ................................................... 461
VI. Silurian ................ ............................ ........... ..... .... .......... 461 A. Burma.................................................... .................. 461 B. Yunnan .................................................................... 462 C. Thailand ................................................................... 462 D. Indochina ................................................................. 462 E. Peninsular Malaysia ................................................... 462
VII. Devonian ....................................................................... 463 A. Burma...................................................................... 463 B. Yunnan .................................................................... 464 C. Thailand ................................................................... 464 D. Indochina ................................................................. 465 E. Peninsular Malaysia ................................................... 465
Contents xiii
VIII. Carboniferous ................................................................. 466 A. Burma.... .. . ................ ............................................... 466 B. Thailand ................................................................... 466 C. Yunnan .................................................................... 469 D. Indochina ................................................................. 471 E. Peninsular Malaysia ................................................... 471 F. Sunda Shelf Islands .................................................... 472 G. West Borneo Basement ............................................... 472 H. Sumatra ................................................................... 473
IX. Permian ......................................................................... 473 A. Burma...................................................................... 473 B. Thailand ...................... ................ ................... .......... 474 C. Yunnan .................................................................... 475 D. Indochina ................................................................. 475 E. Peninsular Malaysia ................................................... 475 F. Borneo ..................................................................... 476 G. Sumatra .... ............................................................... 476
X. Triassic......................................................................... 476 A. Burma...................................................................... 476 B. Thailand ................................................................... 477 C. Yunnan .................................................................... 477 D. Indochina ................................................................. 478 E. Peninsular Malaysia ................................................... 478 F. Borneo..................................................................... 479 G. Sumatra ...................... ............... ............ .................. 479
XI. Igneous Activity and Orogenesis ........................................ 479 A. Lower Paleozoic Volcanism ......................................... 479 B. Carboniferous Ophiolite .............................................. 480 C. Carbo-Permian Igneous Activity.................................. 480 D. Late Triassic Orogeny................................................ 482
·XII. Jurassic ......................................................................... 485 A. Burma...................................................................... 487 B. Yunnan ... ................................................................. 487 C. Thailand ................................................................... 487 D. Indochina ................................................................. 488 E. Peninsular Malaysia ................................................... 488 F. Borneo. ............. .......... . . .......... . ..... . ... .............. ......... 489 G. Sumatra ................................................................... 489
XIII. Cretaceous ..................................................................... 489 A. Burma...................................................................... 490 B. Indochina ................................................................. 490 C. Thailand ................................................................... 490
xlv Contents
D. Peninsular Malaysia ................................................... 490 E. Bornea ..................................................................... 491 F. Sumatra ................................................................... 491 G. Java ......................................................................... 491
XIV. Tertiary Basins ............................................................... 491 A. Shelf Basins .............................................................. 491 B. Continental Margin Basins ........................................... 498 C. Superficial Cenozoic Deposits ...................................... 499
XV. Cenozoic Igneous Activity and Tectonics ............................ 500 A. Granites ................................................................... 500 B. Volcanic Arc ............................................................. 500 C. Continental Basalts .................................................... 501 D. Tectonics................................................ .................. 501
XVI. Summary ....................................................................... 503 References ...................................... ..... . ........... ..................... 505
Chapter 11. Western and Northwestern Margin of Australia
J. J. Veevers
I. Introduction ............................ ....................................... 513 II. Physiography .................................................................. 514
III. Descriptive Stratigraphy of Basins along the Margin.............. 515 A. Perth Basin ....................... ,....................................... 515 B. Camavon Basin ......................................................... 518 C. Canning Basin ........................................................... 519 D. Browse Basin ............................................................ 520 E. Bonaparte Gulf Basin ................................................. 521 F. Money Shoal Basin .................................................... 521
