the pictorial catechism of botany

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THE

PICTORIAL CATE CHISM

OF

B OTA NY.

BY A NNE PRATT.

AUthor of “FlowRRs AND THEIR Associations,” “THE FIELD,

%.

THE GARDEN, AND THE WOODLAND,” ETC.

LOND ON:

SUTTABY AND CO., STATIONERS’ COURT.

1842.

CHISWICK :

PRINTED BY C. WHITTINGHAM.

PREFAC E.

HE Author of this little work has not

aimed to offer to the learner a complete

treatise on Botany. She has endeavoured

rather to lay before him the leading features

of the science, and to present them in as sim

ple and concise a form as possible. Having

more regarded the instruction than the amuse

ment of the young, she has not ventured to

dwell upon those interesting details, respect

ing plants, which the subject would have

afforded; but has sought to compress her

work into narrow limits, in order to render

it suitable for general instruction.

It is not here necessary to discuss the

relative excellencies of the Natural and Lin

naean Systems. The simple fact, that the

system of Linnaeus affords the greater facility

to the botanist in ascertaining the names

* /

iv PREFACE.

of flowers, and that it is upon the whole

much easier for the beginner, is, she thinks,

a sufficient reason for having adopted it, with

some slight alterations, in a work designed

for children.

By placing questions at the end of the

chapters, the Author hopes she has spared

the instructor some trouble in explanation,

and the pupil some difficulty in learning.

Botany presents a number of terms, and

these must be learned by rote; but the gene

ral remarks on the science do not require to

be committed to memory, as it is surely suf

ficient for the pupil to understand them, with

out repeating them verbatim. The close

examination on the contents of the chapters,

which is afforded by the questions, as well

as the continual reference to the explanatory

pictorial illustrations, will, she trusts, be suf

ficient to ensure the learner’s knowledge of

the facts which are stated by the work.

CONTENTS.

Page

CHAPTER I.

ON the NATURE of Plants; Cellular Tissue; Vascular

Tissue; Tubes; Cuticle..................•--- - - - -

CHAPTER II.

Roots:—Various Uses of Roots; Uses of Fibrous Parts;

Tendency of Roots to the Centre; Duration of Roots;

Duration affected by Climate; Plants with small

Roots and large Leaves; Parasitic Plants; Fibrous

Roots; Spindle-shaped Root; Abrupt Root; Tuberous

Root; Bulbous Root; Similarity of Bulbs to Buds;

Changes in Form of Root; Granulated Root. .........

CHAPTER III.

Of the STEM –Its Uses; Its Direction; Means of Sup

port; Substances of which Stems are composed; Bark;

Wood; New Wood; Medullary Rays; Pith; Uses

of Pith; Hollow Stems; Woody Stem of Palms;

Stems of Flowers; Culm of Grasses; The Scape; The

Stipe; Various Terms applied to Stems; Flower

stalk; Leaf stalk..............................................

CHAPTER IV.

BUDs:-Season of their Formation; Leaf Buds; Flower

Buds; Mixed Buds; Means by which Buds are pre

served from Cold; Horse Chesnut Bud.

1

23

vi CONTENTS.

Page

LEAvEs:—Upper Surfaces of Leaves; Under Surfaces

of Leaves; Veins and Nerves of Leaves; Uses of

Leaves to Plants; Effect of Light on Leaves; Colour

of Leaves; Sleep of Plants; Fall of the Leaf; Ever

greens; Leaves of Tropical Climates; Leaves of Aqua

tic Plants: Effects of Insects on Leaves; Uses of

Leaves to Man; Terms applied to Leaves. ......•- - - - 39

CHAPTER W.

APPENDAGEs of Plants; Stipule; Stipules on the Plane

Tree; Bractea; Tendril; Uses of Tendril; Thorns;

Plants of Africa; Thorn Bush; Prickle; Hair; Uses

of Hairs to Plants; Shape of Hairs: Gland; Pitcher

Plant; Side Saddle Flower; Venus's Fly Trap....... 73

CHAPTER VI.

The Corolla; Its various Forms; Uses of the Corolla;

Calyx; Perianth; Involucre; Stamens; Pistils; Seed

Wessel; Various Forms of Seed Wessel; Seed;

Plume, Radicle, and Cotyledon; Great Proportion of

Seeds; Various uses of Seeds to Man and Animals;

Dispersion of Seeds; Capsules; Berries; Seeds

crowned with Feathers; Receptacle; Nectary; Uses

of Honey; Various Shapes of Nectary................... 82

CHAPTER VII.

MoDE of FloweRING:—Spike; Raceme; Panicle;

Whorl; Corymb; Umbel; Umbelliferous Plants;

Cyme; Head of Flowers; Sheath; Catkin; Com

pound Flowers; Ligulate Flowers; Sessile Flowers. 115

~~~~

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER VIII.

On CLAssIFICATION of Plants:—System of Linnaeus;

Difference of Wild and Garden Flowers; Names

and Peculiarities of Classes and Orders................

CHAPTER IX.

Further Remarks on the Classes and Orders; Ferns;

Mosses; Flags; Lichens; Sea-Weeds. .............•

CHAPTER X.

SAP:—Flowing of Sap; Ascending Sap; Descending

Sap; Principle of Life; Transpiration of Plants;

Vegetable Products; Gum; Mucilage; Resin; Oils;

Bitter Principle; Narcotic Principle; Pungent and

Acrid Principles; Acids; Sugar; Starch; Colouring

Matter; Wax; Camphor; Caoutchouc; Cork;

Ashes; Earths; Flint. .......................... • • - - - -

CHAPTER XI.

LocalITIEs of Plants; Effect of Climate on Vegetable

Productions; Plants of Various Countries and of

different Hemispheres. ..... • * * * * * * * * * - - - - - - - - -• - - - - - -

CHAPTER XII.

On the Words Genus, Species, and Variety; On Con

sulting a Flora; On Forming and Preserving a dried

Collection of Plants. ........... • * * * * * * * * * * * • * * --- - • * * * * * *

Page

126

140

186

216

223

########################

THE PICTORIAL

CATECHISM OF BOTANY.

CHAPTER I.

ON THE NATURE of PLANTs; CELLULAR Tissue; WooDY

FIBRE; TUBEs; CUTICLE.

OTANY, or the study of vegetables, teaches

the nature and uses of plants, and the man

ner in which they may be arranged. Although

plants have not the same kind of life as animals,

and cannot move from the spots on which they

grow, yet they are not lifeless like a stone:—they

have, what is called vegetable life. They are fed

by the soil, and are kept alive by air and moisture;

they increase in size; different juices flow through

them, and are constantly in motion, and when they

wither, we justly say they die.

The vegetable kingdom includes an immense

B

2 NATURE OF PLANTS.

variety of objects, of various sizes, from the tall

tree of the forest to the little moss on the old

stone. The largest, most solid and lasting kind

of plants are termed trees: those which have

woody stems, and are smaller and less durable, we

call shrubs; while herbs, or herbaceous plants, are

those which live but a short period, grow near the

ground, and are formed of soft tender substances,

like the grass and most flowers.

Botanists have discovered upwards of fifty thou

sand plants, and there are doubtless many thousands

more, which have never been seen. Foreign plants

are called exotics. Those which grow in Great

Britain are termed indigenous or wild plants. We

have in our island between three and four thousand

species of them.

If we examine a flower, or leaf, or the stem, or

root, or fruit of a plant, we find in each of them

a pulpy soft substance. In the leaf, this substance

is green; in the flower it is of some gay colour; in

the root, it is generally white, as in the potatoe; in

the plum, it is of a yellowish colour, and so on:

CELLULAR TISSUE; WooDY FIBRE. 3

but it is the same substance in them all. When

examined by a microscope it is found to be full of

little cells. It is, therefore, called the cellular tis

sue. The juice which fills these cells, gives the

green, or other colour, to the leaf or flower. There

is another tissue in plants, called the vascular tis

sue, which is as abundant as the cellular substance.

It consists of vessels or tubes, distributed over every

part of the plant. Sometimes the vessels are sin

gle, but they are often united into bundles, when

they form the fibres, properly so called, which com

pose the framework of the leaves, and give them

strength and firmness. In some of these vessels

are placed the sap, which is to plants what blood is

to us; others contain the substances which are

formed in the stem and branches, and are termed

secretions; such as the milk in the lettuce, and

the sugar in the sugar-cane. The whole mass of

vegetables is formed of cells and tubes or fibres.

There are some plants however—those which do

not bear flowers—as the mosses and ferns, which

are formed entirely of cellular tissue.

4 CUTICLE.

Over every part of the plant, except the top of

the pistil, is found a skin called the cuticle. This

may easily be seen in the leaf of the houseleek,

where it may be quite separated from the pulp of

the leaf. In leaves, as well as in the blossoms of

flowers, it is clear and easily torn; but when it is

over trunks of trees, it is often thick and coarse.

It is quite devoid of colour, and takes its tint from

the substance lying underneath it. It is full of

pores. We sometimes see it partly torn off trees,

and it will grow again on them, even if quite

stripped away, but if torn off from flowers and leaves,

the rent is never repaired. In flowers and fruits

which grow quickly, it keeps pace with them, and

accommodates itself to their growth, just as the

skin of a child enlarges every year as the child

grows. But when a plant grows suddenly very

large, or when a tree becomes hardened by age, it

often cracks. It serves to protect the parts under

neath it, and is often covered with hairs. The

cuticle of a plum, and of some other fruits, has a

kind of powder upon it; and the cuticle of the ice

CUTICLE ; QUESTIONS. 5

plant has on it a number of little clear spots, which

look like ice-drops. We may frequently see the

cuticle peeling off the birch tree, or scaling off in

large flakes from the currant tree.

QUESTIONS.

WHAT does Botany teach? "

Are plants alive?

What kind of life have they?

Mention a point in which they differ from animals.

Mention something in which their life is similar

to that of animals.

What is the difference between a tree and an

herbaceous plant? X

What is an exotic P

What are plants called which grow in our own

country?

Howmanyspecies of plants have been discovered?

How many are natives of Britain?

What is the pulpy substance of plants called?

Of what is it composed?

6 QUESTIONS.

What is that which makes the rose red and the

violet blue?

What are the other substances called?

Is the vascular tissue abundant in plants?

What is the use of woody fibre?

What do the tubes hold?

Are there any plants without them?

What is the cuticle?

What part of the plant does it cover?

Is it always thin and delicate?

Is it of any colour?

Does it ever crack P

Mention some substances occasionally found on

the cuticle of plants, and endeavour to remember

some, besides those mentioned in the chapter.

CHAPTER II.

ROOTS:—VARIous Uses of Roots; Uses of FIBRous PARTs;

TENDENCY of Roots To THE CENTRE; DURATION of

Roots; DURATION AFFECTED BY CLIMATE; PLANTs witH

SMALL Roots AND LARGE LEAVEs; PARASITIC PLANTs;

FIBRoUs Roots; SPINDLE-shAPED Root; ABRUPT Root;

TUBERoUs Root; BULBoUs Root; SIMILARITY of BULBs

To BUDs; CHANGES IN FoRM of Root; GRANULATED Root.

PERFECT plant may be said to consist of the

root, the stem, the leaves, the flower, the fruit,

and some parts called the appendages, which will be

hereafter explained. Many plants also have buds,

which enclose the young shoot or flowers in a case

formed of scales. These parts are not all necessary,

as several plants, like the ferns and mosses, have

no flowers; some have scarcely any stem, but

grow almost close upon the ground, like the stem

less thistle; others, like the dodder, which twines

about the furze bushes, have no leaves. The root

is a part always found in vegetables, except in two

or three kinds which float upon the water. Even

8 USES OF ROOTS.

water, or aquatic plants, have usually roots. Some

of these are fixed to the earth at the bed of the

stream, as the water-lily. The little green duck

weed, which floats upon the stream in summer, and

is very common on ponds and ditches, has thread

like roots, hanging down in the water, several

inches in length: and some plants live for some

time with floating roots, which afterwards descend

to the bottom of the stream, and fix themselves

there.

The root is useful to the plant in two ways. It

serves to hold it firm in the earth, and it derives

food from the soil, for its mourishment. It gene

rally consists of two parts, the body and the fibre;

but the fibrous part only is absolutely necessary.

The fibres are to be found in all roots, and they

serve to suck up food for the plant from the earth.

Every fibre has little openings at its end, and these

are sometimes called vegetable mouths, because

the food enters through them. By means of these

fibres also, any juices of the plant which are too

much for it, are carried back into the soil, through

USES OF FIBROUS PARTS. 9

these openings. It is found that some vegetables

give out through them a kind of acid fluid, which

injures the land, and makes it necessary for the

farmer, after some seasons, to plant some other

vegetables in the field. By thus changing the

crops, the soil is often restored, because all plants

do not equally exhaust it; but sometimes land is

so exhausted, that the agriculturist is obliged to

leave it without culture for a time, when the weeds

which spring up die away, and form a new vegetable

mould; and frequently the landholder improves the

land by manuring it.

The fibres are sometimes called radicles. In

some roots they come from all parts of the body,

in some they arise from the upper part, but in bul

bous roots they are always found springing from

the lower part. Some radicles enter the earth in

a downward direction, but others penetrate sideways.

The roots of woody plants are increased in size, by

the addition of a layer every year to the body of

the root, and become longer, annually, by a young

shoot growing out of the fibre.

10 ROOTS TEND TO THE CENTRE.

Roots are never green. Colour indeed never

exists except in places where light can reach the

plant, and roots are generally in darkness. We

may see the effect of light and darkness in the

stems of celery, which are green if exposed to

the sun, but become white by being kept in a

dark place. Darkness, however, is not the sole

cause of the absence of green in the root; for if

we take it up from the ground, and expose it to

the light, it still remains colourless, which would

not be the case with any other part of a vege

table.

Roots always have a tendency to the centre of

the earth, or to that of the object on which they

grow. In whatever way we put a seed into the

ground, even if it be what we might call upside

down, still the root will find its way downward, and

the young shoot of the plant will rise into the air.

When a plant, like the mistletoe, grows upon a

branch, its roots strike towards the centre of that

branch, in whatever position the seed may have

been placed; and thus the root springs sideways,

DURATION OF ROOTS. 11

or even upwards if so placed. Besides the uses of

the root to the plant, various roots are valuable to

man. The carrot, the radish, the potatoe, and

many others are in daily use as food. And many,

like the dandelion root and the liquorice root, are

serviceable as medicines.

Roots are either annual, biennial, or perennial.

They are called annual when they live only one

season, as wheat and flax and many wild flowers;

and as a large number of our garden flowers, the

seeds of which require planting every spring. They

are called biennial, when they require two years for

their perfection. Thus many plants, like the car

rot, have only leaves the first year, but on the

second year produce flowers and fruit, and then

die. Roots are perennial when they live many

years in the ground, like the apple and oak, and

trees in general; and as the daisy, the primrose,

the violet, and many Summer flowers.

Some roots, which are perennial in warm climates,

become annual in our gardens. This is the case

with the nasturtium and the mignionette; while

12 PARASITIC PLANTS.

some, which are perennial with us, die away in one

season in a southern clime.

Several plants, like the moss on the garden wall,

or the houseleek on the roof of a house, are more

nourished by the air and moisture, than by the

food sucked up from the soil by their roots. Plants

formed to thrive on barren spots, have very small

roots; but instead of these they have juicy fleshy

leaves, which imbibe and retain the moisture of the

atmosphere, and serve the plant instead of a larger

root. Flowers which grow on dry sandy deserts,

like the cactus, (which we often see in the conser

vatory) are formed thus; and the carrion plant,

which is a native of deserts, is often called the

vegetable camel, because, like that animal, it is so

wondrously adapted to the arid waste for which it

is destined.

Some plants, like the mistletoe, strike their roots

into the bark of other plants, and are fed by the

juices of the vegetables on which they grow. They

are then called parasites. The parasitic plants are

very few in this country. The mistletoe is the

FIBROUS ROOT. 13

most conspicuous of them. In foreign countries,

especially in lands between the Tropics, they are

very abundant, bear many beautiful blossoms, and

their stems are often many hundred feet long. The

mosses and ferns, though they grow on the trunks

of trees, do not send their roots far enough into

their substance to derive food from them, and are

therefore not parasites.

Botanists have arranged roots into seven different

kinds, according to their forms. And as Botany

cannot be studied without a knowledge of several

terms, the learner must commit their description

to memory, and compare them with the plates till

he quite understands them.

1. The fibrous root

(Radiv fibrosa), con

sists wholly of fibres, as

mostgrasses. Sometimes

these fibres are simple,

sometimes they are

branched with a number

of other fibres.

14 SPINDLE-SHAPED, CREEPING, ABRUPT,

2. The spindle shaped root (Radic

£usiformis). This root tapers down

to a point, like the carrot or radish.

The spindle-shaped part forms the

body of the root, the radicles or fibres

flowing at the end of this.

3. The creeping root

(Radiv repens). This is

often called the under

ground stem, as the couch

grass or mint. It creeps

along under the ground,

and pushes up stems at

intervals.

4. The abrupt root (Radir praemorsa). This

root instead of tapering down to

a point, like a carrot or radish,

seems as if it were broken or

bitten off. The plantain which

we gather for birds has this kind

of root. There is a common

plant-the blue scabious of the hedges—which has

AND TUBEROUS ROOTS. 15

the name of devil's bit scabious, because its root

ends so abruptly; and the old herbalists recorded,

that the Devil bit off the root, from a malicious

feeling, on account of the healing virtues which

were said to reside in the plant. Several roots,

like those of the primrose and cowslip, are spindle

shaped the first year, and after that season become

woody and abrupt.

5. The tuberous or

knobbed root (Radix tu

berosa). This consists

of a number of fleshy

knobs, joined together by

stalks, as the potatoe.

Another kind of tuberous root consists of two bulbs,

as in the bee-orchis; while some are split into a

16 BULBOUS ROOT.

number of divisions like fingers, and called palmate,

as in the brown spotted orchis.

6. The bulbous root (Radiv bulbosa). This

assumes several different appearances. Thus, it

may be solid as in the crocus;

or formed of a number of

layers, like the onion, when

it is said to be tunicated; or

it may be scaly, like the lily.

The bulbous part of this

root contains the young future

plant, and as it is altogether

placed in the ground, it has

been called a root. The fibres at the lower part

of the bulb are however the true root; and some

authors have therefore called this a fibrous root,

BULBOUS AND FIBROUS ROOTS. 17

with a bulb upon it. If the root of a tulip be

cut carefully through, the young plant may be seen

wrapped up in it, and quite perfect, stamens, pistils

and all. The bulb is therefore very similar to the

buds on trees, which contain the young plant wrap

ped up in them; but there is this difference, that

the bud on the tree remains on the parent plant

and produces its young shoot; but the underground

bulb is increased by means of a little offset, like a

bulb, which grows out from them, and then sepa

rates itself, and springs up into a fresh plant.

Roots which are bulbous in dry places, often

become fibrous if planted near water. The moist

land offers no resistance to the growth of fibres,

and they increase until the root becomes wholly

formed of them. If a tree be planted by a pond,

and grow close down to the water, or partly in it,

its fibres become much more numerous; and grasses

having bulbous roots in a dry meadow, are found

totally changed in a moist one. This effect, although

produced by a natural and obvious cause, is part

of a wonderful and benevolent provision of the

C

18 GRANULATED ROOT.

Great Creator; for fibrous and creeping roots are

very useful in holding together the loose earth on

which they flourish. They are so useful in binding

the soil on the shores of Holland, that they are

planted for that purpose, and without them, the

dikes of that country would be quite swept away by

the sea. -

7. The granulated root (Radix granulata).

This root consists of a

number of round knobs,

close upon each other,

forming a long string of

them. It is in fact merely

another form of tuberous

root, but is often mentioned by naturalists as a dis

tinct root. Instances may be seen in the wood sorrel,

or in the granulated saxifrage.

QUESTIONS.

OF what parts does a perfect plant consist?

Are these parts all necessary?

QUESTIONS. 19

Name some plants which have no blossoms?

Name one which has no leaves?

Are roots found on all vegetables?

Are they found on aquatic plants?

Are they always fixed to the soil?

Of what use is the root to the plant?

How many parts has the root generally?

Which part is necessary?

Of what use is the fibrous part?

What are the openings in the end of the plant

called, and why are they so called?

Do the fibres serve any other purpose besides

that of sucking up food from the soil?

Why does the farmer change the crop in his

field?

What other name have the fibres?

Are roots green in any case?

Is darkness the sole cause of their want of colour?

If we wanted to make stems or leaves white, what

should we do with them?

To what does the root tend when a seed is placed

in the ground?

20 QUESTIONS.

Does any thing rise out of a seed in an opposite

direction to the root ?

Is there any case in which a root would spring

upwards?

Of what uses are roots to man? and name some

that are useful besides those mentioned in the

lesson.

What is an annual root ?

What a biennial root?

Describe a perennial root, and in all the cases

give instances.

Say whether a root of a rose tree, a daisy, a

violet, a honeysuckle, a major convolvulus, a French

bean, be annual or perennial.

Are roots ever annual in one place and perennial

in another? mention an instance.

Are there any plants which seem more nourished

by their leaves than their roots? -

In what kind of places do such plants grow?

What are those plants called which thrive on the

juices of others?

QUESTIONS. 21

What is the most remarkable species of this

kind in Britain P

Are they more numerous in any country than

in Britain P -

Is the moss a parasitic plant? why not?

How many kinds of roots are there?

Describe the fibrous root, and give an example.

Describe the spindle-shaped root.

Which part is the body of the root?

What is the creeping root?

Describe the abrupt root, and mention the old

story connected with a plant which has this root.

Are any plants found which have sometimes an

abrupt and sometimes another shaped root? under

what circumstances? give the examples.

Describe the tuberous root.

Describe the palmated kind of tuberous root.

Describe the bulbous root in its three kinds.

What part of a bulbous root is the true root of

the plant?

What is formed inside the bulb P

22 QUESTIONS.

Is there any other part of a plant which is much

like a bulb P

In what respect is it like it?

In what respect is it unlike it?

Do bulbous roots ever change to fibrous ones,

and when P -

Of what use are creeping and fibrous roots to

man?

What is the granulated root?

Of what kind of root is it merely another form?

What kinds of root are the following? parsnip,

radish, mint, wheat, barley, bee orchis, brown

orchis, potato, plantain, wood sorrel?

23

CHAPTER III.

OF THE STEM :—ITs Uses; Its DIRECTION; MEANs of

SUPPORT; SUBSTANCEs of which STEMs ARE comPosED;

BARK; Wood; NEw Wood; MEDULLARY RAYs; PITH;

Uses of PITH; Hollow STEMs; WooDY STEM of PALMs;

STEMs of FloweRs; CULM of GRAssEs; THE SCAPE; THE

STIPE; WARIous TERMs APPLIED To STEMs; FloweR

sTALK ; LEAF-STALK.

E have said that when a seed bursts its

covering in the earth, and begins to sprout,

the root directs itself downwards; we shall now

consider that part of a plant which takes an up

ward course. This is the trunk or stem, and its

different kinds will be explained. Some plants are

called stemless, because they have scarcely any

part between the root and the flower; and many

flowers are called stemless also, because they have

not what is called a true stem, which term will be

explained in this chapter. The stem is not only

24 STEMS.

useful to the plant by bearing the flower leaves, &c.

but it conveys the food from the root to the leaves,

and other parts of the vegetable; and the sap, which

is useful to the plant as blood is to man, flows

through it to all parts. The stem is valuable to

mankind in many ways. The trunk of trees supplies

us with wood, and with bark for medicines and

manufactures. The stalk of the sugar-cane yields

us sugar; and many other trunks might be men

tioned equally serviceable.

Stems generally grow upright or nearly so, but

some bend into various forms, and are called flexible

stems. Some, like that of the French bean, hop, or

honeysuckle, twist themselves round poles, or

twine among plants, and hold themselves up by

these means; and some are provided with curls or

claspers, like the grape vine, or with little fibres,

which look like small roots, as in the ivy, by

means of which the plants support themselves,

although their main stems may not have much

strength.

Stems are either woody, like trees; or fleshy,

STEMS : . BARK, 25

like the aloe; or hollow, like

the hemlock. We shall first

consider woody stems, and these

are of two sorts. The most com

mon kind is that like the oak.

In this kind of stem, all the substances of which

it is composed, are arranged regularly. There is

first the cuticle, or thin skin, which has been

already described. Underneath this, lies the pulpy

substance, called cellular tissue; then comes the

true bark of the tree, which holds the substances so

useful in tanning and dying, as the resin of the fir,

the aromatic oil of the cinnamon, and various other

substances.

When we remove the bark we come to the sub

stantial part of the tree, which is its wood; and it

is composed of various vessels, lying very close, and

bound together by cellular tissue. It consists of

a number of layers forming rings round the stem,

though they are not always in an exact circle, as

they are sometimes close together at one side of

the tree. They may be seen very plainly in the

26 STEMS : FIBRES.

fir-tree, when cut down; but in almost any log of

wood from a British tree they are distinctly marked.

The outermost part of the wood is softer than the

inner, and as the vessels which convey the sap are

placed in it, it is often called sap wood. New

wood is another name for it, because a new layer

of it is formed every year, and each year it hardens

and becomes like the other wood, and again a

fresh layer is formed. In consequence of this, the

age of a tree may be told by counting the number

of rings upon it.

Besides the fibres which go down from the top

to the bottom of the stem, there are a number of

fibres crossing them from the middle to the outside

like rays. These are called medullary rays, because

they run from the pith (medulla) in the centre, to

the circumference of the trunk. In the central

part of the stem is a spongy substance usually of

a whitish green colour. It is called the pith or

medulla, and may be very plainly seen in the elder

tree in spring. Sago is made from the pith of the

date palm, and rice paper is made from the same

WOODY AND FLOWER STEMS. 27

substance found in a Chinese plant, and pith is

often used in making children's toys. Some plants

have not any pith in their stems; and several, as

the elm and apple-tree, have very little. It is

always more abundant in a young shoot, than in

an old one, and in a full grown tree it is not found

at all, as it then turns into wood.

The other kind of woody stem is found in the

palms and other foreign trees -

In this the wood, the pith and £:

the bark, cannot be separately -

distinguished, but seem all min

gled together in one mass. In

stead of the central part being the hardest and

firmest in this kind of stem, it is the softest; and

the outermost parts are the most compact.

Some stems are hollow, like the grasses and the

hemlock. In these, the pith is not a firm spongy

substance, but is merely a fine delicate lining.

The soft fleshy stems or stalks of flowers, are

composed chiefly of a mass of pulp, with fibres

interspersed to give them strength. If these fibres

28 STEMS : CAULIS.

are examined under a microscope, they are often

found arranged in regular order; sometimes in

circles, sometimes in little bundles: the sap ascends

through them.

In the common weed called the dog's mercury,

the fibres may be seen arranged round the stem in

a circle. In a full grown plant if the stem be

broken, they are clearly perceptible without the aid

of a microscope. Botanists divide the stems or

stalks of vegetables into four kinds.

I. Caulis. The true stem, is one which bears

both leaves and blossoms, as the trunks and branches

of trees in general, and of a great many flowers,

as the white dead nettle, the large white convolvulus,

the common groundsel and many others. The

stem is said to be simple when no branches spring

from it, as in the white garden lily; and branched

when branches arise from it, as in the common

yellow St. John's wort of the meadows. When

branches are placed on the main stem, in opposite

pairs, it is said to be dichotomous as in the mis

tletoe.

sTEMS : CULMUS, SCAPUs. 29

MISTLETOE.

II. Culmus. The culm is the stalk of wheat and

of grasses in general. It is a kind of straw in the

grass plants, often knotted or jointed, and hollow.

The term culm is however applied to the stems of

some plants much like grasses, as the rushes, bul

rushes, &c. and in these it is spongy, or, as in the

rushes, quite full of pith. The culm of the bamboo,

which is a grass plant of tropical countries, is

often forty feet in height, and it adds much to the

beauty of the landscape, besides being useful in the

building of houses, and in supplying the chief ma

terial for household furniture.

III. Scapus. The scape is that kind of stalk

which bears the flowers only, and not the leaves.

30 STEMS : SCAPUS, STIPES.

This sort of stalk is very common. The primrose,

violet, daisy, hyacinth and cowslip, are familiar

instances of it. Sometimes a scape branches out

into a number of little stalks at the top, as in the

cowslip or polyanthus. These little stalks are called

pedicels. In describing flowers it is common for

botanists to say they are stemless, when their stalk

is a scape: meaning that they have not the true

stem, which supports leaves as well as flowers.

IV. Stipes. The stipe. This is the stalk of the

palms, ferns, and the fungus or mushroom tribe.

If we examine a fern, we find it to consist of a

green leaf-like substance, which seems merely a

widening of the stalk which holds it, and which

runs up the middle. On this leaf are little ridges,

which bear the seed of the plant. The whole of

this leaf-like piece, including the stipe or stalk, is

called a frond. The stipe in the mushroom is

merely the stalk which supports the cap, or dome

at the top; the stipe in a frond is the stalk of the

leaf-like part. There are terms applied to the

stem with reference to its mode of growth, and the

TERMS APPLIED TO STEMS. 31

nature of its surface. Some of these must be com

mitted to memory, and plants should be examined

and compared with the plates. These terms are

very numerous. The most common are here given,

and will be sufficient for the young botanist.

Erect (erectus). As in the white lily.

Procumbent (procumbens), lying along the

ground, but not sending

out fibres from the joints;

as in the common pink

field convolvulus.

Creeping (repens), lying along the ground and

sending forth roots, as in the creeping buttercup.

Climbing (scandens), holding itself up by its

tendrils, as the sweet pea or passion-flower.

32 TERMS APPLIED TO STEMS.

Twining (volubilis), twining round a pole, as

the French bean and the hop. <>

Some twining stems turn to the

right, and some to the left; but

the same kind of plant always

turns the same way. Thus the

black bryony, a plant with

glossy heart-shaped leaves, and small greenish

flowers, often seen winding about the trees, and

bushes of the hedge, always twines from left to right.

And if we were to set it in a garden and endeavour

to train it another way, it would regain its natural

position, directly its growth was unrestrained. The

French bean too, and the large white wild convol