IV. Developmental Phases ...................................................... 522 A. Pre-Cratonic (Phase I) ................................................ 522 B. Post-Cratonic (Phase II) .............................................. 525 C. Failed Arm (Phase III) ................................................ 527 D. Rifting (Phase IV) ...................................................... 530 E. Post-Breakup: Detrital Deposition (Phase V) .................. 534 F. Post-Breakup: Carbonate Deposition (Phase VI) .............. 535 G. Collision (Phase VII) .................................................. 536
V. Summary ............................................. ,......................... 537 References ............................................................................ 540
Contents
Chapter 12. The South Australian Continental Margin and the Australian-Antarctic Sector of the Southern Ocean
Douglas F. Williams and Bruce H. Corliss
xv
I. Introduction ................................................................... 545 II. Structural Units along Southern Continental Australia ........... 547
III. Southern Continental Margin ............................................. 550 A. Physiography of the Southern Continental Margin ........... 550 B. Basement Structure under the Great Australian Bight ..... 552 C. Marginal Basins ......................................................... 554 D. Marginal Plateaus ...................................................... 561
IV. The Australian-Antarctic Sector of the Southern Ocean ....... 562 V. Sedimentation and Depositional Processes ........................... 567
VI. Spreading History Between Australia and Antarctica and the Development of the South Australian Margin ....................... 573
VII. Summary ........................................................................ 577 References ............................................................................. 579
Chapter 13. Oceanic Islands
B. G. J. Upton
I. Introduction ................................................................... 585 II. Morphology of the Islands ................................................ 588
III. The Seychelles ................................................................ 589 IV. The Mascarene Islands ..................................................... 592
A. Introduction .............................................................. 592 B. Mauritius. . . . . . . . ... . . . . . ........ . . . . ... . . . . . . .... ...... ..... . . . . .... . . ... . 593 C. Reunion ................................................................... 596 D. Rodrigues ................................................................. 603 E. Cognate Inclusions in the Mascarene Volcanoes .............. 606
V. The Comoro Archipelago .................................................. 608 A. Introduction .............................................................. 608 B. Gran Comoro (Njazidja) .............. ...... ...... .................... 610 C. Moheli (Mwali) .......................................................... 612 D. Anjouan (Nzwami) ..................................................... 613 E. Mayotte ................................................................... 615 F. Coarse-Grained Igneous Inclusions and Clasts in the
Comorien Volcanoes ....... . ... .. .. ..... . . . .. . . ......... . ... . . . . ... . 616 G. Islands East and South of the Comoro Archipelago ......... 616
xvi Contents
VI. Marion and Prince Edward Islands ..................................... 617 VII. The Crozet Archipelago .................................................... 620
VIII. Kerguelen Islands ............................................................ 623 IX. Heard Island .................................................................. 628 X. Amsterdam and Saint Paul Islands ..................................... 631
XI. Christmas Island ............................................................. 635 XII. Petrological Summary of the Volcanic Islands ...................... 638
References ............................................................................. 643
Chapter 14. An Outline of the Geology of Madagascar
J. Boast and A. E. M. Nairn
I. Introduction ................................................................... 649 II. The Basement Complex .................................................... 651
A. The Androyen System ................................................ 652 B. The Graphite System .................................................. 652 C. The Vohibory System ................................................. 653
III. The Basins Bordering the Mozambique Channel ................... 656 A. The Diego Basin ........................................................ 656 B. The Majunga Basin .................................................... 664 C. The Morondava Basin................................................. 682
IV. The East Coast ............................................................... 691 V. The Mozambique Channel ................................................ 692
References ............................................................................. 695
Chapter 15. The Antarctic Margin
Edward S. Grew
I. Introduction ................................................................... 697 II. Physiography ...................... ....... ........ ............................ 701
III. Geophysical Investigations and Crustal Structure .................. 704 IV. Geology ......................................................................... 708
A. General Statement ..................................................... 708 B. Geochronologic Data and Age Provinces in the Crystalline
Basement . . . . . . .. .... . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709 C. Archean and Proterozoic Rocks (Ages Greater than 650
m.y.) ........................................................................ 713
Contents xvii
D. Late Proterozoic-Early Paleozoic Crystalline Rocks (Ages 400 to 650 m.y.) ......................................................... 728
E. Late Precambrian or Early Paleozoic Metasediments ....... 730 F. Late Paleozoic Sediments ............................................ 730 G. Mesozoic and Cenozoic Sediments ............................... 731 H. Phanerozoic Igneous Rocks (Exclusive of Early Paleozoic
Plutonic Rocks) ......................................................... 732 V. Summary of Geologic History........................................... 733
VI. Some Comparisons with India and Australia ........................ 739 VII. Conclusion .................................................................... 742
References 744
Index ...................................................................................... 757