vulus, always turn in the opposite direction—from

right to left, and are equally true to their natural bias.

Clinging (radicans), when, like the ivy, it clings

for support to a wall or tree, by means of a number

of fibres, which do not derive food for the plant, and

are only serviceable to it by holding it up.

Branched (ramosus), when several branches come

from the main stem; as in the gooseberry bush.

TERMS APPLIED TO STEMS. 33

Round (teres), as in the tulip.

Two-edged (anceps), as in sweet pea.

Triangular (triangularis), as in one kind of

cactus.

Square (quadrangularis), as in white dead

nettle, and nettle-leaved bell flower.

Articulated (articulatus), as

in the samphire, which grows on

the sea coast, and is used as a

pickle.

It is easy to see that stems vary

much in the roughness or smoothness of their sur

faces, some being velvety or hairy, or hard and

shining. The terms most commonly used to ex

press these differences are here given, and must be

committed to memory.

34 TERMS; FLOWER STALKS.

Smooth (glabrous), without hairs, prickles, or

any roughness whatever; as the stalk of the tulip.

Prickled (aculeatus), as in the rose or bramble.

Hairy (hirtus), as in the wild sage.

Papillose (papillosus), covered with tubercles,

like the ice plant.

Viscid (viscidus), covered with a clammy juice,

as in the avens; a yellow wild flower sometimes

called herb bennet.

Bristly (hispidus), with stiff bristles, as the

common borage and the viper's bugloss.

Glaucous (glaucus), covered with a mealy sub

stance, something resembling the bloom on the

peach, but of a sea green colour. Plants which

grow by the sea side, often have their stems co

vered with this sea green mealiness: as the sea

side poppy. It easily rubs off the plant.

The stalks which issue from the main stem of a

plant, and bear the flowers, are called flower stalks

or peduncles. The flower stalk is said to be axil

lary, when it proceeds from the point formed by

the angle of the leaf and stem. It must be remem

FLOWER STALK. 35

bered, that this point is called the axil: a term

continually in use in botany. When a flower stalk

is opposite to a leaf, it is termed opposite: when,

as in the tulip, it is at the top of the stalk, it is

called terminal. Flowers are

sometimes seated close to

the main stem, without any

flower stalk at all, in which

case they are termed sessile.

It must be remembered that

the word sessile means seated.

A curious instance occurs in

36 STALKS : QUESTIONS.

a very common shrub, of a blossom being sessile

on a leaf. This is the butchers' broom, in which

the flower grows on the front of the leaf.

The stalk which bears the leaf is called leaf stalk,

or petiole.

QUESTIONS.

What is that part of a plant called which springs

out of the seed, opposite to the root?

Of what use is the stem to the plant? and to

man?

Do all stems grow upright?

Mention some means by which they are kept up.

Mention the kinds of stem.

What part comes next to the cuticle in the oak

tree?

What next, and what does it contain P

What is the part of the tree next the bark? and

describe it.

What do we mean by sapwood? and has it any

other name?

QUESTIONS. 37

Are there any fibres crossing the fibres which

go from top to bottom of the stem? what are they

called?

Point out all these parts on the plate.

What is the pith? and give its scientific name.

Mention some trees in which there is little pith.

Are there any trees in which it is not found

at all?

Is there any pith in hollow stems?

Describe the stem of the palm tree?

Describe the stem of flowers?

What appearance has the woody fibre in the

plants called dog's mercury?

Describe what is meant by the term “a true

stem,” and give several examples besides those

named.

Describe a culm.

Describe a scape, and give instances.

What is a pedicel?

Mention whether the following flowers have a

scape or a stem ? nightshade, dandelion, wood

anemone, polyanthus, buttercup, briar-rose, honey

38 QUESTIONS.

suckle, foxglove, white garden lily, major convol

vulus, apple-blossom.

Describe a frond.

What is a stipe?

Repeat the various terms applied to stems.

Do all twining plants turn the same way?

When a number of little fibres grow on a stem,

what kind of stem is it called?

What kind of stem has the tulip?

What is the mealy substance found on plants?

What is meant by a flower stalk—and what

other name has it?

What is the axil?

When is a flower-stalk said to be terminal?

When is it opposite?

When is it sessile? and what is the meaning of

sessile?

Give an instance in which a flower is sessile on

a leaf.

What is the stalk called which holds the leaf P

39

CHAPTER IV.

BUDS:—SEAsoN of THEIR FoRMATION; LEAF BUDs; FloweR

BUDs; MIxED BUDs; MEANS BY which BUDs ARE PRE

SERVED FROM Cold; HoRSE CHESNUT BUD.

LEAVES :—UPPER SURFACEs of LEAvEs; UNDER SURFACEs

of LEAvEs; WEINS AND NERVEs of LEAVEs; USEs of LEAVEs

To PLANTs; EFFECT of LIGHT on LEAVEs; CoLouR of

LEAvEs; SLEEP of PLANTs; FALL of THE LEAF; EveR

GREENs; LEAvEs of TRoPICAL CLIMATEs; LEAvEs of

AquaTIC PLANTs; EFFECTs of INSECTs on LEAvEs; USEs

of LEAVES To MAN ; TERMs APPLIED To LEAVEs.

F we walk in the country or in the garden dur

ing Spring time, we cannot fail to see the

young buds on the trees. Quite early in February,

the buds of the elder tree are opening in the

hedges, and a little later, the apple

and hawthorn or May trees, show a

number of small green knots upon

them. Now these buds were formed

upon the trees and bushes during the

last Summer. They came then in

the point between the stem and the

40 FLOWER BUDs; LEAF BUDs.

leafstalk (a vil), or at the ends of the branches; but

as they were very small, and continued so during

Winter, they may not have been noticed by us, till

they became so much larger in Spring. When

once the Spring has commenced, they swell, and

daily become larger, till they open fully. In some

trees, indeed, the buds are seated at first so deeply

in the bark, that even if searched for, during

Autumn and Winter, they cannot be perceived;

but this is not generally the case.

As the season advances, the buds burst open,

and a young shoot rises out of them. Leaves or

flowers, soon make their appearance. Those buds

which contain nothing but leaves, like the bud

which grows at the end of the twig of the garden

mezereon, are called leaf-buds: those which hold

the young blossoms are termed flower-buds. Leaf

buds are always longer, and more slender, than

those which enfold the flowers, as we may see by

remarking the little roundish bud on the apple tree,

which contains the pink apple blossom, and com

paring it with the bud which is to supply the tree

BUDs; HoRSECHESNUT BUD. 41

with a shoot bearing leaves. Some buds, as those

on the lilac tree, bear both flowers and leaves, and

are called mixed buds.

Shrubs and annual plants have no buds.

If we take a bud from the tree and examine it,

we find it formed of a number of coats or scales,

folding over each other, and thus protecting the

innermost part from the cold of Winter. In hot

climates, where there is no severe Winter, the young

shoots do not need this protection; so that the

Almighty hand which formed the plants according to

their several needs, has not furnished the trees of

the Torrid Zone with buds, but the young shoot

comes out directly from the bark of the plant. In

our climate, buds are often covered with hair, or

with a clammy resinous sub

stance, on the outer part, and .

clothed within, with down, and

thus they resist both the damp

and cold. The large bud of

the horse chesnuttree is formed

early in Spring, and is a good

42 HORSECHESNUT BUD; LEAVES.

instance for the learner to examine, as he may

there see the various contrivances for the protec

tion of the young shoot, and mark the wisdom of

the Great Creator. This bud not only has on its

outer covering, a thick clammy coat, in substance

and colour resembling melted Indian rubber; but,

if the bud be cut through, it will be seen to be

covered with a cottony down, which is so thick, that

we may pick pieces off from it.

The buds are so necessary to plants in those

countries which have a cold season, that those trees,

which, from having been reared in a hot-house,

are without buds, are sure to die, if exposed to the

least cold.

The buds of some trees are not formed of scales,

but of a number of green pieces, which open nearly

all at once. Buds are rarely found on the stem, but

are chiefly situated on the branches of a tree.

When the leaf buds have burst open, the leaves

gradually cover the branches of the plant. Leaves

may be situated on the stem or branch, as in the

apple tree; or they may grow only about the root

LEAVES; THEIR SURFACES AND VEINs. 43

of the flower stalk, as in dandelion, violet and

many more. The upper surface of a leaf, or that

part which turns towards the heavens, is generally

smoother, greener and more glossy, than the under

surface, as we may see in a rose leaf. On the

upper part, the veins seem sunken into the leaf;

while on the under surface, they seem to stand out

above the green flat portion. The lower part is

also often covered with hair or down, and has a

number of small pores, which are the openings of

the vessels contained in the leaf. Some leaves,

like those of the iris or flag, have not an upper or

an under surface, as they grow quite erect and

even with the stem; both sides are therefore of the

same colour: others, of a fleshy pulpy nature, are

alike at all parts of their surface, as the leaf of the

common houseleek.

There is, in the middle of most leaves, a line of

woody fibre, well known by the name of a vein,

and this is often branched into a number of smaller

veins, as in the rose leaf, where the woody fibres

form a kind of network. In Autumn, portions of

44 NERVED LEAVES ; USE OF LEAVES.

this network often lie about the path of the garden

or shrubbery, or hang on the plants, and present

the skeleton of the leaf; the pulpy part having

decayed away from the fibre. The green cup which

supports the flower of the common red garden

mallow, often presents a beautiful framework of this

kind, at the latter end of Summer; and the leaves

of the poplar and other plants, are sometimes found

in this state.

In the leaves of some plants, as in that of the

lily of the valley, the portions of woody fibre, instead

of running across the leaf, all go from its base to

the top, in a number of lines, even

with each other. In this case, leaves

are said to be nerved; and some

times their nerves are easily counted,

when they are said to be three

nerved, five nerved, seven nerved,

and so on.

Leaves are useful to the plant much in the same

way that lungs are to the animal. They draw in

and give out air, they also imbibe moisture from

USE OF LEAVES. 45

the atmosphere, and give out the fluids which are

more than would be necessary for the plant. Leaves

of trees imbibe this moisture by their upper sur

faces chiefly, but the leaves of flowers, and plants

near the ground, receive it mostly through their

lower surfaces. Some plants, especially those of hot

countries, perspire a great quantity of fluid. When

the Summer air of our own country is warm and

dry, we may see this moisture resting on the leaves

of many vegetables. The cabbage leaf often has,

on a dry day, early in the morning, a number of

clear large drops upon it, which we might sup

pose to be dew, but which are, in fact, the watery

fluid given out by the leaf: and drops of clear

water often trickle down from the poplar trees, at

early day, when the morning is warm, and the

atmosphere quite dry.

The air which is given out by the leaves of plants

is, in the day time, of a healthful nature; and trees

scattered about a landscape purify the atmosphere

very much: but in darkness or shade, the air is of

a noxious quality, so that plants in a sleeping room

46 USE OF LEAVES.

are not wholesome : besides that fragrant odours

generally, render the air of a close place sickly.

Leaves serve also to convey food to those parts

of the plant which are above and beneath them.

As we mentioned in treating of the root, they are

almost the only means of nutrition which some

plants have: the natives of arid barren soils being

fed much more by their succulent leaves, than by

their small roots. So important are leaves gene

rally, to the welfare of a plant, that if the foliage

be stripped from a tree before the fruit becomes

ripe, it will soon drop, while green, from the bough.

We may often see this in a gooseberry bush, which,

in early Spring, has been stripped of its leaves by

insects.

It is very interesting to remark how much leaves

are affected by the influence of light. Thus if

placed in a room, their boughs always turn towards

the window, and as twilight commences many leaves,

as those of the lupins and clover, fold themselves

together, and hang down till the daylight comes to

them again. This folding up is called the sleep of

COLOUR OF LEAVES. 47

plants. Most leaves are affected by it more or

less, but some very remarkably so. This is the

case with the pea tribe; and the learner may see

this folding up of leaves on any Summer evening,

in the garden or the meadow.

When trees are nailed against the wall, they

immediately begin to turn the upper surfaces of

their leaves towards the light; and if the gardener

happen to bind one with its surface against the

wall, the string is no sooner released, than it turns

round to present its upper part, so as that the sun

may shine upon it. This is the case with all those

leaves which have an upper and under part, unlike

each other; but in plants in which, like the iris

and mistletoe, both surfaces are similar, the influence

of light is not perceptible in this manner.

Leaves and stems lose their colour, and become

pale, if kept in darkness; like the celery and

endive, which are blanched by being kept from the

light. The colours of flowers, also, become pale,

and the plants less vigorous, unless the rays of light

have free access to them.

48 HABITS OF LEAVES.

Some plants close up both leaves and flowers at

a certain hour of the day. Thus the scarlet pim

pernel shuts up about twelve o'clock; and the

garden pheasant's eye at four in the afternoon.

The former flower is called the poor man's weather

glass, because it closes also on the approach of rain,

as do several other blossoms. If we see this flower,

or the wild pink convolvulus, folded together in the

morning, we may feel quite sure rain will soon be

coming, unless the flowers are decaying, when

these signs are not to be depended upon.

As Autumn approaches, the foliage of trees

begins to change its colour, and to become yellow

or crimson. These changes are succeeded by the

fall of the leaf, which leaves us but the naked

branches of the Winter trees. The fall of the leaf

is caused by its becoming withered when it has

lived its appointed time, and by some action of the

living portion of the tree, by which it casts it off;

for if, at another season, a leaf decays, we often see

it hang for a long time on its parent plant: and if

a tree is killed by frost, or any other cause, we

FALL OF THE LEAF ; EVERGREENS. 49

may see its brown foliage hanging on its decayed

branches, because these have not the vital power,

by which they could throw it off. All trees do not

cast off their foliage at the same time; and it is

generally observed, that those which are soonest

covered in Spring with their green dress are

earliest deprived of it on the approach of Winter.

Thus the horse chesnut tree is among the earliest

to deck the park with its green beauty, but before

the Summer is quite gone it begins to turn brown;

and while many trees are yet green, it stands with

out a leaf on its branches.

There are some trees which remain green through

the Winter, and are termed Evergreens. These

are chiefly trees which contain a resinous sub

stance, like the pines and firs: or they are those

which have a stiff leathery kind of leaves, as the

holly, the laurel, and myrtle. The privet, and ivy,

and butcher's broom of the hedges, are common

examples of evergreens; and a few plants, like the

bramble and the young oak tree, have a few fresh

looking leaves on them during Winter, that

E

50 LEAVES OF TROPICAL CLIMATES.

mingle with the brown ones, with which they are

covered.

In the warm climates of the Tropics, the trees

are mostly evergreen, for although they change

their leaves, these have not an annual season for

falling, but drop in small numbers at a time, and

never leave the boughs naked. Shade is so much

needed by those who live under a burning sun, that

this is a bountiful provision of the Great Creator,

for the inhabitants of such climates. The large size

of the leaves of Tropical trees, is on the same

account a great benefit. In the Torrid Zone, leaves

are sometimes fourteen or fifteen feet in length;

while in the cold climates at the north of our

globe, as in Sweden and Norway, there are forests

of pine trees, the leaves of which are very small

and slender; and the birch and alder, and the few

other trees which grow there, have small leaves,

which are not overpowered by the snows, as larger

foliage would be.

Leaves are generally all of the same shape on

the same plant, and in the same kind of plant.

SHAPE OF LEAVES. 51

This is of great assistance to botanists in acquiring

a knowledge of vegetation. Thus a primrose, a

rose, and a violet, have each differently shaped

leaves, and these never change, wherever the

plant may grow. There are however many com

mon instances of plants which have leaves of one

shape at the root, and of a different shape on the

stem, like the harebell, which has round leaves at

the foot of its stem, and small slender ones all the

way up, upon it. The musk mallow has leaves

cut into slender divisions on its stem, while they

gradually become less divided lower down, and are,

at the root, merely a lobed piece. Plants which

grow on mountains have usually their upper leaves

divided, and their lower ones entire; and plants

which grow in the water have commonly their

upper leaves large and flat, and their lower ones

divided almost into fibres. This is the case with

the water ranunculus, a white flower, which grows

on streams, in shape like a buttercup, but looking

so like a strawberry blossom, that country children

call it the water strawberry. A plant called the

52 EFFECTS OF INSECTS ON LEAVES.

Chinese mulberry, is so singular, as to have every

leaf upon it differently shaped.

Some plants, like those of the mushroom tribe,

have no leaves at all; while the sea weeds may be

said to consist entirely of leaves or fronds. Leaves,

as well as young buds, are sometimes disfigured by

little balls or knots upon them. Thus on the oak

or willow leaf, and especially on the leaves of the

common maple, we may often see little balls, some

times as large as a pea, sometimes scarcely larger

than a pin's point. If we open them we find insects

in them. These balls are formed by the puncture

of an insect, which deposits its eggs within, and

when the egg is hatched, it becomes a fly and

makes its way out. The shaggy mossy balls which

we see on rose trees, and which children call

robin's cushions, are formed in the same way; and

if cut open in August, will be found to contain

insects. The galls used in manufactures are other

instances of vegetable balls, formed by this process.

Besides the beauty given to the landscape by the

foliage of trees, and the pleasure which we derive

SIMPLE AND COMPOUND LEAVES. 53

from their shadow in Summer time, leaves are

useful both as pasture for cattle, and food for man.

Many, as the lettuce, spinach, cabbage, sorrel, &c.

are cultivated for the table; and many, like the

mallow, the dandelion, the hemlock, and senna, are

of great service as medicines.

Leaves, with regard to form, are either simple or

compound. They are said to be simple, when the

leaf is formed of only one piece, as in the primrose

leaf; though this piece may be deeply cut or lobed,

as in the ivy or dandelion. The leaf is compound

when it is formed of a number of distinct pieces or

leaflets on one leaf stalk, as in the parsley. There

are some simple leaves which are so deeply cut,

that they might perplex the learner to tell whether

they were simple or compound. It must be re

membered, as a general rule, that if the divisions

do not reach the middle vein of the leaf, they are

simple, however much they may be divided.

The terms most frequently in use, as applied to

simple leaves, are the following:

Orbicular (orbiculatum), a circular leaf.

54 TERMS APPLIED TO LEAVES.

Ovate (ovatum), the shape of an egg. A very

common shape of leaves, as in the periwinkle.

ORBICULAR. OVATE. OBOWATE.

Obovate (obovatum), the same shape as the

last, only that the broad part, instead of being at

the lower end, is at the top, as in

the daisy.

Elliptical, or oval (ellipticum),

very similar to the last, but the same

width at both ends, as in the lily of

the valley.

Spatulate (spatulatum), roundish

at one part, and narrowing off.

Wedge shaped(cuneiforme), broad

and abrupt at the upper end, and

narrowing downwards; as in one species of saxi

frage.

TERMS APPLIED TO LEAVES. 55

Lanceolate (lanceolatum), a narrow leaf nar

rowing at each end, as in the peach and willow.

This is a very common form of leaf.

\\WEDGE SHAPED. LANCEOLATE. LINEAR.

Linear (lineare), a leaf similar to the last, but

much more slender, so as to resemble a line, as in

the wheat and meadow grass.

Needle shaped (acerosum), a stiff sharp pointed

leaf, common to some evergreens, as

in the yew and the pine. The trees

having acerose leaves, are natives of

cold climates, and if their leaves were

not very small and slender, the weight

of the snow, and the fury of the winds, would quite

overpower them.

Triangular (triangularum), with

three distinct angles, as in some leaves


of the ivy. Some leaves have four angles, and

these are then quadrangular.

Trowel shaped (deltoides), from Nthe Greek letter delta A, as in the P. -

plant called good king Henry.

Rhomboid or diamond shaped

(rhombeum), approaching to a square figure.

RHOMBOID. KIDNEY SHAPED. ARROW SHAPED.

Kidney shaped (reniforme), as in ground ivy.

Arrow shaped (sagittatum), triangular, and much

hollowed out at the lower end, as in the water

arrow head of the streams.

Heart shaped (cordatum), a very

common form of leaves, similar in

figure to what is commonly called a

heart. In the black bryony of the woods, the glossy

heart shaped leaves are very beautiful.


Halberd shaped (hastatum), tri

angular, with spreading lobes at the

base, as in the small field sorrel,

and the upper leaves of the hedge

nightshade.

Fiddle shaped (panduriforme), as in the fiddle

dock.

2:

FIDDLE SHAPED. LION TOOTHED.

Lion toothed (runcinatum), cut into several

sharp divisions, pointing backwards, as in the com

mon dandelion. -

Lyrate (lyratum), cut into several Wdivisions, which are gradually larger --

at the upper end of the leaf, which is > 2

rounded, as in the yellow avens of the St.%hedge. y

Lobed (lobatum), when the margins of the lobes


are not pointed, but rounded; as (Wi

in the Spring garden hepatica. V ... Y

They may be three, five, or seven }7~lobed. (22w

Palmate (palmatum), cut

into several segments about

half way, but leaving a space

like the palm of the hand,

as in the common passion

flower.

Pinnatifid (pinnatifidum), cut

across in a number of oblong seg

called swine's cress.

Bipinnatifid (bipinnatifidum), when these seg

ments are each divided; as in some kinds of poppy.

sy*\ // SA->

BIPINNATIFID. PECTINATE.


Pectinate (pectinatum), cut into slender divi

sions, like the tooth of a comb; as in some leaves

of the water violet.

Unequal (inequale), when one

side of the leaf is larger than the

other; as in the pink flowered

begonia.

Acuminate (acuminatum), with an awl shaped

point; as in some reeds.

ACUMINATE. MUCRONATE. TOOTHED.

Mucronate (mucronatum), with a sharp spine,

at the top of the leaf, or at the top of each divi

sion; as in the thistles.

Toothed (dentatum), deeply notched, with teeth

across the leaf, as in the common groundsel.

Ciliated (ciliatum), fringed with delicate hairs.


Serrated (serratum), notched with sharp pointed

teeth, like a saw, as in the rose leaf.

SERRATED. CRENATED. PLAITED.

Crenated (crenatum), notched with roundish

notches, as in the ground ivy and the scarlet pot

geranium.

Plaited (plicatum), when the leaves seem folded

up and down, as in the common mallows.

Dotted (punctatum), as in the St. John's wort,

and on the back of the leaves of the scarlet pim

pernel.

Keeled (carinatum), when the back stands out

above the rest of the leaf, as in the twin flowered

narcissus.

Sword shaped (ensiforme), when both sides are

alike, and the leaf is pointed, as in the iris.


When leaves remain all the Winter on the tree,

they are said to be evergreen; but when they fall

in Winter, they are termed deciduous. The term

entire is applied to those leaves whose edges are

free from notches of any kind, as in the garden

lily; and leaves which, like the nettle and many

others, are sharply pointed at the end are called

acute.

The following are the chief terms applied to

compound leaves.

Digitate (digitatum), when the leaflets come

from the common leaf stalk

like rays, leaving no space in

the middle like a palmate leaf,

but each leaflet perfectly dis

tinct. A digitate leaf may be

composed of various numbers

of leaflets. Thus in the lupins it has seven or nine,

and sometimes more; and in the horse chesnut it

has seven. When a digitate or fingered leaf has

only two leaflets, it is called binate (binatum), and

the term yoked is often applied to it. When it has


three leaflets, it is called ternate (ternatum), as in

BINATE. TERNATE.

the clover, the wood sorrel, and some kinds of

potentilla.

Pinnate (pinnatum), this leaf might be thought

by the learner to be a spray of

leaves, but he will see by ex

amining it, that it has a main

leaf stalk, with leaflets growing

out of it. The rose leaf, and the

leaves of the mountain ash and vetches, are pinnate

leaves. Sometimes the pinnate leaves have a sin

gle leaflet on the top of the spray or leaf, as in the

rose; sometimes the pinnate leaf ends in a tendril

or curl; and sometimes it terminates without any

thing at the top of the main leaf stalk. When be.

tween each leaflet there is a smaller one down the


leaf stalk, the leaf is said to be interruptedly pin

nate, as in the yellow flow

ered field agrimony.

Bipinnate (bipinnatum),

when the leaflets themselves

have leaflets at each side of

them. -

Tripinmate (tripinnatum), when they are thrice

pinnated. In the former case the leaf stalk has

pinnate leaves on it, in this it has bipinnate leaves

on it.

S >{/ %

£%:#2

£%©QIf # =\ \\la Žt,

47)-> -

TRIPINNATE.


Whorled (verticillato), when the leaflets grow all

round the leaf stalk, and form a '. |

///

whorl, as in the sweet woodruff.

Leaves with regard to situa

tion are said to be radical, when

they grow from the root; and

cauline, when they grow on the stem. They are

also termed

Opposite (oppositifolia), when opposite to each

other.

OPPOSITE. SECUND.

Secund (secunda), when all hang one way; as in

Solomon's seal.

Imbricated (imbricata), close together, like the


tiles on a house; as in the common yellow stonecrop

of the wall.

IMBRICATED. UPRIGHT.

Upright (erecta), all growing with their points

upwards.

Spreading (patentia), forming a moderate angle

with the stem.

SPREADING. PELTATE.

Peltate (peltatum), when the footstalk is fastened

into the middle of the leaf; as in the masturtium.

F


Clasping (amplexicaule), clasping the stem with

the base; as in the common flea-bane.

PERFOLIATE. CONNATUM. CLASPING.

Connate (connatum), united at the base, as in

some leaves of the honeysuckle.

Perfoliate (perfoliatum), when the stalk runs

through the leaf. -

Decurrent (decurrens), running

down the stem, so as to form a

kind of leafy wing; as in the thistles

and the great mullein.

Folium is the Latin word for leaf: thus we say

folium simplicium, a simple leaf; folium composi

tum, a compound leaf; folia is the Latin word for

leaves.

QUESTIONS.

AT what season are the buds of trees formed?

Why do we not observe them till Spring?

At what parts of a branch are they formed?

What is a leaf bud?

What is a flower bud?

Is there any difference in the appearance of a

leaf bud and a flower bud?

What is a mixed bud?

What plants have no buds?

Of what are buds formed?

Have the trees of hot climates any buds?

Of what use are buds?

What have buds often on their outer part—and

what inside?

Describe the manner in which the young leaves

of the horsechesnut are protected from the cold of

early Spring.

Are buds necessary to plants in cold climates?

68 QUESTIONS.

and mention some circumstance which would lead

you to think them unnecessary?

On what parts of a tree are the buds generally

situated ?

On what parts of a plant are the leaves found?

Describe the upper and under surface of a leaf.

What are those pores seen on the under surface

of a leaf.

Describe the kinds of leaf which have not upper

and under surfaces.

What is the vein of a leaf P and is it ever

branched?

Describe a nerved leaf.

What do we mean by a seven-nerved leaf?

Mention the different ways in which leaves are

useful to plants.

Do leaves of trees and flowers imbibe moisture

chiefly by their upper or under surfaces?

Which perspire most, the plants of cold or of hot

climates?

Mention what is said of the cabbage and poplar

leaves.

QUESTIONS. 69

What is the difference in the nature of the air

given out by plants in the day, and in the night?

Mention another use of leaves, beside those for

merly named.

Are there any plants which are nourished more

by their leaves than their roots? what kind are

they?

Mention the ways in which leaves are affected by

light.

What is meant by the term sleep of plants? and

name a tribe in which it is seen very plainly.

If a leaf were nailed against a wall by its upper

surface what would it do?

Is the leaf of the mistletoe influenced in this way

by light? why?

How is a stem or leaf deprived of its green

colour?

Mention some flowers which shut up at a regular

hour of the day.

If we were in a meadow how could we tell that

rain was coming on ?

When do trees change colour?

70 QUESTIONS.

What happens next?

Explain the fall of the leaf.

If we killed a tree by pouring hot water over it,

would the leaves fall? why not?

Do all trees lose their leaves at the same time?

Mention a general rule as to the period at which

the leaves of a tree fall.

What is an evergreen tree?

What kind of leaves have evergreen trees gene

rally? and mention several instances of garden and

wild evergreen plants.

In what countries are all the trees evergreen?

Do the leaves of these trees never drop off?

Mention the uses of leaves to the natives of the

Torrid Zone.

There are some evergreen trees at the north of

the globe, have these large leaves? why?

Are leaves generally all of one form on a plant?

Give some common instances.

How do the leaves often differ at different parts

of the plant?

Describe the leaves of the harebell and musk

mañow.

QUESTIONS. 71

How do the leaves of mountainous plants differ

from each other?

In what way do the leaves of aquatic plants differ

from each other?

What is singular in the foliage of the Chinese

mulberry tree?

Mention some plants without leaves, and some

all leaf.

Mention some of the disfigurements on buds and

leaves, and describe the cause.

Explain the manner in which the robin's cushions

are produced.

Are these galls made by insects of any use?

Mention the various uses of leaves to mankind.

Describe a simple leaf.

Describe a compound leaf.

If a leaf is divided very deeply, how shall we

know if it is simple or compound?

Repeat thoroughly the terms applied to simple

and compound leaves, and compare them with the

plates.

When we say leaves are deciduous what do we

mean?

72 QUESTIONS.

What is the difference between a palmate and a

digitate leaf?

Has a digitate leaf always the same number of

leaflets?

When is it binate?

When is it ternate P

Describe the different ways in which a pinnate

leaf may terminate at the top.

What is meant by an interruptedly pinnate leaf?

Describe the modes in which leaves are placed

on their stems.

What are leaves called which grow from the

root ?

What are they called when they grow on the

stem?

What is the Latin name for a simple leaf P for

a compound leaf?

What is the plural of leaf in Latin *

73

CHAPTER V.

APPENDAGES of PLANTs: STIPULE; STIPULEs on THE

PLANE TREE, BRACTEA; TENDRIL; Uses oF TENDRIL;

THoRNs; PLANTs of AFRICA; THoRN BUSH; PRICKLE ;

HAIR; USEs of HAIRs To PLANTs; SHAPE of HAIRs;

GLAND; PITCHER PLANT; SIDE SADDLE FLowER: VENUs's

FLY TRAP.

E shall now consider the appendages of plants.

This is a comprehensive term, and includes a

number of different organs. They were by Lin

neus called the props of plants, a term sufficiently

applicable to some of them, as the tendril; but not

very appropriate to others, as in the case of the

thorn. They are now generally all included in the

word Appendages. No plant possesses all these

organs, and some vegetables have not any of

them.

Stipule (stipula). We often see at the under

part of a leaf, just where the leaf stalk proceeds

from the stem, a small green scale or piece, some

74 STIPULE; BRACT.

thing similar to a small leaf. In some cases it is

merely a small scale or a chaffy substance; in the

sweet pea it is a small arrow shaped leaf. This is

the stipule. Its use is to protect the young leaves.

In some plants the stipule falls off at an early

stage, but in most plants it remains as long as the

leaves. In the plane tree we may see in Spring

a number of stipules forming little ruffs round the

branches of leaves. As soon as the leaves become

expanded, the stipules fall off, and are strewn in

numbers about the pathway. The

stipule is also very plainly seen

at the foot of the leaf stalk of

the rose, when it is often tinged

with a pink or brownish hue. It

is generally double, one being

on each side of the leaf stalk.

Bract (bractea). This is a flower leaf, perform

ing the same office to the blossom which the stipule

performs to the leaf, and often growing so closely

under the flower, as to appear a calyx. It does not

fall off however, as the calyx does, when the blossom

BRACT; TENDRIL. 75

is changed into fruit. In some plants, as in some

species of sage, the floral leaf is tinged with the

same colour as the blossom. The flower of the

lime tree has a large distinct bractea, quite dif

ferent from its other leaves, and is usually pointed

out to learners as an example, because of this dis

tinctness.

Tendril (cirrhus). This is that curling clasper

which we so often see on plants, and it is useful to

support them when their stems are weak, by cling

ing to some stronger object, either to palings, or to

76 USES OF TENDRIL; THORN.

sticks placed for them, or to plants growing near

them. Plants with stems too slender to support

either their leaves, or flowers and fruit, are pro

vided with them, as the sweet pea and the grape

vine. In the forests of the Torrid Zone, climbing

plants are very abundant and magnificent, and by

means of these tendrils, or by their stems winding

into a curl, they entwine the trees, and are saved

from being broken by the winds. The passion

flower, which is a native of these regions, has very

strong claspers on its stem. The tendril is most

commonly placed on the stem and branches; some

times it is on the leaf of a plant, and often on the

flower stalk.

Thorn (spina). The thorn is that sharp pointed

organ which we find on the

May bush and many other

plants. If we strip off the

bark of the tree, the thorns

do not come away with it, as

they are part of the wood of the stem. When

plants are cultivated, they become less thorny. The

PRICKLE ; HAIR. 77

plants of Africa are many of them remarkable for

their hard sharp thorns. One species called the

thorn bush, is covered with thick, firm thorns,

placed two together, and four or six inches in length.

We sometimes find thorns on leaves, as in the

holly.

Prickle (aculeus). This is like the thorn, a sharp

pointed organ; but as the prickle o:

only arises from the bark, it may A

easily be stripped off. It is found *

on the rose, the bramble, and manyd

other plants, and is not done away

by culture. In the thistles, prickly pear, and some

other plants, prickles are on the leaves.

Hair (pilus). Hairs are commonly found on

the stems and leaves of plants, but they are occa

sionally found on every part. The hairy or downy

covering is useful to the plant, to protect it from

the excess of cold and heat, and is also a defence

against insects. The downy covering on some

leaves is picked off by country children to make

tinder, and in South Africa the downy leaves of a

78 HAIRS; GLAND.

bush are made by the natives into several articles

of clothing. When a plant is covered with hair, it

is said to be pubescent. The hairiness of vegetables

differs in various situations, and if a wild plant

whose leaves are downy, be removed into a garden,

the leaves will often become quite smooth. When

hairs are examined by a microscope, they are seen

to be generally simple, but are, in some cases,

branched, hooked, or jointed.

Gland (glandula). This is a little substance

raised above the surface of the leaf or leaf stalk, on

which parts they are generally found. They often

contain a clammy sweet matter, as in the glands

on the cup and stem of the moss rose. The little

black dots which cover the leaves, stems, and yellow

flowers, of the meadow St. John's wort, are glands.

Besides the appendages mentioned as common

to many vegetables, there are some curious ones,

which belong only to a few. Thus the pitcher

plant, which is a native of Ceylon and Amboyna,

and is often reared in the hothouses of this country,

has a hollow appendage, shaped like a pitcher,

GLAND. 79

placed at the end of its slender stalk. This pitcher

contains a clear liquid,

and has a lid at the

summit, which opens

by a valve. This

water is not caught

by the rain, but is a

juice of the plant itself.

The liquid is a clear

water, very pleasant and refreshing to the palate,

and is from a quarter to a half pint in quantity.

The people of Ceylon call this plant the monkey

cup, and say that when the monkeys are thirsty

they drink of its contents. An American plant

called the side-saddle flower, has also tubular leaves,

which hold a liquid of a similar nature. Then there

is a plant which has, at the end

of its leaves, a flat green piece,

covered with a clammy juice,

and set round thickly with sharp

teeth, which are so irritable,

that if an insect, attracted by

80 GLAND; QUESTIONS.

the juice, settle upon them, they close over it like

a steel trap. This flower is called the Venus's

fly trap.

QUESTIONS.

DEscRIBE a stipule, and give an example of a

plant in which it may plainly be seen.

Does the stipule remain on the plant as long as

the leaves?

Are stipules generally single?

What is a bract?

Does a bract fall off when the blossom changes

into fruit?

Is it ever of the same tinge as the blossom?

Mention an instance in which the floral leaf is

very different from the others on the plant.

What is a tendril, and of what use is it?

Where are climbing plants very abundant?

On what parts of a plant are tendrils situated?

What is a thorn?

Thorns are much like prickles. How shall we

know one from the other?

QUESTIONS. 81

What effect has cultivation on thorny plants?

In what country are the plants very thorny? and

give an instance.

Describe a prickle.

Has cultivation any effect on the prickles of

plants?

On what parts of a plant are hairs usually found?

Of what use are they to the plant?

Mention some uses of the downy covering to

mankind.

When a plant is covered with hair what is it

said to be?

Does the hair on a plant alter by its removal?

How do hairs appear under a microscope?

What is a gland? and give an instance of a plant

on which they are numerous.

Mention what is said about the pitcher plant.

Is the water in the pitchers caused by rain or

dew P

Mention a circumstance connected with the side

saddle flower.

Describe the leaves of the Venus's fly trap.

G

82

CHAPTER VI.

THE CoRoLLA; Its various FoRMs; Uses of THE CoRoLLA;

CALYx; PERIANTH; INvolucRE; STAMENs; PISTILs;

SEED WEssEL; WARIoUs FoRMs of SEED VEssEL; SEED ;

PLUME, RADICLE, AND CoTYLEDON; GREAT PRoPoRTION of

SEEDs; VARIoUs uses of SEEDs to MAN AND ANIMALs;

DisPERSION of SEEDs; CAPsULES; BERRIEs; SEEDs

cRowNED witH FEATHERs; RECEPTAcLE; NECTARY ; Uses

of HoNEY; WARIous SHAPEs of NECTARY.

W E shall in this chapter treat of the parts of a

plant by which the seed is formed, protected,

and perfected. These are called the parts of fruc

tification. Although some plants are continued

every year, by their roots, or by means of slips and

layers, set by the gardener, or by bulbs, still even

these sprang originally from seed, while a large

number arise year after year, entirely from the

seeds scattered in the preceding season. The parts

of fructification are seven, but these are not all

necessary, although every part included under that

COROLLA. 83

term may be considered as connected with forming

or taking care of the seed. The only two parts

quite necessary are the pistil and stamen, as with

out them a plant will not produce seed; but some

plants are without any other of the seven parts of

fructification. The name of these are corolla, calyx,

stamen, pistil, pericarp, seed, and receptacle.

Corolla. The part of the plant which is the most

striking and beautiful, and which we, in common

language, call the flower, is the

corolla. This is the gay coloured

part, which is so ornamental to

the garden or the meadow, and

so full of pleasant odours in the

Summer. The sulphur-coloured portion of the

primrose, the dark blue of the violet, the delicate

pink of the apple blossom, are the

corollas of these different plants.

Each division of the blossom, (or

leaf as the learner would call it) is a

petal. When botanists speak of leaves, they in

variably mean the green portions of the plant; if

84 COROLLA.

they meant to speak of the pink leaves of the rose,

they would call them the petals of the rose.

The word corolla signifies a crown of flowers.

Many flowers open their corollas only during a part

of the day, and shut them up regularly: some open

like the daisy, when the sun dawns, and close up

when he goes down; while the common goat's

beard is called “go to bed at noon,” because the

petals are all shut up after that hour, and a great

number of flowers shut up before four o'clock. A

few flowers open only in the night, as the night

blooming cereus; and some blossoms are so frail,

that, like the cistus, they open during the middle of

one day, then drop from the plant.

The corolla may be composed of one petal, or it

may consist of several. When it is of one piece

only, it is called one-petaled (monopetalous), when

divided into several pieces, it is many-petaled (po

lypetalous). The rose is a polypetalous corolla;

the primrose a monopetalous one. The learner

might think, at first, that the primrose was com

posed of several pieces, as the corolla is cut into

TERMS APPLIED TO COROLLAS. 85

five segments, almost to the centre; but by closely

examining it, and pulling it out of the green flower

cup, he will see that it is all of one piece. Corollas

which are composed of many pieces, generally, as

they wither, drop one petal at a time, as we may

see in the garden rose; but flowers which, like the

primrose, are monopetalous, wither and drop in one

piece.

It is very easily seen that the corollas of flowers

are very variously shaped. Botanists have given

names to the most common forms of flowers. The

following are the terms applied to polypetalous

corollas.

Cruciform (cruciformis), shaped like a Maltese

cross; as in the common wallflower and the single

stock, as in the cut, p. 83.

Rosaceous (rosacea), composed

of from three to five petals; as

in the briar rose, and the flower

of the hawthorn or may.

Papilionaceous or butterfly

shaped (papilionacea). This very common form

86 TERMS APPLIED TO COROLLAS.

of corolla, is well named from its resemblance to a

butterfly. The laburnum, the furze, and the sweet

pea, are common instances. The large upper petal,

PAPILIONACEOUS.

which covers the smaller ones, is called the stand

ard, a; the two side petals are termed wings, c; and

the lower part, which is hollowed like a boat, and

contains the stamens and

pistils, is termed the keel, b.

Pink-like (caryophylla

cea), formed of five petals,

and shaped like the common

garden pink.

The common forms of

monopetalous corolla are

these :

TERMS APPLIED TO COROLLAS. 87

Campanulate, or bell-shaped (campanulata), as

in the blue heath bell, or the hyacinth.

canvasulate. SALVER-SHAPED.

Salver-shaped (hypocrateriformis), as in the

primrose.

Funnel-shaped (infundibuliformis). When the

tube of the flower is very narrow at

the base, and gradually becomes

wider at that part of the flower

which expands; as in the lung

WOrt.

Labiate or lipped (labiata), a form

of corolla which somewhat represents

the lips of an animal. It will be

best understood by an example: the

common rosemary, the thyme, sage,

and dead nettle, are examples.

88 TERMS APPLIED TO COROLLAS.

Personate (personata), a form something like

the last, but which closes with

a palate; as the red dragon's

mouth, which grows on walls,

and the sulphur-coloured toad

flax of the hedges.

A corolla is called regular

when its shape is uniform, as in the rose, wallflower,

&c.; but irregular, when it is not so, as in the

sweet pea, and the rosemary.

There are a few corollas the shapes of which can

not be classed under any of these definitions. They

are termed anomalous corollas. Of this kind are

the nasturtium, the violet, the monk's hood, the

larkspur, and the foxglove. The latter, although

very nearly allied to bell-shaped flowers, is not

exactly so formed, and its corolla in some respects

resembles the finger of a glove.

The corolla is serviceable to the plant, by pro

tecting the stamens and pistils from rain and dews.

This it does in some plants more remarkably than

in others. Thus the bell-shaped flowers hang down,

USES OF THE COROLLA ; CALYX. 89

and cover the parts within: the pea tribe, by their

wide spreading wings, carefully enclose these parts,

and the marygold closes up before rain. But as

all plants have not their more essential parts pro

tected by the corolla in this manner, and as some

vegetables are without a corolla at all, we must

infer that the Almighty has framed this beautiful

part of his creation, chiefly to delight the eye of

Inan.

Calyx. The calyx or flower cup is that green

portion which we find under the coloured part of

the flower, and which, while the blossom is in bud,

covers it altogether, as in the rose bud and the

polyanthus. This is the description of the true

calyx, but there are some other kinds of calyx, to

which this will not exactly apply, and which will

each be separately described.

The calyx is often formed of a number of green

leaves or divisions, each of which is called a sepal;

so that when it is of many pieces, as in the wall

flower, it is termed polysepalous; and when of one

piece only, as in the primrose, it is called monose

90 CALYX; PERIANTH.

palous. The calyx serves both to support the full

blown flower and to protect the young one; but is

not absolutely requisite, as some flowers have no

calyx. In most, however, we see the bud covered

by it, it being much longer than the blossom, while

the flower is not yet open; but as the flower

expands, and no longer needs its protection, the

corolla soon grows much larger than its green cup.

When a flower has not any calyx, as the tulip, it

is said to be naked. Calyxes, however, which are

composed of several pieces, sometimes fall off at an

early stage of the flower, as in the poppy, which

has a calyx at first, but loses it before the blossom

is fully expanded. Calyxes composed of one piece

only, seldom fall away till the flower withers, and

often not until the fruit is quite ripe, as in the

Winter cherry.

The calyx is very differently shaped in different

plants. There are five distinct kinds of calyx, viz:

perianth, involucre, glume, calyptra, and volva.

Perianth (perianthium). This kind is the true

calyx, as it really forms acupfor the flower, andgrows

PERIANTH. 91

close to it. It is of various shapes; thus in the

pink, it is long and slender; in the rose,

it consists of five green leaves; in the

primrose, it is one long tubular piece; in

the thistles, it is covered with scales. The

learner must remember that if it grows

close round the flower like a cup, it is a

perianth. Sometimes the perianth remains till the

fruit is ripe. This is the case with the apple and

pear, when we may see it on the top of the fruit, in

the form of a few withered leaves. In this instance

it was formerly the perianth of the flower; but

there is also a perianth, which instead of being at

the top of the fruit is at the under part of it, and

then it is the perianth of the fruit. This may be

seen in the husk of the filbert, and the cup of the

3.COril.

Some plants have a double perianth, as in the

mallow.

We must here explain the meaning of the terms

superior and inferior, as they are much used in

botany. When the germen is above the calyx, as

92 INvoLUCRE; GLUME; CALYPTRA;

in the raspberry, which is the germen enlarged into

the fruit, we say the germen is superior, or above,

and the calyx inferior, or below. When, like the

apple, the calyx is above the fruit or germen, we

say the calyx is superior, and the fruit inferior.

Involucre (involucrum). This is a kind of green

leaf, growing at a distance from the flower, and

is not easily distinguished from a floral leaf. It

belongs to a large family of plants, called the um

belliferous tribe, which will be explained in another

place. It may be very clearly seen, in the wild

parsley, as a green cut leaf, under the rays of stalks

on which the flowers stand.

Glume (gluma). This kind of calyx, like the

last, cannot be called a cup, as it is

merely a chaffy scale, peculiar to

the plants of the grass tribe; such

as the grass of the meadow, the

wheat, the oat, the barley, &c. which

are all termed grasses. The glume is sometimes

formed of only one, sometimes of two pieces, and

occasionally, it has an awn upon it as in barley.

VOLVA; STAMENS AND PISTILS. 93

Calyptra or veil (calyptra). This is peculiar to

mosses. It in form resembles an extinguisher.

Wrapper (volva), is peculiar to the mushroom

tribe. As the learner will not be

able to study the mosses and fungus

tribe until he shall have made some

advance in botany, it is unnecessary

more fully to describe them.

Immediately within the petals of

the flower, we find a number of thread-like sub

stances, which in some blossoms, as the wild-briar

rose, are very numerous; and in some, as the blue

speedwell, are very few. These thread-like sub

stances are called the stamens. At the centre of

the flower, within the stamens, may usually be seen

one or more slender parts, which are called pistils.

Both these parts may be very plainly seen in

the lily and tulip, where the central green column

is the pistil; and the surrounding ones the stamens.

Stamens and pistils are usually found in one blossom,

but there are some flowers, chiefly those of trees,

as the oak, in which they are found in different

94 STAMENS AND PISTILS.

blossoms of the same plant; and there are also

plants, which, like the hazel, have pistils in the

blossoms on one plant, and stamens in the blossoms

of another. The stamens and pistils are quite

necessary to the perfection of a seed, and they

alone would constitute a flower in botany, although

there were neither calyx nor a bright coloured

blossom. In cases where stamens and pistils grow

in different blossoms, the bees carry the powder of

the stamens to the plants in which there are not

any stamens, or it is sometimes carried about by

the winds. There are in the garden many flowers

which have been rendered double by cultivation.

In some of these we find no traces of stamens and

pistils, as in the double wallflower; these parts

having turned into petals, and contributed to the

fulness of the flower. In some double blossoms,

however, as in the damask rose, we find the re

mains of stamens and pistils, though but few are

left. The double flowers, in consequence of being

without either stamens and pistils, do not produce

seeds.

STAMEN ; PISTIL. 95

Stamen (stamen). The stamen consists of two

parts, the filament and the anther. The

filament is the thread-like stalk a, and

the anther is the piece at the top of the

stalk b. The anther is a kind of little

box, and contains a dust called the farina

or pollen. When the anther is ripe, it bursts and

throws out this pollen.

Pistil (pistillum). The pistil, or central column

of the flower, is composed of three

parts, the germen, the style and the

stigma. The germen is sometimes

called the ovary; in it the young

fruit or seed is found, a. This part

may be plainly seen in the primrose,

where it is a little round knob at the

base of the stalk; and in the wild hyacinth, where

children call it the blue bottle. The style is the

stalk, b, and the stigma is the piece at the top of

the stalk, c. Sometimes the stigma is placed on

the germen, without a stalk or style, as in the

poppy.

96 PERICARP; CAPSULE.

Pericarp (pericarpium). This is the covering of

the seed or the seed vessel, and contains the seeds

which are to produce the future plant. Seed

vessels are of various shapes and substances. Some,

like the pea pod, and the little seed vessel of the

violet, are, when dry, of a substance resembling

parchment; some, like the raspberry, are pulpy;

others, like the walnut, of a hard, thick, woody

material. There are usually enumerated seven

kinds of seed vessel, which we shall explain. We

must however inform the learner, that when he

reads in a botanical work of the fruits of plants, he

must not suppose that the word always means such

fruits as pears or cherries. It signifies seeds and

their coverings in general, and may mean such

things as the little balls on the cleavers or goose

grass, or the cones which grow on the fir trees, or,

in short, any seeds enclosed in their pericarps.

Capsule (capsula), a little chest or casket, which,

when dry, usually splits open, and drops its seeds.

It generally opens by valves, but sometimes, as in

the poppy, it does not open at all, but drops its

FORMS OF SEED VESSEL. 97

seeds through little pores or holes. When ripe it

is commonly of a dry hard thin sub

stance, but when green it is often

like a berry. It is not very easy

for the learner to get a very exact

idea, at first, of a capsule; but the

remaining distinctions are easily un

derstood, and those seed vessels which are not

included in them, he may consider to be cap

sules.

Legume (legumen). This is a pericarp of two

valves, like a pea, with the seeds at

tached only to one edge of the valves.

There are seeds in each valve, but

they are fixed only to one of the

seams, by which the pod opens. Le

gumes belong chiefly to the butterfly

shaped flowers.

Pod (siliqua). This is a pod which has two

valves, and on opening it, it is seen to contain

besides, a thin piece. To this piece, the seeds

are attached at both edges, and not to one only, as

H

98 FORMS OF SEED VESSEL.

in the legume. Sometimes this pod is short and

POD. POUCH.

roundish, as in the honesty, and in this case it is

called a pouch (silicula). Like the long pod, it

has a layer between the valves. The cross shaped

flowers, as wallflower, radish, and wild mustard have

this kind of seed vessel.

Stone fruit (drupa), a fruit of a fleshy nature

with a nut inside, as the cherry,

plum, or walnut. The common

nut, though differing from this

description, by not having a fleshy

covering, is however generally

called a drupe.

Pome or apple (pomum), a fleshy

fruit, which instead of containing

a nut, contains a little casket of

FORMS OF SEED VESSEL; SEED. 99

seeds, as in the apple and pear, where the cores of

the fruit are the capsules.

Berry (bacca), a pulpy substance, with the seeds

lying within it, as the raspberry or

gooseberry. The drupe has its

seeds in a stone; the apple has its

seeds in a core or capsule; but in

the berry, the seeds lie in the

midst of the pulp. The orange and lemon are

berries, and the mulberry, grape, and currant. The

strawberry is what is called a spurious berry, be

cause the seeds are not enclosed in the fruit, but

merely lie on the top of it.

Cone (strobilus). This is com

posed of a number of hard scales;

as in the fir tree.

Seed (semen). The part con

tained in the seed vessel is the

seed. It is of various sizes and shapes, and usually

of some rather dark colour. The pea, the bean,

the pips in the cores of apples, are all seeds. The

surface of seeds is usually smooth, but there is

100 PARTS OF SEED.

always found at one part of a seed, a spot called

the scar, which may be plainly seen in the bean.

A seed consists of three parts, the plume, which

is the stalk that rises into the air; the radicle, which

is the root; and the lobes, which are called cotyle

dons. By splitting open a garden bean we may

easily see that it has two lobes; so has a pea, but

a grain of wheat has only one lobe or cotyledon.

These lobes contain a flour-like substance, which

serves as food to the young plant; but when the

seed has struck its root, the lobes become two

small leaves, and rise out of the ground. The

cotyledon leaves are shaped differently from the

leaves which grow on the plant afterwards, and are

generally thicker. We may see them very plainly

in the radish, in the bean, and in the lupins. The

SEED LEAVES. 101

learner may remember that when a radish first rises

out ofthe ground, there are two thick notched leaves,

which soon die away. These are the seed leaves,

or cotyledon leaves.

YoUNG RADISH, SHowING SEED LEAvEs.

If we soak an almond in water, and then split

it, we shall see that it is formed of two halves

or lobes; and we may often see clearly in these

I02 GREAT PROPORTION OF SEED.

lobes, the two seed leaves quite perfect, with a little

stalk at their base, which is to form the future

root.

Although many seeds are requisite for supplying

the world with vegetables, yet a large number are

used by man and animals, and therefore the Great

Creator has given plants many more seeds than

would be necessary for their own increase. Indeed

if all the seeds of even one plant were to grow

and continue to do so for a few years, without

being destroyed, a single plant would soon overrun

the earth. Thus one stalk of maize, will produce

two thousand seeds, and a single plant of tobacco,

three hundred and sixty thousand. We cannot

glance at all the uses of seeds as food and medi

cines, but we may remind the learner of wheat,

and barley, and oats, so necessary for man and

animals: of coffee and cocoa, and almonds and

walnuts; of the fleshy fruits, so pleasant in Sum

mer, as apples, and cherries, and plums, and cur

rants; of the grape, so useful for wine; and of

poppy and coriander, and many more, which are

DISPERSION OF SEEDS. 103

used by the medical practitioner, to relieve the

sufferer.

There are few employments connected with

botany, more agreeable to the young student, than

that of remarking the ways in which seeds are dis

persed. He may see it in every country walk,

and he does not need to be very learned to be able

to discover and understand it. The wild plants

which grace our woods and lanes, never fail to

revive with Spring. Winter spreads his snows,

and they seem gone, but even as soon as February,

they sprout out again, and in the rich month of

June, the fields are green and beautiful with thou

sands of flowers. Yet no gardener was there to

place the seeds. All were sown by the means which

God had given them of planting themselves. We

will consider a few of these means. A large num

ber of the seeds of last year were contained in

capsules, which, when dry, burst open and let the

seeds fall to the earth, like the chickweed; some

of these capsules opened with a jerk, and threw

their seeds to a distance from the plant, as the

104 DISPERSION OF SEEDS.

violet. Some, like the furze and broom, opened

their pods with a crackling noise, and let their

contents fall to the ground; and others, like the

scarlet berries of the nightshade, and the black

berries of the privet, fell from the branches on

which they grew, and while their pulpy parts

withered, their seeds took root in the soil. Many

were carried about by birds from place to place:

thousands were blown about by the winds. The

• thistles, the dandelion, the groundsel, and a large

number of others were provided with a little crown

of feathers (called pappus), for the very purpose

PAPPUS. GERANIUM SEED.

of enabling them to float away over the face of the

earth; the geranium and other seeds have a tail,

with which they pierce the ground; and what

DISPERSION OF SEEDS. 105

we call the keys of the maple, served as expanded

wings, to waft the seeds they

cantained. The streams \s

floated many seeds which \\

fell upon them to the oppo

site shores; and the seas

carried on their waves many to more distant lands.

Some seeds, like the burdock, which children call

burrs, and the seeds of the cleavers, clung to our

clothes, or to the fur of animals, and were finally

dropped to the earth. Many seeds indeed were

destroyed by heavy rains, and millions were crushed

on hard pathways, yet so bountifully has the

Almighty provided for their number and dispersion

that enough remained to clothe the earth, and to

supply the wants of living creatures, of man, and

beasts, and birds.

Receptacle (receptaculum). A few words will

be sufficient to explain this part.

It is simply the point at which the stamens, the

pistils, the calyx, and indeed all parts of the flower

meet. If we wish to see a receptacle, we should

I06 RECEPTACLE; NECTARY.

pull off the calyx, then the coloured

blossom, then the stamens and

pistil. The receptacle will then be

left. It is very plain in the dan

delion and the daisy, but in some

flowers it is merely a point. s

Nectary (nectarium). We all know that flowers

contain a sweet juice which is converted by bees

into honey. We have sucked this juice, perhaps,

many times out of the clover or the dead nettle,

and seen it lying in large drops, in little cells,

round the crown imperial of the garden. Bees

hover about the flowers and extract it; while the

pollen or yellow dust, with which we see them

loaded, serves these insects for what we call bee

bread, viz. that brown substance which mingles with

the honey in the comb. But the juice is not food

for bees only; butterflies and millions of insects

live upon it. These insects, in their turn, are

sometimes useful to the flower, for, by carring the

pollen or dust on their wings, they take it to those

flowers which have not any anthers in their corollas,

NECT.A.R.Y. 107

and thus enable them to produce seed, which they

would not otherwise do. The nectary is of various

shapes. Sometimes, as in the dead nettle, the

violet, or the nasturtium, it is a tube at the base of

NASTURTIUM. NARCISSUS.

the flower. In the daffodil and narcissus, it is a

cup; in the crown imperial it consists of a number

of cells: sometimes it is a gland at the base of the

stamens. Linnaeus considered that any part of a

flower which could not be classed under any of the

preceding definitions, was a nectary; and the young

learner may therefore consider this sufficient for

the present, although many botanists contend that

this is not strictly correct.

108

QUESTIONS.

WHAT do we mean by the parts of fructification?

How are plants produced?

How many parts of fructification are there?

Which two parts are quite necessary for the

production of the seed?

Repeat the names of the seven parts of fructifi

cation.

Describe the corolla, and give several instances

of this part.

What is a petal?

What does the word corolla mean?

Mention the different circumstances related, res

pecting the closing and withering of some flowers.

Are any flowers open in the night?

What term do we apply to a corolla formed of

one piece? and give some instances of flowers so

formed.

QUESTIONS. 109

What are corollas called which are composed of

several pieces? and give examples.

Describe a cruciform corolla, and give examples.

Describe a rosaceous corolla, and give examples.

What is a papilionaceous corolla? and give ex

amples.

What is the upper petal called?

Which are the wings?

What is the keel?

What is a pink-like corolla? give an example.

What is a campanulate corolla? give an example.

What is a salver shaped corolla? give an ex

ample. *

What is a funnel shaped corolla?

Describe the labiate corolla, and give examples.

Describe a personate corolla, and give examples.

What is a regular corolla?

When a corolla is of none of these shapes, what

do we call it?

Of what shapes are the following flowers? single

stock, the yellow broom, the garden acacia, the

strawberry flower, the briar rose, the pink, the

110 QUESTIONS.

Canterbury bell, the wild convolvulus, the lavender,

the dead nettle, the primrose, the violet?

Mention some uses of the corolla.

Describe a calyx.

Are there any other kinds of calyx?

When a calyx is of many pieces what is it

termed?

What is a calyx of one piece called?

What is meant by a naked flower?

Why do we sometimes think a flower naked

when it is not so?

Why is the calyx longer than the young flower?

In what different ways does the calyx wither?

Name the different kinds of calyx.

Describe a perianth.

What is a perianth of the fruit?

When is a calyx said to be superior?

When is it inferior ?

What do we mean when we say a fruit is

superior?

Have any plants a double perianth?

What is an involucre?

QUESTIONS. Ill

What is a glume?

What are those kinds of calyx peculiar to the

mosses and the mushroom tribe P

What are those parts just within the corolla?

Are they of the same number in all flowers?

Are stamens and pistils generally found in the

same blossoms, and are there any instances in

which they are not so found?

When stamens and pistils are separate, how is

the dust carried to those in which there are no

stamens?

What is said about double flowers?

Of how many parts does a stamen consist?

What is the filament?

What is the anther?

What is the pollen?

Of what parts does a pistil consist?

What is the germen and what is it sometimes

called?

What is the style?

What is the stigma?

Has the pistil always a style?

112 QUESTIONS.

What is the seed vessel called?

Describe the seed vessel, and mention several of

its shapes, and the substances of which it is com

posed.

What do botanists mean when they speak of

fruits?

Describe a capsule.

How does a capsule generally open, and is there

any other way?

Of what substance is it, when ripe, and what is

it often like before ripening?

Describe a legume, and say to what kind of

flowers it belongs.

Describe a pod.

What is a pouch?

What peculiarity is there in the pod and pouch

which distinguishes them from the legume?

What is a stone fruit? and give an example.

What is a pome? and name one.

Describe a berry, and state in what it differs

from a pome and a drupe.

Is the strawberry a true berry? Is the orange?

QUESTIONS. 113

What is a cone?

Describe the seed and the scar upon it.

Mention the three parts of a seed.

What is the plume?

What is the radicle?

What are the cotyledons?

Mention some seeds with two cotyledons, and

some that have one only.

Of what substance do the cotyledons consist?

When the seed has struck its root, what becomes

of the cotyledons?

Mention some plants in which the cotyledon

leaves are plainly seen, and state what is said of

the almond.

Why have plants so many seeds?

Mention the instances given of plants producing

abundant seeds.

Mention the uses of several seeds to man.

Mention the ways in which capsules disperse

their seeds.

What is said respecting pods and berries?

Do birds and winds assist to disperse seeds?

I

114 QUESTIONS.

How do the dandelion, the geranium, and the

maple disperse their seeds?

What is said of streams and rivers?

What is said of the burdock and cleavers?

What is the receptacle? and explain by what

means we may see it?

What substance is contained in flowers?

Do bees make honey of the pollen?

Is honey useful to other insects besides bees?

In what way are insects useful to flowers?

Describe some of the various shapes of the

nectary.

What shaped nectary has the narcissus?

115

CHAPTER VII.

MODE OF FLOWERING:—SPIKE, RAcEME; PANICLE;

WHORL; CoRYMB; UMBEL; UMBELLIFERoUs PLANTs;

CYME; HEAD of Flowers; SHEATH; CATKIN; CoMPound

FLoweRs; LIGULATE FLow ERs; SEssILE FLoweRs.

–4 VERY one must see that flowers are variously

arranged upon their stems. Thus the daisy

grows upon the summit of its slender stalk while

the lilac and the wallflower grow in clusters.

The manner in which flowers are placed upon

their stems is called their mode of flowering or in

florescence. The learner must endeavour to un

derstand the few terms which relate to this part of

botany, because, when botanists describe a plant,

they generally use its mode of flowering as a means

to distinguish it. When a flower grows, like the

daisy, at the top of its stalk, it is said to be ter

minal; when it grows between the main stem and

the leaf, it is axillary.

116 SPIKE, RACEME ; PANICLE.

Spike (spica). When a

number of flowers grow down

the main stalk, without any

shortstalks (pedicels) of their

own, or with stalks so very

short that we can scarcely

see them, as the lavender,

wheat, barley, the plantain,

which we gather for birds,

and the yellow agrimony of

the hedges.

Raceme (racemus). A ra

ceme is something like a

spike, only that as each

flower hangs by a little stalk of

its own, it forms a looser cluster.

A racemevery often hangs down,

as in the laburnum, and the

flowers of the currant tree.

Panicle (panicula). When the

flowers are seated upon long

loosely spreading stalks, which are RACEME.

PANICLE; whoRL; CORYMB. 117

scattered without any

order on the main stem,

as in the oat and the

quaking grass. If the

stalks of this kind of

cluster are much closer

together, and form an

oval shape, as in the

lilac, it is called a thyrsus or

bunch.

Whorl (verticillus). When the

flowers grow in a ring, or nearly

so, round the stem, as in the white

dead nettle and many others.

118 CORYMB; UMBEL.

hold each flower grow on the upper part of the

main stem, at different points, some of them much

lower down than others, yet all nearly even at top,

so as that the summit of the cluster is almost level.

The common yarrow,

which children call old

man's pepper, is a co

rymb. When a corymb

is very much crowded,

as in the sweet-william,

it is called a fascicle.

Umbel (umbella). An umbel is that kind of

cluster in which the main stem terminates in a num

ber of rays, all proceeding from the same point,

and nearly all of the same length, like the spokes

UMBEL ; CYME. 119

of an umbrella, as in the ivy, and the wild parsley

and carrot. When each ray or spoke of the umbel

bears one flower, as in the ivy, it is called a simple

umbel; but when it has another little cluster of

rays at the top, it is called a compound umbel, as

in the wild carrot and parsley. The young learner

has often heard of umbelliferous plants, for they

form a very distinct tribe. They consist of those

plants whose flowers bear compound umbels, and

they are much alike in appearance, nature, and

properties. A great many have small white blos

soms, and are very plentiful in the hedges in Spring

and Summer. The small green leaf, which is often

seen at the base of the bundle of rays, is considered

by botanists a sort of calyx, and has been already

mentioned as the involucre.

Cyme (cyma). A

cyme is much like an

umbel, because its

rays all proceed from

one point of the main

stem; but on the rays

120 HEAD ; SHEATH.

of a cyme are a number of small stalks, placed

irregularly, so that it has not the regular appear

ance of an umbel. The laurustinus and the flowers

of the elder tree are cymes.

Head (capitulum), when the flowers are seated

close on the receptacle, so as to form a round ball,

as in the thrift and common clover.

S.HEATH.

Sheath. The sheath or spathe (spatha), is a kind

of leaf, situated on a stem, and enfolding one or

more flowers. It may be plainly seen in the snow

drop, and in the narcissus. In a common plant

which grows under hedges, the arum, or lords and

ladies as children call it, the spathe is seen enve

SPADIX; CATKIN. 121

loping a kind of club-shaped column. This column

is called the spadix.

SPADIX. CATKIN.

Catkin (amentum). This is an oblong piece, on

which are situated a number of scales, and in each

scale is found stamens or pistils. In some catkins

the scales hold stamens only; in some they hold

pistils. The brown drooping pieces which hang on

the hazel, and are called by children lambs' tails,

are catkins; and so are those fragrant yellow balls

on the willows, which children call goslings. The

122 COMPOUND FLOWERS.

scales are the calyxes on these balls. The learner

might say this cannot be a mode of flowering,

because there are no blossoms; but he must re

member what has been said before, that botanists

consider that stamens and pistils alone form a

flower, without any other part.

We shall here describe what is meant by a com

pound flower.

A compound flower, although it appears but a

single flower, is in fact an assemblage of flowers,

in one calyx. Look at the daisy, there we have in

one calyx, and in one blossom, nearly two hundred

small distinct florets. The outer part of the daisy,

those white petals which surround it are the rays.

The yellow centre is the disk. Each of these rays,

as well as each yellow piece, in the disk, is a sepa

rate flower or floret. All florets of compound

flowers either contain stamens or pistils, or both.

Some compound flowers, as the dandelion, are

formed wholly of rays, and are called ligulate:

others, like the common thistle, have their florets

all tubular. The daisy includes both kinds, the

MoDE of FLowBRING: QUESTIONS. 123

white ray being ligulate, the

disk being formed of a num

ber of tube-shaped florets.

Compound flowers havetheir

anthers united into a cylin

der.

In addition to these modes of flowering, there

are some plants in which the blossom is found

seated on the leaf, as in the butcher's broom; and

there are some exotics, in which the flowers grow

out of the trunk of a tree, without any stalks of

their own.

QUESTIONS.

WHAT do we mean by the mode of flowering?

What is the mode of flowering called?

When is a flower said to be terminal?

Describe a spike, and give an example.

What is a raceme? and give an example.

Is a raceme always upright?

What is a panicle?

124 QUESTIONS.

What do we mean by a thyrsus? and give an

example.

Describe a whorl, and mention an example.

Describe a corymb.

What is a fascicle?

When all the smaller stalks which hold the

flower proceed from one point, like the spoke of an

umbrella, what is it?

Has the umbel a more regular appearance than

the corymb?

What is the difference between a simple and

compound umbel? and give examples.

What are umbelliferous plants?

Of what colour are their blossoms generally?

What is the leaf which grows under the umbel?

What is a cyme?

Has it the regular appearance which an umbel

has? why not?

Describe a head of flowers, and give an example.

What is a spathe? and give an instance.

What is a spadix?

Describe a catkin.

QUESTIONS. 125

What do the scales contain?

What are these scales P

How can a catkin be a mode of flowering, as it

has no coloured blossoms on it?

Describe a compound flower.

What is a ligulate flower?

What is the disk *

Which the rays?

Mention two modes of flowering, besides those

formerly mentioned.

126

CHAPTER VIII.

ON CLASSIFICATION of PLANTs:—SystEM or LINNAEus;

DIFFERENCE OF WILD AND GARDEN FLoweRs; NAMEs AND

PECULIARITIEs of CLAssEs AND ORDERs.

N important part of Botany is that which

treats of the manner in which plants are

arranged into groups or classes. This is called its

system or classification. To one unused to science,

it might seem of little importance to know in what

way vegetables may be arranged, or to ascertain

that a certain plant was in the first or second class.

But, unless vegetables were classed, we could not

learn much even of a few of them, and it would be

impossible to get a knowledge of them all. Without

however dwelling upon the use of system, in re

ducing a large number of objects to order, and thus

preventing confusion; and without enlarging on the

benefit which by means of arrangement, we may

CLASSIFICATION: LINNAEAN. 127

derive from what others have discovered; we will

point out one reason why the classes should be

studied by the learner, which will perhaps be satis

factory. Unless he learn the classes, he cannot

find out the names of flowers which are new to him;

and he will easily see, that without knowing their

names, he cannot benefit by any thing which has

been written about them, nor can he make much

progress in studying them.

There are several systems into which plants have

been arranged. The two most generally studied,

are the Natural system, and the Linnaean system.

Either of these will enable us to acquire a good

knowledge of the vegetable kingdom; and, as the

Linnaean system is far easier than the other, it is

here chosen.

The manner in which plants are arranged upon

the plan of Linnaeus is chiefly founded on the

number of their stamens and pistils. The young

botanist, in pursuing this part of the study, must

remember, that he should examine the wild flowers,

and not those of the garden; because cultivation,

128 LINNAEAN SYSTEM.

often, by rendering the latter double, destroys their

stamens and pistils. Look at the wallflower which

is growing wild on some old wall. We can dis

tinctly see its four petals forming a cross, and its

six stamens, four long and two short; while, in the

rich double wallflower of the garden bed, we see

few, or perhaps no traces of stamen or pistil, these

having given way to the numerous yellow brown

petals, which make the flower so much more valued

by the florist. It is in the fields and woods that

the learner must study plants, and arrange them

into their classes; and when he has done so, for

a short time, he will be surprised to see in how

many cases, he can tell directly he looks at a

flower, to what class it belongs: for, very often,

the flowers of a class are so similar to each other,

that he need not pause to count the stamens and

pistils.

The Linnaean classes are twenty-four in number,

and their names must be committed to memory.

The first eleven are named according to the num

ber of stamens.

LINNAEAN CLASSES. 129

. Monandria; one stamen.

. Diandria; two stamens.

. Triandria; three stamens.

Tetrandria ; four stamens.

Pentandria; five stamens.

. Hexandria; six stamens.|. Heptandria; seven stamens.

8. Octandria; eight stamens.

9. Enneandria; nine stamens.

10. Decandria; ten stamens.

11. Dodecandria; eleven to nineteen or twenty

StamenS.

12. Icosandria; twenty stamens or more, grow

ing out of the calyx; as the apple blossom or wild

TOSe.

13. Polyandria; twenty stamens, or many hun

dred, growing from the receptacle; and not, as in

the last class, on the calyx; the buttercup and poppy

are examples.

14. Didynamia; four stamens, two long and two

short. The great number of plants in this class

are either labiate like the thyme and rosemary; or

K

130 LINNAEAN CLASSES.

personate, like the snapdragon: there are few

exceptions.

15. Tetradynamia; six stamens, four long and

two short. Easily known by its flowers being always

shaped like a cross; as in the wallflower.

16. Monadelphia; stamens either few or many

in number, but uniting by their filaments or stalks

into a tube; as the mallow.

17. Diadelphia: when the filaments or stalks of

the stamens are united like the last, only into two

sets instead of one. Almost all the flowers in this

class are butterfly-shaped.

18. Polyadelphia; filaments united in several

sets or bundles; as in the yellow St. John's wort.

19. Syngenesia; anthers united so as to form a

tube. This might seem difficult to the learner, but

the shape of the flowers distinguishes this class,

they being all compound flowers, like the daisy,

sunflower, dandelion, &c. -

20. Gynandria; stamens, instead of having dis

tinct stalks of their own, growing out of the pistil;

as in the orchis tribe.

LINNAEAN CLASSES AND ORDERS. 131

21. Monoecia; stamens and pistils in separate

flowers, but both growing on the same plant.

22. Dioecia; stamens only in the flowers of one

plant, and pistils only in the flowers of another.

23. Polygamia; vegetables in which some plants

have flowers with pistils only, some have stamens

only, and some have both on the same plant.

24. Cryptogamia; this last class differs from the

others. It is not arranged upon stamens and pistils,

because these cannot be seen; but it comprehends

the ferms, mosses, liverworts, flags, and the fungus

or mushroom tribe.

The Orders of these classes are, in the first thir

teen, founded on the number of pistils; and in the

remainder, upon circumstances which will be ex

plained. Their names should be committed to

memory.

Monogynia; one pistil.

Digynia; two pistils.

Trigynia; three pistils.

Tetragynia; four pistils.

Pentagynia; five pistils.

132 LINNAEAN ORDERS.

Hexagynia; six pistils.

Heptagynia; seven pistils.

Octagynia; eight pistils.

Enneagynia; nine pistils.

Decagynia; ten pistils.

Dodecagynia; about twelve pistils.

Polygynia; many pistils.

The fourteenth class has two orders, founded, not

on the number of pistils, but on other circumstances.

This class Didynamia, has two short and two long

stamens. The flowers are almost all labiate, or

ringent, like the dead-nettle or the snapdragon. The

first order is Gymnospermia; it has four seeds, not

contained in a seed vessel, but lying at the bottom

of its calyx. The flowers are in this order shaped

like the dead-nettle.

The second order of the fourteenth class is An

giospermia. It is easily known from the first order,

for its seeds are contained in a seed vessel; the

flowers are shaped like the snapdragon.

The fifteenth class has two orders, and these are

very easily explained. It will be remembered that

LINNAEAN ORDERS. l33

this class has six stamens, four long and two short,

and that all the flowers are shaped like a cross.

The first order is Siliculosa, and is known by its

seed vessel being a pouch, or roundish pod, like

the flower we call honesty, or the little wild weed

called shepherd's purse, or pick pocket, which last,

has a short heart-shaped pouch.

The second order is termed Siliquosa, and is

known by its fruit, which is a long pod; as in the

wallflower and stock.

The orders of the three next classes Monadelphia,

Diadelphia, and Polyadelphia, are founded on the

number of their stamens. We do not count the

stamens of these three classes in order to see of

what class they are; the stamens therefore serve

to distinguish the orders, and if they have one

stamen, we say they are of the first order; if two,

of the second; and so on.

The orders of the large class Syngenesia, are

marked by peculiarities which render them difficult

to the young student. It is not necessary that he

should attempt committing them to memory. They

134 LINNAEAN ORDERS.

will be better learned and retained by a little prac

tice. This class comprehends all the compound

flowers, such as the dandelion, the daisy the ground

sel, and the thistle. It must be remembered that

compound flowers are those in which there are a

number of distinct little flowers, all growing in one

calyx.

The orders are as follows:

1. Polygamia aequalis. When all the florets

both in the centre of the flower, and in the rays

which surround it, have both stamen and pistil; as

in the dandelion.

2. Polygamia superflua. The florets of the ray

with only a pistil, and the florets in the centre with

both pistils and stamens; as in the tansy.

3. Polygamia frustranea. Florets of the centre

with both stamens and pistils; but the florets of

the ray without any pistil; as in the corn blue

bottle. -

4. Polygamia necessaria. Florets of the centre

with only stamens; florets of the ray with only

pistils; as the garden marigold.

LINNAEAN ORDER.S. 135

5. Polygamia segregata. Sometimes each floret

has a little calyx of its own, besides the common

calyx; it is then in this order, as the globe thistle.

The orders of the three next classes, Gynandria,

Monoecia, and Dioecia, are distinguished like Mona

delphia and the two following, by the number of

their stamens, and are termed Monandria, Diandria,

and so on.

The twenty-third class, Polygamia, has two orders.

1. Monoecia. Flowers with stamens and pistils,

or flowers that have pistils only, or stamens only,

but always on one plant.

2. Dioecia. Flowers so formed on different plants.

The twenty-fourth class, Cryptogamia, which has

no visible flowers, is arranged into five orders, viz.

ferns, mosses, liverworts, flags, and mushrooms.

QUESTIONS.

ARE there more ways than one of arranging

plants?

What is the system called which is adopted

here ?

136 QUESTIONS.

Mention some uses of classification.

On what circumstances is the Linnaean system

founded?

Why should we choose wild flowers, rather than .

garden flowers, for botanical study?

Give an instance of change effected by culture.

Repeat the names of classes as far as the eleventh.

What is the twelfth class?

In what respect do the twelfth and thirteenth

classes differ? and show it by comparing the ex

amples given.

What is the distinction of the fourteenth class,

and how may you know its flowers without counting

the stamens?

What is the fifteenth class, and of what shape

are all the flowers contained in it?

Describe the sixteenth class, and, if possible, ex

amine the example given.

Describe the seventeenth class, and examine a

sweet pea, or laburnum, or broom flower, or any

other instance.

Describe the eighteenth class, and mention the

example given.

QUESTIONS. 137

Describe the nineteenth class, and give six flowers

as instances.

Describe the twentieth class.

Describe the twenty-first class.

What is the twenty-second class?

Describe the twenty-third class.

Describe the twenty-fourth class.

On what circumstances are the orders of the

first thirteen classes founded ?

Repeat the names of these orders.

How many orders has the fourteenth class?

Describe the first order, and mention what kind

of flowers it contains.

Describe the second order, and mention in what

it differs from the first. Endeavour to produce

examples of each.

Mention the names of the two orders of the fif

teenth class.

What is the peculiarity of the order Siliculosa?

How do you know the order Siliquosa P

How are the orders distinguished of the sixteenth,

seventeenth, and eighteenth classes? -

138 QUESTIONS.

What kind of flowers are in the nineteenth

class?

How many orders has Syngenesia?

Repeat their names.

Look at your book, and answer the following

questions.

When all the florets of a compound flower are

perfect, that is, having both stamens and pistils, in

what order is the flower?

When the florets of the ray have pistils, and

the florets of the centre have stamens, what order

is it P

In what order is the globe thistle? and why?

How do you distinguish the orders of the classes

Gynandria, Monoecia, and Dioecia?

The hop is in class Dioecia, it has five stamens,

in what order is it?

There is a greenish white flower which trails

over hedges, and has large rough leaves, shaped

like those of a grape vine and tendrils. It is

called the black bryony. It is in class Monoecia,

and has five stamens or (rather anthers as they

QUESTIONS. 139

have no stalks), in what order should you suppose

it to be?

How many orders has the twenty-third class

Polygamia?

Describe them.

Mention the orders of the class Cryptogamia.

140

CHAPTER IX.

FuRTHER REMARKs on THE CLAssEs AND ORDERs; FERNs;

MossEs; FLAGs; LICHENs; SEA-WEEDs.

S the aim of this little work is to direct the

pupil to the practical study of botany, the

plants enumerated in this list are chiefly wild plants,

or common garden flowers, which the young learner

may easily procure for examination. The nume

rous exotics which might be mentioned are left

for the more advanced study of the science.

Class I. Monandria, one stamen. This is a very

small class of plants: it contains two orders,

Monogynia and Digynia. Only two native \

plants are found in it. The glasswort (sali

cornia), a fleshy plant, with jointed stems, some

thing like the samphire, is common on salt marshes.

It has greenish flowers without any leaves. It is

called glasswort, because it yields a quantity of

CLASSES AND ORDERS. 14l

soda, which is used in making glass. The other

plant is the mare's tail (hippuris), which grows in

ditches, and has long linear leaves, in a whorl,

round its jointed stem.

Class II. Diandria, two stamens. This class has

three orders, viz. Monogynia, Digy

nia, and Trigynia. In it are the pri

vet, a bush which grows in hedges,

and has in Spring clusters of small white flowers:

and the numerous blue speedwells, which grow in

fields and meadows in Spring and Summer. There

are eighteen species of the speedwell, many of

them very common: they are generally of a bright

blue. The most common kind is often called by

children the blue cat's eye. This is the germander

speedwell (veronica chamadrys), it blooms profusely

in May. Some of the speedwells grow in streams

and ditches. One kind is well known by the name

of brooklime.

In this class, also, are the gipsy wort (lycopus),

a plant found in streams, and said formerly to

have been used by gipsies to stain themselves

142 REMARKS ON

brown: the meadow sage (salvia), the ash tree

(fraxinus), the common lilac (syringa), and that

garden vervain, which has leaves so powerfully

scented like lemon. This is the verbena triphilla.

Several other plants belong to class Diandria, but

it is not a large class.

Class III. Triandria, three stamens. It has three

orders, viz. Monogynia, Digynia,

and Trigynia. This class includes

the grasses, which are very numerous,

and require considerable patience in

their study. All the grass plants are wholesome,

except one, the common darnel. This plant, if

mixed with wheat in bread, produces delirium.

The grass tribe is of great use to man and animals.

The sugar came, the wheat and barley, furnish us

with food; while the green grass of the meadows,

or the hay or oats, are constantly required by cattle.

Many grasses, if examined separately, are very

beautiful, especially during the season of bloom;

and the verdant covering they afford to the earth,

and the tremulous motion which the latter species

cLAssEs AND orDERs. 143

receive from the wind, add much to the beauty of

the Summer scene. The grasses are very similar

to each other in their general aspect. They have

all straight hollow stems, with knots at intervals:

long leaves, which have no veins, but a nerve in

the centre, and lines even with it, running all the

length of the leaf. In examining the flower of

grasses, the student is at first unable to discern

between calyx and corolla. The calyx which is

called a glume, is usually composed of two valves,

though sometimes of one, or of three pieces: these

valves are often terminated with pointed threads

or awns. The corolla is a dry skin, or husk,

within the glume, and when the grass is in flower,

the three stamens and two pistils are clearly seen

hanging from it.

Several beautiful garden plants are in this class,

as the crocus, the iris, and the tall gladiolus or

corn-flag. Very few of our native plants are found

here. Among them is the red valerian (valeriana

rubra), which grows wild on old walls, and is often

planted in gardens, where it is sometimes called

144 REMARKS ON

pretty Betty. The water valerian (valeriana offici

nalis), is similar to the red kind, but of a much

paler rose colour. It grows in streams, and the

leaves are often used by country people as an

application to wounds, whence it is called all-heal.

The little plant so common in corn fields, in early

Spring, and called corn sallad or lamb's lettuce

(fedia), is another plant of this class. It has small

terminal clusters of pale blue flowers, and grows

a few inches high. The wild crocus, the purple and

yellow flags, and some plants of the rush kind,

with a purple flower called trichomena, which is

very rare, and some chickweeds, comprehend all

the other wild flowers of Triandria.

Class IV. Tetrandria, four stamens. Three orders,

viz. Monogynia, Digynia, and Tetra

gynia. Here again we find many źwell known wild flowers, though this -

is not a large class, when compared with some

others. The teasel, a tall plant, about four or five

feet high, is one of them. It has an oval-shaped

head, of lilac flowers, and these, upon withering,

CLASSES AND ORDERS. 145

leave an oblong chaffy receptacle, formed like a

honey-comb, and set with strong bristles. This

head is used by cloth dressers in preparing cloth,

and in some of the northern counties is cultivated

for that purpose. The tall lilac scabious of the

hedge and corn field, which blossoms about June

and July, and the plantain, which we gather from

the road side for birds, are well known. There

are also a number of plants with their leaves grow

ing in whorls around their stems, and having close

panicles of small white or yellow blossoms, placed

at the top or on the sides of the stem. The corolla

is wheel-shaped, and four cleft. These are the

white and yellow bed straws, so called because once

used to strew on the ground for beds. The mad

der, used for dying, has also whorled leaves and a

similar shaped flower; and so has also that lovely

and fragrant plant, the sweet woodruff. This is

very common in woods, its panicle of milk-white

blossoms is small, but theyremind one of the white

jasmine flowers, and its leaves, placed like crowns

one above another on its stem, yield, when dried,

L

146 REMARRS ON

a most delicious odour. The shining holly, whose

gay berries and glossy leaves cheer us in Winter;

and the dogwood, with its red stems and white

flowers, forming a common shrub of the hedges,

as well as some others, belong to this class.

Class W. Pentandria, five stamens. It has six

orders, viz. Monogynia, Digynia,

Trigynia, Tetragynia, Pentagynia, and

Polygynia. The plants contained in

this large class are too numerous to

mention; a few only can be enumerated: "Here

we find the primrose and cowslip (primula), the

violets (viola), the trailing periwinkle (vinca),

and the pimpernel (anagallis), or poor man's wea

ther glass, which shuts up its blossom before rain.

Many convolvulus and bell shaped flowers are

placed here, including the slender harebell of the

moor, and the large Canterbury bell. A number

of very rough leaved plants belong to Pentandria.

The borage (borago), which grows on waste ground;

the viper's bugloss (echium), whose stem of bell

shaped flowers is conspicuous on the chalky hills;


and the lungwort (pulmonaria), which with spotted

leaves, grows both in woods and gardens. The

two last named plants are, while in bud, and during

an early stage of the bloom, of a deep red colour,

and upon expansion are of a bright blue. The

same change of colour occurs in the different species

of scorpion grass, which are also in this class; and

one of which, the water scorpion grass (myosotis

palustris), is the forget-me-not. Here we find the

nightshade, and the dark purple blossoms of two

species might warn us of their poisonous nature:

the potatoe, which is a plant of the same tribe, and

has a flower shaped like that of the common

nightshade, is here also; and like that plant, bears

poisonous berries on its branches, though its root

is so useful for food. The tall mullein (verbascum),

with its yellow spike of flowers, and large woolly

flannel-like leaves; the winding honeysuckle (loni

cera); the stately elm tree (ulmus); the wild guelder

rose (viburnum), commonly known by the pretty

name of wayfaring tree; the elder (sambucus),

with its powerful odour, and useful berries; the

148 REMARKS ON

currant and gooseberry (ribes), and the ivy (hedera),

all belong to this class.

To this class belong also the large tribe of um.

belliferous plants, which are so similar to each

other, that the learner may easily distinguish them.

Umbelliferous plants, as was before mentioned, are

those which have compound umbels. Look at a

bunch of flowers or berries of the ivy. You will

see a number of stalks, all coming from one point

on the stem. This is a simple umbel. Look at

the parsley, there you see the stalks coming all out

like the rays of an umbrella, but each stalk has

another bundle of rays at its top. This is a com

pound umbel, and here we have an umbelliferous

plant. When umbelliferous plants grow in dry

places they are often wholesome and aromatic;

but those which grow on marshy grounds are

highly poisonous. Many of them, as the hemlock

and the carraway, are used in medicine; and many,

like the carrot and parsnip, are valuable as food.

They have all white or yellow flowers, and are

mostly in bloom early in the Spring.


Class VI. Hexandria, six stamens. It has six

orders, viz. Monogynia, Digynia, Trigy

nia,Tetragynia, Hexagyniaand Polygynia.

To this class belong the lily, the tulip, the

marcissus, and several splendid garden

flowers: and the young botanist may

soon gather some instances from the fields. The

pretty lily of the valley (convallaria majalis), which

loves the shade of the quiet wood; the wild hya

cinth (hyacinthus nonscriptus), which greets us

there soon after the violet has made its appearance;

and the daffodil (narcissus), which, as Shakespeare

says, “comes before the swallow dares,” are fami

liar examples. Then we find in it the pure snow

drop (galanthus nivalis), the spider wort, the

asparagus, and onion, and several other well known

plants; and the barberry tree, with the acid berries,

which make so pleasant a preserve.

Several rushes are found in the class Hexandria,

and a flower called the water plantain (alisma plan

tago), is very conspicuous on streams. It has three

rose-coloured petals, its leaves all come from the

150 REMARKS ON

root on long stalks, and the plant grows quite in

the water, and is about three feet high. The

common sorrel (rumea acetosa), is often gathered

in fields by children, who well know its acid leaves

and purplish red flowers. This plant is much used

by the Laplanders, who employ it in making cheese

of the reindeer's milk.

Class VII. Heptandria, seven stamens. Orders

four, viz. Monogynia, Digynia, Tetra- (\

gynia and Heptagynia. This is a very @#

small class. The only wild plant it

contains is the Winter-green (trientalis), a favourite

flower with Linnaeus, but very rare in England.

The magnificent horse chesnut tree (aesculus hip.

pocastanum), is placed here. This tree is often

planted in parks, on account of its beautiful foliage,

and large clusters of delicate pink flowers. Its

nuts, broken and steeped in hot water, will serve,

as well as soap, to cleanse linen. _^

Class VIII. Octandria, eight sta- #

mens. Orders four, viz. Monogynia, *Digynia, Trigynia and Tetragynia. J%


Some of the most interesting wild flowers of this

class are the heaths (erica), and the common ling

(calluna), which last is similar to a heath, only

that it grows on a small branched shrub. It has

reddish coloured flowers. These heath plants are

the Highland heather, of which we read in “The

Lady of the Lake,” and other Scottish poems. The

exotic heaths, which we see in conservatories, are

brought from the Cape of Good Hope. In this

class we have the singular herb Paris (Paris quadri

folia), a plant which may be described so as that

if the learner meet with it in the woods he may

recognize it. It has a calyx of four sepals, a green

corolla of four petals, and four leaves at its root.

Very early in Spring, sometimes by the latter end

of February, we find in woods a small green flower,

called the gloryless (adova moschatella), which

has, in the evening, a scent of musk. Here too

is the maple or sycamore tree (acer), the willow

herb (epilobium), the evening primrose (enothera),

and the mezereon which, in February, is covered

with its pale pink blossoms, without a leaf to shelter

152 REMARKS ON

them. Among the garden flowers of this class, we

find the handsome nasturtium (tropalum), whose

bright flowers, in Summer evenings, emit sparks

like those of an electric machine; and here too is

the beautiful fuchsia, the common scarlet species

of which (fuchsia coccinea) is now so common,

that the cottage window can boast of it as an orna

ment.

Class IX. Enneandria, nine stamens. This small

class contains three orders, viz. Mono

gynia, Trigynia, and Hexagynia. The $: ź

most remarkable exotic placed in it is : >

the cinnamon tree (laurus cinnamomum),

the bark of which produces the well known spice

cinnamon. The only wild flower in the class is

the flowering rush (butomus umbellatus), which

grows in streams, and has sharp sedge-like leaves,

which often cut the mouths of cattle who drink the

water. Its flowers are very handsome, growing in

a cluster, and are of a rose colour.

Class X. Decandria, ten stamens. Orders five,

viz. Monogynia, Digynia, Trigynia, Pentagynia,


and Decagnia. The learner has been

told that the seventeenth class, Dia

delphia, is formed of papilionaceous or

butterfly-shaped flowers, with their

filaments united. There are, however, a few papilio

naceous flowers in which the filaments are separate.

And these are in the tenth class. They are all

exotics, however, as the whole number of our native

papilionaceous blossoms belong to the class Dia

delphia. Those of the class Decandria, are orna

mental flowers of the garden or conservatory, and

are chiefly natives of the Cape of Good Hope.

Some very pretty wild flowers belong to this

class. The pink (dianthus), one native species of

which is called the castle pink, and grows on ruined

walls; and another handsome kind, the Cheddar

pink, blooms on limestone rocks in Somersetshire,

and is very handsome. One common kind, the

Deptford pink, is found in meadows; and another,

the maiden pink, grows in hedges. Then we have

that handsome tribe of flowers the saxifrages. One

of them, well known by the name of London pride

154 REMARKS ON

(saxifraga umbrosa), is a common ornament of the

garden, and was called by its familiar name, because

uninjured by the smoke of London. There are

twenty-four species of saxifrage, mentioned by pro

fessor Hooker, as native plants, and a large number

are cultivated in gardens. In this class also is

found the campion or catchfly (silene). Several

species of this plant are common. The bladder

campion (silene inflata) must be known to the

learner. It blooms in May, and has white flowers

supported upon a calyx, which is swelled like a

bladder, and veined with a fine network. Children

call it snapweed. The young shoots have the

scent and flavour of green peas, and, when blanched

and cooked, greatly resemble that vegetable. Very

similar in appearance to these plants are the

lychnis tribe: one kind (lychnis dioica) is known

by the familiar name of bachelor's buttons, and is

a pink flower, common in meadows and by streams.

A white variety, frequent in corn fields, is delight

fully fragrant in the evening.

In this class too are the chickweeds (stellaria).


The common kind, which we give to birds, is the

stellaria media. The corn cockle (agrostemma),

which makes so conspicuous a figure among the

corn, with its large lilac flowers; and the numerous

stonecrops (sedum), several of which grow on

walls, and have yellow, white, or reddish blossoms,

are also placed here. Here, too, is the arbutus

tree (arbutus unedo), which grows wild, and bears

its strawberries on the banks of Killarney; and

the pretty delicate wood sorrel (oa'alis acetosella),

which has white flowers with pencilled veins, and

leaves shaped like those of the clover, containing a

powerful acid.

Class XI. Dodecandria, from eleven to nineteen

stamens. Orders six, viz. Monogynia,

Digynia, Trigynia, Tetragynia, Penta- :*

gynia, and Dodecagynia. This class con

tains more exotics than native flowers.

The sweet mignionette (reseda), “the Frenchman's

darling,” is here; it is a native of Egypt. Every

one knows the wild migmionette also (reseda luteola).

It is used in dying, and often called dyer's rocket,

156 REMARKS ON

or yellow weed. In this class too, we have that

handsomelilac spiked flower, the loosestrife (lythrum

salicaria), which grows by the side of streams; and

the houseleek (sempervivum tectorum), which our

forefathers so carefully placed on the roof, under

an idea that it was an enchanted plant, and would

preserve the dwelling from the injury of lightning.

Class XII. Icosandria, twenty or more stamens

inserted in the calyx. Orders three,

viz. Monogynia, Pentagynia, and& -

Polygynia. Here the place of in- |

sertion of the stamens distinguishes

this class from the next; and is a point of great

importance, because in all plants in which the

stamens grow out of the calyx the fruit is whole

some. If the stamens so situated are more than

twenty in number, the plant is in Icosandria.

Here we have the myrtle (myrtus), the cactus

(cactus), the beautiful syringa of the garden (phi

ladelphus), whose leaves have a strong odour of

cucumber; the peach (amygdalus persica), the


almond (amygdalus communis), and a number of

exotic and native fruit trees.

The rosaceous or rose-like plants are found in

this class, all bearing wholesome fruits. The type

of this tribe of plants is the rose, and they have

all blossoms like the queen of flowers. But we

must not look for similarity to the cabbage or

damask roses of the garden, but to the wild briar,

the dog rose of the hedges. The five petals, and

numerous stamens growing out of the calyx, which

form the characteristic of this flower, are found

also in the hawthorn or May bush (crategus), which

is so beautiful with its white fragrant blossoms in

Spring; and in the white strawberry flower (fra

garia vesca), which comes with the violet in the

Spring woods. Like it too, are the apple and

pear (pyrus), the crab apple of the woods being

the origin of the cultivated fruit; and the cherry

tree (prunus), whose little black sour fruits are

sought by the schoolboy in the woodlands, and are

the origin of the delicious fruits which grace the

158 R.E.M.A. R. KS ON

cherry orchards of Kent and some other counties.

Here too is the bramble (rubus), one species of

which bears the well known blackberry. This is

the rubus fruticosus. Among the common wild

flowers of this class, are the delicious meadow

sweet (spiraea ulmarea), with its graceful white

blossom, clustering by the stream side, and emitting

a powerful fragrance: and the pretty velvet-like

yellow blossoms ofthe cinquefoils (potentilla), which

creep with their strawberry-shaped leaves over the

banks by every rural way side.

Class XIII. Polyandria, from twenty to many

hundred stamens, placed on the recep

tacle. Orders seven, viz. Monogynia,

Digynia, Trigynia, Tetragynia, Penta

gynia, Hexagynia, and Polygynia. The

plants of this class are very different from those of

the last. They are many of them poisonous, and

all of very suspicious quality. The poppy (papaver),

is a common instance; there we find, perhaps, a

hundred stamens, growing all round a pistil, in

which there is no style. The opium, that drug


which is useful if rightly employed, and so permi

cious in its effects when taken for any but medical

purposes, is made from the white poppy (papaver

somniferum). It is the thickened juice of that

plant, made by cutting incisions in the stem. Here

too we have the alabaster ornament of our streams,

the white water lily (nymphaea alba), and the

yellow water lily (nuphar lutea), which is more

common than the white flower; the bright peony

(paeonia), the larkspur (delphinum), columbine

(aquilegia), and many others; besides that deadly

poison the purple monkshood (aconitum); children

often gather this flower, and pull out the long

pistils, which they call Venus's doves, but it is

highly dangerous to do so, as the scent of the

plant produces head-ache, and sometimes causes

convulsions. The crowfoots (ranunculus), two

species of which are the Spring and Summer but

tercups, so pleasing to children, are in class Poly

andria.

Class XIV. Didynamia, four stamens, two long

and two short. Orders two. Here most of the

160 REMARKS ON

plants are easily recognised by the shape -

of the blossoms. The first order is &named Gymnospermia, and is known by

the seeds being placed in the bottom of the calyx,

instead of being enclosed in a capsule.

Instances of this are the lavender (lavendula),

the thyme (thymus), which is so fragrant on the

moor or chalky bank; the ground ivy (glechoma),

once used in giving flavour to ale instead of hops;

the dead nettles (lamium), which blossom in Spring,

some bearing white, others red flowers; the hore

hound (ballota), with its mouldy scent, and dull

dingy purple blossoms; the cat-mint (nepeta cataria),

with its powerful odour, and several other common

plants.

The second order Angiospermia, has its seeds

in a capsule. Here we find the snapdragon (an

tirrhinum); the stately foxglove or lady's fingers

(digitalis), so useful in medicine; the toadflax

(linaria), with its yellow blossoms, and sea-green

slender leaves, adorning every field and hedge in

June and July; the monkey flower of the garden


(mimulus), and the pretty eyebright of the pasture

(euphrasia).

Class XV. Tetradynamia, six stamens, four long

and two short. All the flowers cross- 3'

S-Q 2->

shaped. Orders two. t21,

The first order, Siliculosa, is known N."

by having a short pouch for the seed vessel. The

shepherd's purse (thlaspi bursa pastoris), which

children call pick-pocket, is a well known weed.

Here too we have the candy tuft (iberis), which is

sometimes found wild, and whose purple or white

tufts of flowers are common in gardens; the honesty

(lunaria), sometimes from its round clear smooth

pods called satin flower; sometimes termed moon

wort, from its crescent-shaped seeds, is a common

plant of this order.

The second order, Siliquosa, has for its fruit a

long pod. Here we find the wallflower (cheiranthus),

either adorning the wall, or gracing the garden

bed; and the stock (matthiola), vithits rich clusters

of scented flowers, known to every one. The

cuckoo flower or cardamine (cardamine pratensis),

M

162 REMARKS ON

a delicate lilac blossom, found in woods or moist

meadows, blooming with the primrose and violet;

and the numerous tribe of wild mustards, whose

yellow or white flowers seem to thrive in every

green spot of earth.

The plants of Tetradynamia are all wholesome,

and possess an antiscorbutic property, though many

are too acrid to be agreeable. The horseradish,

the radish, the cabbage, the sea kale, and others,

are in use as table vegetables. Not one tree is

found in the class.

Class XVI. Monadelphia, filaments united into

tubes. Orders seven, formed from

the number of the stamens, viz.

Triandria, Pentandria, Heptandria,

Octandria, Decandria, Dodecandria,

and Polyandria. The only wild plants in this class

are the mallows (malva), and cranesbills or gera

niums (geranium). The numerous geraniums which

show their pink or lilac flowers among the grass are

well known. There is the Robert's leaved cranesbill

(geranium Robertiana), familiarly called pink cat's


eye; and the pretty dove's-foot cranesbill (geranium

molle), which has soft leaves and stems, covered

with silk hairs, and is like velvet to the touch.

These and many others, are common in Spring

and Summer, in the green fields or flowery hedges.

We have in all, six species of mallow, including the

tree mallow (lavatera), which grows on rocks, in

the south of England; and the marsh mallow

(althaea), which is of a very mucilaginous nature,

and much used medicinally. One very common

kind is well known to children, growing by every

way side, and having round flat fruits, which they

call cheeses. This is the malva sylvestris. Some

handsome garden flowers are in this class, espe

cially the scarlet and other tinted handsome pot

geraniums. The Latin name of these geraniums is

pelargonium. They are all natives of the Cape

of Good Hope. Here too we have the hollyock

(althaea rosea), a native of China; the hibiscus,

and several other.

Class XVII. Diadelphia, filaments combined

in two sets. Orders four, viz. Pentandria, Hexan

164 REMARKS ON

dria, Octandria and Decandria. Flowers :

almost all papilionaceous. This is a &large and very useful class, containing -

plants which afford both food and ornament. Beans

and peas in their various varieties are useful to

man as food; while the tares, the trefoils, the

saintfoin and others, yield food for cattle. A few

only of the plants of this large class are deleterious.

In the flower garden we have the gay laburnum

(cytisus laburnum), the seeds of which are emetic;

the sweet pea (lathyrus odorata), the yellow coro

nella, and many others. The heath lands are bright

with the flowers of the golden broom (genista), and

the equally golden furze (ulea), which is seldom

out of blossom; and the purple and white clovers

(trifolium): while the crimson and blue vetches

(vicia), and yellow vetchlings (lathyrus), tangle

about with their tendrils in hedges and woods, and

by way sides.

Class XVIII. Polyadelphia, fila

ments combined in three or more sets.

Orders four, viz. Decandria, Dode


candria, Icosandria, and Polyandria. There are

not many plants in this class. The theobroma a

South American plant, which supplies us with the

nuts of which cocoa and chocolate are made, is

placed here. Here too, we have the bright yellow

flowers of the St. John's wort (hypericum), some of

which are common in gardens, while we have as

many as eleven wild species. In the south of France

it is usual to hang up the common St. John's wort

(hypericum perforatum), in the windows of houses,

on St. John's day. This is done to please the

saint, and avert evil spirits from the dwelling.

Many superstitious practices prevail on the Con

timent in connection with this plant, and in former

days they were as prevalent in our own country.

This species of St. John's wort was once called

“balm of the warrior's wound,” and it is still used

by country people as a very efficacious remedy for

wounds and bruises.

Class XIX. Syngenesia, anthers united into a

tube. Flowers all compound. Orders five, (for their

names see preceding chapter).

166 REMARKS ON

This is the largest of the Linnaean

classes, and the young learner will

soon know its flowers by a few ex

amples. The dandelion (leontodon

taraxacum), so useful in medicine, and so valuable

in Spring to the bees; and our first favourite, “the

child's own flower,” the daisy (bellis perennis), are

found here. Here too we have the bright succory

(cichorium intybus), with its large blue stars, crowd

ing on its tall stem; and the numerous hawk weeds

(hieracium), which are something like small dan

delions; the marigold (calendula), that goes to

bed with the sun; the numerous thistles, the tansy,

the sunflower, the dahlia, and a hundred others.

Class XX. Gynandria, stamens placed upon

the pistil or germen. Orders four, viz.

Monandria, Diandria, Hexandria, and

Octandria. This class contains the

beautiful tribe of orchises, and also the

tribe nearly allied to it, of flowers resembling insects,

termed ophrys.

Of the native species of these plants, the bee


ophrys (ophrys apifera), is the most remarkable,

presenting the appearance of an humble bee settled

upon a flower: we have too, the fly and spider

ophrys, both nearly resembling these insects. In

hot countries this tribe of plants grows on trees,

and produces still more striking resemblances to

the insect creation; some being like butterflies,

with expanded wings; others, like the bright green

or purple lizards of tropical countries. Our own

orchis and ophrys plants are seen to most perfec

tion in woods and on chalky hills, in May and

June.

Class XXI. Monoecia, stamens and pistils in

different flowers, but growing on the same '',

plant. Orders eight, viz. Monandria, _% -

Diandria, Triandria, Tetrandria, Poly

andria, and Monadelphia. -

In this class we find the celebrated bread-fruit

tree (artocarpus), which supplies the natives of the

South Sea Islands with their chief food; and the

fruit of which is as large as a loaf of bread, and no

less nourishing. Here, too, are the yellow flowers

168 REMARKS ON

of the cucumber plant (cucumis), and the gourd

tribe (cucurbita). The sedges, with their sharp

thin leaves, fringing the edge of the stream; and

a number of trees, as the hazel, the box, the ches

nut, and the birch, are found here. The last tree

is a most graceful ornament of shrubberies and

woods, having a pale silver-coloured bark, and its

branches being so light, that they wave with every

wind, and have been compared to “dishevelled hair.”

The spurge (euphorbia), which is called wart weed,

because the milk in its stem and branches is used

to cure warts, is well known. There are fourteen

British species.

Class XXII. Dioecia, stamens and pistils in

separate flowers, andon different plants.

Orders eight, viz. Momandria, Dian

dria, Triandria, Tetrandria, Pentan

dria, Hexandria, Polyandria, and Mo

madelphia.

In this class, as in the last, we have a number of

trees; the Spring poplar (populus), the willow

(salia), with its gray foliage, and the dark yew


(taxus), with its scarlet cup-like berries, which

are by some writers said to be poisonous, and by

others considered innoxious. Most probably they

have different effects on different constitutions, and

children incur danger when they eat them. Then

we have the graceful hop (lupulus), which is so

useful to mankind, and the mistletoe (viscum album),

with which for so many centuries houses have

been decked, and which is celebrated for having

been regarded by the Druids with great veneration,

and for having been called by them all-heal, and

considered, in dark ages, a universal charm for ills

of every kind.

Class XXIII. Polygamia, flowers different on

the same plant. Orders two, Mo

noecia, and Dioecia. One native

plant only is found in this class.

This is the orache (atriplex). Se

veral species of this grow on salt marshes, with

thick sea-green coloured leaves, and yellowish or

reddish spikes of flowers. Some are common as

weeds in gardens; one, which has halberd-shaped

170 FERNS.

leaves, of a gray colour, is familiarly called “old

man's weed.” In this class also is the nettle tree

(celtis) of hot climates, the sting of which causes

death; and the valuable plantain tree (musa) is

also found here.

Class XXIV. Cryptogamia, stamens and pistils

not visible. Orders five, viz. ferns, 2~

mosses, liverworts, flags (which

include lichens and seaweeds), and

mushrooms.

Ferns (filices) are those plants

which have their parts of fructification on the back

of the leaf or stalk. In ferns the stalk or stipe,

and leaf, are indeed, the same; the middle rib of

the leaf being merely a continuation of the foot

stalk, so that stalk and leaf are all one; and stems,

properly speaking, they have none. The stem

and leaf thus united, form a frond. Ferns grow in

shady moist hedges, or near rills. Some have

long and slender fronds, as the common hart's

tongue (scolopendrium vulgare); others, like the

common brake (pteris aquilina), which is used for

FERNS ; MOSSES. 171

packing cherries, have pinnated fronds. Ferns,

when young, have their points rolled up in a scroll.

The fructification is sometimes seen by the naked

eye, and consists of a number of little brown

ridges; in some, as in the common brake, these

ridges form a line round the edge of the leaf or

frond. Ferns are of a less succulent nature than

most other plants. In tropical countries they

grow to the height of trees, and are thence called

arborescent or tree-ferns. The roots of several

species are used in New Zealand and other coun

tries as food, and some bitter species are employed

as medicines; but, upon the whole, they are not a

useful tribe of plants, though very ornamental,

from the feathery appearance which many of them

present. There are about fifty British species, and

many more in countries near the tropics.

The second order of Cryptogamia is the mosses

(musci); the learner will not need to have mosses

described to him. He knows the beautiful verdant

plants which cover the stems of trees, or the gar

den walls, or with their soft silky star-like foliage,

172 MOSSES.

serve him for a cushion in the wood or on the bank.

Mosses have distinct leaves, usually closely crowded

on their stems and branches, and when seen under

a microscope, presenting a most elegant array of

verdure. Their roots are all formed of small fibres,

and thus they penetrate the crevices of rocks or

the barks of trees, while they require little nou

rishment from the plant or soil on which they grow,

and are not injurious to other vegetables. They

derive their nutriment from the rain, the dew, or

the moist air. They are most common in tempe

rate and cold climates, and when found in hot

countries, they flourish chiefly in shady places.

Mosses are formed of cells. Their cellular texture

enables them to resist drought, since the cells

easily imbibe moisture, and retain it long; and

thus if we see them withered by the long Summer's

heat, a shower of rain will again revive their beauty

in the course of an hour. There are many species,

but the learner will not be able to detect them,

until he has made some progress in practical

botany. They are not useful as food or medicine,

MOSSES; LIVERWORTS ; FLAGS. 173

but they protect trees from cold or drought, and

also retain moisture for the roots of grass and

other plants with which they mingle. In Lapland

the little infant has his bed made of moss, which

his mother gathers for him, as often as it loses its

freshness. Mosses mingle largely with other plants,

in forming the substance called peat, which in many

counties is used by the poor instead of coals. The

mosses grow by the sides of shallow pools or on

boggy ground; and in course of years their roots

fill up the place which was once occupied by the

water. The quantity of moisture half decays their

roots, and those of other plants, and then they

form the vegetable mould called peat.

The third order consists of the liverworts (hepa

tica). Liverworts are difficult to describe. They

are not so common as ferns and mosses, and they

are something between a moss and a lichen. Until

late years, they were classed with the mosses. Like

mosses, they are full of cells, and when withered,

revive by the application of moisture.

Order four; flags (algae). A large number of

174 SEA-WEED.

the plants of this order float, either on the sea or

in fresh water. Those which live in the sea are

termed sea-weeds (fuci). They have not exactly

roots, for being destined to float, they do not need

them. Those, however, which are fastened to any

substance have, at the base, a few fibres, by which

they adhere. Some weeds which we pick up by

the sea-side, in our own country, are of a beautiful

rose-colour, brown, yellow, or green; and in the

seas of the Tropics they are of a rich purple, green

or crimson, and larger and more numerous. Some

times they float in such quantities on the waters,

that vessels cannot pass among their tangled

branches. Many, as the orchil, are used in dying.

They all contain potash or soda, which is valuable

in medicine and manufactures, and some of them

are reduced to a jelly and eaten. The most com

mon sea-weed, one which is known to most children,

is that dark brown kind, which has a number of

bladders upon it. This is the sea oak or bladder

fucus (fucus vesiculosus). It hangs in profusion

about the piers and baths at the coast, and is often

SEA-WEED; LICHENS. I75

found in salt rivers. Those green slimy substances

SEA OAK.

which float in fresh water, are also flags, and

termed confervae. The learner must have seen

those crust-like substances of a gray or greenish

colour, which grow on rocks or trees, as well as

the bright orange or lemon

coloured patches, which are on

old pales or gates, or on the

roofs of houses. These are ano

ther division of flags, and are

termed lichens. The pretty

plant which grows in groups on

176 LICHENS ; FUNGUSES.

walls, in shape like a wine glass, is called the cup

moss, and is the lichen pyxidatus; and the reindeer

moss is the lichen rangiferinus. Without this

valuable plant, this animal could not subsist in

lapland, where it forms the chief property of the

inhabitants.

The fifth order is the mushrooms (fungi). This

comprehends, not only the eatable mushroom, (aga

ricus); but all those poisonous plants commonly

called toad-stools, which, with beautiful spots and

tints, spring up in a few hours. It comprises also,

those mouldy looking spots which cover any de

caying substance, as well as the bright handsome

funguses, which are found on old wood. A num

ber of the fungus tribe are so minute, that they

can be seen only by a magnifying glass; but they

cover all decaying animal or vegetable matter,

and crowd in clusters in damp cellars. The mush

room tribe may be known from the other funguses

by their gills. Look at the common mushroom

(agaricus campestris), which is used for making

ketchup. You will see under the cap (pileus) a

QUESTIONS. 177

number of perpendicular silver-coloured pieces,

running from the stalk to the circumference. These

are the gills, and they produce the seeds. We

have upwards of three hundred species of British

mushrooms.

QUESTIONS.

How many orders has class Monandria? (The

names of the orders need not be repeated).

Mention a plant in this class, and any thing

respecting it.

How many orders has class Diandria?

Mention some circumstances respectingthe speed

wells.

Mention some garden plants found in this class.

How many orders has class Triandria?

What large tribe of plants is found here?

Mention some uses of grasses.

Describe their general appearance.

Mention several other plants found in Triandria.

N

178 QUESTIONS.

Mention any uses to which they are applied.

How many orders has Tetrandria?

Mention some common flowers in Tetrandria.

Of what use is the teasel ?

Describe the bedstraws, and say why they are

thus called.

What is remarkable in the sweet woodruff?

What is that wild shrub which in May bears

clusters of white flowers, each flower with four

petals and four stamens, and with red twigs and

branches?

How many orders has Pentandria?

Is Pentandria a large class?

Mention several plants in this class.

What is there peculiar in the colours of the

borage and lungwort?

Mention other plants with this peculiarity.

To what tribe of plants does the potato belong?

Mention several uses of plants in this class.

Describe umbelliferous plants.

In what cases are umbelliferous plants poison

ous?

QUESTIONS. 179

Are any used in medicine?

What coloured flowers have they?

How many orders has class Hexandria?

Mention several plants in this class, and circum

stances respecting them.

Name some eatable vegetables and fruits found

here.

Of what use is sorrel ?

Is Class Seven a large class, and how many

orders has it?

Mention a wild flower in this class.

Mention some circumstances respecting the

horse chesnut.

How many orders has Octandria?

Mention an interesting tribe of plants found

here.

Where do the exotic heaths come from ?

Describe the herb Paris.

What is that common flower which has a scent

of musk in the evening?

Mention a circumstance respecting the flower of

the garden masturtium.

180 QUESTIONS.

How many orders are there in class Enneandria?

What is the only wild flower it contains?

Mention some circumstances respecting the flower

ing rush.

How many orders has class Decandria?

What is said respecting the papilionaceous flowers

of this class P

Mention some circumstances respecting pinks.

Why was the name of London Pride given to

that plant?

Mention some circumstances respecting the blad

der campion.

Describe the plant.

Mention some circumstances respecting the lych

nis dioica, and give its familiar name.

Mention several other plants of this class.

How many orders has class Dodecandria?

Mention a common garden flower placed in it.

Of what use is the wild mignionette?

What superstition once attached to the house

leek?

QUESTIONS. 181

Mention the peculiarity respecting the stamens

of class Icosandria P

What blossoms show that the fruit of a plant is

wholesome?

What is that large tribe of plants found here?

What is the class of the rosaceous or rose tribe P

Mention several common plants belonging to this

tribe P

How many orders has Polyandria?

Are the plants here similar in their nature to

those of class Icosandria?


poppy.

Name some other plants of this class.


monkshood.

How may we know the plants of class Didy

namia?

How many orders has it?

What is the first order, and how is it known P

What is the second order, and how is it known P

Mention some flowers in both orders.

182 QUESTIONS.

Of what shape are all the flowers in class Tetra

dynamia?

What are its orders?

How may we know the order Siliculosa?

How may we know the order Siliquosa?

Name some flowers in this class.

Of what nature are the flowers in class Tetra

dynamia.

How many orders has Monadelphia?

Mention some flowers it contains?

Name some circumstance respecting the marsh

mallow.

Which is the malva sylvestris?

What is the name of the pot geraniums, and

whence do they come?

How many orders has class Diadelphia?

Mention some useful plants contained in it.

Name some deleterious ones.

How many orders has Polyadelphia?

What plant supplies us with chocolate?

Mention some circumstances respecting the St.

John's wort.

QUESTIONS. 183

What kind of flowers grow in class Syngenesia?

Which is the largest of the Linnaean classes?

Mention five instances of flowers of this class.

How many orders has it?

How many orders has class Gynandria?

What tribe of plants does it contain?

What is said respecting the ophrys tribe of plants

of hot countries?

On what kind of soil do we find our ophrys

plants?

How many orders has class Monoecia?

What useful exotic plant is found in it?

Mention several British plants which it con

tains.

How many orders has class Dioecia?

What is said of the yew tree?

Mention several plants in this class.

What is said of the mistletoe?

How many orders has Polygamia?

Mention a wild plant in it.

In what respect does the class Cryptogamia differ

from all the other classes?

184 QUESTIONS.

How many orders has this class?

Repeat their names.

Describe ferns.

What is the leaf and stalk of a fern called?

Where do ferns chiefly grow?

Mention a common one.

Where is the fructification generally found?

What are arborescent ferns, and where are they

found?

Are ferns of any use?

How many are there in Great Britain?

What are mosses?

What is said of their roots?

In what regions are they chiefly found?

Of what use are they?

What is peat, and how is it found?

What are liverworts?

What are those flags called which float on the

sea? *

Mention some particulars respecting them.

What is said of the sea-weeds of the Tropics?

Of what use are sea-weeds?

QUESTIONS. 185

Describe a well known one, and give its name.

What are confervae P

What are lichens?

What is the lichen pyxidatus?

What is said of the rein-deer moss?

What are comprehended in the fungus order?

How may we know the mushroom tribe from

the other kinds of fungi?

What are the gills?

How many kinds of mushrooms have we?

186

CHAPTER X.

SAP:—FlowING of SAP; AscENDING SAP; DEscENDING

SAP; PRINCIPLE of LIFE; TRANSPIRATION of PLANTs;

WEGETABLE PRobUCTs; GUM; MucILAGE; RESIN; OILs;

BITTER PRINCIPLE; NARcoTIC PRINCIPLE ; PUNGENT

AND ACRID PRINCIPLEs; AcIDs; SUGAR; STARCH; Co

LouriNG MATTER; WAx; CAMPHoR; CAoUTCHouc;

CoRk; Ashes; EARTHs; FLINT.

HE fluid common to all plants, called sap, has

been several times alluded to in the preceding

pages. This is a watery juice, which is absorbed

from the earth by the root, and from the atmo

sphere by the leaves, for the purpose of giving

nourishment to the whole vegetable. It is com

monly said to be the blood of plants, for by it they

are sustained, and from this juice all the other

vegetable productions, as sugar, milk, or acid, are

formed. If a wound be made in a plant either by

accident or intentionally, the sap may be seen to

FLOWING OF SAP. 187

flow from it, and it will often continue to ooze from

this incision for a day or two.

Gardeners, when they make this wound, call it

bleeding the plants. The flow of sap is most

copious, if the branch or stem be wounded during

the Spring, just before the young buds are un

folded on the tree; and in Autumn it flows pretty

freely after a frost, but during a frost no sap can

be procured from plants.

One circumstance, which at once distinguishes

plants from minerals or other lifeless objects, and

entitles them to be considered as endowed with

life, is that of the ascent and descent of this sap

through their vessels. The sap rises from the

root, up the woody stem of a tree, chiefly through

that part which has been described as the sap

wood; and in herbs, which have not woody stems,

it ascends through the bundles of fibres or vessels

which form the woody part of the plant.

The sap is in motion more or less during the

whole year, but especially during the Spring and

Autumnal seasons. In the Winter it becomes

188 QUANTITY OF SAP.

thick, and moves very slowly, so that it was for

merly thought to be quite motionless at that period:

but if this were the case, we should not see vege

tation proceed, as it does in some plants, even

during the coldest weather. In the depth of

Winter, the mosses are verdant and beautiful, and

grow and thrive; and the Christmas rose, and the

yellow aconite, and the laurustinus, bloom in our

gardens to cheer us, though scarcely a wild flower

is in blossom, and nature generally presents a

scene of desolation.

There is much difference in the quantity of sap

yielded by different plants. Some trees produce a

great deal. Thus the common birch (betula alba)

which is so ornamental a tree in our woodlands,

will, if incisions be made in it, yield it in such

abundance, that the Highlanders make birch wine

of this juice: and the common grape vine (vitis

vinifera), will, if a branch be cut through in

Spring, produce about a pint of sap in twenty

four hours.

It has been said that the sap ascends into the

MOTION OF SAP. 189

branches and leaves, and its further progress must

now be considered. When it enters the leaves a

great change is effected in its chemical properties.

A part of it is carried off from the plant, by the

perspiration which is common to vegetables, and

which is in some cases perceptible, though in

most, we cannot distinguish it. It has been ascer

tained by many experiments. One which has

been often tried, is that of cutting off a branch of

the tree, and covering the part which was cut, with

a thick gum, so as to prevent any sap from flowing

out of it. On weighing this branch, some time

after, it has been found to be less in weight than

when first cut, and therefore it must have become

lighter by means of perspiration. Another change

effected in the sap, is that caused by the different

kinds of gas which vegetables inhale from the

atmosphere. The fluid having lost some of its

watery nature, contains more nutritious principles,

and now descends into the plant, by a different set

of vessels from those by which it rose.

The descending sap is called by botanists the

190 PROPER JUICES OF PLANTS.

proper juice of plants, because it is proper or

peculiar to the kind of plant in which it exists.

Every one knows the common plant called sun

spurge or churn staff (euphorbia helioscopia) which

is a weed in our garden, with green flowers, and

stems full of milk. If the stem be broken, the

milk flows out of the plant, and it is of an acrid

nature, and used to cure warts. This is the de

scending sap, or proper juice, of the spurge. If

we break the hollow stem of the dandelion, we see

a little circle of milk round the broken part, this is

the proper juice of the dandelion: and the orange

coloured juice of the yellow celandine (chelidonium

majus), and the resinous juice of the pine and fir

trees, are each the proper juices of the respective

plant.

The young reader may ask how it is that the

sap rises—that it receives its first impulse. This

is a question which has interested naturalists, and

led to many ingenious experiments. Little more

can be said upon it, than that the sap is influenced

in its action by the principle of life. When a

PERSPIRATION OF PLANTS. 191

plant withers, the sap ceases to flow. Vegetable

life, like the similar principle in the animal system,

can be known and understood only by its effects;

and must be traced directly to Him, who is the

Great Author of all life, both animal and vegetable,

both present and eternal.

The perspiration or transpiration of plants may

sometimes be seen on warm calm days, lying in

drops on the poplar, willow, or other trees. It is

generally merely water, like dew, for which it is

often mistaken; but sometimes it is of a thick

sweet nature as on the leaf of the lime tree; and

sometimes, as on the leaves of the rosemary, it is

of a waxy substance. At sunrise, clear drops of

water may be seen hanging, like pearls, at the tips

of the slender leaves of the wheat. This is the

perspiration of the plant. It rose during the warm

part of the day, and mingled with the air in form

of vapour; but the coldness of night condensed it

into drops, which will again melt before the sun

shine. A great German naturalist, in order to

prove that these drops were the effect of transpira

192 VEGETABLE PRODUCTS.

tion, and not of dew, placed a poppy plant under

a bell, and covered it with a leaden case, in such a

manner, as to exclude the atmospheric air. Next

morning, he examined his poppy, and found it

bespangled with drops, though the morning dew

could not have reached it in its prison. The

transpiration of plants is much greater during a

warm dry day, than during cold or moist weather,

and is small in quantity during the chill airs of

night.

The several secretions of plants, as gum, sugar,

&c. render them valuable to man as food and

medicine, and as substances by which he is en

abled to prosecute art and science, and to manu

facture many useful articles. A few of these

which most commonly present themselves to the

student of the vegetable kingdom, may be here

enumerated, and may lead the young botanist to

further observation and inquiry.

One of the most common vegetable products is

gum. This need not be very particularly described.

Every child who has been used to a garden, has

GUMS. 193

seen it lying in brown clear drops on the surface

of the cherry or plum tree. It oozes especially

from trees which bear stone fruits, and is often

found on the fruits themselves. It is very whole

some and nutritious, even when found upon trees,

which, like the peach, bear leaves ofan unwholesome

nature. It will melt in water. It is employed in

making ink, in dying, in calico printing, and in so

many domestic purposes, that there are few of us

who have not used it. It is also valuable in medi

cine. There are several varieties of gum, as the

gum arabic, the gum senegal, the gum tragacanth,

and the common cherry-tree gum, &c. The two

former are obtained from different kinds of acacia.

The gum arabic flows in quantity from the acacia

vera, a tree which is found in all parts of Africa,

and lends its shadow to the hot and dreary deserts

of that country. The gum oozes in clear drops

from its branches, and is gathered and packed for

importation into Europe. Long after its arrival in

England, it maybe heard in the warehouses, mak

ing a crackling noise, as it separates itself into

O

194 GUMS AND RESINs.

smaller pieces than those in which it was gathered.

The gum tragacanth is procured from the goat's

thorn of Asia, the astragalus tragacantha. A

kind of gum called mucilage, which does not ooze

from the surface of plants, is found in several roots

and leaves. In all the kinds of mallow it is abun

dant; from the common mallow (malva sylvestris),

which grows by every way side, to the marsh

mallow (althaea officinalis), which, with its velvet

leaves and pink blossoms, grows on marshy

lands. This latter plant affords a great quantity

of mucilage, valuable to the medical practitioner,

and it is, on the continent, made into lozenges.

The lichen called Iceland moss (cetraria Islandica)

contains much of this mucilage, as do also several

other lichens. This plant is used in England to

make a jelly for invalids; and the poor Icelander,

contentedly dines off this simple fare, with humble

and pious gratitude, thanking God, who, as he says,

“has made food to grow for him out of the very

stones.”

Resins are substances oozing from trees, and

GUMS AND RESINS. 195

much resembling gum, but they will dissolve in

spirits only, and not in water, and when exposed to

the action of heat, they melt and burn with a strong

flame. Several substances partake of the nature

both of gum and resin, and are hence called gum

resins. The common gamboge, which is used in

painting, is an example of a gum-resin, and exudes

from incisions made in the bark of a tree, common

in Hindostan. This tree, the garcinia mangostana,

bears the fruit well known in India as the man

gosteen, which is considered equal in richness to

the pine-apple, and partakes of the flavour of the

strawberry and the grape. The mangosteen tree

is highly ornamental to the Indian garden, both

during its flowering season, and in the time of its

fruitage; for its blossoms resemble beautiful roses,

and its fruits are as large as an orange. A South

American species of St. John's-wort produces

gamboge little inferior to the kind which is yielded

by the mangosteen. The myrrh, so often alluded

to in Scripture, and which is still much used in the

East for embalming the dead body, is a gum

196 GUMS AND RESINS.

resin, produced by a tree growing in Abyssinia,

and the spicy Arabia, though it is not known from

what plant the natives procure it. The assafoetida,

with its powerful and unpleasant odour, is a gum

resin furnished by the ferula assafaetida, an Indian

plant, which is so much relished by the natives of

Hindostan, that they call it “the food of the gods.”

The renowned Balm of Gilead, praised in the

Sacred Volume for its odours, and still prized in

the land of Scripture History, is a gum-resin,

found in abundance in the buds of the shrub amyris

gileadensis. The Turks so value this gum, that

they have a law, prohibiting its exportation into

other countries. But better known than any of

the preceding instances, is a gum-resin which we

may see on any Summer day. This is the rich

bloom which lies on the plum, and which is, like

the sea-green powder that lies on several leaves,

a gum-resin.

A resin which is of much value in the arts, and

which is familiar to all by the name of turpentine,

Venice turpentine, &c. exudes from various species

BURNING FOREST.S. 197

of the fir tribe. It is generally procured by mak

ing incisions in the trees. The common turpentine

is mostly obtained from the Scotch fir (pinus syl

vestris). The fir tribe are found chiefly at the

north of the globe, where they form immense

forests, and from the inflammable nature of the

resins which these trees contain, fires of a most

appalling kind sometimes take place in the fir

woods. These fires are occasionally caused by the

carelessness of travellers, who let fall sparks from

a pipe, but they are often caused by lightning.

Linnaeus, in his “Tour of Lapland,” gives a

striking description of a fire of this kind which he

witnessed. “Several days ago,” says this cele

brated botanist, “the forests had been set on fire

by lightning, and the flames raged at this time with

great violence, owing to the drought of the season.

In many different places, perhaps in nine or ten

that came under my notice, the devastation ex

tended several miles in distance. I traversed a

space, three quarters of a mile in extent, which

was entirely burnt; so that Flora, instead of ap

198 BURNING FOREST.S.

pearing in her gay and verdant attire, was in deep

sable; a spectacle more abhorrent to my feelings

than to see her clad in the white livery of Winter;

for this, though it destroys the herbage, leaves the

roots in safety, which the fire does not. The fire

was nearly extinguished in most of the spots we

visited, except in dry trunks of trees. After we

had travelled about half a quarter of a mile across

one of these scenes of desolation, the wind began

to blow with rather more force than it had done,

upon which a sudden noise arose in the half burnt

forest, such as I can only compare to what may be

imagined among a large army, attacked by an

enemy. We knew not whither to turn our steps.

The smoke would not suffer us to remain where we

were, nor durst we turn back. It seemed best to

hasten forwards, in hopes of speedily reaching the

outskirts of the wood, but in this we were dis

appointed. We ran as fast as we could, in order to

avoid being crushed by the falling trees, some of

which threatened us every minute. Sometimes

the fall of a large trunk was so sudden that we

OILS. 199

stood aghast, not knowing whither to turn to

escape destruction, and throwing ourselves entirely

on the protection of Providence. In one instance,

a large tree fell exactly between me and my guide,

who walked not more than a fathom from me, but

thanks to God! we both escaped in safety. We

were not a little rejoiced when this perilous adven

ture terminated, for we had felt all the while like

a couple of outlaws, in momentary fear of surprise.”

Nearly akin to the resinous products of plants,

are the substances which compose those grateful

odours which form so great a charm in flowers

and herbage. These perfumes are termed essential

oils, and when distilled from various flowers, as the

rose, the lavender and others, they make those

essences, which we call lavender water, rose water,

&c. They are decidedly of a resinous nature.

Though found chiefly in the flower of the plant,

yet they sometimes exist in the leaves, as in the

rosemary, the myrtle, and sweetbriar. Sometimes

they are found in the bark, as in the cinnamon;

and some few roots are of an aromatic nature, as

200 OILS ; BITTERS.

in the common plant called avens or herb bennet,

the root of which has the odour of cloves.

Oils called fixed oils, and obtained by expression,

are seldom found in any other part of a plant than

its seed: the oil of almonds, linseed oil, and several

other vegetable oils, in common use, are of this

nature, and are procured by expressing almonds,

the seed of flax, or of other vegetables.

The juices of plants yield bitter, pungent, nar

cotic and other principles, highly valuable to the

physician, and some of them, agreeable to the

palate. The common hop (humulus lupulus) may

be instanced, as affording a bitter principle in very

general use. The bitter resides in its fragrant

and beautiful cones. This plant, though some

times growing wild in our hedges, is scarcely indi

genous to Britain, nor was it generally cultivated

in the gardens of Kent and Surrey, until after the

reign of Henry VIII. When it was first introduced,

its culture was greatly opposed, and the city of

London petitioned parliament against the “two

anuisances” of Newcastle coals and hops; the

BITTERS. 201

latter because it would “spoil the taste of drink,

and endanger the people's health.” The hop seems

now to have become almost a necessary among us.

The handsome tribe of plants called gentian, some

of them with the most brilliant blue, others with

yellow blossoms, are in common use in medicine.

The yellow gentian (gentiana lutea) which grows

on the Alpine mountains of Europe, is the chief

medicinal bitter used in European practice. It

covers large tracts of ground in Switzerland and

Germany, and cattle leave those pastures un

touched on account of its bitter flavour. The

wood sage of our hedges (teucrium scorodonia) is

extremely bitter, and a plant of our woods and

pastures produces a bitter principle, which is

almost equal in efficacy to the gentian: this is

the red centaury (erythraea centaurium). It is a

common plant, with rose-coloured clustered blos

soms, which close before rain, and even on a fine

July day are shut up after one o'clock.

The pungent principle may be instanced in the

plant, which is among the most wholesome of our

202 PUNGENT PLANTS.

salad herbs, the water cress (nasturtium officinale).

The common cuckoo flower of the spring woods

(cardamine pratense), possesses this flavour in a

greater degree, and still more pungent are the

common horseradish (cochlearia armoracia), and

the yellow biting stonecrop (sedum acre) which is so

frequent on walls. When a plant possesses a hot

biting flavour, which remains long on the tongue,

and is of a stimulating quality, its principle is

termed acrid. Of this kind are the various species of

buttercup, which will, if bitten, blister the mouth:

and the common arum, or lords and ladies, as it is

usually called. This plant, the arum maculatum,

is very frequent under English hedges; it was

formerly employed to make starch, but it irritated

the hands of those who used it. The writer of

these pages once saw the mouth of a child in a

very inflamed and blistered state, from having

tasted the acrid juice of the arum; and the pain

and irritation caused by it could not be allayed for

several hours.

Several plants produce juices which cause sleep,

NARCOTICS. 203

and which, if taken in great quantity, are fatal.

They are called narcotics, and they furnish valu

able medicines. The most well known and power

ful narcotic is the opium, which is obtained from

the white poppy (papaver somniferum), a flower

common in our corn fields, and cultivated in several

countries for that drug. The common lettuce

(lactuca), especially when growing wild, yields a

milky fluid, often employed as a narcotic. Many

persons eat the lettuce at night time, to promote

sleep. Pope says of it,

For want of rest,

Lettuce and cowslip wine probatum est.

The milk in the lettuce is very abundant; indeed

the plant received its Latin name from “lac,”

milk. The medical properties of the milk of lettuce

are similar to those of opium, and it is considered

a safer remedy, and often administered in cases in

which opium could not be employed. It is obtained

by making incisions in the plants during the time

of flowering, and scraping off the dried juice which

flows from the apertures, and hardens into a gum.

204 POISONS.

Several of our most deadly poisons affect those

who take them, by causing a sleep from which

they cannot be awaked. The deadly nightshade

(atropa belladonna) is of this kind. It is recorded

of this plant, that the Danish army, who, under

Sweno, attacked the Scots, fell victims to its

power. The Scots had engaged to supply the

Danes with drink, and they mixed the berries of

the nightshade with the liquor that they furnished;

well knowing that a heavy sleep would soon over

take those who drank of it. A few short hours

elapsed, and the whole army were in a deep slum

ber, and fell a ready prey to their enemies. The

foxglove (digitalis), the henbane (hyoscyamus),

and several other plants might be named as pro

ducing sleep when moderately taken, and death, if

taken in great quantities.

Several kinds of acids, known by various names

to chemists, as oxalic acid, malic acid, and prussic

acid, are yielded by vegetables. We have all

observed the acid in unripe fruits; the green

gooseberry and the green apple are familiar in

POISONS. 205

stances of sourness of flavour. There is also a

powerful acid in many ripe fruits, as the lemon

and the barberry, which no Summer's sun will

render sweet to the palate. The sap of some trees

contain acid, as the common elder (sambucus nigra);

and several leaves are extremely sour in flavour,

as those of the common sorrel (rumea acetosa),

and of the wood sorrel (oxalis acetosella). Both

these plants are used by the Laplanders as con

serves, and from the wood sorrel they make a fer

mented drink. That fearful poison, the prussic

acid, is obtained both from animal and vegetable

substances. It is found in the bitter almond, and

in the leaves of the peach and laurel, and some

other plants. It would be highly dangerous to eat

the laurel leaves, and they have been known to

render a stream of water poisonous; but the small

quantity of prussic acid which exists in the bitter

almond, the kernel of the plum, and other similar

fruits, renders them innoxious.

Sugar is a substance yielded in great quantity by

the vegetable kingdom, and we may easily taste it

206 SUGAR ; STARCH.

in ripe fruits, as the raspberry and cherry. It is

also found in many roots, as the beet and carrot,

and is yielded by the sap of several trees, as the

birch and sugar maple. The sugar which we see

at our table is obtained from the juice of the sugar

cane (arundo saccharifera).

Starch is a vegetable product found in the roots

of many plants, as the potato. Several kinds of

orchis yield it in abundance; the bulbous root of

the common buttercup contains it; and so do also

the seeds of several plants, as wheat, peas, beans,

chesnuts, and acorns.

Among the various substances which plants fur

nish to the arts and manufactures, scarcely any

are more valuable than those which are extracted

for the purposes of tanning and dying. The sub

stance called tannin, which tanners use in preparing

leather, is found chiefly in the barks of trees,

though occasionally in seeds or in young shoots.

The tannin obtained from the birch, the hazel, the

black thorn, and several other trees, is in common

use. Dyes of various kinds are made from the

COLOURING MATTER. 207

colouring matter of plants. A fine blue dye is

procured from the Indigo (indigofera tinctoria), a

shrub which is cultivated both in the East and

West Indies for dyers. It is a pretty plant with

purple flowers, and might be grown in England.

In Hindoostan it is planted out in large extents of

country, and forms a very profitable article of

culture, but labour is there so much cheaper than

in Great Britain, that it can be produced in India

at much less expense, and the British farmer does

not find it worth his attention. One of our native

plants, the dyer's woad (isatis tinctoria), rivals the

indigo in the excellent blue which it produces, and

it is occasionally cultivated in some counties of

England. With the dye of this plant the ancient

Britons painted their bodies. The handsome corn

blue bottle (centaurea cyanus), which makes so

conspicuous a figure in the corn field, yields also a

rich bright blue of the colour of ultramarine. Red

colours are extracted from madder (rubia tincto

rium), and from various lichens, and other plants;

the walnut, alder, and other trees, yield brown

208 COLOURING MATTER ; WAX.

dyes; and yellow is produced by so many plants,

that it would be useless to attempt enumerating

even the chief of them. The yellow agrimony, of

which a cut occurs in a former chapter, where it

represents “the spike," yields, by different pro

cesses, a deep full yellow, or a pale nankeen

colour. The wild mignionette, or dyer's weed

(reseda luteola), which grows plentifully on chalky

soils, is often planted in fields for its yellow dye;

the saffron crocus, which, from its culture in Saffrom

Walden, gave its name to that town; the dyer's

broom (genista tinctoria), and many others, both

British and foreign plants, contain the yellow tint

in their juices.

The young reader may be surprised to hear,

that scarcely any vegetable secretion is more com

mon than that of wax. We see on the upper

surfaces of many leaves, a kind of varnish, which

adds much to the beauty of foliage, and which

when separated from it by chemical process, is

found to be a true vegetable wax. It is also col

lected from the anthers of flowers, and from the

WAX : CAMPHOR. 209

catkins of the alder, poplar, and fir trees. A great

quantity of wax is produced by the berries of a

North American plant, the wax myrtle (myrica

cerifera). Candles are made from this shrub, and

hence it is called the candleberry myrtle. The

berries are thrown into boiling water, when the

wax floats upon the top of the liquid, and is

gathered off. The candles emit a pleasant odour,

but as the berries are troublesome to collect, and

animal tallow is not expensive, they are little used

except by the poor people in whose neighbourhood

the bushes grow, who use them also for making

soap. The sweet gale, or bog myrtle, which is

common in the Highlands of Scotland, and in

. Devonshire and some other counties of England,

yields an inferior kind of wax similar to bees'

Wax.

Camphor is supplied to us chiefly by the cam

phor laurel (laurus camphorata), a tree which

grows in Hindoostan and several warm climates.

This substance is, however, common on many

labiate plants, and in lavender, thyme, and rose

P

210 INDIAN RUBBER ; CORK.

mary, it exists in so great abundance, that it has

been suggested, by some botanists, that these plants

might be cultivated for its production. Camphor

is serviceable in medicine, and is useful to natu

ralists who wish to preserve dried specimens of

plants or animals, as insects will not come near it.

Indian rubber, or caoutchouc, is a vegetable pro

duct in daily use in our country, and it exudes, as

a milky gum, from several plants, as the Indian

fig. We receive it chiefly from South America,

where it is procured from the havea caoutchouc,

the jatropha elastica, and some other trees.

Cork is a substance procured from the outer

bark of a species of oak, growing in France and

Spain. This is the cork oak (quercus tuber). It

is thought that cork, nearly equal to this, exists in

the bark of some other trees, especially in the

common English elm (ulmus campestris). This

latter tree, though common in our hedge rows, is

not considered indigenous, but is thought to have

been introduced in the time of the crusaders from

Palestine.

ASHES, EARTHS, FLINT. 211

The burnt ashes of wood yield charcoal; and

many plants produce a quantity of soda, and several

earths, especially lime: but one of the most sin

gular vegetable substances, is flint. This is found

in most grasses. The common gromwell or gray

millet (lithospermum officinale), which is frequent

on waste places and in corn fields, contains, in its

nuts or seeds, a large proportion of flint. The

plant is about a foot high, has small yellowish white

flowers, with broadly lanceolated leaves, very hairy

on the under surfaces. The nuts are polished and

hard, and like small pebbles; nor can they be

broken by ordinary means. The name of the

plant is derived from two Greek words a “stone”

and “seed,” on account of the flinty hardness of

this part. The horsetail (equisetum) was formerly

called shave grass and pewter-wort, and used by

housewives in cleaning pewter, on account of its

hard and flinty nature. Gerarde, an old herbalist,

in Queen Elizabeth's time, says of it, “This is the

plant wherewith fletchers and comb makers do

212 QUESTIONS.

rub and polish their work,” and it is still em

ployed by whitesmiths and cabinet makers for the

same purpose.

QUESTIONS.

WHAT is sap?

Is sap found in all plants?

Why is sap like the blood of animals?

What is meant by bleeding a plant?

When is the flow of sap greatest?

How does the sap rise in trees?

Through what part of herbs does it rise?

Is the sap in motion throughout the year?

Why should we infer that it is not motionless in

Winter?

Mention some trees yielding a great quantity of

Sap.

What changes take place in the sap when it

enters the leaves?

How is it proved that plants transpire?

QUESTIONS. 213

What is the descending sap ?

Why is it called proper juice?

Describe a proper juice, and give an example.

Can we ever see the perspiration of plants?

Is it always of a watery nature ?

How did a naturalist ascertain that the drops at

sunrise were not dew, but transpiration?

When do plants transpire most P

Name a common vegetable product.

Is gum wholesome P

Of what use is it?

Name some varieties of gum.

What is gum arabic?

What is mucilage?

Name some plants which produce it.

What are resins?

How do we distinguish resin from gum?

What are gum resins?

What is gamboge?

Name some plants which produce it.

What is myrrh?

What is said of assafoetida?

214 QUESTIONS.

What is turpentine?

What are essential oils?

Of what nature are they?

In what parts of a plant are they found?

What are fixed oils? and name some.

What principle is contained by the hop?

Name some circumstances respecting this plant.

Name some other well known bitters.

Give instances of plants containing the pungent

principle.

What is the acrid principle? and name some

plants containing it.

What is a narcotic?

Mention some plants in which the narcotic prin

ciple is found.

Mention some of the various kinds of acid.

Name several instances of plants containing

acid.

Is sugar found in many vegetables?

In what plants may we find starch?

Name some plants in which tannin may be

found.

QUESTIONS. 215

What is said of indigo?

What is said of dyer's woad?

Name a plant in which we may find a bright

blue dye.

From what plants may we extract a red dye?

What plants produce a yellow dye?

What is said of vegetable wax?

Name a plant in which it is very abundant.

Whence do we procure camphor?

Do any other plants produce it?

Name some of its uses.

Whence do we procure caoutchouc?

What is cork, and whence obtained?

Name an English tree in which it is found.

Name some other substances produced by plants.

What is said of the common gromwell?

What is said of the plant termed horsetail?

216

CHAPTER XI.

LOCALITIES of PLANTs:–EFFECTs of CLIMATE on

VEGETABLE PRODUCTIONs; PLANTs of various CountRIEs,

AND of DIFFERENT HEMISPHEREs.

W E must all have observed that different plants

are peculiar to different places, and that we

cannot gather them all in any rural spot. Thus if

we wished to find primroses or lilies of the valley,

we should not climb to the top of a sunny hill to

search for them; or if we wanted the briar rose,

we should not go to the sands on the sea shore to

look for it. A large number of our wild flowers,

like the daisy and dandelion, are found in hedges,

meadows, on hills, in valleys, and in almost every

part of a rural British landscape.

Many of them, however, grow chiefly in certain

situations; and if they happen to rear their heads

in places where we should not expect to find them,

are less flourishing than when blooming under

LOCALITIES OF PLANTS, 217

their usual circumstances. A number of plants

are termed aquatics, and grow in streams, like the

water violet, or the water lily, or the green duck

weed, which covers the surface of the pond. Again,

many very handsome flowers, and several trees,

while they do not grow in the midst of the water,

require the presence of moisture in their immediate

neighbourhood, and wave to the breezes which

blow over the streams. Among these, are the

wild water valerian, and the purple loosestrife;

the odorous and graceful white meadowsweet;

the gray willow, and the useful alder. The sea

side has its peculiar plants, though they are few

in number; but the samphire will grow there only,

and the Michaelmas daisy, and the sea-side purs

lane, are never seen but on salt lands. Some, like

the tamarisk and sea holly, though found in their

native places at the coast, may, by culture, be made

to ornament our inland shrubberies and gardens.

Sea-weeds have their place exclusively in the

bottom of the ocean, or round about the salt pools

which arise from it, or are fastened to rocks which,

218 LOCALITIES OF PLANTS,

at high tide, are washed by the briny waters. A

few British plants, like the marsh St. John's wort,

and the shining sundew, thrive only in boggy places;

and several of our most beautiful garden flowers

are brought from the bogs of other lands: this is

the case with the azaleas and rhododendrons.

Our corn fields have their own gay ornaments,

for there we find the poppy and the corn-cockle;

while the violet, or the wood anemone, gladden

the shady hedges or the copses. The gay meadow,

where the sun shines in fullest power, is bright

with buttercups. The ivy grows against the wall

or the old tree, and the moss makes the old stone

look young with its verdure. A few plants in

sinuate their fibres into rocks and walls, and, like

the stonecrop and the houseleek, flourish on a

barren soil. Brambles, honeysuckles, and wild

vines of various kinds, twine about hedges and

woods; and parasitic plants, like the mistletoe,

flourish on the juices of larger vegetables. We

have few parasites in our country, but in warm

climates they are numerous and luxuriant.

TROPICAL PLANTS, 219

But we must turn from the plants of our own

lands, to regard the products of other countries.

Our garden flowers are chiefly exotics. A few

British flowers have been improved by the skill

of man, and are reared as garden flowers, but we

owe the greater numbers to distant and warmer

climates. We do not however see our exotics in

the same appearance which they present in their

own lands. Some are improved by our gardeners,

but by far the larger number of them lose both

brilliance and odour by their transplantation. In

Tropical countries vegetation has a more profuse

and magnificent appearance; the colours are

brighter, the odours more powerful, and the trees

are gigantic in height, while the plains are carpeted

with thousands of flowers. Wheat grows only on

high mountains in those hot regions, but products

of equal value, as the maize, the millet, the date,

the banana, the sugar came and bamboo, flourish

there. Coffee, spices, and many luscious fruits, as

the orange and citron, belong to sunny regions.

The forests are full of trees, hung about with

220 EFFECTS OF CLIMATE

large twining flowers: but mosses and lichens are

not found there, and the soft grassy turf of our

own meadows is unknown, while tall coarse grasses,

many feet high, take its place.

Palms are quite confined to countries within the

Tropics, and the pine and fir tribe are peculiar to

regions far from the Equator, or to very elevated

districts. It is generally said, that plants are simi

lar in all countries in the same degree of latitude;

but it must be remembered, that elevation above

the sea has the same effects on vegetation, as

distance from the Equator. In both cases, we may

arrive at a point where the snow never melts,

and where vegetation ceases. In both cases, plants

become depressed and few, as we reach the regions

of perpetual snow. The palm trees, the tree ferns,

the coarse harsh grasses, form the striking features

of Tropical vegetation, and present an appearance

quite different to that which it exhibits in the

temperate or colder regions of the globe; while as

we advance towards the poles, trees become fewer

and smaller, and mosses and lichens become nume

ON VEGETABLE PRODUCTIONS. 221

rous. Some kinds of fir, the alder, the birch, the

hazel, and willow, are found on the borders of

perpetual snow; and some of these dwarf birch

and willow trees are so small, that the former is

often not above a foot high. The plants of the

eastern hemisphere, in many cases, differ from

those of the west, though in the same degree of

latitude. Thus the cactus is peculiar to the eastern

hemisphere, and the beautiful heaths to the western.

Many islands also have plants peculiar to them

selves, and which are never found in continents.

QUESTIONS.

MENTION some plants found only on peculiar

spots.

Mention some aquatics, and plants found only

by streams.

Name some plants of salt marshes.

Will any of these grow in inland places.

Where do sea-weeds grow?

222 QUESTIONS.

Mention some plants of corn fields and of mea

dows.

Mention some which grow on walls, and some

which grow in hedges.

Are our garden flowers exotics?

In what respect does Tropical vegetation differ

from ours?

What plants compensate to the inhabitants of the

Tropics for the want of wheat? -

Are there grass meadows in Tropical lands?

In what regions are palm trees found?

What circumstance affects vegetation in the same

way as difference of latitude?

In what way do plants near the poles resemble

those of elevated regions?

What plants give the most striking appearance

to Tropical vegetation?

What plants are most numerous near the poles?

What is said of the dwarf birch and willow P

Are the plants of the eastern hemisphere simi

lar to those of the west?

What is said of the plants found on islands?

223

CHAPTER XII.

ON THE WoRDs GENUs, SPECIES, AND WARIETY; ON CoN

sulTING A FLORA; ON FoRMING AND PRESERVING A

DRIED CollecTION of PLANTs.

S this book is intended for the young, it is

necessary here to explain terms, which,

though they appear very simple to the practised

botanist, sometimes perplex the beginner. These

are the words Genus, Species, and Variety.

A genus includes a number of plants similar to

each other in their most striking features: a species

comprehends those allied by still closer and more

numerous resemblances. Thus all roses belong to

the genus rose; all violets, to the genus violet.

There are, however, several kinds of roses, as the

briar-rose, the damask-rose, and the cabbage-rose.

Each of these kinds is a different species. - Again,

there are several kinds of violet, as the sweet

scented violet, the dog violet, and the Neapolitan

224 ON GENUS, SPECIES,

violet. These all belong to the genus violet, but

are different species of that genus. When flowers

of the same species differ in some very slight par

ticular, as colour or size, this particular is liable

to change by removing the individual plant to

another soil. It is not a constant featre of the

plant, and we therefore term a plant so differing, a

variety of a species, and not another species. Thus

the white sweet violet is not a distinct species from

the purple sweet violet. The flower is exactly

similar both in its structure and its nature, and,

merely differing from it in colour, is but a white

variety of the common sweet violet.

We must now endeavour to guide the learner to

the use of a Flora, or book by which he will dis

cover the names of those flowers he may find in

his country walk. If he should however happen

to have a friend who is a botanist, it would be

better to seek his assistance on this point; as a few

minutes' practical instruction would render the use

of a Flora more easy than a written direction can

do. There are British Floras by several good

AND VARIETY. 225

authors. One very valuable one is written by Sir

J. E. Smith; another, by Dr. Hooker; and ano

ther, by Withering. These are all arranged upon

the Linnaean system. The latter work has been

condensed by Macgillivray, and is the easiest for

beginnes.

When the learner has gathered a flower, he

must first find its class and order, by examining

its stamens and pistils. We will suppose that he

wished to know the name of the large white con

volvulus, or bindweed, which grows in the hedges

of almost every English landscape. Upon dissect

ing the flower, he would find that it contained five

stamens and one pistil; and would of course refer

it to class Pentandria, order Monogynia. By

turning to that class and order in the Flora, he

would find a number of different genera of plants

of that class and order; and, with the fl wer in his

hand, he must compare it with the descriptions of

each genus, until he sees one which it resembles.

This seems much to do, as in class Pentandria

there are so many flowers, but he soon finds that

Q

226 ON CONSULTING

it is not necessary to go through each description,

as sometimes he can see by the first two or three

words that it cannot suit the flower he seeks.

In Withering's “Systematic Arrangement of

British Plants,”—or British Flora—the description

of the genus convolvulus is thus:

“Calyx inferior, of one leaf, small, divided into

five egg-shaped permanent segments. Corolla of

one petal, large, bell-shaped, regular, with five

plaits, and five shallow lobes: mectary and gland

under the germen. Filaments awl-shaped, half as

long as the corolla. Anthers arrow-shaped, erect,

terminal. Germen roundish. Style thread-shaped,

as long as the stamens; stigmas two, spreading;

capsule roundish. Seeds large and roundish.

Named from convolvo to entwine.”

This excellent and minute description, of course

includes all the genus convolvulus; and now, in

order to find what species he has gathered, the

learner must mark the number attached to the

genus, and turn a few pages further in the book

to the corresponding number. Here he finds

A FLORA. 227

described, first the little pink almond-scented con

volvulus, and next the large white species, the

flower in question. The following is its specific

description.

“Convolvolus sepium, great bindweed. Leaves

arrow-shaped; flower stalks square, bearing a

single flower; bracteas heart-shaped, close to the

flower; roots long, creeping; stems twining, several

feet long; flowers large, white or tinged with rose

colour. Perennial, flowers in July and August,

grows in hedges and thickets.”

As soon as the learner can use a Flora readily

(which he will do after a little practice), he ought

to begin to form a collection of dried plants. This

collection is called an herbarium, or a hortus siccus.

In preserving plants, care should be taken to -

retain, as much as possible, the appearance and

form which they have when growing. Many

plants may be well dried by being placed in large

books; but the young botanist will find it a good

plan, to procure several quires of blotting paper,

and to place his plants between the sheets of paper,

228 ON FORMING

putting on them a pressure of considerable weight,

such as a large pile of books, or a bag of shot.

This little drying apparatus should be kept in a

convenient place during the Summer; and the

botanist should, immediately upon his return from

his walk, lay out his plants to dry. If a large

quantity of paper be used, so as that two or three

sheets are between each specimen, the plants will

not require removing; but if a small quantity of

paper only be employed, the plants must occasion

ally be taken out, while the paper is thoroughly

dried by the fire.

The learner must not be disappointed if some

of his flowers lose their colour. Few of them,

indeed, retain their natural brilliance of tint, even

when dried with the greatest care, and several

flowers invariably turn black in drying. This is

the case with the common yellow cow-wheat, the

yellow rattle, the red bartsia, and most of the

orchis plants. -

When the plants have been well dried, they

should then be placed on paper, to form the her

AN HERBARIUM. 229

barium. Each specimen should be attached to a

sheet of white paper. A good way of confining

them to the paper, is by covering some coloured

paper with thin carpenter's glue, and cutting small

strips of the coloured sheet, when wanted, and with

these strips fastening down the flower. At the

top of each plant should be written its class and

order; and beneath, its scientific and English names,

the place where it was found, the time when it

was gathered, and any other particular concerning

it, which the botanist would wish to record.

Dried plants are often much injured by insects,

which had laid their eggs in the living flower, and

are hatched in the herbarium. If the herbarium

be kept in a damp place, it cannot possibly be long

preserved; and even when kept in a dry room, it

requires frequent opening. Botanists can prevent

the incursions of insects by washing their plants

with poisonous liquid; but as the smallest careless

ness with this preparation might endanger life, it

is not right to recommend its use to the young.

30 QUESTIONS.

QUESTIONS.

WHAT is a genus?

What is a species?

In what does a variety differ from a species?

THE END.

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